British Council EAQUALS

Core Inventory for General English

A Core Inventory for General English
Brian North, Angeles Ortega and Susan Sheehan
Publication data
Copyright British Council/EAQUALS (European Association
for Quality Language Services) except where otherwise stated.
ISBN: 978-086355-653-1

Foreword
The embedding of the CEFR in English Language Teaching has been a long process
but we have now reached a stage where the CEFR levels and the competences are
a core component of teacher training and of daily teacher practice.
As a global organisation we at the British Council appreciate the significance of the CEFR.
Our websites and teacher resources are global and need the structure and definition
provided by the CEFR to make our work more coherent.
The British Council is committed to supporting teachers of English worldwide and providing
them with training and resources.
Applying, and where needed adapting, the CEFR to their own teaching approach
is an important competence for teachers, and for many teachers extra training, resources
and support are needed to make this successful.
This project aims to be one of those resources providing support to teachers in applying
the CEFR to their daily work, by providing a practical inventory of language points that
should be a part of a balanced course at each level of the CEFR.
Our goal is to provide direction for teachers in how to select inventory items and plan
lessons that will help students gain the competences they need within CEFR.
This project started many years ago as a modest attempt to pull together a core list of
discrete language points and key lexis for each level of the CEFR. I set it up as a database
of language points and exponents somewhat loosely tied to CEFR levels, as a guide to
coursebook contents and lesson planning. To help teachers focus on while planning lessons.
It was only partly successful as it did not benefit from the academic rigour and research
background which this kind of teaching resource needs.
We decided in 2009 to revive this project with the appropriate academic input and research,
and approached Brian North and EAQUALS to work together as partners in providing this
much-needed (and oft-requested) resource for teachers.
Brian North has led an international team of teachers and trainers, with Susan Sheehan
coordinating the British Councils input, and the team has produced a fantastic resource that
I believe will be greatly welcomed by ELT teachers everywhere.
The project resources will be made available in different formats poster, booklet, website,
ebook so that we can reach as many teachers as possible.
We hope this is useful for your work, and would be delighted to receive feedback and
suggestions for extending the project in new directions.
Michael Carrier
Head English Language Innovation
British Council
3 2
Acknowledgements
The British Council and EAQUALS would like to thank the following
people who contributed to the workshops in this project:
Mila Angelova, Rachel Bowden, Peter Brown, Lucy Chambers,
Alistair Fortune, Tim Goodier, Clare Grundy, Roxane Harrison,
Andrew Hart, Neil Hatfield, Sam Hawes, Nicky Johnson,
Nareene Kaloyan, Hanan Khalifa, Maja Kukoya, Martin Lowder,
Brian North, Niamh OLeary, Barry OSullivan, Angeles Ortega,
Susan Sheehan, Jana Pirkova, Caroline Preston, Richard Simpson,
Howard Smith, Liz Tuck, Marieta Tusheva.
Contents
1 The CEFR 6
2 Project Aims 8
3 Project Procedure 9
4 Project Products 12
5 CEFR-based Scenarios 13
6 A Core Inventory: Documentation of Best Practice 18
7 Guidelines for Users 20
8 Conclusion 21
Appendices
A Salient Characteristics of CEFR levels spoken language 23
B CEFR-based Scenarios 26
C Mapping Text Types 36
D Mapping Language Content 38
E Exponents for Language Content 43
5 4
7 6
Proficiency
Advanced
Upper Inter
Intermediate
Pre-inter
Elementary
Beginners
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
The relationship is clearest from B1 to C1. Beginners books are clearly A1. Books labelled
elementary span the content for A1 and A2. The greatest confusion is with books labelled
pre-intermediate since both schools and publishers use this expression in different ways.
Essentially pre-intermediate appears to correspond most closely to the more demanding
content of A2, sometimes called A2+. In the analysis in this project, beginners materials were
analysed in relation to A1, pre-intermediate materials in relation to A2, and elementary
materials in relation to both A1 and A2.
1 The CEFR
The CEFR was published in 2001 in English
1
and French after a period of development
from 1992 to 1996 and piloting from 19972000, has been translated into 40 languages
and is now accepted as the international standard for language teaching and learning.
The CEFR has two main aims: to encourage reflection by users over the way their current
practice meets the real world language needs of their learners and to provide a set of
defined common reference levels (A1-C2) as points of reference to facilitate communication
and comparisons. The CEFR differs from other, national, language frameworks in two ways:
Firstly it highlights the competences a learner needs (pragmatic, linguistic, sociolinguistic,
strategic, intercultural) as a language user and it develops the familiar but inadequate
four skills into a richer description of activities the learner undertakes (spoken and
written: reception, interaction, production and mediation).
Secondly it provides validated, scientifically calibrated descriptors of these different
aspects of its descriptive scheme
2
, except for intercultural competences and
mediation. The most comprehensive set of CEFR-based descriptors is available
at www.coe.int/portfolio. Consistent coverage for all levels in simplified I can form
is provided by the recent EAQUALS revision, also available on www.eaquals.org.
The original CEFR descriptors are presented in I can form in the EAQUALS/ALTE
electronic European Language Portfolio on www.eELP.org.
The relevance of the CEFR to language education is firstly that the descriptive scheme
offers a starting point to review curriculum content and secondly that the common reference
levels provide a framework for putting curriculum objectives, entry testing, syllabus definition,
materials organisation, progress testing and certification of proficiency into one coherent
local system that is appropriate to the context, related to real world language ability
and easily communicated, internally and externally.
The CEFR avoids using relative labels like intermediate because these mean very different
things in different contexts; neither schools nor publishers use these terms consistently
and they are also employed in different ways in different educational sectors and in relation
to different languages.
The analysis in this project confirms that the relationship between the CEFR levels
and the labels used by EFL publishers is approximately as follows:
1
Council of Europe (2001): Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching,
assessment. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
2
North, B. (2000): The Development of a common framework scale of language proficiency. New York, Peter Lang.
North, B. and Schneider, G. (1998): Scaling descriptors for language proficiency scales. In: Language Testing
15/2: 217262.
9 8
3 Project Procedure
The Core Inventory was developed through iterative and collaborative processes, exploiting
expertise from within the two partner organisations, including examination boards that are
Associate Members of EAQUALS. The project built on existing work and projects conducted
by both partners and other experts.
The project had five main stages. A series of workshops were held, in the context of an
EAQUALS Special Interest Project (SIP). In the workshops practitioners commented on and
sense-checked the work completed so far and suggested approaches for the successive
stages.
Stage 1 Data collection and analysis
A number of sources were drawn on including:
an analysis of the language implied by CEFR descriptors;
an analysis of content common to the syllabuses of EAQUALS members whose CEFR
implementation was a point of excellence;
an analysis of content of different series of popular course books;
teacher surveys.
The data were analysed to find consensus: points which were common to a strong majority
(80%) in each of the data sources. This defined the core. Other points common to different
sources that were considered significant were retained as less core; these points are
shown in italics in the lists of exponents in Appendix E.
Stage 2 Creation of the Inventory
Following the analysis of the data collected at Stage 1, examination boards (Cambridge
ESOL, City & Guilds, Trinity) provided further input into which language points they
considered to be most relevant. At this stage content for C1 was discussed in detail.
Stage 3 Writing the exponents
Once the Inventory was finalised, teachers wrote a preliminary version of the exponents
which were refined and revised by project team members at an iterative series of workshops.
Stage 4 Identifying text types
One project member analysed the CEFR descriptors to identify source texts for different
CEFR levels. The results of this analysis can be found in Appendix C.
Stage 5 Writing CEFR-based scenarios
The project team wanted to make explicit the links between real world needs, curriculum
aims and the classroom. The final stage of the project was therefore to brainstorm illustrative
scenarios that are archetypical of the level concerned. The concept will be explained
in Section 5.
2 Aims of the Project
The intention of this project is to make the CEFR accessible to teachers and adult learners
of General English. It is an attempt to answer the question put by many teachers over
the years of what to teach at each CEFR level. It maps the communality of interpretation
of the CEFR for English in terms of curriculum content for 16+. As will be explained
in Section 7 the aim is not to tell teachers what to teach or to prescribe a particular
teaching methodology. The main project aims are outlined below.
To make the CEFR tangible and provide support and guidance for teachers
and syllabus designers
The question has often been raised as what the CEFR levels mean in terms of classroom
aims. The Inventory represents the core of English language relevant at CEFR levels A1
to C1. It can thus facilitate defining objectives, writing syllabuses and planning courses.
To make the teaching/planning process more transparent
Learners can sometimes find it hard to understand the aim of a particular activity, lesson
or indeed course, and its connection to real world needs. The Inventory will assist learners
in the process of realising their language learning ambitions by helping them to focus on
the different aspects of the language which need to be mastered for progress to be made.
It also offers a structure for negotiations between teachers and learners on course content.
To provide support for self-directed study
The Inventory can be used as a guide to essential language for self-directed study.
The Core Inventory has been created with teachers and learners in mind. Each language
point appears at the level(s) at which it is considered of most relevance to the learner
in the classroom. What we teach, what learners can do with the language, and what we test
in examinations are not always identical. The Core Inventory does not aim to provide detailed
guidance for course book or examination developers, for who detailed specifications already
exist in the series Waystage, Threshold Level and Vantage Level, gradually being updated
by the English Profile project.
11 10
Directions
Describing habits and routines
Giving personal information
Greetings
Telling the time
Understanding and using numbers
Understanding and using prices











Adjectives: common and demonstrative
Adverbs of frequency
Comparatives and superlatives
Going to
How much/how many and very
common uncountable nouns
Id like
Imperatives (+/-)
Intensiers - very basic
Modals: can/cant/could/couldnt
Past simple of to be
Past Simple
Possessive adjectives
Possessive s
Prepositions, common
Prepositions of place
Prepositions of time, including in/on/at
Present continuous
Present simple
Pronouns: simple, personal
Questions
There is/are
To be, including question+negatives
Verb + ing: like/hate/love









Connecting words, and, but, because



Food and drink
Nationalities and countries
Personal information
Things in the town, shops and shopping
Verbs basic

Family life
Hobbies and pastimes
Holidays
Leisure activities
Shopping
Work and jobs
Describing habits and routines
Describing past experiences
Describing people
Describing places
Describing things
Obligation and necessity
Requests
Suggestions










Adjectives comparative, use of
than and denite article
Adjectives superlative use of
denite article
Adverbial phrases of time, place
and frequency including word order
Adverbs of frequency
Articles with countable and
uncountable nouns
Countables and Uncountables:
much/many
Future Time (will and going to)
Gerunds
Going to
Imperatives
Modals can/could
Modals have to
Modals should
Past continuous
Past simple
Phrasal verbs common
Possessives use of s, s
Prepositional phrases (place, time
and movement)
Prepositions of time: on/in/at
Present continuous
Present continuous for future
Present perfect
Questions
Verb + ing/innitive: like/
want-would like
Wh-questions in past
Zero and 1st conditional
Linkers: sequential past time



Adjectives: personality, description,
feelings
Food and drink
Things in the town, shops and shopping
Travel and services
Education
Hobbies and pastimes
Holidays
Leisure activities
Shopping
Work and jobs
Checking understanding
Describing experiences and events
Describing feelings and emotion
Describing places
Expressing opinions; language of
agreeing and disagreeing
Initiating and closing conversation
Managing interaction (interrupting,
changing topic, resuming or
continuing)








Adverbs
Broader range of intensiers such
as too, enough
Comparatives and superlatives
Complex question tags
Conditionals, 2nd and 3rd
Connecting words expressing
cause and effect, contrast etc.
Future continuous
Modals - must/cant deduction
Modals might, may, will, probably
Modals should have/might have/etc
Modals: must/have to
Past continuous
Past perfect
Past simple
Past tense responses
Phrasal verbs, extended
Present perfect continuous
Present perfect/past simple
Reported speech (range of tenses)
Simple passive
Wh- questions in the past
Will and going to, for prediction






Connecting words expressing
cause and effect, contrast etc
Linkers: sequential past time

Collocation
Colloquial language
Things in the town, shops and
shopping
Travel and services


Books and literature
Education
Film
Leisure activities
Media
News, lifestyles and current affairs
Functions


















Grammar

































Discourse
Markers



Vocabulary






Topics
A1 A2 B1
Critiquing and reviewing
Describing experiences
Describing feelings and emotions
Describing hopes and plans
Developing an argument
Encouraging and inviting another
speaker to continue, come in
Expressing abstract ideas
Expressing agreement and
disagreement
Expressing opinions
Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference
Interacting informally, reacting,
expressing interest, sympathy,
surprise etc.
Opinion, justication
Speculating
Taking the initiative in interaction
Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info
Adjectives and adverbs
Future continuous
Future perfect
Future perfect continuous
Mixed conditionals
Modals cant have, neednt have
Modals of deduction and speculation
Narrative tenses
Passives
Past perfect
Past perfect continuous
Phrasal verbs, extended
Relative clauses
Reported speech
Will and going to, for prediction
Wish
Would expressing habits, in the past















Connecting words expressing cause
and effect, contrast etc.
Discourse markers to structure
fromal speech
Linkers: although, in spite of, despite
Linkers: sequential past time
subsequently
Collocation
Colloquial language




Arts
Books and literature
Education
Film
Media
News, lifestyles and current affairs
Conceding a point
Critiquing and reviewing constructively
Defending a point of view persuasively
Developing an argument systematically
Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue
Expressing attitudes and feelings
precisely
Expressing certainty, probability, doubt
Expressing opinions tentatively,
hedging
Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference
Expressing shades of opinion and
certainty
Responding to counterarguments
Speculating and hypothesising about
causes, consequences etc.
Synthesising, evaluating and glossing
information
Futures (revision)
Inversion with negative adverbials
Mixed conditionals in past, present
and future
Modals in the past
Narrative tenses for experience,
incl. passive
Passive forms, all
Phrasal verbs, especially splitting
Wish/if only regrets





















Linking devices, logical markers
Markers to structure and signpost
formal and informal speech
and writing
Approximating (vague language)
Collocation
Colloquial language
Differentiated use of vocabulary
Eliminating false friends
Formal and informal registers
Idiomatic expressions
Arts
Books and literature
Film
Media
News, lifestyles and current affairs
Scientic developments
Technical and legal language
B2 C1
Core Inventory
The Inventory represents the core
of English language taught at Common
European Framework of Reference
(CEFR) levels A1 to C1 in English. Only
the features most commonly included
at each level have been listed. In any
particular context, teachers and syllabus
writers would add other language points
to this minimal core, based upon an
analysis of the needs and interests
of the learners concerned. Decisions
on recycling of language have also been
left to teachers and syllabus writers.
The inventory can also be used
by learners as a guide to essential
language for self-directed study.
Teaching not testing
The core inventory has been created
with teachers and learners in mind. Each
language point appears at the level(s) at
which it is considered of most relevance
to the learner in the classroom.
Language testers should note that
learners are not expected to have
mastery of the language points at that
stage. What we teach, what learners can
do with the language, and what we test
in examinations are not always identical.
Development methodology
A number of sources were drawn on,
including:
an analysis of the language implied
by CEFR descriptors
an analysis of content common to
various CEFR-based language school
syllabuses and popular coursebooks
for English, and
a teacher survey.
Status
The Inventory documents current best
practice, and can be used in conjunction
with databases of learner language like
the forthcoming English Prole.
13 12
5 CEFR-based Scenarios
Scenarios are not a new concept in theoretical and applied linguistics, or language teaching/
learning, but the word is used in many different senses. There are several points that most
uses of the term in our context have in common. Firstly a scenario suggests a mental
framework, a concept for how the thing in question is done in the relevant target language.
Language users and language learners have scripts and schemata for scenarios they
are familiar with. Secondly, there is a strong association with real world language use rather
than exercises or pedagogic tasks, a sense that a scenario provides a meaningful context
for simulated yet realistic language use by the learner. In a real-world derived scenario,
simulations replace mere role-plays as we move from fictional personalities in artificial
situations to real people acting as themselves in real contexts. Finally and fundamentally
a scenario suggests a holistic setting that encourages the integration of different aspects
of competence in real (istic) language use. Properly conceived scenarios automatically
create an appropriate background to support learning and teaching where the main
consideration is that of authenticity of situations, tasks, activities, texts and language data.
CEFR-based scenarios are frames that in the context of a set of defined real world variables
(domain, context, tasks, types of language activity and texts involved) integrate holistically:
Can-Do descriptors (as objectives);
quality criteria (for evaluation);
aspects of competence, from strategic, through pragmatic to linguistic
(as enabling objectives).
The CEFR-based scenario concept is relevant to both teaching/learning and to assessment.
The scenario template has two pages with a fixed format for page one (overview) and
a variable one for page two (implementation). This is because the latter will vary substantially
depending on the educational context and on whether the scenario informs a series
of teaching and learning activities, perhaps concluding with an assessment, or just
an assessment.
The significant point about CEFR-based scenarios is that they offer teachers and learners
a way of keeping in mind both the macro vision of successful real communication and the
micro focus on specific practice points. Scenarios are a tool for defining, teaching and/or
assessing the competences needed to perform real world tasks. They are not necessarily
an extended communicative activity in the classroom, which one works towards or back
from as for example in the many variations of a task-based approach. The tasks listed at the
top (after domain and context) are real life tasks, not pedagogic tasks and so they may not
take place in the classroom at all. It is desirable, however, that for the sake of more effective
learning real life tasks and pedagogic tasks be as closely related as possible.
An example scenario is given below; other illustrative scenarios for levels A1 to C1
are included in Appendix B.
4 Project Products
The Core Inventory Project has 3 products: this book, an essential guide and a set
of classroom posters.
Book
This provides the most comprehensive version of the Core Inventory and includes core
and less core language points plus a mapping of text types across levels. This gives
users of the Inventory the widest possible choice when designing a syllabus or course.
As mentioned above illustrative scenarios are also provided for each level and an extensive
set of language exponents exemplify the language points.
Essential guide
This contains a short listing of core functions, grammar, lexis, discourse markers, topic
areas and text types for levels A1 to C1, accompanied by a brief summary of the project
aims and guidance. It fits onto one A3 sheet and can be used by learners as a guide
to essential language for self-directed study. It is produced on the previous pages and can
be downloaded separately from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/ and www.eaquals.org.
Classroom posters
Posters have been designed for each of the 5 CEFR levels from A1 to C1. Each poster
includes Can do descriptors for activities and strategies, core language points with
exponents, and qualitative criteria. The posters make the content of the Inventory easily
accessible to teachers and learners and provide a focus point for classroom discussions on
course content and planning. They can be ordered from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/
from January 2011.
15 14
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17 16
This is the rationale behind the layout.
3
To emphasise the importance of real world
orientation of the CEFRs action-oriented approach, the top row of the scenario first page
shows the real world variables: domain, context, tasks, activities and texts. The domains
are those listed in the CEFR and illustrated in detail in CEFR Table 5: personal, public,
occupational, educational. The contexts (CEFR 4.1.2-5) are defined in terms of the persons
and places involved, thus comprising relevant features of the specific physical environment
and the language users mental contexts and interrelationships, both of which will have
an effect on the characteristics of the texts to be understood, (co-)produced and processed.
The tasks are selected from the vast array of those the language user will have to tackle
in order to deal with the exigencies of the situations which arise in the various domains
(CEFR 4.3). Activities and texts are those included and described in detail in CEFR
Chapter 4. Working from real world use helps to identify the relevance of all these variables
to the learners in question. If there is a problem identifying a context, for example, this
is an indication that the subject of the scenario may not be a real world scenario at all,
but a pedagogic task or game that would not occur in reality.
The left hand column of page one of the scenarios then lists CEFR-based descriptors
relevant to them: first Can-Do descriptors for communicative language activities (derived
from CEFR Chapter 4) and then descriptors for aspects of quality (derived from CEFR
Chapter 5), the latter being combined into a convenient number of criteria. The examples
all show published CEFR descriptors, but these might very well be the adapted, simplified
versions found in the checklists for the EAQUALS/ALTE European Language Portfolio (ELP)
and in school curricula elaborated from CEFR/ELP descriptors.
The right hand side of page one lists aspects of competences. CEFR-based descriptors
for strategies provided in the EAQUALS descriptor bank and reproduced in the appendices
may be useful as a starting point, but there may well be other strategies relevant to the
scenario in question. Underneath strategic competences come pragmatic (functional and
discourse) and linguistic (grammatical, lexical and phonological/orthographic). Again a CEFR-
based scenario developer may find the Core Inventory useful as a starting point in identifying
appropriate entries here.
The CEFR-based scenarios provided in Appendix B are given purely for the purpose
of illustration. An attempt has been made to provide scenarios that are felt to be in some
way archetypical for the different levels in that they involve salient features of the level
concerned (cf CEFR Section 3.6), that are of different types and so can provide illustrations
of variations for the second page (Implementation). Some of these implementations are
in order of pedagogic sequence, others ordered by content, others following a real-world
action sequence, still others are in the order in which they were brain-stormed. The intention
is to demonstrate that whilst there is a logic to standardising the form of the first page
(Objectives overview) used in an educational institution, flexibility with different formats
for the scenario implementation will encourage experimentation and perhaps a link
to pedagogic structures that may be familiar to learners from their specific pedagogic
culture or training.
The illustrative scenarios provided in Appendix B show only a few of the many variations
possible. In most cases, more and/or more detailed processes, tasks and activities can
be derived from those presented.
3
Ortega Calvo, ngeles (2010), Qu son en realidad los niveles C? Desarrollo de sus descriptores en el MCER y el
PEL, en Ortega Calvo (ed.) Niveles C: Currculos, programacin, enseanza y certificacin, Madrid: IFIIE - Ministerio de
Educacin, pp. 21-85
The diagram below illustrates some ways in which activities might be sequenced.
The variants illustrated in the diagram do not correspond to the particular illustrative
scenarios provided in Appendix B.
The number of activities in different scenarios will vary considerably depending on the
orientation of the scenario and the type of tasks it implies. The diagram illustrates some
possible variants, very many others are possible. Assessment might be conducted in a single
task at the end of the module, or in mini-tasks during the module. Peer and self-assessment
might be employed as well as teacher assessment. There might in fact be no teaching
module; the scenario may be used only as the starting point to design an assessment task.
The CEFR-based scenario concept offers a means to:
Work top down from real world contexts to identify the competences needed to be
successful in them, plus criteria to judge that success. Both the communicative language
activities listed and the aspects of competence needed to be successful in them suggest
classroom activities. These in turn suggest specific lessons or lesson sequences
(=modules), with self-study and project tasks.
Review existing classroom activities and resources in the light of the needs of real world
activities, in a bottom-up process.
Integrate practice activities and assessment tasks into a coherent module.
Develop a tasks specification for a test, with the assessment procedure, assessment
conditions, marking and grading procedures etc. specified on the second page.
It is a very flexible yet unifying concept that facilitates top-down planning of objectives
and bottom-up linking of enabling competences to real world needs.
Example 1
Activity 1 Activity 1 Assess 1
Activity 2 Assess 2
Activity 3 Assess 3
Activity 3
Real world
Activity 2
Activity 3
Real world
Activity 4
Assessment Assessment
Assessment
Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
Activity 1
Activity 1 Assess 1
Activity 1
19 18
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Future
Future Time (going to)
Future Time (present continuous)
Future Time (will & going to)

Prediction Prediction Prediction
Future Continuous

Prediction Prediction
Future Perfect

Prediction
Future Perfect Continuous

Prediction
A similar consensus can be seen in the table below which shows the order in which modal
verbs become relevant to the classroom.
Modals: Can A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Can/cant
Can/could
Modals: Possibility
Might, may
Possibly, probably, perhaps
Might, may, will, probably
Must/cant (deduction)
Modals: Obligation & Necessity
Must/mustnt
Have to
Must/have to
Should
Ought to
Need to/neednt
Modals: Past
Should have/might have/etc
Cant have, neednt have
6 A Core Inventory: Documentation
of Good Practice
The project team aimed to hold a mirror to the profession and look at how the CEFR is being
integrated into classroom practice. The aim was not to tell teachers what to teach. Rather,
it is to show how the CEFR can be implemented in classrooms around the world. The project
draws on a collective pool of experience with the CEFR. We hope users of the Inventory will
find it beneficial to reflect on their experience and their current practice.
The Core Inventory is a documentation of good practice. In the future it will be interesting to
compare the Inventory with data-based research conducted with learners (e.g. in the English
Profile project) and note points of similarity and contrast. Fruitful avenues of research could
be opened up to investigate possible explanations or reasons for the differences. Where
more contrasts may be expected between an intuition-based and data-based approach
is with exponents. The exponents produced in this project are intended to be illustrative
rather than exhaustive. They serve as examples to learners and teachers in the same way
as course book examples do.
The methodology adopted by the project team could be considered by other institutions.
This could provide interesting points of comparison with the results presented in this book.
Members of the profession can assess the relevance to their own contexts.
One of the most fascinating aspects of the project was to track points of commonality across
the profession. As can be seen in the tables below the relevance of a language point to
different CEFR levels can be mapped. The pattern below reflects the analysis of all the data
sources drawn on. Team members were genuinely surprised at the extent of agreement
between the different types of sources: course books, teachers, examination boards, syllabus
writers. This would seem to suggest that across the profession there is broad agreement on,
for example, when different aspects of the future should be introduced into the classroom.
The lighter shading represents a lower, but still very significant, level of consensus. In
Appendix E, less core points are given in italics.
21 20
7 Guidelines for Users
The Core Inventory is intended as a reference work not as a practical tool. The aim was
to provide a simple overview of the apparent consensus on what constitutes the most
important content for teaching and learning at each level. More detailed, comprehensive
specifications are already available for levels A2 (Waystage) B1 (Threshold Level) and
B2 (Vantage Level).
4
In a few years the English Profile project will also provide a detailed
analysis of learner language at the different CEFR levels, which may then stimulate a new
round of reflection.
The Inventory of an overlapping consensus is, by definition, not complete. The degree of
consensus is also noticeably greater at levels A1 to B2 than at C1. Indeed detailed analysis
of both syllabus and course book content at C1 revealed that content was dictated to a far
greater extent by context, learning purpose and the preferences of the author than was
the case at lower levels. Syllabuses for C2 showed even less consensus, except as regards
preparation for the CPE examination. The C levels are generally accepted to be the levels
most in need of more detailed definition, and it is here that the English Profile project
is focusing its efforts. The level of consensus was greatest at B1 reflecting the influence
of Threshold Level, which was originally published in 1976.
A consensus core is also, by definition, inadequate to meet the needs of any particular group
of learners. It may give a point of reference, but an analysis of the needs of the learners
in question should give the basis for actual teaching. This needs analysis operates at two
levels: at a more macro level in the definition of curriculum objectives and at a micro level
in relation to needs of a particular class, both in terms of what language learners need
for what they want to do, and what language they need to address significant gaps in their
developing repertoires.
The message therefore is: this inventory may be a convenient tool, but it is to be used
with care. Some points of good practice and tempting pitfalls to avoid are listed below:
Do Dont
Consciously identify real world learners
needs and derive teaching content from
genuine real world contexts
Teach obscure corners of the language just
because they are there
Brainstorm your own CEFR-based scenarios
with colleagues and students
Dress up pedagogic activities as real world
scenarios
Supplement the points in the Inventory with
things you know the learners in your context
need
Think you only have to teach what is in
the Inventory or that you must teach
everything that is in the Inventory
Adapt the exponents to your own context by
changing names, place names, activities etc.
Cut and paste lists and exponents
uncritically into your syllabus
Give learners language exponents in a
context whenever possible
Make learners learn lists of exponents
8 Conclusion
The Core Inventory is not seen as the definitive analysis of the needs of learners of English.
It is selective, not comprehensive; it is based on experience and consensus, not data-based
analysis of the language that learners actually use. Nevertheless, the British Council and
EAQUALS hope that it will be of assistance in helping ELT practitioners engage with the CEFR
and to adopt its action-oriented approach of working from an analysis of learners real
world needs to learning-focused classroom practice.
CEFR descriptors can be used for signposting in curriculum aims, syllabuses, cross-
referenced resources lists, weekly/monthly plans, classroom displays, lesson aims, evaluation
checklists, report cards, personal profiles, certificates etc. Within a class, such signposting
can help to set priorities, explain syllabus choice and lesson relevance, select appropriate
communicative tasks and assess progress. Various forms of such signposting are common
in EAQUALS member institutions and British Council teaching centres. Sometimes there
is an aims box on the whiteboard for each lesson. Sometimes there are displays of the main
aims of the level as in the poster produced in this project. Sometimes there are checklists
for teachers to use for planning and for continuous assessment. Sometimes there are report
cards, profiles or certificates given to learners. What all approaches have in common is that
the signposting provided by the descriptors allows learners to be treated as partners in
the learning process. As well as defining real world outcomes, the approach can be used
to give context, to show why one is learning particular language or focusing on particular
aspects of language use. In this way it can help to provide a genuinely communicative,
competence-focused teaching approach: an action-oriented approach.
4
van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Waystage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Threshold 1990, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
van Ek, J.A; Trim, J.L.M. (2001): Vantage, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
23 22
Appendices
A Salient Characteristics of CEFR levels spoken language 23
B CEFR-based Scenarios 26
C Mapping Text Types 36
D Mapping Language Content 38
E Exponents for Language Content 43
Appendix A: Salient Characteristics
(CEFR Section 3.6, simplified)
It cannot be overemphasized that Level C2 is not intended to imply native-speaker
competence or even near native-speaker competence. Both the original research
and a project using CEF descriptors to rate mother-tongue as well as foreign language
competence (North 2002: CEF Case Studies volume) showed the existence of ambilingual
speakers well above the highest defined level (C2). Wilkins had identified a seventh level of
Ambilingual Proficiency in his 1978 proposal for a European scale for unit-credit schemes.
Italics in the text below represents direct citation of CEFR descriptors.
C2
Level C2, labelled, Mastery is intended to characterise the degree of precision,
appropriateness and ease with the language which typifies the speech of those who have
been highly successful learners. Descriptors calibrated here include: convey finer shades
of meaning precisely by using, with reasonable accuracy, a wide range of modification
devices; has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness
of connotative level of meaning; backtrack and restructure around a difficulty so smoothly
the interlocutor is hardly aware of it.
C1
Level C1 was labelled Effective Operational Proficiency. What seems to characterise
this level is good access to a broad range of language, which allows fluent, spontaneous
communication, as illustrated by the following examples: Can express him/herself fluently
and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Has a good command of a broad lexical repertoire
allowing gaps to be readily overcome with circumlocutions. There is little obvious searching
for expressions or avoidance strategies; only a conceptually difficult subject can hinder
a natural, smooth flow of language.
The discourse skills characterising the previous band continue to be evident at Level C1,
with an emphasis on more fluency, for example: select a suitable phrase from a fluent
repertoire of discourse functions to preface his remarks in order to get the floor, or to gain
time and keep it whilst thinking; produce clear, smoothly-flowing, well-structured speech,
showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices
B2+
This band represents a strong Vantage performance. The focus on argument, effective
social discourse and on language awareness which appears at B2 continues. However,
the focus on argument and social discourse can also be interpreted as a new focus
on discourse skills. This new degree of discourse competence shows itself in conversational
management (co-operating strategies): give feedback on and follow up statements and
inferences by other speakers and so help the development of the discussion; relate own
contribution skilfully to those of other speakers. It is also apparent in relation to coherence/
cohesion: use a variety of linking words efficiently to mark clearly the relationships between
ideas; develop an argument systematically with appropriate highlighting of significant points,
and relevant supporting detail. Finally, it is at this band that there is a concentration
of items on negotiating.
25 24
predictable everyday situations, provided the other person helps if necessary; deal
with everyday situations with predictable content, though he/she will generally have
to compromise the message and search for words; plus significantly more ability to sustain
monologues, for example: express how he/she feels in simple terms; give an extended
description of everyday aspects of his environment e.g. people, places, a job or study
experience; describe past activities and personal experiences; describe habits and routines;
describe plans and arrangements; explain what he/she likes or dislikes about something.
A2
Level A2 appears to reflect the level referred to by the Waystage specification. It is at this
level that the majority of descriptors stating social functions are to be found, like use simple
everyday polite forms of greeting and address; greet people, ask how they are and react to
news; handle very short social exchanges; ask and answer questions about what they do at
work and in free time; make and respond to invitations; discuss what to do, where to go and
make arrangements to meet; make and accept offers. Here too are to be found descriptors
on getting out and about: the simplified cut-down version of the full set of transactional
specifications in The Threshold Level for adults living abroad, like: make simple transactions
in shops, post offices or banks; get simple information about travel; use public transport:
buses, trains, and taxis, ask for basic information, ask and give directions, and buy tickets;
ask for and provide everyday goods and services.
A1
Level A1 is the lowest level of generative language use - the point at which the learner
can interact in a simple way, ask and answer simple questions about themselves, where they
live, people they know, and things they have, initiate and respond to simple statements
in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics, rather than relying purely on a very
finite rehearsed, lexically organised repertoire of situation-specific phrases.

B2
Descriptors calibrated at Level B2 represent quite a break with the content so far.
For example at the lower end of the band there is a focus on effective argument: account
for and sustain his opinions in discussion by providing relevant explanations, arguments
and comments; explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and
disadvantages of various options; develop an argument giving reasons in support
of or against a particular point of view; take an active part in informal discussion in familiar
contexts, commenting, putting point of view clearly, evaluating alternative proposals
and making and responding
to hypotheses.
Secondly, running right through the level there are two new focuses. The first is being able
to more than hold your own in social discourse: e.g. understand in detail what is said to him/
her in the standard spoken language even in a noisy environment; initiate discourse, take his
turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she needs to, though he/she may not
always do this elegantly; interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular
interaction with native speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party.
The second new focus is a new degree of language awareness: correct mistakes if they have
led to misunderstandings; make a note of favourite mistakes and consciously monitor
speech for it/them; generally correct slips and errors if he/she becomes conscious of them.
B1+
This band seems to be a strong Threshold performance. The same two main features at
B1 continue to be present, with the addition of a number of descriptors which focus on the
exchange of quantities of information, for example: provide concrete information required
in an interview/consultation (e.g. describe symptoms to a doctor) but does so with limited
precision; explain why something is a problem; summarise and give his or her opinion about
a short story, article, talk, discussion interview, or documentary and answer further questions
of detail; carry out a prepared interview, checking and confirming information, though he/she
may occasionally has to ask for repetition if the other persons response is rapid or extended;
describe how to do something, giving detailed instructions; exchange accumulated factual
information on familiar routine and non-routine matters within his field with some confidence.
B1
Level B1 reflects the Threshold Level specification and is perhaps most categorised by
two features. The first feature is the ability to maintain interaction and get across what you
want to, in a range of contexts, for example: generally follow the main points of extended
discussion around him/her, provided speech is clearly articulated in standard dialect; express
the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly; keep going comprehensibly, even
though pausing for grammatical and lexical planning and repair is very evident, especially
in longer stretches of free production. The second feature is the ability to cope flexibly with
problems in everyday life, for example cope with less routine situations on public transport;
deal with most situations likely to arise when making travel arrangements through an agent
or when actually travelling; enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
A2+
This band represents a strong Waystage (A2+) performance. What is noticeable here
is more active participation in conversation given some assistance and certain limitations,
for example: understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort;
make him/herself understood and exchange ideas and information on familiar topics in
27 26
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31 30
S
C
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O
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F
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B
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x
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im
p
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/

d
e
c
o
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s
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c
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in
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c
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p
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x

s
e
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n
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s
.

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a
is
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g

a
w
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t
o


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.

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h
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m
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in

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n
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t

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r
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lly

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a
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d

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n
t
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o
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h
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a

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la
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ly

h
ig
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d
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r
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m
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ic
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l
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n
t
r
o
l.
L
in
g
u
is
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ic
:

p
a
s
s
iv
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s

r
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v
ie
w
,
c
o
n
n
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c
t
in
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d
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x
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q
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c
in
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C
la
s
s
r
o
o
m
H
o
m
e
R
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c
o
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n
it
io
n
.

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in
in
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a

n
e
w
s
p
a
p
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r

t
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x
t

f
o
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p
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s
iv
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f
o
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m
s
,
c
o
n
n
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c
t
in
g

w
o
r
d
s
.
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o
n
t
r
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lle
d

p
r
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c
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ic
e
.

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t

h
o
m
e
,
le
a
r
n
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r
s

w
r
it
e

a

d
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c
r
ip
t
io
n

o
f

a

p
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s

in

w
h
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a
n

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v
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e
t
c
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w
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r
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a
n
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a

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in
n
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t
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)
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lim
it
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n
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ly

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ip
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b
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n

id
e
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s
.
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a
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m
a
t
ic
:
p
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u
a
d
in
g
,
g
iv
in
g

p
r
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c
is
e

in
f
o
r
m
a
t
io
n
L
in
g
u
is
t
ic
:
c
o
n
d
it
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a
ls

r
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v
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w
,
c
o
llo
c
a
t
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f

in
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n
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if
ie
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C
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f
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iq
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a
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s
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llin
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o
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R
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c
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r
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g
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f

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f
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a
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c
le
a
r

d
e
s
c
r
ip
t
io
n
s
.
35 34
S
C
E
N
A
R
I
O
:

R
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S
E
A
R
C
H

C
1
D
O
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a
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:
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n
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it
y

/

C
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P
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ly

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p
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ly

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in

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37 36
Appendix C Mapping Text Types
Produced by Brian North from analysis of CEFR descriptors: copyright withheld
for a forthcoming publication.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Written Sources
signs and notices simple everyday
directions A to B detailed
technical instructions telephone complex outside area
warnings on hazards detailed
regulations safety detailed complex
conditions details
menus simple
maps, tourist leaflets & posters*
advertisements simple
timetables simple
reference lists (Yellow pages etc)
webpages, catalogues
brochures and leaflets
guides short
forms, invoices
correspondence: formal letters basic
official documents short
technical texts (e.g. contracts)

factual descriptions visual too events
newspaper & magazine articles events main point
factual texts, articles and reports
lengthy complex texts, reports etc.
highly specialised sources
argumentative texts conclusion
reviews, editorials, commentaries
narratives
anecdotes, jokes simpler
fiction simplified
literature standard
messages on postcards
short text message/Twitter
correspondence: informal letters short,simple
personal descriptions feel, wish feel, wish literary
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Spoken Sources
interlocutor
3rd party interaction topic main points modified complex
discussions and debates everyday modified complex
technical discussions complex
directions A to B detailed
messages main point
announcements main point distorted
instructions everyday complex
conditions, warnings
lectures, talks, presentations outline essentials nonstandard
film visual/action idiomatic
shows, drama idiomatic
TV news reports events
TV interviews
TV documentaries visual/action
TV current affairs
TV talk shows
radio news main points
radio documentaries
wide range of radio broadcasts
narratives
recorded passages short, slow
recorded audio materials simpler standard
* CEFR= simple informational material
39 38
Appendix D Mapping Language Content
Produced from main project sources (descriptor analysis, analysis of CEFR-based syllabi,
course books, examination content)
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1
Functions / Notions
Numbers
Prices
Telling the time
Directions
Greetings
Giving personal information
Describing habits and routines
Describing people
Describing things
Requests
Suggestions
Advice
Invitations
Offers
Arrangements/ -ing to meet people
Obligation and necessity
Describing places
Describing past experiences
& storytelling

Describing feelings, emotion, attitudes precisely
Describing hopes and plans
Giving precise information
Expressing abstract ideas
Expressing certainty, probability, doubt
Generalising and qualifying
Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing info
Speculating, and hypothesing hypothesising
Expressing opinions tentatively
Expressing shades of opinion
Expressing Agreement / disagreement
Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference
Critiquing and reviewing
Developing an argument systematically
Conceding a point
Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue
Defending a point of view persuasively
Responding to counterarguments
Discourse Functions
Initiating and closing conversation
Checking understanding
Managing interaction (interrupting,
changing topic, resuming or continuing

Taking the initiative in interaction
Encouraging and inviting another
speaker to continue, come in

Interacting informally, reacting,
expressing interest, sympathy, surprise

Discourse Markers
Connecting words, and, but, because
Linkers: sequential - past time first, finally subsequently
Connecting words expressing cause
and effect, contrast etc

Linkers: although, in spite of, despite
Linking devices: logical markers
Markers to structure informal spoken
discourse

Discourse markers to structure
formal speech

Markers to structure and signpost
formal and informal speech and writing

Simple Verb Forms
To be
Have got (British)
Imperatives (+/- )
Questions
Questions forms
Wh-questions in the past
Complex question tags
Present
Simple Present
Present Continuous
Past
Simple Past Narrative Narrative
Past Continuous Narrative Narrative
Used to Narrative Narrative
Would expressing habit in the past Narrative
Past Perfect Narrative Narrative
Past Perfect Continuous Narrative
Future
Future Time (going to)
Future Time (present continuous)
Future Time (will & going to) Prediction Prediction Prediction
Future Continuous Prediction Prediction
Future Perfect Prediction
Future Perfect Continuous Prediction
41 40
Present Perfect
Present Perfect
Present Perfect / Past Simple
Present Perfect Continuous
Gerund & Infinitive
Id like
Gerunds
to + infinitive (express purpose)
Verb + to + infinitive
Conditionals
Zero and 1st conditional
2nd and 3rd conditional
Mixed conditionals
Wish/if only & regrets
Phrasal Verbs
Common phrasal verbs
Extended phrasal verbs splitting
Passives
Simple passive
All passive forms
Other Verb Forms
Reported speech (range of tenses)
Relative clauses
Modals: Can
Can/cant
Can/could
Modals: Possibility
Might, may
Possibly, probably, perhaps
Might, may, will, probably
Must/cant (deduction)
Modals: Obligation & Necessity
Must/mustnt
Have to
Must/have to
Should
Ought to
Need to/neednt
Modals: Past
Should have/might have/etc
Cant have, neednt have
Nouns
Countable and uncountable v. Common
There is/there are
Pronouns
Personal - subject
Possessives
Possessive adjectives
Use of s, s
Possessive pronouns
Prepositions and prepositional phrases
Common prepositions
Prepositional phrases (time &
movement)

Prepositional phrases (place & time)
Articles
Definite, indefinite
Zero article with uncountable nouns
Definite article with superlatives
With countable and uncountable nouns
With abstract nouns
Determiners
Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of)
Wider range (e.g. all, none, not (any),
enough, (a) few)

Broad range (e.g. all the, most, both)
Adjectives
Common
Demonstrative
Ending ed + - ing
Collocation of adjective
Comparative, superlative
Comparisons with fewer and less
Adverbs
Adverbs of frequency
Simple adverbs of place, manner and
time

Adverbial phrases of time, place &
frequency, incl word order

(Adjectives and ) adverbs
Adverbial phrases of degree, extent,
probability

Comparative and superlative of adverbs
Attitudinal adverbs
Inversion (negative adverbials) Hardly..?
Intensifiers
Very basic (very, really)
Basic (quite so, a bit)
Broader range of intensifiers such as
too, enough

43 42
Wide range such as extremely, much
too

Collocation of intensifiers
Lexis
Nationalities and countries
Personal information
Food and drink
Things in the town, shops and shopping
Travel and services vocab
Verbs, basic
Clothes
Colours
Dimensions
Ways of travelling
Objects and rooms
Adjectives: personality, description,
feelings

Contrasting opinions - on the one hand

Summarising exponents; briefly, all in all,
Collocation
Colloquial language
Approximating (vague language)
Differentiating to choose the best in
context

Approximating (vague language)
Eliminating false friends
Formal and informal registers
Idiomatic expressions
Topics
Family life
Hobbies and pastimes
Holidays
Work and Jobs
Shopping
Leisure activities
Education
Film
Books and literature
News, lifestyles and current affairs
Media
Arts
Scientific development
Technical and legal language
2 Functions/notions
3 Understanding and Using Numbers
We have three cats and one dog.
My father is 45 years old.
There are 500 people in our village.
4 Understanding and Using Prices
How much does the room cost?
45 Euros per night.
The train ticket to York is 7 pounds
50 (pence).
I spend about 50 dollars a day.
5 Telling the time
Whats the time? A quarter to seven.
Do you have the time please?
Can you tell me the time, please?
Its 9.45. (nine forty-five)
The train leaves at three oclock.
6 Directions
The hotel is on the left.
Go to the end of the street and
turn right.
Where is the supermarket?
Its straight ahead.
7 Greetings
Hi John, how are you today?
Good evening, Mr Jones.
This is Mary. Pleased to meet you.
8 Giving personal information
My name is Carlos.
I am from the north of China.
I live in Beirut.
I have two sisters and one brother.
9 Describing habit and routines
My brother goes to work at 8 oclock.
I get the bus to college every day.
I always go swimming on Tuesdays.
46 Discourse markers
47 Connecting words (and, but, because)
She lives in Switzerland and she goes
skiing a lot.
I dont like Indian food but I like Chinese.
I go to bed early because my job starts
at 7.00.
55 Verb forms
56 To be (including questions
and negatives)
We are from South America.
No Im not tired.
France is a wonderful country.
I am a psychology student.
Are you French? No Im not.
57 Have got (British)
Have you got any money?
Ive got all of his CDs
Weve got lots of time.
Appendix E Exponents
for Language Content
Content given in italics was considered less core in the analysis
A1
45 44
58 Imperatives (+/-)
Sit down, please.
Go away!
Dont talk to the driver.
Dont spend too much money.
59 Questions
60 Questions
Is she from Egypt?
Do you like dancing?
What is your name?
Why are we waiting?
What time is it?
How much does it cost?
When did you arrive?
63 Present
64 Present simple
She eats fruit every day.
We go to the beach on Sundays.
They live near Edinburgh.
65 Present continuous
Ibrahim is studying medicine at Bristol
University.
Johns working in France now.
Its raining again.
66 Past
67 Past simple
After the meal we went to a club.
She fell and broke her leg.
I lived in Paris for 6 months.
68 Past simple (to be)
It was very good.
I moved to Madrid when I was 15.
We were happy there.
73 Future
74 Going to
We are going to make a pizza this
evening.
Theyre going to visit London tomorrow.
Are you going to study this weekend?
85 Id like
Id like a cup of coffee.
Id like to go home.
86 Verb + -ing like/hate/love
I love swimming.
I dont like waiting for buses.
I hate being late.
I like sitting in the sun and doing nothing.
103 Modals
104 Can/cant (ability)
I cant swim.
He can speak Spanish, French and Italian.
She can play chess.
105 Can/could (functional)
Can/could I use your phone?
Can/could I have a retunr?
Can I help?
121 Nouns
How much/many and very common
countable and uncountable
How much money do you have?
How many sisters do you have?
Do you like cheese?
I bought an apple and some bread.
Mira has very short hair.
123 There is/there are
Theres a bank near the station.
There are a lot of seats at the front.
Is there a supermarket near here?
124 Pronouns
125 Simple personal
I bought a dictionary.
They live in Newcastle.
Sorry, I dropped it..
126 Possessives
127 Possessive adjectives
This is my seat.
Is this your pen?
Thats our house.
128 Possessive s
Its Marys turn to buy coffee.
The girls hair was bright red.
This is the students room.
129 Possessive pronouns
This is my laptop.
That is her coat.
No. Its mine.
Is that their car?
130 Prepositions and prepositional
phrases
131 Prepositions, common
He is sitting at the table.
We went to Sardinia last year.
He comes from Scotland
132 Prepositional phrases
(time and movement)
The holidays begin in July.
They like to play football in the evening.
On Tuesdays she goes to college.
133a Prepositions of place
Our shop is on the High Street.
They live in Reading.
133a Prepositions of time, including
in/on/at
Ill see you in December.
It starts at 6 oclock.
They lived there for ten years.
My sister is coming on Tuesday.
134 Articles
135 Definite, indefinite
She has a dog, but I dont have a pet.
Id like an apple juice, please.
Your jacket is on the chair.
I live by the sea.
140 Determiners
141 Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of)
I need a lot of sleep.
Do you have any cheese?
Id like some vegetables, please.
144 Adjectives
145 Common
She is wearing a red skirt.
Thats a beautiful phone.
146 Demonstrative
This pizza is really good.
What did that man say?
Those oranges look very nice.
These people want to talk to us.
149 Comparative, superlative
Shes taller than Michelle.
I am better at writing.
Tom is the oldest in the class.
151 Adverbs
152 Adverbs of frequency
We always go shopping on Saturdays.
We sometimes meet Susan here.
I never go to the gym after work.
A2
47 46
160 Intensifiers
161 Very basic (very, really)
Shes a very tall girl.
John is a really good friend.
166 Lexis
167 Nationalities and countries
Pedro is Spanish but he works in France.
She comes from China but her husband
is English.
168 Personal information
Shes married and has three children.
I am 26 years old, single and I work
in a bank.
Hes an engineer.
169 Food and drink
I like fresh fruit for breakfast.
Vegetables are good for you.
What kind of coffee do you want?
I have a cup of tea every morning.
I dont like fish.
170 Things in the town, shops and
shopping
Where is the supermarket?
How much does this cost?
Where is the nearest internet caf?
Where can I buy a . . . ?
Im looking for a bank/chemist.
171 Travel and services vocabulary
Does this bus go to the town centre?
I want to buy a phone.
Where is the train station?
172 Verbs, basic
He is a student.
They live in Brighton.
I work in a factory.
They like shopping.
173 Clothes
You cant wear jeans at work.
I bought a new T-shirt.
I dont like wearing skirts or dresses.
I prefer jeans.
My father wears a suit and tie to work.
Is it cotton?
I lost my new leather jacket.
174 Colours
My favourite colours are red and green.
He always wears black.
The houses near the sea are all blue
or pink.
175 Dimensions
My room is very small.
Its a long street.
Scottish mountains are not very high.
176 Ways of travelling
My friends get the bus to work but I take
the train.
I usually fly to France, but sometimes
I drive.
189 Topics
190 Family life
191 Hobbies and pastimes
192 Holidays
193 Work and jobs
194 Shopping
195 Leisure activities
2 Functions/notions
9 Describing habits and routines
On Sundays I visit my mother.
I phone my family at the weekend.
The director comes to our office
every Tuesday.
10 Describing people
Marco has blue eyes.
Ekaterina is tall and slim.
Mary has long blonde hair.
11 Describing things
Its green and its made of plastic.
Its small, round and made of rubber.
12 Requests
Can you give me that book, please?
Can you open the window?
Could I have a glass of milk, please?
Could you pass the sugar, please?
13 Suggestions
Shall we go home now?
Lets go to the cinema?
Why dont we phone Jim?
14 Advice
You should ask the teacher.
You could try the Internet
15 Invitations
Would you like to come to my party?
Do you fancy going to the club tonight?
16 Offers
Can I help you?
Shall I carry your bag?
17 Arrangements/-ing to meet people
We are meeting John at 8 oclock.
They are seeing Helen later tonight.
18 Obligations and necessity
We have to get home. Grandad is waiting
for us.
We must hurry. We are late.
19 Describing places
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland.
It has lots of old buildings. It is famous
for its castle and its architecture. Every
year in summer it holds an international
arts festival which brings performers
and visitors from around the world.
20 Describing past experiences and
storytelling
Last year I went to Spain for a walking
holiday. Sometimes I stayed in local
mountain hostels and sometimes
I slept in my tent. One evening I was
far from any village, so I camped at the
edge of a forest beside a small river.
I ate some food and watched the sun
go down. I heard a small noise at the
edge of the forest. I turned and saw two
pairs of eyes. Wolves!
46 Discourse markers
48 Linkers: sequential past time
First we went to Naples. We stayed there
5 days and visited Heracleum and then
Pompeii. After that we went to Progida,
but I didnt like it. Finally we stayed
a week in Capri.
55 Verb forms
58 Imperatives (+/-)
Somebody stop him!
Push the bar.
Please dont smoke in here.
Break the glass in an emergency.
49 48
59 Questions
60 Questions
Did you pass your driving test?
Have you seen my new car?
Is Sasha arriving today?
61 Wh-questions in the past
Where did she go to university?
How did they travel?
When did it happen?
63 Present
64 Present simple
Do you like British food?
The plane lands at six.
I love this programme.
65 Present continuous
I am staying with Hilary at the moment.
What is he wearing?
66 Past
67 Past simple
He gave me a nice present.
She bought some flowers for her mother.
I began to play chess when I was 5.
68 Past continuous
I was living in Spain when I met her.
It was raining, so we decided to
get a taxi.
69 Used to
She used to be a ballet dancer.
He used to wear glasses but now
he uses contacts.
73 Future
74 Going to
Hes going to buy a car next year.
Shes going to have an operation
in October.
75 Present continuous for the future
(arrangements)
Nareenes playing basketball tonight.
Im seeing him at 11.00 this morning.
76 Future time (will & going to)
Im going to see John on Saturday
( . . . already decided)
Ill tell him about the party ( . . . you are
deciding as you speak)
A: I am going to lose my match.
B: No you wont. Ill help you.
80 Present Perfect
81 Present perfect
He has lost his wallet.
Have you got your results yet?
Have you ever been to Greece?
Theyve gone to Italy on holiday.
Have they come back form the
supermarket?
She hasnt been to school this week.
Ive known him for 5 years/since 2005.
84 Gerund and infinitive
86 Gerunds
Walking is the best exercise.
He goes jogging every morning.
86b Verb + -ing/infinitive
(like / want - would like
I love playing tennis.
I hate washing up.
I enjoy dancing
Would you like to go to the cinema?
I want another drink.
87 To + infinitive (express purpose)
I go jogging to get fit.
They are going to Scotland to see
the Loch Ness monster.
I went to the post office to buy stamps.
88 Verb + to + infinitive
She wants to go home now.
I forgot to lock the door.
They hope to arrive at 9 oclock.
89 Conditionals
90 Zero and first conditional
If I stay in the sun I get a headache.
If I eat eggs I feel sick.
If I fail my exams, my father will be angry.
Ill stay in if it rains this afternoon.
94 Phrasal Verbs
95 Phrasal verbs, common
He got up at 6 oclock.
Put your coat on, its raining.
The plane takes off in few minutes.
103 Modals
105 Can/could
Could I use your computer?
Yes. Of course you can.
This could be Englands best chance.
Can I have some more spaghetti, please?
106 Modals: Possibility
107 Might, May
She might come. I dont know.
John may know the answer
to your question.
108 Possibly, probably, perhaps
Ill probably see you later.
Lionel Messi is probably Argentinas most
famous footballer.
Perhaps shes late.
111 Modals: Obligation & Necessity
112 Must/mustnt
You must get to work on time.
I must go to bed. Im really tired.
You mustnt smoke here.
I must phone her tonight. Its her
birthday.
113 Have to
Students have to fill in a form if they
want to leave early.
I have to go to Madrid tomorrow.
Ive got a job interview.
115 Should
You should stay in and study tonight.
Youve got an exam on Friday.
You shouldnt drink so much cola.
Its bad for your teeth.
121 Nouns
122Countable and uncountable,
much and many
She has eight chairs in her lounge.
How much furniture does he have?
I need some help/advice.
Would you like a piece of cake/cup
of tea?
I need as much information as possible.
126 Possessives
128 Use of s and s
Ill meet you outside Marys house.
Thats Johns car.
The childrens clothes are all dirty.
129 Possessive pronouns
Thats not our ball, its theirs.
It always wags its tail when its happy.
Is Heather a friend of yours?
130 Prepositions and prepositional
phrases
132 Prepositions of time: on/at/in
He was born on Christmas Day.
Ill read the book during the holidays.
The train arrives at 17.15.
51 50
133 Prepositional phrases (place, time
and movement)
He went inside the building.
We walked along the beach.
They arrived at the station in the middle
of the night.
134 Articles
138 With countable and uncountable
nouns
She has blonde hair.
I love pizza, but the pizzas at Ginos
are not very good.
Ive got bad news for you.
Everybody wants coffee.
140 Determiners
141 Basic (e.g. any, some, a lot of)
I dont have any money.
He spends a lot of time in his garage.
Can I have some water, please?
142 Wider range (e.g. all, none, not (any),
enough, (a) few)
I am going to have a party for
a few friends.
We dont have enough eggs to make
our cake.
None of my friends are going to the club.
144 Adjectives
146 Demonstrative
Those children over there are very noisy.
These shoes are killing me.
He left for the city on 19
th
February.
That night the volcano erupted.
147 Ending in -ed and -ing
The film was really boring.
Her story was really amusing.
The journey was really exciting.
The crowd was already excited.
149 Adjectives comparative,
use of than
This book is more interesting than these
ones.
My sister is much older than me
150 Adjectives superlative,
use of definite article
The fastest mammal in the world
is the cheetah.
Maths is the most difficult subject for me.
151 Adverbs
152 Adverbs of frequency
Have you ever been to the
United States?
He often visits his family.
He usually stays here with us.
He always carries a bag.
She hardly ever leaves her room.
153 Simple adverbs of place, manner
and time
Theres water everywhere.
He quickly opened the door.
I am going to London tomorrow.
154 Adverbial phrases of time, place
and frequency including word order
He went home yesterday.
They were here today.
160 Intensifiers
161 Very basic (very, really)
She was left very unhappy.
I am really sorry for losing your book.
162 Basic (quite, so, a bit)
The water is quite cold.
I am so happy with my new flat.
It is getting a bit cold now. I want
to go home.
166 Lexis
169 Food and drink
I love strawberries and cream.
Lets get some fish and chips.
170 Things in the town, shops and
shopping
Keep left.
Insert exact money.
Do you know where the post office is?
I want to buy some stamps.
Where can I buy some coffee beans?
171 Travel and services vocabulary
A return ticket to Brighton, please.
Can you tell me the way to IKEA?
What time do you close?
Im looking for the bus station.
177 Objects and rooms
The fruit is in a bowl in the dining room.
The kitchen is the warmest room
in the house.
The tools are in the garage.
178 Adjectives: personality, description,
feelings
Pedro is a quiet and serious boy.
She is tall, blonde and wears very
smart clothes.
I am very happy with my new job,
but my boss is very strict.
189 Topics
191 Hobbies and pastimes
192 Holidays
193 Work and jobs
194 Shopping
195 Leisure activities
196 Education
B1
53 52
2 Functions/ notions
19 Describing places
Cairo is the capital city of Egypt. It is
on the banks of the River Nile. It has
a population of more than 10 million
people. Cairo has a rich history.
The famous pyramids and the sphinx
are located just outside the city.
20 Describing past experiences and
storytelling
Last year we went to Thailand for our
holidays. We visited many interesting
places. I went scuba-diving while my
boyfriend went on an elephant ride.
We also tried lots of different kinds
of food. We had a great time.
21 Describing feelings, emotions,
attitudes
He felt a little nervous about the exam.
Im fed up with this British food.
We should all use public transport
as much as possible.
Im sorry to hear that.
29 Expressing opinions
I think England will win the World Cup
I dont think he is old enough
to get married.
In my opinion, its too expensive.
31 Expressing agreement/ disagreement
I think so too.
Youre right
Exactly!
Yes, I agree.
I think you are absolutely right.
So do/am I.
Neither do I.
Well, actually . . .
Well not really.
Im sorry but I think youre wrong.
I see what you mean but . . .
33 Talking about films and books
Meryl Streep was brilliant.
It was difficult to follow.
It was set in Chicago.
It was about a woman who went
around the world.
If you like action movies you will like
this one
It had a happy ending.
I think you should read this book.
I liked this book because . . .
39 Discourse Functions
40 Initiating and closing conversation
Initiating:
Hi! My names Paula. Whats your name?
Excuse me- can I talk to you for
a minute?
Excuse me, please. Have you got
a minute?
Excuse me, please. I wonder if you could
help me.
Let me introduce myself.
Guess what!
You will never believe what
I saw yesterday
Closing:
Its been nice talking to you. Bye.
Im sorry. Ive got to go now.
Must go see you later.
See you later. Take care.
41 Checking understanding
From speakers point of view
Is that clear?
Do you follow me?
Do you know what I mean?
Do you understand?
From listeners point of view
Im sorry, did you say . . .?
Is this what you are saying? . . .
Im not sure I understand. Are you
saying that . . . ?
Do you mean . . . ?
42 Managing interaction (interrupting,
changing topic, resuming or continuing)
Interrupting
Sorry, to interrupt you but . . .
I have a question.
Could I interrupt here?
Do you mind if I say something?
Could I just say something?
Sorry, I just wanted to say . . .
Changing the topic
Anyway, . . .
By the way, theres something else I
wanted to tell you.
Resuming a conversation
Anyway, . . .
Anyway, what was I saying?
What were we talking about?
To get back to what I was saying . . .
Continuing
Anyway, . . .
So, as I was saying . . .
Okay, . . .
46 Discourse Markers
48 Linkers: sequential past time (later)
He finished the e-mail and then went out
for a while.
Later, he looked at it again, to see
if he had missed anything important.
After that, he changed the text a little.
Finally he spellchecked it and sent it.
49 Connecting words expressing cause
and effect, contrast etc.
On the other hand, we could stay
at home and watch television.
However, this depends on the number
of people youve invited.
Therefore, it is cheaper to take the bus.
52 Markers to structure informal spoken
discourse
Right.
Really?
Well, anyway . . .
Oh I know.
Yes, I suppose so.
I know how you feel
You know, I dont like her either.
59 Questions
61 Wh-questions in the past
Who did you see at the party?
How long have you been studying
English?
Why did you get the tattoo?
What happened then?
What have you been doing since you
left school?
62 Complex question tags
He hasnt come home yet, has he?
He built the house himself, didnt he?
55 54
55 Verb forms
66 Past
67 Simple past
When he fell, he cut his leg
I went to London on Sunday and
someone stole my camera.
They had so much fun that they forgot
to check what the time was.
68 Past continuous
It happened while I was watching
television yesterday.
I was coming home from work when
the car in front of me suddenly stopped.
Car A was coming from a side street.
The driver wanted to turn left. The other
car was coming along the road. It was
moving really fast. The driver of car A
didnt see it. They hit each other.
69 Used to
They used to live in Portugal.
I used to have a really nice wallet,
but I lost it.
When I went to primary school I used
to walk to school with a friend, but my
mother used to collect me in the
afternoons.
I never used /didnt use to like olives,
but now I love them.
70 Would expressing habit in the past
Every night I would tell my little brother
a story and he would fall asleep in
the middle.
During the summer holiday we would
get up early and go to the beach.
71 Past perfect
The train had left when I got to the
station.
When I got home, Joan had already
cooked supper.
They had already paid by the time
I asked for the bill.
Ahmed had just arrived.
73 Future
76 Future time (will & going to)
(Prediction)
If they continue to play this badly,
Liverpool are going to lose the cup.
Spurs will probably win the league
this season.
Look at those clouds. Its going to rain.
He will pass his driving test eventually.
77 Future continuous
Ill be working late tomorrow.
Hell be arriving on the last train
from Manchester.
80 Present Perfect
81Present perfect
Shes just gone to the shop.
Ive started but I havent finished it yet.
He still hasnt arrived.
82 Present perfect, past simple
Ive been to Thailand twice. I went
there in 2003 and 2007. Have you
been there?
Hes won every match so far.
He won every tournament last year.
Ive had about 9 cars.
We went out together for six months.
When I was at school I studied French
for about 5 years.
I have studied French since I was
14 years old.
83 Present perfect continuous
How long have you been playing tennis?
Its been raining non-stop for two
days now.
Hes been working on the report
all morning.
89 Conditionals
90 Zero and first conditional
If you heat water, it boils.
If you press this button, it switches off.
If we dont tell him, hell be angry.
What will he do if he doesnt find a job?
Well go swimming if the water is
warm enough.
91 Second and third conditional
If I won the lottery Id buy a big house
in the countryside.
What would you do if they asked you
to work in America?
I would have told Jim, if I had seen him.
If we hadnt gone out last night, we
wouldnt have missed them.
My girlfriend would have killed me
if Id forgotten her birthday.
94 Phrasal Verbs
96 Extended phrasal verbs
He turned the jobs down.
They made the story up.
She switched the light on.
97 Passives
98 Simple passive
The lock was broken.
The trees were damaged by the storm.
Rome wasnt built in a day.
100 Other verb forms
101 Reported speech (range of tenses)
She said she liked brown bread.
He asked if she wanted to go home.
John told them the machine
was working.
She explained that shed lost my
telephone number.
106 Modals: Possibility
109 Might, may, will, probably
I might be half an hour late.
Petra will probably be late too.
Shes usually late.
We may go to Egypt this year.
Are you going to have a party in your
new flat? I dont know. I may, I may not.
110 Must/cant (deduction)
Mohamed cant be at home yet, I saw
him leave just a few minutes ago.
I dont believe it. It cant be true.
That must be Brigittes father. She told
me he was coming.
Youve just walked all the way from
Oxford Street. You must be tired.
111 Modals: Obligation & Necessity
114 Must/have to
I really must lose some weight before
the holiday.
Passengers must not put their feet
on the seats.
I cant come tonight because I have
to meet my cousin.
I have to make an appointment this
week. It hurts!
116 Ought to
I really ought to spend less money.
You ought to inform the police.
My parents will be worried. I ought
to phone.
117 Need to
I need to get back to work.
Do you really need to wear such
old jeans?
Do we need to buy tickets before we
get on the train?
57 56
118 Modals: Past
119 Should have, might have/etc.
We had a great time in Crete. You should
have come with us.
The letter should have come yesterday.
They might have arrived already.
She might have gone home.
134 Articles
138 With countable and uncountable
nouns
Dont go in the water. Its freezing.
I would like milk in my tea.
He was wearing black jeans.
140 Determiners
143 Broad range (e.g. all the, most, both)
All the seats are taken.
We havent got enough paper
for everyone.
Several people are waiting.
144 Adjectives
148 Collocation of adjective
I didnt want to wake him from his
deep sleep.
The student produced some really
high quality work.
We couldnt get to work because
of the heavy snow.
There was a strong smell of coffee
in the room.
151 Adverbs
154 Adverbial phrases of time, place
and frequency including word order
We usually go abroad in summer.
I have never been abroad.
He stayed behind yesterday.
They often play upstairs.
155 (Adjectives and) adverbs
Shes a good singer. She sings really well.
The instructions were not very clear.
My mother has been working too
hard recently.
This cheese is a bit hard.
156 Adverbial phrases of degree/extent,
probability
The water was extremely cold.
He speaks very quickly.
He speaks too quickly.
There will probably be some speeches
after the meal.
Hell definitely win.
157 Comparative and superlative form
of adverbs
Paula got ready more quickly than
the others.
Jenson Button was faster in practice.
Im afraid hes getting worse.
The person who most frequently got
ill was Angela.
Stig worked the hardest.
Marie did the worst in the exam.
Paulo did the best at maths.
160 Intensifiers
163 Broader range of intensifiers
(such as too, so enough)
Hes a really good driver.
Do we have enough cake to go round?
He came back so suddenly.
Shes so intelligent its scary.
The ball was just too fast.
Hes quite good at science.
164 Wide range (such as extremely,
much too)
We did quite well.
Ive got a terribly difficult decision
to make.
The maths test was unbelievably easy.
Thats much too difficult for a B1 test.
166 Lexis
170 Things in the town, shops
and shopping
It fits really well but do you think
it suits me?
I need to get some toothpaste from
the chemists in the shopping mall.
Can you hold on while I get a magazine
from this newsagent?
171 Travel and services vocabulary
Im sorry, we dont accept cheques.
Do you have a debit or credit card?
You need to check in at least two hours
before departure.
The gate number will be announced
on the monitor in the departure lounge.
179 Contrasting opinions
(on the one hand)
On the one hand, he is good with people.
On the other hand he does not think
before he speaks.
Even though he earns very little
he is always very generous.
Mind you, he is still very fit.
181 Collocation
Im going to take a quick shower.
Its midnight but I still feel wide awake.
Theres a good chance hell be late.
182 Colloquial language
Thats a really cool top youre wearing.
My boss is nice but he talks really posh.
The kids had a brilliant time at the zoo.
189 Topics
195 Leisure activities
196 Education
197 Film
198 Books and literature
199 News, lifestyles and current affairs
200 Media
59 58
2 Functions/ notions
20 Describing experiences
I was walking the dog in the park when
I heard a loud crash. I looked in the
direction of the noise and saw that
a huge tree had fallen down. There were
some people screaming and calling
for help and some children were trapped
under one of the fallen branches.
21 Describing feelings and emotions
He was furious when he saw that his new
bicycle had been damaged.
She screamed in anger at how stupid
her brother had been.
Heather was delighted with her shot
and her face glowed with pride.
Why should we suffer just because
our neighbours like loud parties?
I dont think its right for passengers
to put their feet on the seats.
22 Describing hopes and plans
I am having a meeting with my boss
on Friday.
How are you going to get to France?
How long are you going to Jamaica for?
Id love to see the photos when you
get back.
Ill call you soon.
I am going to go around the world
when Ive saved enough money
I hope to get a job in Australia next year.
Ive always wanted to visit the Taj Mahal.
23 Giving precise information
Ill meet you at 2pm in the childrens
section of Waterstones in Oxford Street.
In my job I mainly have to deal
with clients, particularly arranging
and following up on orders.
He was born in a little village in the
North East of Estonia on the 22nd
of October, 1928.
My degree was in economics,
specialising in finance.
You need to place the pizza dough in
a warm bowl, cover it with a cloth or
place it somewhere warm, leave it to rise
for 30 minutes or until it doubles in size.
24 Expressing abstract ideas
Corruption is widespread in that part
of the world.
There is little respect for human rights
during war time.
Education is the way out of poverty
for many young people.
25 Expressing certainty, probability, doubt
Im absolutely certain its going to rain.
Its impossible to get him out of bed
before 10 oclock.
Hes probably gone to the library.
Were definitely not going to Spain
this year.
Are you sure we will arrive in time?
26 Generalising and qualifying
On the whole I think it is a good idea.
Generally speaking, the teachers are
very helpful
More often than not he shops in the
High Street.
Taking into consideration the cost of
travel, you might not want to buy a flat
so far away.
Well stay for a week or two, depending
on the cost.
Provided that there is no rain, the
concert will go ahead as planned.
B2
27 Synthesizing, evaluating, glossing
information
To sum up, the government will need
to cut spending for the next five years.
All in all, it was a miserable performance.
To be fair, it was his own fault for parking
where he shouldnt have.
In short, they were better than us
at promoting their ideas
28 Speculating
I wonder if John will be going to the
party.
If she got the nomination, she could
probably win if she gathered enough
support from the community.
What do you think would happen if they
did discover oil there?
What if Teresa hadnt turned up?
29 Expressing opinions
If I were you, Id just say no.
From her point of view, we have to do
this as soon as possible
The way I see it is that youll have to
study very hard.
I feel we should do it.
I really dont think its a good idea.
31 Expressing agreement/ disagreement
Thats just what I was thinking.
You know, thats exactly what I think.
I totally agree.
Thats a good point.
No Im afraid I cant agree with you there.
You cant be serious!
Dont be silly!
Thats ridiculous.
32 Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference
Why ask me?
Thank gooodness
Fantastic idea!
Brilliant!
Great!
Whatever.
Thats ridiculous!
Hows that possible?
Really?
No way! I dont believe it.
33 Critiquing and reviewing
I think that Treasure Island is still popular
with children even though the language
is rather dated.
In spite of its popularity I feel that The
Beach is a very overrated book which
appeals mainly to gap-year students.
The film was a bit disappointing, really.
The best part was when ..
It was really good when .
34 Developing an argument
To begin with its a bigger problem
than you think.
As far as I am concerned this has
nothing to do with the issue.
The way I see it, the family is more
important.
Thats the reason I dont want to work
there anymore.
In academic discourse style:
One reason why
Another argument for/against . . . is . . .
X maintains that . . .
Y states that . . .
It could be argued/asserted that . . .
In conclusion . . .
39 Discourse Functions
41 Checking understanding
From speakers point of view
Are you following me?
61 60
Let me know if you have any questions?
Does that make sense?
From listeners point of view
If I understood/understand you correctly,
there are no planes at all on Saturday.
Do you mean I cant talk to the boss
right now?
Are you trying to say you dont want
to go out with me anymore?
Let me see whether Ive understood
you correctly.
So what youre really saying is . . .
Am I right in assuming . . .
42 Managing interaction (interrupting,
changing topic, resuming or continuing)
Interrupting
Actually, . . .
Im sorry but . . .
Just a minute!
Yes, I know, but . . . !
Hang on!
Hold on!
Changing the topic
Oh, by the way . . .
That reminds me . . .
This has nothing to do with what we are
talking about but . . .
On another subject..
Talking about holidays, did you know that
Im off to Florida next week?
Before I forget . . .
Resuming
Anyway, I was telling you about Johns
party . . .
To get back to what I was saying . . .
43 Taking the initiative in interaction
Control and delegation at start
Andre, would you like begin?
Pilar, would you like to kick off?
Shall we begin?
During the meeting
Jenny, can tell us how the
Human Resources reorganisation
is coming along?
How does that affect your
department, Rosa?
Lets move on, shall we?
Keeping interaction participants on topic
We dont have time to go into that matter
right now.
Lets get back to the issue under
discussion, shall we?
hats another topic, really.
Can we keep to the point, please.
Lets not get distracted.
Taking initiative in non-control situation
Id like to say a few words here.
Yes, I think I can contribute to this point.
My expertise in this area might help
to clarify the situation.
Perhaps, I could say something here.
44 Encouraging and inviting another
speaker to continue, come in.
To continue
Carry on.
Go on.
Really?
Mmmmmm.
Dont stop.
Tell me more
What makes you say that?
What makes you think that?
Im all ears.
Im listening.
Invitation in one-to-one interaction
Dont you agree?
Is that okay with you?
How about you?
What do you reckon/think?
Invitation in group interaction
What do you think, Mario?
Lets hear what Gabriella has to say.
James might have something to say
on this.
Fiona knows a lot about this.
Hey, you did something like that,
didnt you?
45 Interacting informally, reacting,
expressing interest, sympathy, surprise
Wow, thats fantastic.
Really? Tell me more.
Tell me all about it.
I dont believe it!
Oh wow!
Oh you poor thing.
Thats awful. What a shame!
46 Discourse Markers
48 Linkers: sequential past time
(subsequently)
Subsequently, he went on to be one
of our best salesmen.
Following this he decided to leave
the country.
49 Connecting words expressing cause
and effect, contrast etc.
I know it would be good fun to watch
the late-night film. Nevertheless, I think
we should all get an early night before
the big event tomorrow.
I would like to tell you more. However,
that is as much as I am allowed to reveal
at this time.
Consequently, he moved to London
to be closer to his family.
50 Linkers: although, in spite of, despite
In spite of her illness during the course,
she managed to qualify successfully.
Despite the rain we all had a great time.
Although I was very young at the time,
I remember what happened quite clearly.
53 Discourse markers to structure formal
speech
To begin, I would like to introduce
my colleagues.
Furthermore, I believe that the best way
forward is to provide more training.
Moreover, the idea that depression can
only be cured by medication is now
being challenged.
Consequently, we have to be prepared
for a fall in profits next year.
Regarding our position on nuclear
power, that has not changed.
Additionally, we will also provide support
throughout the process.
In conclusion, we have agreed to give
3,000 to the charity.
55 Verb forms
67 Simple past (narrative)
To help pay for his keep and to help
his family, Andrew, who was still only
15 years old, began working ten-hour
days at a Kensington hotel washing
dishes and cleaning the kitchen.
He earned just 6 pounds per week.
The harsh working conditions and the
cruelty of the kitchen staff had a strong
influence on his later political outlook,
and informed his work when he began
his literary career, particularly the novel
that made him famous, Working Boy.
68 Past continuous (narrative)
Antonio was walking away from the
crowd when the trouble started. He was
63 62
trying to get home but the buses were
not running. He was just crossing the
bridge to safety when he heard the
sound of breaking glass. He was telling
himself not to get involved when
a bottle smashed right beside him.
69 Used to (narrative)
We used to play at the park at the edge
of the town.
70 Would expressing habit in the past
Every autumn we would steal apples
from their garden. We would eat
the sour fruit and come home holding
our stomachs.
71 Past perfect
When Id climbed to the top of the hill,
I looked back down and saw something
I hadnt seen before.
He had broken the vase when he
had come in through the window.
He had had a terrible day up until that
point.
72 Past perfect continuous
I was tired. Id been working for
sixteen hours.
They had been driving so fast that the
police had difficulty stopping them.
Had they been waiting long?
73 Future
76 Future time (will & going to)
(Prediction)
You will succeed where I have failed.
Here comes the bus now. We arent
going to be late after all.
Dont worry. Hell be here on time.
77 Future continuous (Prediction)
This time next year, Ill be working
in Japan and earning good money.
Ill be visiting my mum on Thursday.
Can you come another time?
Will you be using the car tomorrow?
78 Future perfect
Id better go and collect the girls.
Theyll have finished school by now.
Ill call you at six. Will you have arrived
by then?
She wont have left by then.
79 Future perfect continuous
Julia will have been studying Economics
for 5 years when she graduates next
year.
Youll have been travelling for 4 days
when you get to Bangkok. Youd better
book a hotel and have a couple of
days rest.
80 Present Perfect
83 Present perfect continuous
Youve been spending a lot of time
on the Internet recently.
Theyve been working very hard to get
building completed on time.
Honestly, we havent been wasting
our time.
Have you been seeing Julie behind
my back?
89 Conditionals
92 Mixed conditionals
If I had studied harder, Id be at
university now.
If Id got that job I applied for Id be
working in Istanbul.
I would have driven you to the match
if I didnt have so much work.
If I wasnt working in July, I would have
suggested we go camping in France.
93 Wish
I wish I was rich.
I wish today wasnt Monday.
I wish I wasnt going into hospital
tomorrow.
She wished she hadnt hurt his feelings.
94 Phrasal Verbs
96 Extended phrasal verb
Lets splash out on a bottle of
champagne.
Watching that programme has put me
off chicken.
Ill take you up on that offer.
97 Passives
99 All passive forms
Im being eaten alive by these
mosquitoes.
I wasnt told about the new rules.
I thought that I was being followed.
Did you think that you were being
criticised?
The new treatment for malaria has been
found to be very effective.
100 Other verb forms
101 Reported speech (range of tenses)
She said shed been waiting for ages.
I knew wed be late.
She thought she could do it all herself.
They reported that the volcano might
erupt at any time.
They said it should be fun.
I told her I had to go.
102 Relative clauses
Ive lost the books that I borrowed from
the library.
Where is the man that sells second-hand
records?
The children he played with thought
he was much younger.
This is my cousin Verena , who teaches
music.
Shelly and Byrons poetry, which used
to be compulsory, has now been
dropped from the syllabus.
She told us all about her new boyfriend,
whom none of us knew anything about.
They ran quickly through the streets,
all of which were covered in a thick
blanket of snow.
118 Modals
119 Modals of Deduction and Speculation
You shouldnt have read her journal.
It should be private.
You should have asked her earlier.
Its too late now.
He shouldnt have any problem doing
such a simple task. (Assumption)
The plane should have arrived by
now. (Assumption)
I knew we might have to pay to get in.
You shouldnt have shouted at him.
He might have hit you.
The weather could have been better
but we still had a good time.
You could have told me!
120 Modals: cant have, neednt have
It cant have been John you saw,
because he was with me.
What can he have done with the keys?
He cant have lost them again.
You neednt have bothered getting
here on time. Hes always late.
134 Articles
139 With abstract nouns
History tended to be uninteresting
when I was at school.
The early history of Scotland is full
of betrayal.
Happiness in marriage is something
you have to work at.
Education is not compulsory in many
developing countries.
65 64
The education I received was first-rate.
Charity begins at home.
151 Adverbs
155 Adjectives and adverbs
He scored a direct hit.
The train goes direct to London without
even stopping at York.
Theres no such thing as a free lunch.
Feel free to use it whenever you want.
He went straight to work.
Next draw a straight line across the top
of the paper.
158 Attitudinal adverbs
Frankly, I couldnt care less
Clearly, he was in the wrong.
Apparently, he was in line for promotion.
Fortunately, he had a spare pair of shoes
with him.
160 Intensifiers
165 Collocation of intensifiers
After working all day and all night he was
totally exhausted.
He was absolutely horrified when
he realised what he had done.
Shes completely hopeless when
it comes to housework.
I am entirely satisfied that he followed
the correct procedure.
166 Lexis
179 Contrasting opinions
(on the one hand . . . )
The weather forecast is good.
Nevertheless, you always need
to be careful in the mountains.
In spite of his age, he is still goes
camping in the wild.
The story has been told many times
before. Nonetheless, it is still a warning
to us all.
Some students continue to live with their
parents. However, I prefer to be
independent.
180 Summarising exponents
(briefly, all in all . . . )
In a word, it was a disaster.
We felt that the idea was in general
a good one; the more we spend on
advertising the higher our sales will be.
To sum up, if we cant make more money
some people will have to lose their jobs
181 Collocation
Id prefer a dry wine.
The resort has a range of luxury
accommodation to offer.
Hes a very heavy smoker.
Im retaking the exam next week.
182 Colloquial language
Shes just been dumped by her
boyfriend.
Theres no hurry. Lets just chill out for
an hour or two.
I cant be bothered with the hassle.
She fell and landed on her bum.
189 Topics
196 Education
197 Film
198 Books and literature
199 News, lifestyles and current affairs
200 Media
201 Arts
2 Functions/ notions
21 Expressing attitudes and
feelings precisely
Well it would be all right if they came out
and said it, but I have a bit of a problem
with . . .
I dont really feel comfortable with . . .
I couldnt care less whether . . . or not.
Im afraid this is something I feel quite
strongly about.
Cristina became a vegetarian and her
father had rather mixed feelings about
this.
Michael felt completely devastated.
Somebody had deliberately sabotaged
his research but he did not know who
could do such a thing.
When I reached the summit of the
mountain I felt a great burden had been
lifted from my shoulders. My childhood
dream had finally come true. Looking
down into the valleys far below I felt
a sense of pride in my achievement.
I wanted to shout out loud from the top
of the world.
25 Expressing certainty,
probability, doubt
It is highly likely that the airport will
be closed again tomorrow.
No doubt hell bring his dog as usual.
Theres bound to be trouble at
the meeting.
Is that settled, then? Yes. Its settled.
It looks as if shes going to be late.
Surely, you dont think it was my fault?
27 Synthesizing, evaluating,
glossing information
In a nutshell, it was the headmaster
who had to take responsibility.
To cut a long story short, he ended
up sleeping on my floor.
All things considered, I think weve made
the best decision.
Another way of putting this would be
to say . . .
To recap on what has been said
so far, . . .
28 Speculating and hypothesising
about causes, consequences etc.
Supposing he had missed his train?
If the pound did drop to parity with the
euro, Britain might be better off in the
long run.
Well if we dont do something about the
oil spill, there could be a lot more fallout
than just dead fish. I mean, the water
could be polluted for decades.
If youd arrived on time, we would
probably have missed the traffic.
If she didnt get so excited, she might
get more work done.
29 Expressing opinions
tentatively, hedging
I assume youll be going home for
Christmas.
Am I right to think youre responsible?
Its supposed to be good.
Im just not so sure, it could be okay.
Maybe she is the best person for the job.
I should think hell be delighted with
the surprise.
It could well be the best solution.
C1
67 66
30 Expressing shades of opinion
and certainty
Theres no doubt about the fact that
there is going to be inflation.
No, Im absolutely sure. I mean look
at the figure for X.
I may be wrong, but I think higher
inflation is almost certain.
I have a feeling there may be
a problem here.
I suppose that could be an option.
I rather doubt that hell come.
Its not something I feel strongly about
Well one option/possibility might be
to go earlier.
I really think that the people who produce
our food should not be exploited. But the
problem is that sometimes fair trade
goods are more than double the price.
When this is the case I tend to buy the
cheaper product. I am not proud of this,
but I am sure there are many other
people exactly like me.
I thought the meeting was a missed
opportunity to actually do something
good for a change. But I know that when
it comes to environmental issues,
governments tend to talk a lot and make
grand promises, and then go back and
carry on just the same as before. If they
really wanted to make a difference they
wouldnt just set so-called green
objectives but would pass laws which
would have an immediate impact on
the environment..
32 Expressing reaction, e.g. indifference
To be honest, I simply dont care.
Why bother?
Its not such a big issue.
I dont really mind/have an opinion,
one way or the other.
What are you trying to say?
Absolutely!
I dont believe it.
Thats amazing!
Oh, you poor thing.
You can say that again!
33 Critiquing and reviewing
The (report) highlights some important
issues but it does not, to my mind,
get to the bottom of the problem.
Its an excellent summary, but I think
it would be improved by a deeper
consideration of X.
The (report) sets out to do X, and it does
parts of this well, but it seems to me
to lack . . .
The good/best thing about (the report) is
that it is so concise. It really hits the nail
o n the head.
Well, it starts well, but then after x pages/
in the section on X, I had the impression
that it . . .
The plot involves the disappearance
of a sacred sword and introduces us
to various levels of castle intrigue.
Stephenson weaves his usual magic by
giving us snippets of information here
and there, now from the royal chambers,
now from the castle kitchens. The master
of gothic science fiction has provided
us with a real page-turner. The only
criticism that might be levelled here is
that the author assumes that the reader
is already familiar with characters and
the world they inhabit. To get the most
out of this book one needs to have
read the previous books in the series.
34 Developing an argument
systematically
It is frequently argued that . . . , however
X is clearly a topic of concern to many
people nowadays
There are several reasons for this: one . .
. , two . . . , and finally . . .
The main reason for this . . . is/may be . . .
Some people might argue that . . .
However . . .
Opponents of this idea try to suggest
that . . . However . . .
Its clear that . . .
No one would dispute that . . .
It is generally accepted that . . .
All the evidence/data indicates/suggests
that . . .
Thus to conclude, the central issues are .
. . /the key point is . . .
In conclusion, before we . . . we need
to . . .
35 Conceding a point
I see what you mean, but . . .
I take your point. I agree we need . . . /
Its certainly true that . . .
I have to admit that . . .
It is true that . . .
Though I hate to say it, I think you are
right that . . .
That may be true, but . . .
36 Emphasizing a point, feeling, issue
The main point Id like to emphasize here
is the fact that parents have an important
role to play in a childs education
75% of those interviewed said that
public transport was not as safe. Yes,
75% think public transport is now more
dangerous.
After turning the whole house upside-
down, the police found nothing.
Absolutely nothing.
Hes not Roger Federer but he is a very
good tennis player.
37 Defending a point of view persuasively
I know this may not be a popular
conclusion, but it seems to me we have
to face (facts/ the fact that . . . )
I do appreciate that what I proposed
may be expensive/painful/a surprise to
some people, but I really am convinced
the evidence shows we need to . . .
I recognise that this may . . . , but . . .
But one should not lose sight of the fact
that . . .
But surely one still needs to take X into
account
38 Responding to counterarguments
What you say may be true in some
contexts, however in this case.
You may be right, but I still think
that . . ..
Whilst it may indeed be true that . . . ,
I still think . . .
There is no evidence to show that .
On the contrary, . . .
I think you have misunderstood the point
I was making . . .
I can see where you are coming from
but there are problems with your
analysis of the situation.
In some circumstances, I would agree
with you entirely, but in this case . . .
Even so, he still has a long way to go
before he is suitable management
material.
No matter how you look at it, he made
a mistake.
All the same, she deserves another
chance.
69 68
46 Discourse Markers
54a Markers to structure and signpost
informal speech and writing
Weve a bit more money coming in than
we had last year. Mind you, well still
need to be careful with the heating bills.
Hed spent all his money without
realising. So, he couldnt afford a taxi
and had to walk home.
Then guess what happened?
On top of that his girlfriend was really
angry with him.
54b Markers to structure and signpost
formal speech and writing especially
logical markers
The pound is not as strong as it was two
years ago. Moreover, the cost of flights
has gone up . . .
Profits are likely to fall this year.
Consequently, we need to prepare our
shareholders for some bad news.
He was warned many times about the
dangers of mountain climbing in winter.
Nevertheless, he continued to tackle
some of the toughest peaks.
Despite the clear danger that was
pointed out to him, he insisted on
continuing so he is at least partly
responsible for what happened.
The cost of fuel has gone up. Therefore
it is hardly surprising that there has been
an increase in the use of public
transport.
Whereas that is the case in Brazil, in
Columbia it is more a question of . . .
Certainly the car is here to stay, but the
question is to what extent it will be the
same concept of car.
The policy was correct is so far as it was
applied; the problem is that it wasnt
applied systematically.
55 Verb forms
66 Narrative tenses for experiences,
including passive
67 Simple past (narrative)
I went home that evening in a very
sombre mood. I tried to relax. I made
myself a cup of coffee and turned on
the television. But I just could not get the
incident out of my mind. The more
I thought about things, the more certain
I was that something just didnt make
sense. I decided to go back over
everything the next day.
68 Past continuous (narrative)
They were late as usual, hoping the
guests would be a little late. Miriam was
still in the kitchen preparing enormous
bowls of salad. Her father was tidying
away all his papers which were usually
scattered over every available space
in the dining room. John was keeping
a lookout at the front gate, kicking
pebbles along the path.
69 Used to (narrative)
That bit of the coastline used to be much
less busy than it is these days. Lisa and
her brothers loved exploring the coves
and beaches for miles in both directions.
They used to get up really early, run
down the rocky path that led to Shell Bay
and go for a swim before breakfast.
Yes, those days were fun.
I had a proper tricycle when I was
a small child. It had a boot and I used
to keep all sorts of toys in it. We used
to go all over the place, using the trike
as a mobile base.
70 Would expressing habit in the past
(narrative)
My grandmother used to live by the
seaside and we would go there every
Easter. My Dad would drive, my mother
would navigate and we would sit in the
back fighting.
In the summer we went to Devon for
years. My Dad would ask us to navigate.
It was a way of keeping us quiet. We
would watch out for named pubs and
read the road signs. Usually we counted
cars too. I would count VWs; my more
sophisticated brother counted Jags.
I would usually win.
71 Past perfect (narrative)
When he returned to the UK things were
very different. Maria had given up her
job in the library and gone back to
university. Reza had finally left home and
had moved in with a rather odd group
of postgrads who had very strict house
rules about everything from the storage
of food to when guests were allowed to
visit. Brigitte seemed to have completely
disappeared. Just six months before they
had been inseparable. Although he had
known that it couldnt last, it surprised
him just how quickly things had changed.
72 Past perfect continuous (narrative)
Whoever it had been must have had
a key. So if his parents had been visiting
their friends in Lyon, and his sister had
been out celebrating the end of term
with her boyfriend, then there was only
one person who would have been able
to get into the house that night.
76 Futures (revision)
My brother and his girlfriend are getting
married in August. Theyre not going
to go on honeymoon. Theyre going
to do up the flat they bought with the
money theyll save. Theyll probably have
some kind of reception or party for the
wedding but I dont think it will be a very
grand affair.
Oh no. Another goal for United! Bara
is going to lose.
I just got a phone call from Raoul. Hes
in a taxi. Hes going to get here in about
five minutes.
This time next year Ill be sun bathing
on my yacht in Antibes. Ill be mixing with
celebrities from all over the world. Ill be
driving a look-at-me car and going to
fancy restaurants.
At the speed things are moving, the case
will have expired before it is brought
to court.
At the end of next year, Ill have been
working here for 5 years!
89 Conditionals
92 Mixed conditionals in the past, present
and future
If she had taken her studies more
seriously last year, shed have more job
opportunities now.
If Lola had given me the information
earlier, shed be coming with us on
holiday.
If I were rich, I would have bought that
painting we saw yesterday.
If Nareene didnt come with us
to Glastonbury, everyone would
be disappointed.
93 Wish/if only & regrets
I wish Id studied a bit harder.
You wish youd kept your mouth shut,
dont you?
If only hed take more care of his health.
If only I had behaved a bit better,
she might have given me a chance.
If only the sun would come out!
94 Phrasal Verbs
96 Extended phrasal verbs (splitting)
The policeman broke the fight up
very quickly.
She talked me into going to her parents
place for the weekend.
I cant make anything out; its really dark.
She knew that her mother had put John
up to it.
71 70
97 Passives
99 Passive forms, all
Hell be given a warning.
Youll be being transferred to your new
job tomorrow.
The seats will all have been taken by
the time we get there!
Hes going to be given an award.
He ought to be sacked for behaviour
like that.
Having been beaten so many times,
he decided to fight back.
He might have been hurt.
118 Modals in the past
You shouldnt have told her.
Shell be very upset.
I should have warned him about the
traffic, but I forgot.
You might have told me it was her
birthday. I felt embarrassed I didnt take
a present.
He cant have got my message.
He would never be this late.
You neednt have bought any potatoes.
We had some.
I dont think anyone could have done
anything. He had decided.
Things might have turned out differently,
if she had asked first.
151 Adverbs
159 Inversion (negative adverbials)
Little did I know that he had already left
the company.
166 Lexis
181 Collocations, e.g.
Its there in black and white.
He was in excruciating pain.
The suspense is palpable.
I did physics at university.
The situation is untenable.
Its a no go area.
182 Colloquial language, e.g.
I am absolutely knackered.
She was gobsmacked when he turned
up at the party.
The whole thing was a cock-up from
beginning to end.
He tried to flog me an old banger.
183 Approximating (vague language), e.g.
There will be about 30 odd people
well 30 to 40.
I think he an accountant or something
like that.
The book is sort of similar to his first one.
Can you pass me the thingummyjig for
taking nails out?
All the painting stuff is in the garage.
184 Differentiated use of vocabulary, e.g.
She was really upset when she failed her
exams. I think she is still in shock.
Its not that I dont like her; I detest her.
Its really good. Its concise, focused,
readable.
I wouldnt say shes antisocial, just
a bit shy.
It wasnt bad, just a bit disappointing.
186 Eliminating false friends, e.g.
In the chemistry class they performed
an interesting experiment (as opposed
to experience which is French for
experiment)
Different languages = different false
friends
187 Formal and informal registers, e.g.
Mr. John Wilson passed away peacefully
at his home in Nottingham last week.
John Wilson died in his sleep last week
John kicked the bucket a few days back.
188 Idiomatic expressions, e.g.
I wish I could remember her name.
Its on the tip of my tongue.
Everybody wants work with Marion.
She really is the flavour of the month.
If you want a shoulder to cry on,
Ill always be here for you.
189 Topics
198 Books and literature
199 News, lifestyles and current affairs
200 Media
201 Arts
202 Scientific development
203 Technical and legal language
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