The Comics of Chris Ware

The Comics of Chris Ware

Drawing Is a Way of Thinking
FdiLcd by David M. Ball and MarLha B. Kuhlman
UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Mississippi 1ackson
Publication of this volume was made possible in part through grants provided by Dickinson College
and Bryant University. The editors would also like to thank Meredith Milnes, Ellie Cutler, Shannon
Kobran, and Tristan Deveney for their help and hard work and special thanks to Alec Thibodeau, for
keeping us covered.
All images and artwork, unless otherwise noted, are copyright 2009 Chris Ware. The editors of
this collection would like to thank Chris Ware for generous permission to reproduce his comics
throughout this volume.
Frontis: Portrait of Chris Ware by Ivan Brunetti. 2010 Ivan Brunetti.
www.upress.state.ms.us
The University Press of Mississippi is a member of the Association of American University Presses.
Copyright 2010 by University Press of Mississippi
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing 2010
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The comics of Chris Ware : drawing is a way of thinking / edited by David M. Ball and Martha B. Kuhl-
man.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60473-442-3 (alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-60473-443-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Ware, Chris,
1967Criticism and interpretation. I. Ball, David M., 1976 II. Kuhlman, Martha B.
PN6727.W285Z63 2010
741.5973dc22 2009033755
British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available
For Cara
For Nicholas
This page intentionally left blank
V I I
Contents
InLroducLion: Chris Warc and Lhc CulL o DiculLy
Martha P. Kuh|man and Lavd M. Pa|| ix
Contexts and Canons
InvcnLing CarLooning AnccsLors: Warc and Lhc Comics Canon
1eet Heer
Maskcd FaLhcrs: 1mmy Corrgan and Lhc Supcrhcroic Icgacy
1acob Progan
Tc IimiLs o Rcalism: AlLcrnaLivc Comics and Middlcbrow AcsLhcLics
in Lhc AnLhologics o Chris Warc
Marc Snger 28
Chris Warcs Failurcs
Lavd M. Pa||
Artistic Intersections
Chris Warc and Lhc Burdcn o ArL HisLory
Katherne Roeder 6
In Lhc Comics Workshop: Chris Warc and Lhc Oubapo
Martha P. Kuh|man ,8
Comics and Lhc Crammar o Diagrams
!saac Cates o
The Urban Landscape
On Modcrnisms Ruins: Tc ArchiLccLurc o Building SLorics
and Lost Pu|dngs
Lane| worden o,
Chris Warcs Building SLorics, CcnLricaLion, and Lhc Iivcs o/in Houscs
Matt Codbey :
V I I I CONT E NT S
Reading History
ConronLing Lhc InLcrsccLions o Racc, ImmigraLion, and RcprcscnLaLion
in Chris Warcs Comics
1oanna Lavs-McF||gatt
Public and PrivaLc HisLorics in Chris Warcs 1mmy Corrgan
Shawn C|more 6
AuLobiography wiLh Two Hcads: Qumby the Mouse
Penamn wdss
Everyday Temporalities
Chris Warc and Lhc PursuiL o Slowncss
Ceorgana Panta ,,
Imagining an IdiosyncraLic Bclonging: RcprcscnLing DisabiliLy
in Chris Warcs Building SLorics
Margaret Fnk Perman
PasL ImpcrccL: Building SLorics and Lhc ArL o Mcmory
Peter R. Satt|er :o6
Appcndix: A Cuidc Lo Chris Warcs Primary Works ::
SclccLcd Bibliography ::
ConLribuLors :
Indcx :
I X
Introduction: Chris Ware and the Cult of Difculty
MARTHA B. KUHLMAN AND DAVID M. BALL
Rcading Chris Warcs comics or Lhc rsL Limc can bc a disoricnLing cxpcri-
cncc. Why docs Lhc hardcovcr cdiLion o 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd
on Farth havc such an cnigmaLic and ornaLc dusL jackcL` Whcrc cxacLly arc
Lhc auLhors namc and Lhc LiLlc o Lhc work, and whaL is Lhc purposc o Lhc
covcrs inLricaLc diagrams and cuLouL insLrucLions` Tc curious cw who un-
old Lhc covcr arc rcwardcd wiLh a map LhaL is compriscd o pancls o varying
sizcs and oricnLaLions wiLh abrupL shiLs in scalc, ocring a world-hisLoric
vision o mulLiplc gcncraLions and LransaLlanLic connccLions bcLwccn Irish
immigraLion and Lhc Middlc Passagc (scc plaLc ). Arraycd on Lhc pagc wiLh
a dizzying visual inLcnsiLy, Lhcsc Liny sccnarios arc puncLuaLcd crypLically by
conjuncLions and phrascs such as Tus, BuL, And So and Lravcrscd by a
ncLwork o arrows and lincs (dashcd or solid) LhaL opcraLcs according Lo an
iniLially inscruLablc logic. I Lhis sccms Loo daunLing, Lurning Lo Lhc cndpa-
pcrs rcvcals Ccncral InsLrucLions, ollowcd by an InLroducLion and vc
sccLions LhaL culminaLc in an cxam, all rcndcrcd in painully Liny Lypc LhaL
rcquircs prcLcrnaLural vision or bringing Lhc book so closc Lo your acc LhaL iL
almosL Louchcs your nosc.
As Lhc covcr warns us, whaL wc havc hcrc is dcniLcly a bold cxpcrimcnL
in rcadcr Lolcrancc, and many will noL havc Lhc Limc, inLcrcsL, or paLicncc
or iL. PuL simply, Lhis volumc is noL or Lhcm. BuL or Lhosc rcadcrs who,
ascinaLcd and challcngcd by Lhc worlds LhaL Warc has consLrucLcd, scck Lo
gain ncw poinLs o cnLry inLo his comics, Lhis collccLion ocrs a rangc o mul-
Lidisciplinary pcrspccLivcs LhaL wc hopc will inspirc livcly discussions and
opcn prcviously uncxplorcd avcnucs or rcscarch. Tis volumc ocrs Lhc rsL
such susLaincd criLical analysis o Chris Warcs alrcady prodigious body o
work, yiclding a varicd, provocaLivc collccLion o cssays LhaL spans mulLiplc
approachcs and oricnLaLionsrom liLcrary Lhcory Lo urban sLudics, disabil-
iLy sLudics Lo arL hisLory, criLical racc Lhcory Lo comics hisLoryin ordcr Lo
bcLLcr undcrsLand and illuminaLc Warcs graphic narraLivcs.
In his :oo covcr sLory or Lhc New York Tmes Magazne, NoL Funnics,
Charlcs McCraLh prcdicLs LhaL comics arc Lhc ncxL ncw liLcrary orm and
praiscs 1mmy Corrgan as casily Lhc mosL bcauLiul and mosL complicaLcd
o all Lhc ncw graphic novcls.

WriLing onc ycar laLcr in Lhc New Yorker, arL

criLic PcLcr Schjcldahl idcnLics Warc as bclonging Lo a culL o diculLy LhaL
has always characLcrizcd avanL-gardcs, rom Lhc cubisL cxpcrimcnLs o Pica-
sso and Braquc Lo Lhc obscurc crudiLion o FlioL and Pound.
:
Tcsc compari-
sons would undoubLcdly cmbarrass Warc, buL Schjcldahl and McCraLh arc
X I NT RODUCT I ON
noL alonc, Warcs work has also bccn likcncd Lo Lhc cLion o ILalo Calvino,
1ulio CorLazar, 1ohn BarLh, and Lhc high modcrnism o [Franz] Kaka.

In
inLcrvicws and criLical cssays, Warc himscl has a dccidcdly liLcrary bcnL, in-
cluding rccrcnccs Lo FrncsL Hcmingway, Ico TolsLoy, Vladimir Nabokov, and
CusLavc FlaubcrL in his cxplanaLions o Lhc Lonc and sLrucLurc o his com-
ics.

Tcrc arc also markcd similariLics bcLwccn Warcs work and Lhc conLcm-
porary cxpcrimcnLal cLion o Davc Fggcrs, whosc mcmoir A Heartbreakng
work oj Staggerng Cenus, publishcd Lhc samc ycar as 1mmy Corrgan, bcgins
wiLh ronL maLLcr LhaL conLains a scalc raLing Lhc auLhors scxual oricnLaLion
and a prcacc Lo Lhc prcacc LiLlcd Rulcs and SuggcsLions or FnjoymcnL o
Lhis Book.

In Lhc cld o liLcrary sLudics, Warcs work has alrcady madc a

powcrul claim or scholarly considcraLion and inclusion in coursc syllabi.
YcL liLcrary rccrcnccs alonc ail Lo accounL ully or Lhc mulLidisciplinary
rcach o comics gcncrally and Warcs work in parLicular, which draws signi-
icanLly rom Lhc clds o nc arL, archiLccLurc, dcsign, and cnLcrLainmcnL
culLurc. Among his arLisLic inucnccs, Warc ciLcs Philip CusLon, who cham-
pioncd a rcprcscnLaLional sLylc laLc in his carccr conLrary Lo Lhc ashion o
absLracL cxprcssionism, much in Lhc samc way LhaL Warc rcsisLcd ClcmcnL
Crccnbcrgs acsLhcLics whcn hc was a sLudcnL aL Lhc ArL InsLiLuLc o Chi-
cago.
6
1oscph Corncll, Lhc soliLary surrcalisL o AsLoria, Quccns, is anoLhcr
o Warcs avoriLc arLisLs.
,
Tc mclancholy charm o Cornclls idiosyncraLic
shadow boxcs and his nincLccnLh-ccnLury acsLhcLic o Lhc pcnny arcadc arc
clL kccnly in Lhc mcLiculously orchcsLraLcd pancls o Warcs comics, which arc
rcminisccnL o Lhc woodcn comparLmcnLs in a LypcscLLcrs casc. Iouis Sulli-
vans modcrnisL archiLccLurc and unapologcLic usc o ornamcnLaLion providc
anoLhcr sourcc o inspiraLion or Warc, who rcqucnLly dcscribcs comics as
an archiLccLurc o visual inormaLion LhaL aligns sccing and rcading.
8
Iikc-
wisc, Warcs inLcrcsL in ragLimc and Lhc crmcnL o musical innovaLion aL Lhc
Lurn o Lhc Amcrican LwcnLicLh ccnLuryScoLL 1oplin gurcs promincnLly
hcrcgivcs him uniquc insighL inLo composiLion and orm across disciplincs
and mcdia (scc g. I.). AlLhough Lhc individuals in Lhis divcrsc grouping o
crcaLivc inucnccs arc quiLc disLincL rom onc anoLhcr, Lhcy all LcsL Lhc limiLs
o Lhcir rcspccLivc disciplinary convcnLions, unscLLling Lhcir audicnccs cx-
pccLaLions.
SiLuaLing Warc wiLhin Lhis mulLidisciplinary, avanL-gardc ramcwork orc-
grounds how his work cxposcs and manipulaLcs Lhc languagc o comics in
ways LhaL dcmand a grcaL dcal o Lhc rcadcr and LcsL Lhc rcprcscnLaLional
possibiliLics o Lhc mcdium. ForLunaLcly or Warc, his inLcrcsL in drawing
comics in Lhc carly 8os coincidcd wiLh gcnrc-LcsLing cxpcrimcnLs by oLhcr
arLisLs in Lhc cld. In , ArL Spicgclman dcscribcd Lhc siLuaLion o comics
as hav[ing] alrcady shiLcd rom bcing an icon o illiLcracy Lo bccoming onc
o Lhc lasL basLions o liLcracy. I comics havc any problcm now, iLs LhaL pco-
plc donL cvcn havc paLicncc Lo dccodc comics aL Lhis poinL. [. . .] I donL know
i wcrc Lhc vanguard o anoLhcr culLurc or Lhc lasL blacksmiLhs.

Spicgclman
and Warc sharc a common inLcrcsL in Lhc craL o comics, Warcs consummaLc
graphic dcsign is painsLakingly rcndcrcd by hand, noL on a compuLcr,
o
and
likcwisc rcquircs paLicncc Lo dccodc.

As Lhc co-cdiLor o RAw magazinc

wiLh his wic, Franoisc Mouly, Spicgclman hclpcd Lo culLivaLc a vanguard in
comics by bringing LogcLhcr Amcrican and Furopcan arLisLs who oLhcrwisc
Fig. I.1. Ware has a
long-standing interest
in ragtime music and in-
struments. Chris Ware,
Reginald B. Robinson, and
Frank Youngwerth, Lake
Street (Amsterdam: Oog
and Blik, 1999).
XI I I NT RODUCT I ON
could noL nd a placc or Lhcir cxpcrimcnLal or unconvcnLional work wiLhin
mainsLrcam comics publishing. Warcs rsL cxposurc Lo Lhc magazinc in 8
was ormaLivc: I could Lcll immcdiaLcly LhaL iL was somcLhing wholly dicr-
cnL [. . .] and sophisLicaLcd in a way my Ncbraska brain aL Lhc Limc simply
couldnL undcrsLand. [. . .] IL rcarrangcd my mind abouL comics orcvcr.
:
Trough RAw, Warc was cxposcd Lo Lhc work o comics innovaLors such
as Charlcs Burns, Cary PanLcr, Kaz, Richard McCuirc, Bcn KaLchor, and
Spicgclman himscl, all proound inucnccs on his arLisLic ouLlook and ca-
rccr.

Upon rcading Lhc rsL insLallmcnLs o Maus, Spicgclmans acclaimcd

narraLivc o his aLhcrs cxpcricncc in AuschwiLz, Warc dccidcd Lo Lry Lo
do comics LhaL had a Lruly scrious Lonc Lo Lhcm.

Warcs cncounLcr wiLh

Richard McCuircs sLrip cnLiLlcd simply Hcrc, which appcarcd in RAw in
8, was a similarly ormaLivc momcnL. Tc manncr in which McCuirc nar-
raLcs Lhc hisLory o a singlc spacc Lhrough many millcnnia using ncsLcd pan-
cls Lo rcprcscnL, in Warcs words, mulLigcncraLional opposiLions LhaL arc aL
oncc Lrivial and poignanL, is an apL dcscripLion boLh o McCuircs comics
and Warcs maLurc work.

RAw dcmonsLraLcd LhaL conspicuously diculL

comics could bc Lakcn scriously and scrvcd as a ormaLivc inLroducLion inLo
alLcrnaLivc comics or Warc.
Iikc Spicgclman, Warc also nds inspiraLion in Lhc visual languagc o an
carlicr gcncraLion o comics arLisLs rom Lhc carly LwcnLicLh ccnLury and has
bccn an insLrumcnLal caLalysL in rcissuing Lhcir work.
6
Onc can disccrn an-
iLics bcLwccn Lhc surrcal drcam scqucnccs and dcLailcd landscapcs in Winsor
McCays Ltt|e Nemo n S|umber|and and Lhc anLasy scqucnccs in 1mmy Corr-
gan, wiLh Lhc undamcnLal dicrcncc LhaL in Warcs rcinLcrprcLaLion Lhcrc is
no rcdcmpLivc momcnL o awakcning.
,
Ccorgc Hcrrimans Krazy Kat is also
an csscnLial rccrcncc or Warcs carly characLcr Quimby Lhc Mousc, boLh or
Lhc guiding narraLivc o unrcquiLcd lovc bcLwccn a caL and a mousc and or
Lhc visual jazz o his invcnLivc pagc layouLs. Frank King, auLhor o Lhc long-
running comic sLrip Caso|ne A||ey, is anoLhcr o Warcs avoriLc carLoonisLs,
and 1mmy Corrgan can bc undcrsLood as an ironic updaLc o Kings poignanL
aLhcr-son narraLivc.
8
Sccn broadly, Lhis involvcmcnL in Lhc rcnaissancc
o carly LwcnLicLh-ccnLury ncwspapcr comics marks a shiL madc by many
graphic novclisLs o Lhc currcnL gcncraLion away rom Lhc morc convcnLional
hisLory o mulLiply auLhorcd supcrhcro comics in publishing houscs such as
DC and Marvcl, and Loward a ocus on Lhc arLisLic lcgacics o carlicr indi-
vidual comics arLisLs such as Rodolphc Topcr, McCay, Hcrriman, King, and
Cli SLcrrcLL.

In a morc conLcmporary vcin, Warcs comics arc rcqucnLly discusscd and

LaughL in conjuncLion wiLh a youngcr gcncraLion o arLisLs who arc rcinvcnL-
ing Lhc mcdium o comics. Whilc Lhc visual sLylcs o such arLisLs as ScLh, Dan-
icl Clowcs, Adrian Tominc, 1oc Sacco, Marjanc SaLrapi, and Alison Bcchdcl,
Lo namc a cw, arc quiLc disLincL, Lhcy all cmploy a dcgrcc o ormal complcx-
iLy and sharc somc LhcmaLic conccrns wiLh Warc.
:o
Tcrc is a simulLancously
scl-rccxivc and scl-dcprccaLing qualiLy Lo Lhc rcprcscnLaLion o collccLing
in ScLhs !ts a Cood Lje, !j You Lont weaken (:oo) and Warcs ongoing RusLy
Brown narraLivc. Iikc Warc, Clowcs and Tominc ocr an ironic vicw o ado-
lcsccncc and romanLic disappoinLmcnL LhaL succccds in bcing boLh dcLachcd
and dccply clL in Chost wor|d (8) and Shortcomngs (:oo,), rcspccLivcly.
I NT RODUCT I ON XI I I
AlLhough Saccos Te Fxer (:oo), SaLrapis Persepo|s scrics (Te Story oj a
Ch|dhood, :oo, Te Story oj a Return, :oo), and Bcchdcls Fun Home (:oo6)
all dicr rom Warc in LhaL Lhcir work is ccnLcrcd in auLobiography and non-
cLion, all our arLisLs arc conccrncd wiLh rcprcscnLing how Lhc LraumaLic
pasL, whcLhcr on a pcrsonal or hisLorical scalc, inLcrrupLs and dcLcrmincs Lhc
LrajccLory o livcs in Lhc prcscnL.
Takcn LogcLhcr, Lhis gcncraLion o arLisLs and wriLcrs is charLing ncw di-
rccLions in conLcmporary graphic narraLivcs, boLh in Lcrms o Lhcir ormal
innovaLions and in Lhc complcxiLy o Lhcir subjccL maLLcr. Indccd, or all o
Chris Warcs conspicuous diculLy and absLracLion, aL Lhc hcarL o all o his
work is a laycrcd, nuanccd, and richly rcndcrcd scnsc o placc and cxpcricncc.
Tc vcrLiginous diagrams in 1mmy Corrgan corrcspond wiLh Lhc conicLcd
and involvcd gcncalogics his novcl aLLcmpLs Lo dclincaLc, his cnLanglcd lay-
ouLs visually rcminding Lhc rcadcr o Lhc cnLanglcd and unrcsolvcd lcgacics
o diaspora and racc rclaLions in conLcmporary Amcrica. Iikcwisc, Lhc archi-
LccLural complcxiLy o Building SLorics rcccLs Warcs mcdiLaLions on ar-
chiLccLural spacc in cvcryday lic, as much as his painsLaking rcproducLions
o discrcLc Lcmporal momcnLs in RusLy Brown mirror Lhc simulLancous
banaliLy (and occasional ashcs o painul bcauLy) in his characLcrs largcly
mundanc livcs. FxpcrimcnLaLion is Lhus a mcans o convcying cxpcricncc in
Warcs comicsa poinL hc oLcn cmphasizcs in his inLcrvicws and cssays
producing onc o Lhc mosL simulLancously complcx and moving collccLions o
work in conLcmporary comics.
Life and Works
Franklin ChrisLcnson Warc, who publishcs mosL consisLcnLly as Chris Warc
buL whosc work has also appcarcd undcr Lhc monikcrs F. C. Warc and C.
Warc and pscudonymously undcr Ccorgc Wilson, was born on Dcccm-
bcr :8, 6,, in Omaha, Ncbraska. BoLh Warcs moLhcr and his grandaLhcr
workcd or Lhc Omaha wor|d-Hera|d, and cxposcd him aL a young agc Lo Lhc
ncwspapcr arL dcparLmcnL, drawing classcs aL a local arL muscum, and Lhc
ncwspapcr comics Warcs grandaLhcr would rcccivc rom UniLcd FcaLurcs
SyndicaLc.
:
From his narraLivcs cxploring amilial bonds in carly childhood
(Qumby the Mouse) Lo Lhc scLLing and visual palcLLc o ,os Omaha (RusLy
Brown) and Lhc vcry aLncss o Lhc landscapcs characLcrisLic o his acsLhcLic,
Warcs MidwcsLcrn background is apparcnL LhroughouL his work.
Warc rsL pursucd ormal Lraining in Lhc nc arLs aL UnivcrsiLy o Tcxas aL
AusLin and bcgan work as a carLoonisL or Lhc sLudcnL papcr. His rsL comic
sLrips or Lhc La|y Texan wcrc publishcd rom 8, Lo , dcmonsLraLing an
carly inLcrcsL in ormal play wiLh comics convcnLions. CharacLcrs arc drawn
placing LcxL abovc Lhcir own hcads or rcaching across pancls Lo accL Lhcir
uLurc sclvcs. Warc on occasion would composc as many as Lwclvc dicrcnL
comics or Lhc various plaLcs uscd Lo prinL a singlc issuc o Lhc La|y Texan,
providing conLinuous narraLivcs and alLcrnaLc conclusions or Lhosc rcadcrs
inLrcpid cnough Lo comparc dicring vcrsions o Lhc samc days ncwspapcr.
::

Whilc Warc has dismisscd many o Lhcsc carly corLs as cmbarrassmcnLs, clc-
mcnLs o his maLurc work rsL bcgin Lo suracc hcrc.
:
Warcs Hcrrimancsquc
duo o Quimby Lhc Mousc and Sparky Lhc CaL, his haplcss poLaLo-shapcd nar-
XI V I NT RODUCT I ON
raLor who would laLcr rc-cmcrgc in Lhc pagcs o RAw and Te ACMF Nove|ty
Lbrary , and 1immy Corrigan, Lhc cponymous hcro o Warcs brcakLhrough
novcl in :ooo, makc Lhcir rsL appcaranccs in Lhc La|y Texan sLrips. Tc
corc scnsibiliLics o Warcs graphic narraLivcsgcncric play, ormal invcn-
Livcncss, Lhc incorporaLion o commcrcial arL and acsLhcLic paradigms rom
carlicr cras o Amcrican popular culLurc, and a prodigious visual imaginaLion
LhaL consisLcnLly blurs Lhc linc bcLwccn high arL and mass culLurc, cpisLcmo-
logical qucrics and irrcvcrcnL humorall cmcrgc in a nasccnL orm in Lhcsc
rsL ycars.
Howcvcr, Warcs carccr bcgan in carncsL whcn Spicgclman, sccing onc o
Warcs comics in Lhc La|y Texan ncxL Lo a rcvicw o Maus in 8,, ocrcd him
our pagcs in RAw.
:
A sophomorc aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Tcxas aL AusLin aL Lhc
Limc, Warc would cvcnLually publish Lwo picccs or RAw, Lhc rsL o which,
Waking Up Blind, ollows Lhc scl-agcllanL, slapsLick advcnLurcs o a po-
LaLo-shapcd proLagonisL as hc sLrugglcs Lo kccp his cycs in his hcad, only Lo
gougc Lhcm ouL again oncc hc sccs himscl in Lhc mirror.
:
Drawing on Lhc an-
Lic cncrgy o carly LwcnLicLh-ccnLury carLoons, vaudcvillc, and lm, Waking
Up Blind cxhibiLs a minimalisLs inLcrcsL in orm and spaLial rclaLions, scnd-
ing iLs characLcr carccning across Lhc pagc in a manncr rcminisccnL o Lhc
indigniLics laLcr sucrcd by Sparky aL Lhc hands o Quimby. Warcs sccond
piccc or RAw, Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics/I Cucss, juxLaposcs a digrcssivc,
auLobiographical cssay abouL Warcs childhood againsL a pasLichc o goldcn-
agc supcrhcro comics, inLcrLwining a concssional sLory o amilial and racial
Lcnsion wiLh a morc convcnLional rcprcscnLaLion o dcrring-do and hcroic
rcscuc (scc plaLc :).
:6
Alrcady wc wiLncss Warcs homagc Lo Lhc hisLory o
comics in his skillul rcndcring o Lhc LcxLurc and visual cncrgy o os-cra
work as wcll as a criLical and ironic disLancc rom Lhc gcncric convcnLions o
LhaL samc idiom. Tc rcsulLing composiLion dcmonsLraLcs Lhc arbiLrarincss
o many o Lhc convcnLions o Lhc comics mcdium whilc Lclling a sLory wiLh
a grcaL dcal o cmoLional rcsonancc, anLicipaLing Lhc morc complcx composi-
Lions Lo ollow.
In , Warcs movc Lo cnroll aL Lhc ArL InsLiLuLc o Chicago markcd a ma-
jor LransiLion in his carccr, and alLhough hc was ulLimaLcly disaccLcd wiLh
Lhc schools biascs againsL narraLivc and rcalisLic rcprcscnLaLion, Lhc rangc
o his arL hisLorical knowlcdgc conLinucs Lo inorm his work. Tc cxposurc
aordcd him in RAw lcd Lo his own scrializcd comic wiLh FanLagraphics, Lhc
rsL volumc o which appcarcd in undcr Lhc LiLlc Te ACMF Nove|ty L-
brary. NoLablc or iLs hcLcrogcnciLy, Lhc rsL Lhrcc volumcs o ACMF dcvclop
Lhrcc scparaLc sLory lincs: 1immy Corrigan, Quimby, and (or lack o a bcLLcr
Lcrm) poLaLo guy, rcspccLivcly, cach appcaring in radically dicrcnL visual
sLylcs, cvcn down Lo Lhc shapc and sizc o Lhc bound comics Lhcmsclvcs (scc
g. I.:). SubscqucnL issucs o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary conLaincd an cvcn
morc accclcraLcd display o crcaLiviLy and varicLy, ocring ncwly running
gags likc Big Tcx and Talcs o Tomorrow whilc dcvcloping Lhc ongoing
sLory o 1immy Corrigan. Concludcd in ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , 1mmy Cor-
rgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth Look ovcr scvcn ycars Lo complcLc and ap-
pcarcd in novcl publicaLion in :ooo Lo widcsprcad acclaim. IL was ollowcd
by Lwo book-lcngLh collccLions o Lhc ACMF maLcrialQumby the Mouse in
Fig. I.2. Potato guy,
tumbling down stairs in
a slapstick manner much
like Quimby in later com-
ics, is one of Wares rst
characters. Chris Ware,
The ACME Novelty Library
3 (Seattle: Fantagraphics,
1994), 29.
XV I I NT RODUCT I ON
:oo and Lhc cxubcranLly LiLlcd Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary Annua| Report to
Shareho|ders and Rany Lay Saturday Ajternoon Fun Pook in :oo.
Compiling and rcorganizing a good porLion o Lhc scrializcd work Lhrough
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , Lhcsc volumcs arc noncLhclcss diculL Lo caLc-
gorizc. Nonc o Lhcsc projccLs is wholly discrcLc rom Lhc oLhcrs (Quimby ap-
pcars in 1mmy Corrgan and vicc vcrsa, boLh makc appcaranccs in Te ACMF
Report), nor docs any ocr Lhc convcnLional assuranccs o a sLablc LcxL. Many
scrializcd cpisodcs caLuring 1immy Corrigan wcrc cxciscd rom Lhc novcl
publicaLion, which iLscl is conspicuously ragmcnLcd and draws aLLcnLion
Lo iLs own disconLinuiLics. Tc Qumby and Te ACMF Report hardcovcr vol-
umcs arc looscly hcld LogcLhcr by cssays LhaL wind LhroughouL Lhcir rcspcc-
Livc books and scrvc only obliqucly as a kind o ligaLurc or cpisodic comics
around common Lhcmcs. Civcn Lhcsc qualiLics, iL would sccm insucicnL Lo
classiy ciLhcr undcr Lhc labcl graphic novcl. As such, Warcs ocuvrc ocrs
uniquc challcngcs Lo Lhc liLcrary criLic, Lhc arL hisLorian, and Lhc comics Lhco-
risL alikc, providing a complcx array o LcxLs Lo inLcrprcL and considcr. (For
a ull discussion o Lhc cdiLorial dccisions madc Lo addrcss Lhcsc conccrns,
scc Lhc appcndix, A Cuidc Lo Chris Warcs Primary Works aL Lhc cnd o Lhis
volumc.)
Warcs works-in-progrcssBuilding SLorics and RusLy Brownocr
similar challcngcs and rcwards, pursuing many o Lhc lciLmoLis prcscnL in
Lhc carlicr work, whilc also brcaking ncw ground. Building SLorics cxplorcs
Lhc inLcrsccLing livcs o LcnanLs in a Chicago Lownhousc, placing 1mmy Corr-
gans guiding Lhcmc o misscd connccLions bcLwccn Lhc scvcral malc gcncra-
Lions o a singlc amily wiLhin an archiLccLural conLcxL, all Lhc whilc cxploring
Lhc rclaLionships bcLwccn individuals and Lhcir livcd spaccs. RusLy Brown
is likcwisc proving Lo bc a capacious projccL, onc LhaL is Laking shapc Lo bc
Warcs mosL ambiLious narraLivc Lo daLc. WhaL bcgan as Lhc abjccL advcn-
Lurcs o an ardcnL comics collccLor now has radiaLing spokcs LhaL addrcss Lhc
ailcd wriLing carccr (and scicncc cLion musings) o RusLys aLhcr, Woody,
Lhc growing disLancc bcLwccn RusLys dccaying adulLhood and his childhood
ricnd Chalky WhiLcs asccnL Lo middlc-class rcspccLabiliLy, and Lhc LorLurcd
coming-ouL o Chalkys daughLcr, BriLLany, among oLhcr ploL lincs. In onc
narraLivc sLrand, Warc rcprcscnLs onc day in cach ycar o Lhc lic hisLory o
his sccmingly minor characLcr, 1ordan W. IinL, aLLcmpLing Lo picLurc his
worldvicw aL Lhc agc in which iL is narraLcd, an almosL 1oyccan projccL Lo
map consciousncss (scc plaLc ). Whilc nciLhcr o Lhcsc novcls-in-progrcss
has ncarcd iLs nal orm, Lhcy yicld LanLalizing glimpscs inLo Lhc ncxL phasc
o an alrcady prolic carccr.
In addiLion Lo Warcs comics publicaLions, hc has also carncd a rcpuLa-
Lion as a crcaLivc and gcncrous cdiLor, cssayisL, and arLisLic collaboraLor. Two
imporLanL collccLions o conLcmporary comics, McSweeneys Quarter|y Con-
cern (:oo) and Lhc .oo, Pest Amercan Comcs, arc his projccLs, and hc
scrvcd as a guiding orcc in Lhc rcissucs o Ccorgc Hcrrimans Krazy Kat and
Frank Kings Caso|ne A||ey.
:,
Warcs admiraLion or Hcrriman is apparcnL in
his involvcmcnL wiLh an corL Lo rcpublish Krazy Kat as Krazy 8 !gnatz, a
mulLivolumc scrics LhaL Warc has dcsigncd.
:8
His own collccLion o Kings
sLrips also comprisc an imporLanL parL o Lhc rcissucd volumcs o Caso|ne
A||ey undcr Lhc LiLlc wa|t and Skeezx, a collaboraLion, wiLh cdiLors 1ccL Hccr
I NT RODUCT I ON XV I I
and Chris Olivcros, LhaL caLurcs Warcs conLribuLions as covcr arLisL, dc-
signcr, and cdiLor. Hc has cxhibiLcd his work aL Lhc :oo: WhiLncy Bicnnial,
Lhc :oo MasLcrs o Amcrican Comics cxhibiLion, and Lhc scl-dcsigncd :oo,
solo cxhibiLion aL Lhc Shcldon Mcmorial ArL Callcry and has curaLcd a show
aL Lhc Phocnix ArL Muscum on Lhc painLing, sculpLurc, and graphic work o
conLcmporary graphic novclisLs likc ScLh, Kim DciLch, and Cary PanLcr (scc
plaLc ). In collaboraLion wiLh NaLional Public Radios Ira Class, Warc hclpcd
Lo illusLraLc and dcsign Lost Pu|dngs, an claboraLc DVD on Lhc prcscrvaLion
o Iouis Sullivans archiLccLurc, in addiLion Lo producing mulLiplc animaLions
or Lhc Lclcviscd vcrsion o Classs Tis Amcrican Iic. Morcovcr, his work
has appcarcd on book covcrs and movic posLcrs and his cssays and book rc-
vicws havc bccn publishcd in vrgna Quarter|y Revew and Pookjorum. Com-
mcnsuraLc wiLh his imporLancc in Lhc cld, Lwo volumcs o Warcs skcLch-
books havc also bccn publishcd, giving a ascinaLing, and oLcn concssional,
window inLo his crcaLivc proccss and Lhc carly gcncsis o many o his mosL
cnduring crcaLions. For all o Lhcsc rcasons, Warc promiscs Lo bc a major and
cnduring gurc in LwcnLy-rsL-ccnLury arL and liLcraLurc.
NoL LhaL Warc pcrccivcs himscl in Lhis way, doubLlcss hc would dismiss
Lhis praisc as cxaggcraLcd or prcLcnLious. In inLcrvicws hc sccms somcwhaL
incrcdulous and abashcd by his succcss. BuL by any mcasurc, his work has
ound admircrs insidc and ouLsidc o Lhc comics world. Warc has won ovcr
LwcnLy Harvcy and Fisncr awards in Lhc os and :ooos in Lhc caLcgorics
o producLion, coloring, and lcLLcring. Whcn 1mmy Corrgan won Lhc Amcri-
can Book Award (:oo) and Lhc Cuardian FirsL Book Award (:oo), rcadcrs
who had ncvcr pickcd up a graphic novcl, much lcss a comic book, suddcnly
Look noLicc and Lhc book sold ovcr onc hundrcd Lhousand hardcovcr copics.
:

Sincc Lhcn, boLh Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary and 1mmy Corrgan havc conLin-
ucd Lo carn Lhc adulaLion o criLics, including Lhc bcsL graphic novcl and Lhc
criLics award aL Lhc Angoulcmc csLival in Francc (:oo), Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs
ArLisL CranL (:oo6), and Lhc VPRO Crand Prix rom an inLcrnaLional board o
comics cxpcrLs (:oo8).
Ware among the Critics
DcspiLc Lhis long and complcx rcsumc, or many ycars Warc was a culL g-
urc primarily known only wiLhin Lhc comics communiLy.
o
ALcr Lhc publica-
Lion o 1mmy Corrgan in :ooo, howcvcr, his work bcgan Lo aLLracL susLaincd
scholarly aLLcnLion. IL is noL surprising LhaL Lhcsc iniLial cssays Lcnd Lo ocus
on ormal aspccLs o Warcs work, givcn Lhc labyrinLhinc complcxiLy o his
comics. In Lhc rsL acadcmic cssay publishcd on Warc in :oo, Ccnc Kanncn-
bcrg 1r. analyzcd Lhc way in which LcxL rcads as imagc in Warcs carly ACMF
Nove|ty Lbrary comics, much in Lhc samc way LhaL visual liLcraLurc docs, Lhus
challcnging Lhc LradiLional LcxL/imagc dichoLomy in comics criLicism.

His
ormal approach dcmonsLraLcs how Warcs LcxL opcraLcs on mulLiplc lcvcls
narraLivc, mcLanarraLivc, and cxLranarraLivcand rcqucnLly undcrmincs
Lhc visual conLcnL o Lhc comics Lo rcprcscnL conicLing cmoLions and ironic
commcnLary. Tis ironic undcrcurrcnL pcrvadcs Warcs comics, whcLhcr wc
considcr Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics/I Cucss rom RAw or Lhc aux advcr-
LiscmcnLs in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary, which uncLion as dark parodics o
XV I I I I NT RODUCT I ON
advcrLiscmcnLs in goldcn-agc cra comics books and Scars, Rocbuck and Com-
pany caLalogucs and undcrcuL Lhc uLopian opLimism promiscd by advcrLis-
ing and cnLcrLainmcnL.
:
Bclgian criLic 1an BacLcns also highlighLs Lhc sLrucLural qualiLics o Warcs
comics, ocusing spccically on Lhc rolc o consLrainLs in Warcs limiLcd palaLc
and usc o simplicd orms Lo crcaLc a mulLi-laycrcd, poly-scqucnLial rcad-
ing and wriLing.

Tis minimalisL acsLhcLic, which hc likcns Lo OLLo Ncur-

aLhs inLcrnaLional visual languagc o isoLypcs, dirccLs Lhc rcadcrs aLLcn-
Lion Lo rclaLionships and paLLcrns LhaL opcraLc aL Lhc lcvcl o Lhc pagc layouL.
BacLcns comparcs Lhc non-lincar chronology and rcpcLiLion in Warcs comics
Lo Lhc ragmcnLcd narraLion o Lhc Frcnch nouveau roman, in boLh cascs, a
rcpcaLcd phrasc or imagc bccomcs a narraLivc gcncraLor LhaL signals a shiL
in Lhc sLorylinc. MosL rcccnLly, Tomas BrcdchoL discusscs how 1mmy Cor-
rgan subvcrLs Lhc rcadcrs cxpccLaLions by including Lwo- and Lhrcc-dimcn-
sional diagrams and objccLs in ordcr Lo dcamiliarizc or challcngc our habiL
o undcrsLanding Lhc narraLivc linc as pcrvasivcly lincar and scqucnccd in
Limc.

BrcdchoL siLuaLcs Lhc zocLropc and oLhcr cnLcrLainmcnLs in 1mmy

Corrgan in rclaLion Lo Lhc work o scminal auLhors in visual sLudics such as
Rosalind Krauss, MarLin 1ay, and 1onaLhan Crary in ordcr Lo dcmonsLraLc
how Lhc hisLory o phoLography and Lhc moving imagc is subLly wovcn inLo
Lhc LcxL. For BrcdchoL and BacLcns, Lhc mosL rcvoluLionary aspccL o Warcs
comics is Lhcir non-lincar and ycL highly organizcd composiLion.
OLhcr criLics havc sLrcsscd Lhc liLcrary qualiLics o Warcs work and dc-
vclopcd parallcls and comparisons rom Lhis quarLcr. WriLing in :oo, Brad
Pragcr cxpands upon Warcs rcprcscnLaLion o modcrniLys Lroublcd rclaLion
Lo Lhc pasL and Lo progrcss by siLuaLing 1mmy Corrgan wiLhin Lhc mod-
crnisL LradiLion o Kaka and Frcud.

CcnLral Lo Pragcrs argumcnL arc Lhc

connccLions LhaL hc dcvclops bcLwccn WalLcr Bcnjamins MarxisL criLiqucs
o commodiLy culLurc and Lhc alicnaLion cvidcnL across mulLiplc gcncraLions
o Corrigan aLhcrs and sons, boLh rom cach oLhcr and rom Lhcir surround-
ings. Myla Coldbcrg, in a :oo cssay, nds similariLics bcLwccn Lhc daring
prosc collagc o 1ohn Dos Passos and Lhc hcLcrogcncous combinaLions o nar-
raLivc and childrcns acLiviLy pagcs. FurLhcr cxpanding upon Lhc modcrn-
isL ramc o rccrcncc, shc comparcs CcrLrudc SLcins usc o rcpcaLcd words
and phrascs Lo cmphasizc Lhc LcxLurc o languagc Lo Lhc rccurring moLis
in 1mmy Corrgan.
6
In his :oo6 arLiclc, Tc Shamcul ArL, Danicl Wordcn
argucs LhaL shamc, inLimacy, and gcndcr mclancholyamiliar Lropcs rom
masculinc modcrniLyarc Lhc govcrning principlcs bchind Lhc McSwccncys
comics anLhology cdiLcd by Warc.
,
Danicl Racburns monograph Chrs ware (:oo), Lhc rsL book dcvoLcd
solcly Lo Lhc arLisLs work, providcs valuablc biographical and hisLorical con-
LcxL or undcrsLanding Lhc dcvclopmcnL o Warcs arLisLic producLion and
includcs rcproducLions o his carly comic sLrips, sculpLurcs, and various dc-
sign projccLs. Tis lavishly illusLraLcd volumc hclpully juxLaposcs somc o
Warcs primary sourcc rcscarch maLcrials or onLs and advcrLiscmcnLs Lo his
dcsigns or lcsscr-known works, such as his covcrs or Te Ragtme Fphemera|-
st.
8
Racburns inLroducLory cssay ocrs signicanL insighLs inLo how Warc
himscl undcrsLands and arLiculaLcs Lhc undcrlying sLrucLurc o his comics.
To clucidaLc Lhc mcchanisms bchind his work, Warc invokcs Lhc analogics o
I NT RODUCT I ON XI X
music and archiLccLurc. Hc likcns Lhc proccss o crcaLing comics Lo Lhc acL o
composing music, in boLh cascs, Lhc arLisL is conccrncd wiLh Lak[ing] picccs
o cxpcricncc and rccz[ing] Lhcm in Limc.

Inspircd by CocLhcs dicLum LhaL

archiLccLurc is rozcn music, Warc cxplorcs Lhc rclaLionship bcLwccn com-
ics, music, and archiLccLurc in projccLs such as Building SLorics, scrializcd
in Lhc New York Tmes Magazne and Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8. For Warc,
word and imagc arc inscparably cnLwincd in his crcaLivc proccss, hc docs
noL bcgin wiLh a scripL and Lhcn crcaLc Lhc imagcs as an illusLraLion. RaLhcr,
his composiLions arc improviscd and dcvclopcd on Lhc pagc: WriLing and
drawing arc Lhinking. Wcrc Lold in school LhaL Lhcyrc skills buL LhaLs wrong.
Drawing is a way o Lhinking. ILs a way o sccing.
o
Critical Approaches to the Comics of Chris Ware
Tc cssays in Lhis volumc Lakc Warcs claim LhaL drawing is a way o Lhink-
ing as an impcraLivc, building signicanLly upon Lhis growing scholarly gcnc-
alogy and ocring a broadcncd ramc o rccrcncc rom mulLiplc disciplincs
and sLrains o criLical inquiry. Our inLcnLion is Lo placc Warcs work in as
divcrsc a scL o conLcxLs as his own widc-ranging inLcrcsLs and inucnccs dc-
mand, collccLing Lhc work o boLh csLablishcd scholars and cmcrging voiccs
in comics criLicism.
In our rsL sccLion, Contexts and Canons, hisLorian 1ccL Hccr considcrs how
Warc, likc Spicgclman and oLhcrs, has parLicipaLcd in rcshaping Lhc canon o
comics hisLory. Hccr argucs LhaL Warc is invcnLing his own comics anccsLors
Lhrough his work as an cdiLor and book dcsigncr, championing arLisLs who
cngagc in ormal cxpcrimcnLaLion or ocus on cvcryday lic, such as Rodolphc
Topcr, Ccorgc Hcrriman, Frank King, and Cluyas Williams. 1acob Brogan
Lakcs up Lhc qucsLion o canon ormaLion rom a dicrcnL anglc, arguing LhaL
Warcs 1mmy Corrgan is an aLLcmpL Lo rc-imaginc Lhc posiLion o Lhc supcr-
hcro in Amcrican comics wiLhouL granLing iL a ccnLral or oLhcrwisc ounda-
Lional rolc. Brogan claims LhaL 1immy Corrigans sLrugglc Lo comc Lo Lcrms
wiLh his aLhcr scrvcs as an allcgory or Lhc auLhors anxicLy ovcr Lhc cndur-
ing inucncc o Lhc supcrhcro in comics hisLorics. In his cssay Tc IimiLs o
Rcalism, Marc Singcr analyzcs Warcs rcjccLion o rcalisLic gurc drawing in
his own comics and Lakcs a criLical vicw o his promoLion o mcmoir, auLobi-
ography, and rcalisLic cLion in his anLhologics, dccnding Lhc vcry LradiLion
Brogan rcads as imprisoning. Finally, David M. Ball cxamincs Lhc pcrsisLcnL
rhcLoric o ailurc LhroughouL Warcs ocuvrc, locaLing Lhis impulsc in a longcr
Amcrican liLcrary gcncalogy LhaL valorizcs liLcrary prcsLigc ovcr populariLy.
Ball argucs LhaL Warcs scl-abncgaLion bccomcs a ciphcr or his ambivalcncc
abouL comics ncwly ound rolc as liLcraLurc, rcviving anxicLics around canon
ormaLion LhaL havc Lakcn placc in Amcrican liLcraLurc and liLcrary hisLory
bcorc him.
Tc Lhrcc cssays LhaL comprisc Artstc !ntersectons approach Warcs com-
ics rom Lhc pcrspccLivcs o arL hisLory, comparaLivc liLcraLurc, and graphic
dcsign. Trough hcr closc rcading o Our HisLory o ArL, KaLhcrinc Rocdcr
sLudics how Warcs comics vcrsion o arL hisLory rcvcals his undamcnLal am-
bivalcncc Loward high arL and Lhc insLiLuLion o Lhc muscum, aL Lhc samc
Limc LhaL hc has bccn cclcbraLcd by many in Lhcsc arcnas. DcspiLc Warcs pro-
XX I NT RODUCT I ON
ound knowlcdgc o arL hisLory, Rocdcr poinLs Lo Lhc Lcnsion bcLwccn Warcs
suspicion o Lhc arL world and his amiliariLy and casc wiLh iLs convcnLions.
MarLha Kuhlman considcrs Warcs comics rom a pcrspccLivc inormcd by
Frcnch comics, spccically an cxpcrimcnLal collccLivc known as Oubapo. For
boLh Warc and Oubapo, Lhc conccpL o Lhc workshop or acLory bccomcs a
kcy Lropc as Lhcy scl-consciously crcaLc an avanL-gardc orm o comics LhaL
cmbraccs cxpcrimcnLaLion in Lhc mcdium and abouL Lhc mcdium. IasLly,
Isaac CaLcs asks us Lo rcLhink Lhc LradiLional cmphasis on scqucnLialiLy in
comics Lhcory and proposcs a pocLics o Lhc diagram LhaL draws upon inor-
maLion Lhcory in ordcr Lo ocr a ncw approach noL only Lo undcrsLanding
Warcs comics, buL also Lo conLcmporary comics morc broadly. UlLimaLcly,
CaLcs shows LhaL undcrsLanding Warcs comics as diagrams allows us Lo scc
how Lhcy uncLion as puzzlcs Lo bc solvcd.
Tc promincncc o Chicago in Warcs works, parLicularly in 1mmy Cor-
rgan and Lhc Building SLorics scrics, cmcrgcs in Danicl Wordcns and MaLL
Codbcys cssays in a sccLion LiLlcd Te 0rban Landscape. Drawing upon Lhc
cssays o gurcs as divcrsc as Iouis Sullivan and WalLcr Bcnjamin, Wordcn
ocuscs on Lhc imporLancc o nere, mcchanical rcproducLion, and ruins
in Warcs rcprcscnLaLions o archiLccLurc in Lost Pu|dngs. Wordcn poinLs Lo
Warcs criLiquc o Lhc impcrsonal, homogcnous, and sLulLiying qualiLics o
Lhc InLcrnaLional sLylc popularizcd by Iudwig Mics van dcr Rohc and con-
LrasLs Lhis wiLh Warcs undcrsLanding o archiLccLurc as Lhc impcLus or a
rcncwcd acsLhcLic scnsibiliLy and connccLion Lo Lhc ouLsidc world. Codbcy
locaLcs Building SLorics hisLorically in Lhc Chicago ncighborhood o Hum-
boldL Park, a siLc LhaL rcvcals Warcs conccrns abouL Lhc proccss o gcnLrica-
Lion and Lhc cccLs iL has on Lhc archiLccLural and human Lcrrains o Lhc ciLy.
Rcading Building SLorics in Lhc conLcxL o currcnL dcbaLcs abouL gcnLrica-
Lion in Chicago and oLhcr major U.S. ciLics, Codbcy inLcrprcLs Warcs graphic
narraLivc as a criLiquc o gcnLricaLion and a dccnsc o urban hisLoric prcs-
crvaLion.
In Lhc rsL cssay in Lhc sccLion Readng Hstory, 1oanna Davis-McFlligaLL
discusscs how Warcs comics cngagc qucsLions o caricaLurc and racism in
comics hisLory and Amcrican hisLory wriL largc. Shc argucs LhaL 1mmy Cor-
rgan consLiLuLcs an incisivc criLiquc o Lhc myLhs o Amcrican naLional idcn-
LiLy, asking us Lo Lhink abouL hisLorical and amilial connccLions bcLwccn Fu-
ropcan immigranLs and black slavcs. UlLimaLcly, shc rcads 1mmy Corrgan as
a counLcr-narraLivc Lo LradiLional and oLcn inaccuraLc hisLorics o immigra-
Lion in Amcrica. Shawn Cilmorcs cssay also conccnLraLcs on 1mmy Corrgan,
analyzing Lhc complcx juxLaposiLion o Lhc public hisLory o Lhc 8 Worlds
Columbian FxposiLion in Chicago and Lhc privaLc hisLory o Lhc Corrigan
amily. Cilmorc dcmonsLraLcs how Lhc graphic narraLivc wcavcs LogcLhcr a
disLanccd, hisLorical pcrspccLivc LhaL rclics primarily on an iconic modc o
rcprcscnLaLion wiLh a morc pcrsonal rcgisLcr LhaL rcccLs 1immys subjccLiv-
iLy. IasLly, Bcnjamin Widiss rcads Qumby the Mouse Lhrough Lhc auLobio-
graphical criLicism o Philippc Icjcunc, cxamining Lhc connccLions bcLwccn
Lhc slapsLick anLics o Lhc Quimby comics and Lhc auLobiographical cssay wo-
vcn LhroughouL Lhc volumc. Trough his analysis, Qumby the Mouse cmcrgcs
as a mulLilaycrcd disquisiLion on Lhc inLcrlocking caLcgorics o scl, arLwork,
and Limc.
I NT RODUCT I ON XXI
Tc quoLidian world is a ccnLral conccrn in Chris Warcs work, and Lhc
Lhrcc cssays LhaL comprisc Lhc nal sccLion, Fveryday Tempora|tes, ocus
on dicrcnL aspccLs o Limc and ordinary cxpcricncc: Lcmporal rcgrcssion,
Lhc cvcryday cxpcricncc o disabiliLy, and sLrucLurcs o mcmory. In Chris
Warc and Lhc PursuiL o Slowncss, Ccorgiana BaniLa analyzcs Warcs work
in Lcrms o iLs dclibcraLc ascinaLion wiLh slowncss. Invoking Cillcs Dclcuzc
and Fclix CuaLLaris conccpL o Lhc rhizomc, BaniLa inLcrprcLs Lhc slowncss o
Warcs narraLion as sympLomaLic o his proound rcsisLancc Lo conLcmporary
consumcr culLurc. MargarcL Fink Bcrman discusscs Lhc ways in which Warc
rcprcscnLs Lhc young woman wiLh a prosLhcLic limb in Building SLorics, ar-
guing LhaL shc is siLuaLcd wiLhin an acsLhcLic o Lhc ordinary, Lhus dcmys-
Liying hcr physical dicrcncc. By imagining Lhc disablcd cxpcricncc as noL
radically dicrcnL rom Lhc daily riLuals o Lhc oLhcr inhabiLanLs o Lhc build-
ing, Warc opcns a spacc or Lhc proLagonisL LhaL Bcrman Lcrms idiosyncraLic
bclonging. In PasL ImpcrccL, Lhc lasL cssay o Lhis sccLion, PcLcr SaLLlcr
considcrs how mcmory is consLrucLcd in Building SLorics. Hc analyzcs Lhc
inLcrplay bcLwccn cpisodic, cxpcricnLial, and narraLivc mcmory and cxplains
how Warcs work produccs an inLricaLc laycring bcLwccn Lhcsc sLrands.
CollccLivcly, Lhc rcach o Lhcsc widcly varicd approachcs Lo Chris Warcs
comics dcmonsLraLcs Lhc rangc and gcncraLivc hcLcrogcnciLy o his ocuvrc.
Tcy also rcspond Lo an impcraLivc alrcady inhcrcnL in comics mulLiplc
modaliLics: Lo Lhink nimbly and crcaLivcly across convcnLional disciplinary
boundarics. In Lhis rcspccL, Lhcsc cssays ccho a growing numbcr o scholars
and comics crcaLors who havc argucd or a morc sophisLicaLcd visual-vcr-
bal liLcracy commcnsuraLc Lo Lhc spccic dcmands and uniquc qualiLics o
graphic narraLivc, Chris Warcs among Lhcm.

Wc hopc LhaL Lhis volumc cn-

Fig. I.3. The complicated
complexes of the artist.
Chris Ware, Self-Portrait,
2002.
XXI I I NT RODUCT I ON
richcs and cxpands Lhc challcngcs and rcwards o rcading Chris Warcs com-
ics, proving LhaL cnjoymcnL o and criLical LhoughL abouL graphic narraLivcs
arc muLually susLaining acLiviLics. Voiccs in Lhc arcnas o graphic narraLivc
and Lhc acadcmy havc much Lo lcarn rom onc anoLhcr in Lhc ycars ahcad,
and wc LrusL LhaL Lhc cssays and vicwpoinLs collccLcd hcrc will advancc LhaL
cmcrging dialoguc.
Notes
1. Charles McGrath, Not Funnies, New York Times Magazine, July 11, 2004, 24+.
2. Peter Schjeldahl, Words and Pictures: Graphic Novels Come of Age, New Yorker, October 17,
2005, 162.
3. Myla Goldberg, The Exquisite Strangeness and Estrangement of Rene French and Chris
Ware, In Give Our Regards to the Atom Smashers! Writers on Comics, ed. Sean Howe (New York: Pan-
theon, 2004), 205; Brad Prager, Modernism and the Contemporary Graphic Novel: Chris Ware and
the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, International Journal of Comic Art 5.1 (2003): 195.
4. See Gary Groths interview with Ware in the Comics Journal 200 (1997): 11971. Ware also
created a witty cover for the Virginia Quarterly Reviews Writers on Writers special issue (fall 2006),
which included a fanciful and encyclopedic tour of the history of literary inuence, including such gems
as Johnson on Sterne, Austen on Johnson, and Coleridge on Opium. Ware also includes two
Nabokov quotes as epigrams to his introduction to McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13 (San Francisco:
McSweeneys, 2004).
5. Dave Eggers and Ware are very much intellectual interlocutors: Eggers has written apprecia-
tively of Ware in Masters of American Comics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005) 30916 and
in the New York Times (After Wham! Pow! Shazam! November 26, 2000), and Ware has appeared
multiple times in Eggerss ongoing McSweeneys Quarterly Concern, edited a comics anthology appear-
ing as the thirteenth number of McSweeneys, and painted a mural on the faade of Eggerss Writers
Resource Center, 826 Valencia, in San Francisco.
6. See Wares article Philip Guston: A Cartoonists Appreciation, McSweeneys 13: 8591 and
the second page of Apologies, etc. (Omaha: Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, 2007), Wares self-
authored exhibition guide to his 2007 show at the University of Nebraska.
7. Ware created a curio cabinet inspired by Joseph Cornell; to view a photograph of his artwork,
see Daniel Raeburns book, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 50. Ware has in
his living room a shrine of sorts to honor Joseph Cornell and the unique, inventive, private life that
Cornell shared through his art. See Nobody Special: An IMP Special Report, The Imp 3 (1999):
16.
8. See the collaborative project Lost Buildings, created by Chris Ware, Tim Samuelson, and Ira
Glass. Published by This American Life, WBEZ Chicago, 2004.
9. Art Spiegelman, quoted in Hillary Chute, Comics as Literature? Reading Graphic Narrative,
PMLA 123 (2008): 460.
10. See Jan Baetenss article, New = Old, Old = New: Digital and Other Comics following Scott
McCloud and Chris Ware, January 1, 2001, and January 18, 2009. Electronic Book Review, January 1,
2001. http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/webarts/graphic (accessed January 18, 2009).
Even though Wares comics may appear to be computer generated, Baetens argues that his artwork is
actually more sophisticated than what McCloud predicts for the future of digital comics in Reinventing
Comics.
11. The discrepancy between the amount of time it takes to read Wares comics and the amount
of time it takes to create them is staggering. In the article Not Funnies, by McGrath, Ware describes
working on a wordless comic: It involved maybe 8 to 10 seconds of actual narrative time. But it took
me three days to do it, 12 hours a day (46).
12. Interview edited by Bill Kartalopoulos, A RAW History, Indy Magazine (winter 2005).
http://64.23.98.142/indy/winter_2005/raw_01/index.html (accessed January 18, 2009).
I NT RODUCT I ON XXI I I
13. Groth interview, 128.
14. Ibid., 127.
15. Chris Ware, Richard McGuire and Here: A Grateful Appreciation, Comic Art 8 (2006):
57.
16. Groth interview, 164; Todd Hignite, In the Studio: Visits with Contemporary Cartoonists (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 238.
17. John Carlin, Introduction to Masters of American Comics, ed. John Carlin, Paul Karasik, and
Brian Walker (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 162.
18. Douglas Wolk, Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean (Cambridge,
MA: Da Capo, 2007), 353.
19. See Raeburn, Chris Ware; and Hignite, In the Studio.
20. McGrath, Not Funnies, 26; Chute, Comics as Literature? 459; Peter Schjeldahl, Do It
Yourself: Biennial Follies at the Whitney, New Yorker, March 25, 2002; and Carlin, Introduction, 163.
21. Chris Ware, Apologies, Etc. (Omaha: Sheldon Memorial Gallery, 2007), n.p.
22. Interview with Chris Ware conducted by the New Yorker, archived at the ACME Novelty Ar-
chive Web site. http://www.acmenoveltyarchive.org/media/audio/Ware_NewYorker_061127.mp3
(accessed June 26, 2008).
23. Most notable among this disavowed early work is Wares science ction satire Floyd Farland:
Citizen of the Future (Forestville, CA: Eclipse Books, 1987), now out of print.
24. Groth interview, 128; Kartalopoulos, A RAW History.
25. See vol. 2, no. 2, 1990, redrawn and reprinted in ACME Novelty Library 3: 2021.
26. See vol. 2, no. 3, 1991, reprinted in Quimby the Mouse, 3941.
27. George Herriman, Krazy and Ignatz, 8 vols. to date (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2000present);
Frank King, Walt and Skeezix, 3 vols. to date (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2005present).
28. Wolk, Reading Comics, 35354; Hignite, In the Studio, 238.
29. McGrath, Not Funnies, 26.
30. Groth interview, 119.
31. Gene Kannenberg Jr., The Comics of Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strate-
gies, In The Language of Comics: Word and Image, ed. Robin Varnum and Christina Gibbons (Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2001), 175.
32. Kannenberg, The Comics of Chris Ware, 195.
33. See Jan Baetens, New = Old, Old = New, and his essay Comic strips and constrained writ-
ing, Image & Narrative (October 2003). http://www.imageandnarrative.be/graphicnovel/janbaetens_
constrained.htm (accessed January 18, 2009).
34. Thomas A. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares
Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 885.
35. Prager, Modernism and the Contemporary Graphic Novel, 205.
36. Goldberg, The Exquisite Strangeness, 205.
37. Daniel Worden, The Shameful Art: McSweeneys Quarterly Concern, Comics, and the Politics
of Affect, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 894.
38. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 23.
39. Ibid., 25.
40. Chris Ware, quoted in Daniel Raeburn, The Smartest Cartoonist on Earth, The Imp 1.3
(1999): 9.
41. Marianne Hirsch, Editors Column: Collateral Damage, PMLA 119 (2004): 1212.
This page intentionally left blank
Contexts and Canons
This page intentionally left blank
3
Inventing Cartooning Ancestors:
Ware and the Comics Canon
JEET HEER
In o, Chris Warc, Lhcn a LwcnLy-Lwo-ycar-old sLudcnL aL Lhc vcry bcgin-
ning o his carccr, madc a pilgrimagc Lo MonumcnL Vallcy, Arizona, in ordcr
Lo invcsLigaLc Lhc lic o Ccorgc Hcrriman. AuLhor o Lhc classic sLrip Krazy
Kat, which ran in a varicLy o ncwspapcrs rom unLil Lhc carLoonisLs
dcaLh in , Hcrriman uscd Lhc oLhcrworldly dcscrL landscapc o Lhc rcgion
as Lhc cvcr-shiLing backdrop Lo his comics. Along wiLh Lhc adjaccnL arca o
Coconino CounLy, MonumcnL Vallcy inspircd Lhc drcam-likc lunar landscapc
LhaL madc Krazy Kat a rarc cxamplc o carLoon modcrnism. Fagcr Lo lcarn
morc abouL Lhc sourccs o Hcrrimans arLisLry, Warc clL hc had Lo scc Lhc
landscapc o juLLing buLLcs and aL-Loppcd mcsas LhaL Lhc carlicr carLoonisL
had so crcaLivcly incorporaLcd inLo his work. Tis hajj Lo Lhc SouLhwcsL was
an carly manicsLaLion o Warcs inLcrcsL in Lhc hisLory o carLooning, a pcr-
sisLcnL ascinaLion LhaL has bccn much morc Lhan an anLiquarian passion and
has had a proound inucncc on Warcs body o work.

TroughouL his carccr Warc has consLanLly cvokcd carLoonisLs rom Lhc
pasL, parLicularly Lhc ncwspapcr carLoonisLs o Lhc carly LwcnLicLh ccnLury
and Lhc pionccring supcrhcro arLisLs o Lhc os and os.
:
Tcsc rccr-
cnccs havc Lakcn many orms, ranging rom sly visual allusions Lo ouLrighL
dcclaraLory cclcbraLions. A quick invcnLory would includc Lhc carly Warc
sLory Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics / I Cucss rom , donc in a sLylc closcly
mimicking LhaL o Supcrman co-crcaLor 1oc ShusLcr, Lhc caL/mousc dynamic
o Lhc Qumby the Mouse sLorics, borrowcd rom Lhc anLhropomorphic lovc
Lrianglc aL Lhc hcarL o Krazy Kat (whcrc Lhc clinc lcad characLcr has an un-
rcquiLcd passion or an irasciblc rodcnL), Lhc many ironic rccrcnccs Lo Supcr-
man, sprinklcd LhroughouL 1mmy Corrgan, LhaL scrvc as a anLasy counLcr-
parL Lo Lhc blcakncss o Lhc main sLory, and Lhc unusually ovcrsizcd dimcn-
sions o somc o Warcs books, such as Lhc Qumby the Mouse volumc and Te
ACMF Report, which rccall Lhc ull ncwspapcr-sizc Sunday pagcs by carLoon-
isLs likc Winsor McCay and Frank King in Lhc rsL dccadcs o Lhc LwcnLicLh
ccnLury.

Warcs dccp and abiding lovc o old comics is also cvidcnL in his numcr-
ous rcprinL projccLs, whcrc hc has uscd his own sLrong scnsc o book dcsign
Lo bring ncw aLLcnLion Lo works likc Hcrrimans Krazy Kat and Frank Kings
Caso|ne A||ey.

To daLc, Warc has dcsigncd and co-cdiLcd our volumcs o

Caso|ne A||ey (undcr Lhc umbrclla LiLlc wa|t and Skeezx) as wcll as Lcn vol-
4 J E E T HE E R
umcs dcvoLcd Lo Krazy Kat (undcr Lhc LiLlc Krazy and !gnatz). Asidc rom Lhis
cdiLing and dcsign work, hc has also wriLLcn cxLcnsivcly abouL Lhc hisLory o
comics in a varicLy o vcnucs, ranging rom Pookjorum Lo a muscum caLaloguc
publishcd by Lhc Iibrary o Congrcss.

On onc lcvcl, Warcs cngagcmcnL wiLh Lhc hisLory o comics shouldnL bc

surprising. Onc would cxpccL pocLs, novclisLs, and painLcrs Lo bc similarly
connccLcd wiLh Lhc LradiLions o Lhcir rcspccLivc arL orms. YcL Lhcrc is a sig-
nicanL dicrcncc bcLwccn how a carLoonisL rclaLcs Lo Lhc hisLory o his or
hcr craL and how pracLiLioncrs o morc LradiLional arLs arc shapcd by Lhcir
acsLhcLic hcriLagc. I pocLs, novclisLs, or painLcrs Lry Lo cducaLc Lhcmsclvcs
in Lhc hisLory o Lhcir rcspccLivc gcnrcs, Lhcy can draw on a vasL rcposiLory o
insLiLuLional knowlcdgc houscd in librarics, univcrsiLics, and muscums. UnLil
vcry rcccnLly, carLoonisLs didnL havc acccss Lo anyLhing comparablc in Lhc
hisLory o comics: monographs, library collccLions, muscum holdings, and rc-
prinLs wcrc cw, haphazard, scaLLcrcd, or incomplcLc. Tc Canadian carLoon-
isL ScLh, whosc passion or old comics maLchcs LhaL o his ricnd Chris Warc,
oncc noLcd LhaL mosL carLoonisLs havc Lo cducaLc Lhcmsclvcs in Lhc hisLory
o comics by scrounging Lhrough uscd book sLorcs or glcaning whaLcvcr in-
ormaLion Lhcy can rom Lhc cw gcncral hisLorics o Lhc arL LhaL arc avail-
ablc.
6
Tis cssay will cxaminc Warcs work as a comics hisLorian, paying parLicu-
lar aLLcnLion Lo his book dcsigns. My conLcnLion is LhaL in rcsLoring arLisLs
likc King and Hcrriman Lo Lhc public spoLlighL, Warc is cngagcd in an acL o
anccsLor crcaLion, o giving a pcdigrcc and lincagc Lo his own work. In oLhcr
words, Warcs book dcsigns arc a orm o canon ormaLion, a way o lling in
Lhc gap o missing archival and hisLorical maLcrial and crcaLing or comics a
scnsc o a conLinuous LradiLion and lincagc. Bcorc going urLhcr, I should
noLc LhaL Ivc workcd closcly wiLh Warc on many o Lhcsc rcprinL projccLs,
co-cdiLing Lhrcc o Lhc wa|t and Skeezx books and wriLing inLroducLions Lo
our o Lhc Krazy and !gnatz books. Tcrcorc, alLhough I am noL spcaking on
bchal o Warc, my accounL is inormcd by my many convcrsaLions wiLh him
on Lhcsc Lopics.
Warcs work as a hisLorian and dcsigncr signicanLly ovcrlaps wiLh his Lhc-
maLic conccrns as an arLisL. In 1mmy Corrgan, Lhc haplcss proLagonisL gocs
on a scarch or his missing aLhcr, and in Lhc coursc o Lhc narraLivc, a largcr
amily hisLory is rcvcalcd. In Warcs hisLorical rcscarch, hc has soughL arLis-
Lic orcbcars and in doing so has crcaLcd a kind o arLisLic gcncalogy. RusLy
Brown, Lhc main characLcr in Warcs novcl-in-progrcss, is an avid collccLor
whosc narrow-mindcd acquisiLivcncss oLcn Lakcs on a paLhological inLcn-
siLy.
,
Warcs knowlcdgc o collccLors comcs rom rsL-hand cxpcricncc sincc
hc has bccomc a major collccLor and inLcracLcd wiLh oLhcr collccLors in Lhc
coursc o his scl-cducaLion as a comics hisLorian.
In Lrying Lo undcrsLand Lhc rolc LhaL Lhc hisLory o comics has playcd in
Warcs work, iL is imporLanL Lo bcar in mind LhaL hc is ollowing a amiliar
paLLcrn. InnovaLivc arLisLs oLcn invcnL Lhcir own anccsLors as a way o giv-
ing a pcdigrcc Lo Lhcir work. Tcrc is a scnsc in which Franz Kaka invcnLcd
Charlcs Dickcns and T. S. FlioL invcnLcd 1ohn Donnc.
8
Prior Lo Kaka, Dickcns
was rcad as a popular cnLcrLaincr who spccializcd in hcarL-warming picLur-
csquc Lalcs. Kakas cLions and commcnLs on Dickcns rccasL Lhc VicLorian
WAR E AND T HE COMI CS CANON 5
novclisL as Lhc dark wriLcr o clausLrophobic allcgorics such as P|eak House.
Similarly, FlioL rcmadc 1ohn Donnc, largcly rclcgaLcd Lo Lhc sLaLus o a liLcr-
ary curiosiLy, inLo a major prccursor Lo modcrnism. In Lhc cld o comics,
Warc has cngagcd in a comparablc rcwriLing o hisLory by ocring a ncw rcad-
ing o pasL masLcrs. Challcnging Lhc sLandard vicw o comics hisLory, which
has highlighLcd Lhc work o rcalisL illusLraLors such as Hal FosLcr, MilLon
Cani, Alcx Raymond, and 1ack Kirby, Warc ocrs an alLcrnaLivc canon LhaL
prizcs carLoonisLs who pracLicc ciLhcr ormal cxpcrimcnLaLion or ocus on
cvcryday lic, such as Rodolphc Topcr, Ccorgc Hcrriman, Frank King, and
Cluyas Williams.
WhaL Lhcsc arLisLs havc in common is LhaL Lhcy can all bc undcrsLood as
signicanL prccursors Lo Warcs own arLisLic pracLicc. O coursc, arLisLic inu-
cncc is always a complcx, rccxivc rclaLionship: an arLisL is shapcd by Lhc pasL
and in Lurn crcaLcs ncw work LhaL Lhrows Lhc pasL inLo a rcsh, uncxpccLcd
pcrspccLivc, and Warcs iniLial aLLracLion Lo parLicular arLisLs sprang ouL o
acsLhcLic inLcrcsL raLhcr Lhan idcnLiLy crcaLion. YcL iLs noL cnLircly accidcnLal
LhaL Lhc arLisLs Warc lovcs Lhc mosL arc Lhc oncs who mosL closcly mirror his
own pracLiccs. For cxamplc, Warcs bclic LhaL carLoonisLs should aim Lo draw
imagcs LhaL arc iconic in Lhcir simpliciLy raLhcr Lhan posscssing illusLraLional
dcnsiLy can bc linkcd Lo Topcrs Lhcorics. For Topcr as or Warc, comics arc
noL a orm o drawing LhaL Lrics Lo mimic rcaliLy buL raLhcr a orm o visual
shorLhand LhaL uscs imagcs Lo Lcll sLorics, wiLh narraLivc spccd avorcd ovcr
rcprcscnLaLional accuracy.

Warcs usc o Lhc ull comics pagc as a cohcsivc

uniL owcs much Lo Lhc Sunday pagc dcsigns o Winsor McCay as wcll as Hcrri-
man and King. Warcs aniLy wiLh Kings Caso|ne A||ey is bcsL dcscribcd as a
maLLcr o Lonc and mood. Unlikc Lhc broad burlcsquc gag humor or mclodra-
maLic blusLcr o oLhcr ncwspapcr comics, Kings sLrip had a gcnLlc, rcccLivc,
nosLalgic Lonc as iL ollowcd Lhc daily livcs o a MidwcsLcrn amily ovcr many
dccadcs.
o
Tis ocus on Lhc quoLidian has sLrongly inucnccd Warcs own
aLLcmpLs Lo rcgisLcr minuLc, commonplacc cvcnLs in his comics. Cluyas Wil-
liams, anoLhcr largcly orgoLLcn carLoonisL LhaL Warc chcrishcs and wishcs
Lo bring back inLo prinL, workcd in Lhc samc vcin o quicL domcsLic humor as
King.

Tus, Warcs archival and rcvisionisL dcsign work sccks Lo changc how his
avoriLc comics arc pcrccivcd. Bcorc Warc, Krazy Kat was cclcbraLcd largcly
on liLcrary raLhcr Lhan visual grounds, and Caso|ne A||ey was gcncrally rc-
gardcd as a daLcd and scnLimcnLal comic sLrip. By lavishing his aLLcnLions
on Lhcm, Warc is Lrying Lo changc Lhcir sLaLus as culLural arLiacLs, making
Lhcm prccursors Lo works likc Qumby the Mouse and 1mmy Corrgan and link-
ing Lhcsc carlicr crcaLors wiLh Lhc cadrc o alLcrnaLivc carLoonisLs who havc
cmcrgcd in rcccnL ycars, such as ScLh, Dan Clowcs, and Ivan BruncLLi. Tis
linkagc bcLwccn Lhc pasL and prcscnL can bc sccn clcarly in Lhc issuc o Mc-
Sweeneys Warc cdiLcd, which includcs a phoLo o Frank King, an arLiclc abouL
Ccorgc Hcrriman, and oLhcr gcms rom Lhc pasL ncsLlcd amid a bcvy o mod-
crn carLoonisLs.
:
In scarching or anccsLors in carlicr comics and rccasLing Lhc hisLory o
comics Lo highlighL work LhaL is similar Lo his own, Warc is parL o a largcr
corL by likc-mindcd carLoonisLs o his gcncraLion. ArL Spicgclman, a mcnLor
who ocrcd Warc an carly naLional vcnuc in RAw, has oLcn wriLLcn on com-
6 J E E T HE E R
ics rom Lhc pasL and soughL Lo rcsurrccL sclccLcd masLcrs, noLably Harvcy
KurLzman and 1ack Colc.

Tc Canadian carLoonisL ScLh sLakcd ouL a claim Lo

Lhc LradiLion o New Yorker carLooning, Canadian comics, and Charlcs Schulzs
Peanuts (in Lhc lasL casc, dcsigning a mulLivolumc scrics LhaL parallcls whaL
Warc has donc wiLh King and Hcrriman).

ChcsLcr Brown, anoLhcr Canadian

carLoonisL, crcaLivcly appropriaLcd Lhc sLylc o Harold Crays Ltt|e Orphan
Anne.

In cccL, Warc bclongs Lo a cohorL o conLcmporary carLoonisLs who

arc doing innovaLivc work in Lhc prcscnL whilc rcwriLing and rc-mapping Lhc
hisLory o comics.
To undcrsLand why Warc and his cllow carLoonisLs arc rcwriLing com-
ics hisLory, iL is imporLanL Lo puL Lhcir work in a hisLorical conLcxL. Whilc
carLooning has a hisLory LhaL gocs back Lo Lhc carlicsL days o prinL (i noL
urLhcr), Lhc main LradiLion o mass-markcL comics only coalcsccd in Lhc laLc
nincLccnLh ccnLury whcn Amcrican ncwspapcrs, borrowing rom Furopcan
LradiLions o illusLraLcd saLirc, sLarLcd publishing carLoons wiLh a rccurring
casL o characLcrs as a rcgular caLurc. Tcsc carly comic sLrips, noLably Lhc
Ye||ow Kd and Lhc Katzenammer Kds, oLcn caLurcd rambuncLious childrcn
cngagcd in ncar aLal violcncc. WiLh Lhcir broad physical comcdy, Lhcsc com-
ics owcd much Lo vaudcvillc and Lhc popular sLagc. Tc rsL ncwspapcrs LhaL
publishcd comics, puL ouL by prcss barons likc 1oscph PuliLzcr and William
Randolph HcarsL, wcrc widcly dcspiscd as scnsaLionalisLic and vulgar by po-
liLc socicLy. Bccausc o Lhcir conLcnLs and Lhcir vcnuc, Lhc carly comics wcrc
immcnscly popular buL also disrcpuLablc.
6
To a largc cxLcnL, Lhis lcgacy o mass-markcL populariLy and concomiLanL
social disdain applicd Lo comics or much o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, cvcn as
Lhcy bccamc a xLurc in mosL daily ncwspapcrs. Considcr Lhc aLc o Lhc
mosL arLisLically accomplishcd o Lhc carly comics, Winsor McCays Ltt|e
Nemo (which ran rom o Lo and was rcvivcd rom : Lo :6). Whilc
McCays sLrip was lovcd by millions and carncd him a rcgal salary, iL rarcly
rcccivcd any criLical aLLcnLion aL Lhc Limc and was quickly orgoLLcn aLcr iL
sLoppcd appcaring in ncwspapcrs. Tis oblivion was so complcLc LhaL Mc-
Cays amily was willing Lo allow Lhc original arL Lo bc dcsLroycd and scaLLcrcd
aLcr Lhc carLoonisLs dcaLh in .
,
In his licLimc, Lhcrc wcrc a cw haphaz-
ard collccLions o McCays comics buL Lhcsc rcprinLcd only a small racLion o
his work and quickly cll ouL o prinL. In cccL, McCay, alLhough a kcy gurc
in Lhc dcvclopmcnL o comics as an arL orm, crcaLcd work LhaL was as cphcm-
cral as Lhc ncwsprinL on which iL was prinLcd.
WhaL was Lruc o McCay could bc said o many oLhcr lcsscr carLoonisLs.
For dccadcs, ncwspapcr comics rcmaincd an cvancsccnL arL orm: cvcn whcn
sLrips wcrc rcpublishcd in book orm, Lhcsc rcprinLs wcrc invariably incom-
plcLc, oLcn wiLhouL daLcs, or publishcd in chcap comic books or papcrbacks
LhaL wcrc only slighLly morc subsLanLial Lhan Lhcir original ncwspapcr in-
carnaLion. Tcsc rcprinLs wcrc occasionally augmcnLcd by popular hisLorics,
oLcn wriLLcn by carLoonisLs Lhcmsclvcs, which Lcndcd Lo bc inormal and
anccdoLal.
8
Tc inhcrcnL impcrmancncc o ncwsprinL was rcinorccd by so-
cial snobbcry. In his conLrovcrsial book Loub|e Fo|d, novclisL Nicholson Bakcr
shows LhaL Amcrican librarians, disdainul o Lhc Lypc o vulgar publicaLions
and indicrcnL Lo Lhc arLcacLual valuc o visual orms likc comic sLrips, sys-
WAR E AND T HE COMI CS CANON 7
LcmaLically dcsLroycd Lhcir physical holdings o ncwspapcrs, prccrring Lo
prcscrvc Lhcsc documcnLs as microlm.

In opposiLion Lo Lhc disdain o comics by Lhc ocial cusLodians o cul-

Lurc, a group o amaLcur hisLorians (or, morc colloquially, comic sLrip ans)
cmcrgcd in Lhc 6os. Working undcr Lhc banncr o nosLalgia, Lhcsc ans
soughL Lo prcscrvc Lhc ycllowing ncwspapcr pagcs LhaL librarics wcrc dc-
sLroying. Chic among Lhcsc comic sLrip prcscrvaLionisLs was Bill Blackbcard.
Born in :6, Blackbcard grcw up rcading Lhc advcnLurc comic sLrips o Lhc
os, noLably Mckey Mouse, Terry and the Prates, and Lck Tracy. In 68,
horricd by whaL hc would onc day dcscribc as a holocausL o naLional ncws-
prinL archivcs, Blackbcard csLablishcd Lhc San Francisco Acadcmy o Comic
ArL, a nonproL organizaLion LhaL would Lakc rom librarics any ncwspapcrs
Lhcy wishcd Lo discard.
:o
Blackbcard quickly acquircd a massivc and cxLcnsivc
collccLion LhaL would includc morc Lhan :. million clippings and Lcar shccLs
as wcll as morc Lhan , Lons o ncwsprinL. WiLhouL Lhc corL o amaLcur his-
Lorians and collccLors likc Blackbcard, almosL all Lhc old ncwspapcr comics o
Lhc carly LwcnLicLh ccnLury would havc bccn losL or, aL bcsL, availablc in Lhc
impcrccL orm o microlm.
SLarLing in Lhc ,os, Blackbcard uscd Lhis collccLion as Lhc raw maLcrial
or his cxLcnsivc cdiLorial acLiviLics, rcsulLing in Lhc rcprinLing o morc Lhan
Lwo hundrcd books o such old comic sLrips such as Krazy Kat, Terry and the
Prates, wash Tubbs and Captan Fasy, and Tarzan. Pcrhaps Lhc mosL signicanL
book LhaL Blackbcard had a hand in producing was Te Smthsonan Co||ecton
oj Newspaper Comcs, co-cdiLcd wiLh MarLin Williams and rclcascd in ,,.
:
A
signicanL carly cxamplc o comics canon ormaLion, Lhis book would inu-
cncc how a ncw gcncraLion o rcadcrs saw Lhc hisLory o comics. ILs virLucs
includcd Lhc acL LhaL iL was cxLcnsivc and wcll sclccLcd, almosL all Lhc major
Amcrican ncwspapcr comics wcrc rcprcscnLcd, and Lhc cxccrpLs wcrc somc o
Lhc bcsL cxamplcs o Lhc comics mcdium.
Among Lhc many young rcadcrs who wcrc impacLcd by Lhis book was Lhc
Lccnagc Chris Warc, who rcad iL in Lhc mid-8os as hc was Lrying Lo cducaLc
himscl on comics hisLory. ParLicularly imporLanL or Warc was Lhc acL LhaL
hc rsL cncounLcrcd Frank Kings Caso|ne A||ey Sunday pagcs in Lhc Smthso-
nan Co||ecton, which lcd him Lo sLarL scarching or oLhcr cxamplcs o Kings
work. Bccausc King had only bccn caLurcd in a cw ouL-o-prinL volumcs LhaL
conLaincd only a racLion o his producLion, Warc sLarLcd collccLing ncws-
papcr clippings, Lhus bcginning Lhc paLh LhaL would lcad him Lo co-cdiL Lhc
wa|t and Skeezx volumcs. In rcLrospccL, Lhc books Blackbcard was cdiLing in
Lhc ,os and 8os can bc undcrsLood as a halway housc bcLwccn Lhc car-
licr pcriod o haphazard rcprinLings and Lhc morc cxLcnsivc rcprinL volumcs
LhaL Warc would undcrLakc in Lhc carly LwcnLy-rsL ccnLury. Blackbcards
volumcs aspircd Loward archival complcLcncss, oLcn covcring Lhc cnLirc run
o a sLrip, and hc would providc hisLorical background in his crudiLc inLroduc-
Lions. In LhaL scnsc, his books scrvcd as a modcl or Lhc volumcs LhaL Warc
would laLcr cdiL.
BuL Lhcrc arc signicanL dicrcnccs bcLwccn Blackbcards projccLs and
subscqucnL work by Warc and oLhcrs. Bcorc Lhc risc o casy digiLal rcproduc-
Lion, in Lhc ,os and 8os, Blackbcard wasnL always ablc Lo rcsLorc his old
8 J E E T HE E R
ncwsprinL comics Lo a pcrccLly rcadablc condiLion. Morcovcr, Lhc produc-
Lion and dcsign valucs on Lhcsc books wcrc somcLimcs slapdash, pcrhaps duc
Lo Lhc acL LhaL somc o Lhc publishcrs camc ouL o amaLcur an publishing.
Finally, Lhcrc was Lhc sclccLion o comics Lo rcprinL. MoLivaLcd in parL by
nosLalgia, Blackbcard graviLaLcd Loward Lhc advcnLurc sLrips hc lovcd as a
boy (Terry and the Prates, wash Tubbs and Captan Fasy, Tarzan) and gavc lcss
aLLcnLion Lo Lhc carLoonisLs who dcalL in domcsLic Lhcmcs (noLably, Frank
King, Clarc Briggs, and Cluyas Williams). To bc surc, Blackbcard did cdiL a
scrics o Krazy Kat books in Lhc laLc 8os and carly os, buL Lhcsc wcrc
Lhc cxccpLion Lo his gcncral prccrcncc or advcnLurc sLrips drawn in a rcal-
isLic illusLraLional sLylc. In his choicc o sLrips Lo rcprinL, Blackbcard was also
rcsponding Lo markcL condiLions: mosL o his books wcrc sold in comic book
spccialLy sLorcs, which caLcrcd Lo ans o advcnLurc and anLasy comics.
Whcn Warc sLarLcd invcsLigaLing Lhc hisLory o comics in Lhc mid-8os,
hc was incviLably inucnccd by Blackbcards pionccring rcscarch. BuL Warc
also approachcd Lhcsc old comics wiLh a dicrcnL scnsibiliLy. Sincc hc had no
nosLalgic mcmorics o rcading Lhcsc sLrips whcn Lhcy wcrc rsL publishcd,
hc lookcd aL Lhcm wiLh an arLisLs cyc as a sourcc or inspiraLion and idcas.
Tc imporLancc o Lhc Smthsonan Co||ecton in shaping Warcs scnsc o Lhc
pasL canL bc ovcrsLaLcd. By Lhc ,os, Frank King was a virLually orgoLLcn
gurc. Much morc so Lhan Blackbcard, comic sLrip ans o Lhc ,os had a
somcwhaL onc-sidcd scnsc o hisLory: Lhcy Lcndcd Lo bc aging nosLalgia bus
who wanLcd Lo rcrcad Lhc advcnLurc sLorics o Lhcir youLh. Tcy doLcd on
Hal FosLcrs anaLomical accuracy in Prnce va|ant, MilLon Canis cincmaLic
sLoryLclling in Terry and the Prates, and Alcx Raymonds owing drapcry in
F|ash Cordon. WhaL Lhcsc ans Lcndcd Lo dislikc and ignorc wcrc Lhc carLoony
arLisLs who Lold sLorics LhaL wcrc unny, warm, and human: F. C. Scgars Pop-
eye, Harold Crays Ltt|e Orphan Anne, Frank Kings Caso|ne A||ey, and Hcr-
rimans Krazy Kat. Bccausc iL was cclccLic and widc-ranging, Lhc Smthsonan
Co||ecton challcngcd Lhis narrow vicw o hisLory.
In rcading Lhc Smthsonan Co||ecton, Warc was Lakcn by a Caso|ne A||ey
Sunday pagc comic whcrc Lhc main characLcrs WalL and Skcczix, a aLhcr and
his adopLcd son, go or a walk in Lhc woods (scc plaLc ).
::
Tis pagc is a mood
piccc in comics orm, wisLul wiLh auLumnal cmoLions. Warc would oLcn pay
homagc Lo Lhis pagc in many o his own composiLions whcrc hc uscd Lhc im-
agcry o all and alling lcavcs Lo cvokc Lhc Lransicncc o human lic (scc plaLc
6).
:
Rcadcrs o 1mmy Corrgan wonL bc surpriscd LhaL Warc was aLLracLcd
Lo Caso|ne A||ey. 1usL as 1mmy Corrgan Lclls Lhc sLory o a sons scarch or
his aLhcr, Caso|ne A||ey prcscnLs Lhc oLhcr sidc o Lhc coin: a aLhcrs car o
losing his son. As I discuss in Lhc inLroducLions Lo Lhc rsL Lwo volumcs o
Lhc wa|t and Skeezx scrics, carLoonisL Frank King was dccply anxious abouL
his rclaLionship wiLh his son bccausc hc and his wic had cxpcricnccd a sLill-
birLh during hcr rsL prcgnancy.
:
For Lhis and oLhcr rcasons, Caso|ne A||ey
in iLs carly dccadcs was a comic sLrip LhcmaLically ocuscd on Lhc rclaLionship
bcLwccn a aLhcr and son. In Lhc sLrip, bachclor WalL WallcLL adopLs a ound-
ling hc namcs Skcczix. YcL LhroughouL Lhc coursc o Lhc scrial, WalL worrics
abouL losing his son. Tc dominanL mood is Lcndcr apprchcnsion, a Lonc LhaL
Warc himscl would borrow in his own work cspccially whcn rcprcscnLing
WAR E AND T HE COMI CS CANON 9
domcsLic lic. ILs Lhis quicL Lonc and ocus on ordinary lic LhaL madc Caso|ne
A||ey such an appcaling modcl or Warc.
Asidc rom Lhc rcsonanL aLhcr/son Lhcmc, Caso|ne A||ey LaughL Warc
much abouL narraLivc. During Lhc coursc o Lhc sLrip, Skcczix and Lhc oLhcr
characLcrs grow oldcr. Tis rcal-Limc aging disLinguishcd Caso|ne A||ey rom
oLhcr comic sLrips and comic books, which Lcndcd Lo bc scL in an cLcrnal prcs-
cnL, as UmbcrLo Fco noLcs.
:
Skcczix is discovcrcd as an inanL in :, bc-
comcs a school boy by :, gocs on his rsL daLcs by , livcs on his own by
, and nally bccomcs a soldicr by :. Tc dimcnsion o Limc, cspccially
as iL unolds in a growing amily lic, would bccomc a rccurring conccrn or
Warc, bccoming visiblc in Lhc mulLi-gcncraLional sagas o 1mmy Corrgan and
RusLy Brown.
In :oo:, Chris Olivcros, hcad o Lhc publishing housc Drawn & QuarLcrly,
approachcd Chris Warc and myscl Lo work on a scrics o books rcprinLing
Kings work. In Lhc summcr o :oo, I wcnL on a Lrip wiLh Warc and Olivcros
Lo mccL Drcwanna King, Lhc grand-daughLcr o Lhc carLoonisL. ForLunaLcly
or us, iL Lurncd ouL Drcwanna was dcvoLcd Lo hcr amilys hisLory. Shc was
an avid gcncalogisL and pack raL, and hcr bascmcnL was jammcd wiLh King
mcmorabilia: original arL, phoLos, diarics, and lcLLcrs. Among oLhcr Lhings,
Drcwanna owncd Lhc original woodcuL-sLylc Sunday pagc LhaL Warc had bccn
so ascinaLcd by whcn hc rsL rcad Lhc Smthsonan Co||ecton. WiLh grcaL gcn-
crosiLy, Drcwanna sharcd noL only hcr amily Lrcasurcs buL also hcr mcmo-
rics. MccLing hcr convinccd us LhaL wc could wriLc abouL Kings lic aL lcngLh
in a way LhaL would cnrich Lhc rcading o his comic sLrips. King was csscn-
Lially an auLobiographical arLisL, so acLs abouL his lic dccpcn our apprccia-
Lion o his arL.
Bccausc o Lhc abundancc o amily maLcrial providcd by Drcwanna King,
Warc dccidcd Lo organizc Lhc inLroducLory cdiLorial maLcrial in a way LhaL
capLurcd Lhc carLoonisLs domcsLic lic. King had bccn an avid phoLographcr
and oLcn uscd his amily phoLos as inspiraLion or his publishcd drawings.
Tc amily Lhcmc o Lhc sLrip suggcsLcd LhaL iL mighL makc scnsc Lo prcscnL
Lhc inLroducLory maLcrial as a amily album. Our goal or cach wa|t and Skee-
zx volumc is Lo crcaLc an inLcgraLcd wholc. My inLroducLory maLcrial is wo-
vcn in scamlcssly wiLh Lhc oLhcr clcmcnLs o Lhc book: Lhc dcsign, Lhc pho-
Los, Lhc comic sLrips, and Lhc hisLorical noLcs arc providcd by Tim Samuclson,
a disLinguishcd archiLccLural hisLorian.
:6
Tc cccL wcrc hoping Lo achicvc is
somcLhing likc a housc o mirrors. Idcally, rcadcrs should bc cngagcd by Lhc
sLory o WalL and Skcczix, and Lhcn scc how Lhc Lalc rcccLs aspccLs o Kings
lic as sccn in amily phoLos and diarics. Tim Samuclsons hisLorical noLcs
providc anoLhcr anglc o rcccLion and placc WalL and Skcczix in Lhc conLcxL
o Kings cra.
Oncc, whilc Lalking abouL whaL hc hopcd Lo do wiLh Lhc scrics, Chris and I
camc up wiLh Lhc idca LhaL onc way Lo dcscribc Lhc wa|t and Skeezx books is
Lo comparc Lhcm Lo Vladimir Nabokovs Pa|e Fre.
:,
Tis novcl is compriscd o
a long pocm (wriLLcn by a cLional pocL), a inLroducLion by an unLrusLworLhy
narraLor, and an cvcn sLrangcr cxplicaLion o Lhc pocm, concluding wiLh a
sly indcx. Tc glory o Pa|e Fre is LhaL all Lhcsc clcmcnLs play o cach oLhcr
Lo crcaLc a disoricnLing wholc. Whilc Lhc wa|t and Skeezx books arc much
1 0 J E E T HE E R
morc sobcr Lhan Pa|e Fre, Lhc aim is Lo makc cach book as mulLi-laycrcd as a
modcrnisL novcl. Pa|e Fre, as Warc oncc suggcsLcd Lo mc, is an idcal book or
a carLoonisL Lo sLudy bccausc carLooning is a hybrid arL, and Nabokov was a
masLcr o mixing disparaLc clcmcnLs inLo a singlc book. Tc wa|t and Skeezx
books arc vcry much a collaboraLivc projccL, buL Lhc idca o crcaLing Lhc book
as an inLcgraLcd wholc camc rom Warc.
Asidc rom Lhc cdiLorial maLcrial, Lhc dcsign clcmcnLs o Lhc wa|t and
Skeezx books dcscrvc aLLcnLion. FirsL o all, Lhcsc books havc a similar look
and ccl Lo Lhc rsL 1mmy Corrgan hardcovcr. Placcd ncxL Lo cach oLhcr on
a bookshcl, Lhc dcsign o Lhcsc volumcs bcars a sLriking rcscmblancc Lo
Lhc 1mmy Corrgan covcr: all o Lhcsc books arc oblong, wiLh dusL jackcLs in
muLcd colors (highlighLing pink and ycllow), in cach book, Lhc spacc on dusL
jackcL is Lhoroughly cxploiLcd, displaying arL on boLh Lhc insidc and ouLsidc.
Tc various sccLions o Lhc book (Lhc inLroducLion, Lhc rcprinL o Lhc daily
sLrips, and Lhc hisLorical noLcs aL Lhc cnd) arc disLinguishcd by Lhcir papcr
sLock: whiLc papcr or Lhc cdiLorial maLcrial and an cvocaLivc ycllow, suggcs-
Livc o old ncwspapcrs, or Lhc rcprinL sccLions.
Whilc Lhc wa|t and Skeezx books arc dcsigncd Lo clcvaLc an unairly nc-
glccLcd comic sLrip, Lhc Krazy and !gnatz scrics has Lhc morc spccializcd Lask
o gcLLing rcadcrs Lo Lakc a closcr look aL a much cclcbraLcd arLisL. Sincc aL
lcasL Lhc carly :os, whcn criLic CilbcrL Scldcs singlcd ouL Krazy Kat or
praisc, Ccorgc Hcrrimans work has bccn uniquc among comics in having
an audicncc among inLcllccLuals, wriLcrs, and nc arLisLs. PromincnL ans o
Krazy Kat includc 1oan Mir, 1ack Kcrouac, c. c. cummings, and UmbcrLo
Fco.
:8
Prior Lo Warcs work, Krazy Kat had bccn sporadically rcprinLcd: Hcnry
HolL rclcascd an carly sclccLion in 6, disLinguishcd by an cxubcranL cssay
by c. c. cummings.
:
In 6, during Lhc nosLalgia boom, CrosscL & Dunlap
issucd anoLhcr sclccLion LhaL was hcavily sLccpcd in Lhc pop arL acsLhcLic o
Lhc pcriod, wiLh Krazy Kat prcscnLcd as a 1azz Agc prccursor Lo psychcdclic
posLcrs.
o
Morc subsLanLially, Abrams publishcd a Lhird sclccLion in 86 LhaL
was augmcnLcd by a lcngLhy and wcll-rcscarchcd biographical cssay by PaL-
rick McDonncll, Karcn OConncll, and Ccorgia Rilcy dc Havcnon.

Bill Blackbcard madc Lhc rsL sysLcmaLic aLLcmpL Lo rcprinL Krazy Kat in
iLs cnLircLy bcLwccn 88 and :. Working wiLh dcsigncr Dcnnis Callaghcr,
Blackbcard rclcascd ninc volumcs LhaL gavc rcadcrs a chancc Lo rcad ncarly
a dccadcs worLh o Hcrrimans carly ull-pagc sLrips. Tc dcsign or Lhcsc
books was simplc buL clcganL, wiLh sccncs o Lhc main characLcrs on cach
covcr. Fach volumc was augmcnLcd wiLh biographical inLroducLions and his-
Lorical annoLaLions. UnorLunaLcly, Lhis scrics cndcd wcll bcorc all o Hcrri-
mans ull-pagc Krazy Kat work was rcissucd.
:
In :oo:, Blackbcard rcvivcd Lhc Krazy and !gnatz scrics in collaboraLion
wiLh Warc as Lhc dcsigncr Lhrough Lhc publishcr FanLagraphics. In dcsigning
Lhc ncw scrics, Warc madc a numbcr o signicanL changcs: insLcad o having
a uniorm logo, hc uscs a ncw Lypcacc on cach covcr. RaLhcr Lhan rcprinLing
imagcs rom Hcrrimans sLrips on Lhc covcrs, hc chosc Lo orcground bold
shapcs and colors (bccausc Lhc sLrip rcvolvcs around a lovc Lrianglc bcLwccn a
dog, a caL, and a mousc, Warc oLcn uscs Lriangular shapcs on his covcrs). And
Lhanks Lo Lhc widcr availabiliLy o digiLal Lcchnology, Warc includcd many
WAR E AND T HE COMI CS CANON 1 1
morc phoLographs and cxamplcs o Hcrrimans original arL in Lhis scrics Lhan
in prior vcrsions. Bccausc Hcrriman was a collccLor o Navaho rugs, Warc also
uscd dcsign clcmcnLs inspircd by Navaho arL in Lhc vc volumcs rcprinLing
Lhc Krazy Kat scrial rom Lo .
Comparcd Lo Dcnnis Callagcrs carlicr scrics o covcrs and, indccd, cvcn
Warcs own work on wa|t and Skeezx, Lhc covcrs on Lhc Krazy and !gnatz
books donL cmphasizc Lhc characLcrs as much. AlLhough Krazy, IgnaLz, and
Lhc oLhcr dcnizcns o Coconino CounLy do appcar in Warcs covcrs, Lhcy arc
oLcn vcry small, raLhcr likc Lhc gurcs in many o Warcs own Qumby the
Mouse sLrips. In an inLcrvicw wiLh Todd HigniLc, Warc cxplaincd why hc was
willing Lo mimic Frank Kings arL sLylc buL Look a vcry dicrcnL approach
whcn dcsigning Lhc books LhaL rcprinL Ccorgc Hcrriman: I Lricd Lo makc
iL look as much likc Kings Lypography as I could (as opposcd Lo Lhc Krazy
and !gnatz books wiLh FanLagraphics whcrc Im applying a dicrcnL dcsign
scnsc Lo cvcry covcr), bccausc I wanL [Lhc wa|t and Skeezx] scrics as much as
possiblc Lo appcar as i iL was o Kings own dcvising, I Lhink Lhis scnsibiliLy
applics morc rcadily Lo Kings work Lhan Lo Hcrrimans. Bcsidcs, Id ncvcr
prcsumc Lo pass o a mark o my hand as onc o Ccorgc Hcrrimans. I Lhink
King, howcvcr, who uscd counLlcss assisLanLs, wouldnL mind in Lhc lcasL, his
conccrn was or rcadabiliLy and sLory, I bclicvc.

Warcs commcnLs on Lhc dicrcnL approachcs hc Look Lo Lhc Lwo scrics

rcvcal his LhoughLul approach Lo dcsign. In boLh cascs, hc considcrs whaL
makcs Lhc arLisL uniquc and how Lhc dcsign can bcsL highlighL Lhosc aspccLs
o Lhc work. In Kings casc, Lhc dcsign calls aLLcnLion Lo Caso|ne A||ey as a
amily chroniclc. In Hcrrimans casc, Warc cmphasizcs an undcrapprcciaLcd
aspccL o Krazy Kat: Lhc bold dcsign o Lhcsc ull-pagc sLrips. Whilc Krazy Kat
has oLcn bccn cclcbraLcd as a liLcrary work, Warcs book dcsigns ocus aLLcn-
Lion on Hcrriman as a visual arLisL, again subLly rc-wriLing comics hisLory by
making iL clcar LhaL Lhc narraLivc cncrgics o comics canL bc scparaLcd rom
graphics.
Asidc rom Lhcsc dicrcnccs, Lhcrc arc a cw similariLics bcLwccn Lhc Lwo
scrics. In boLh cascs, Warc is Lrying Lo prcscnL old comic sLrips in a dignicd
ormaL LhaL rcscmblcs liLcrary book publishing, whilc paying LribuLc Lo Lhc
origins o ncwspapcr sLrips as cphcmcral prinLcd maLLcr by including ycl-
lowcd papcr in Lhc hardback cdiLions. In boLh scrics, hc Lrics Lo siLuaLc Lhc
comics in a hisLorical and biographical conLcxL, alLhough Lhis is casicr Lo do
in Lhc casc o wa|t and Skeezx Lhanks Lo Lhc cxisLcncc o an cxLcnsivc amily
archivc. And in boLh cascs, hc is dcaling, as an arLisL, wiLh sLrips LhaL spcak
Lo his own LhcmaLic and ormal conccrns as wcll as Lo Lhosc o many o his
carLooning conLcmporarics.
In survcying Warcs cngagcmcnL wiLh comics hisLory, iL is clcar LhaL Lhis
is morc Lhan a hobby or a orm o moonlighLing or him. As is Lhc casc or
arLisLs such as ArL Spicgclman, ScLh, and ChcsLcr Brown, Warcs corL Lo rc-
Lricvc and rccupcraLc carlicr comics is a pursuiL inLimaLcly connccLcd Lo his
own arLisLic pracLicc and should bc apprcciaLcd wiLhin Lhis largcr hisLorical
conLcxL. ConnccLcd wiLh Lhc work o Lhcsc arLisLs arc Lhc acLiviLics o an his-
Lorians likc Bill Blackbcard and Lhc rising gcncraLion o acadcmics who sLudy
comics. As graphic novcls likc 1mmy Corrgan havc gaincd a ooLhold in Lhc
1 2 J E E T HE E R
largcr culLurc, Lhcrc is also an incrcasing awarcncss o Lhc hisLorical LradiLion
rom which Lhcy cmcrgcd. Chris Warc rcprcscnLs noL jusL Lhc uLurc o com-
ics buL also iLs pasL, indccd, Lhc burdcn o his work is Lo show LhaL Lhc pasL
and uLurc arc LighLly bound LogcLhcr.
Notes
1. For Wares account of this trip to Monument Valley see Dylan Williams, An Interview with
Chris Ware, Destroy All Comics, November 1, 1994, 1112.
2. For earlier accounts of Wares engagement with the comics history see Daniel Raeburn, Chris
Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 5; and John Carlin, Masters of American Comics:
An Art History of Twentieth-Century American Comic Strips and Books, in Masters of American
Comics, ed. John Carlin, Paul Karasik, and Brian Walker (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005),
158.
3. Chris Ware, Thrilling Adventure Stories / I Guess, in RAW 2.3 (New York: Penguin, 1991);
Chris Ware, Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003); Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library
Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005).
4. Gasoline Alley, which like Krazy Kat is both a daily and Sunday newspaper strip, was created by
King in 1918 and continues to this day, although the original cartoonist retired in the late 1950s and
died in 1969.
5. Chris Ware, Strip Mind, Bookforum, April/May 2008, 45, 58; Chris Ware, Frank Kings Gaso-
line Alley, in Cartoon America: Comic Art in the Library of America, ed. Harry Katz (New York: Abrams,
2006), 16267.
6. Seth, in conversation November 22, 2008. Among the books that are frequently cited by
cartoonists as providing a sense of history for their craft are David Kunzle, The Early Comic Strip: Nar-
rative Strips and Picture Stories in the European Broadsheet from c.1450 to 1825 (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1973) and History of the Comic Strip (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990);
Maurice Horn, ed., World Encyclopedia of Comics (New York: Chelsea House, 1976); as well as various
books by Thomas Craven, Coulton Waugh, Bill Blackbeard, and Martin Williams cited below.
7. Rusty Browns antics as a collector are a recurring theme in many pages of Chris Wares The
ACME Report. See particularly pages 15, 63, 85.
8. On Kafka and Dickens, see Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Books and Schools of the Ages
(New York: Riverhead Books, 1995), 291; on Eliot and Donne see Leonard Diepeveen, The Difculties
of Modernism (London: Routledge, 2003), 2829.
9. Tpffers aesthetic theories are extensively discussed in David Kunzles Father of the Comic Strip:
Rodolphe Tpffer (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007).
10. For Gasoline Alley as a reection of everyday life see my introduction to Frank King, Walt and
Skeezix: 19211922, ed. Chris Ware, Jeet Heer, and Chris Oliveros (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly,
2005).
11. Gluyas Williams (18881982) was a prominent early twentieth-century American cartoonist.
A frequent contributor to the New Yorker magazine, he also did a long-running (1922-1947) newspaper
panel about the daily life of a suburban family; it ran under a variety of rotating titles like Suburban
Heights, Difcult Decisions, and The World at Its Worst.
12. Chris Ware, ed., McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13 (San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2004).
13. For Spiegelman on Kurtzman, see Art Spiegelman, H. K. (R.I.P.), in An Anthology of Graphic
Fiction, Cartoons, and True Stories, ed. Ivan Brunetti (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 5759;
for Spiegelman on Cole, see Art Spiegelman and Chip Kidd, Jack Cole and Plastic Man: Forms Stretched
to Their Limits! (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2001). In his strips about the 9/11 attacks and their af-
termath, Spiegelman frequently mimicked old comics such as Krazy Kat and Little Nemo and reprinted
samples of these earlier works. See Art Spiegelman, In the Shadow of No Towers (New York: Pantheon,
2004).
14. The Complete Peanuts series, published by Fantagraphics and designed by Seth, was started in
2004 and will eventually encompass twenty-ve volumes. See Seths comments in Todd Hignite, In the
Studio: Visits with Contemporary Cartoonists (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006) 21314.
WAR E AND T HE COMI CS CANON 1 3
15. Chester Brown, Louis Riel (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2003). See also Jeet Heer, Little
Orphan Louis, National Post, November 6, 2003.
16. On the controversial nature of early comic strips, see the essays by Sidney Faireld, Annie
Russell Marble, and Ralph Bergengren, rpt. in Arguing Comics: Literary Masters on a Popular Medium, ed.
Jeet Heer and Kent Worcester (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2004), 413.
17. John Canemaker, Winsor McCay: His Life and Art, rev. ed. (New York: Abrams, 2005), 25354.
18. Among these popular histories were Thomas Craven, Cartoon Cavalcade (New York: Simon,
1943); and Coulton Waugh, The Comics (New York: Macmillan, 1947).
19. Nicholson Baker, Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper (New York: Random House,
2001). As Baker acknowledges, the destruction of newsprint had many motives, including the desire
to limit storage space.
20. Bill Blackbeard, The Four Color Paper Trail: A Look Back, International Journal of Comic Art
5.2 (2003): 209.
21. Bill Blackbeard and Martin Williams, The Smithsonian Collection of Newspaper Comics (New
York: Abrams, 1977).
22. Ibid., 109. This page originally ran in the Chicago Tribune and many other newspapers on No-
vember 11, 1930.
23. See the Rusty Brown page in Ware, The ACME Report, 60. Also see the additional nal pages
in the paperback edition of Jimmy Corrigan.
24. For the family dynamics of the King family, see my introduction to Frank King, Walt and Skeezix:
19231924, ed. Chris Ware, Jeet Heer, and Chris Oliveros (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2006),
3144.
25. Eco discusses how at the beginning of each new adventure Superman starts at the same
place as the opening of the previous story. See Umberto Eco, The Myth of Superman, in Heer and
Worcester, Arguing Comics, 14664.
26. Tim Samuelson is the subject of the Lost Buildings DVD and book that Ware created with radio
host Ira Glass in 2004.
27. Vladimir Nabokov, Pale Fire (New York: Putnam, 1962).
28. See Jeet Heer, The Kolors of Krazy Kat, in Krazy and Ignatz: A Wild Warmth of Chromatic
Gravy: 19351936, by George Herriman, ed. Bill Blackbeard (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2005), 8.
29. George Herriman, Krazy Kat, intro. by e. e. cummings (New York: Henry Holt, 1946).
30. George Herriman, Krazy Kat, intro. by e. e. cummings (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1969).
31. George Herriman, Krazy Kat, ed. Patrick McDonnell, Karen OConnell, and Georgia Riley de
Havenon (New York: Abrams, 1986).
32. The main cause of the Krazy and Ignatz series faltering was that the publisher ran into nancial
difculties in the early 1990s and eventually went out of business.
33. Chris Ware quoted in Hignite, In the Studio, 238.
1 4
Masked Fathers: Jimmy Corrigan and
the Superheroic Legacy
JACOB BROGAN
TroughouL Chris Warcs ocuvrc, Lhc rolc o Lhc supcrhcro in conLcmporary
comics rcmains a consLanL conccrn. Popular discoursc Lcnds Lo consLruc
supcrhcrocs as Lhc orcaLhcrs o all ncw comics LcxLs, a bclic LhaL clcarly
Lroublcs Warc. His work somcLimcs sccms Lo Loy wiLh Lhc possibiliLy o c-
acing Lhc supcrhcro ouLrighL, whcLhcr Lhrough symbolic murdcrs or spcc-
Laclcs o dcbascmcnL. Warcs novcl 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth
approachcs Lhc problcm in a subLlcr way, csLablishing a parodic connccLion
bcLwccn Lhc gurc o Lhc supcrhcro and Lhc cponymous proLagonisLs long-
abscnL aLhcr. Tis parallclism cnablcs Warc Lo sLagc Lhc ambiguiLics inhcrcnL
in his works rclaLionship Lo iLs own supposcd paLcrniLy. A psychoanalyLic
invcsLigaLion o Lhc way aLhcrhood is rcprcscnLcd LhroughouL Lhc novcl
rcvcals Lhc somcLimcs opprcssivc prcssurc supcrhcrocs sccm Lo puL on Lhc
comics mcdium as a wholc. UlLimaLcly, iL also allows Warc Lo cxplorc alLcrna-
Livc gcncalogics, looking bcyond Lhc absoluLc primacy o Lhc aLhcr and rcn-
dcring ambivalcnL his works rclaLionship wiLh Lhc puLaLivc inucncc o Lhc
supcrhcro. Warcs 1mmy Corrgan Lhus imagincs Lhc spacc bcLwccn pcrsonal
and amilial hisLory as Lhc ground or ncw comic hisLoriographics.
An Immature Medium?
Tc diculLy is LhaL Lhcsc ncw hisLoriographics musL comc Lo Lcrms wiLh
Lhc rclaLivc inLracLabiliLy o Lhc carlicr vcrsions o Lhcmsclvcs Lhcy conLcsL.
Warcs publishcd commcnLs suggcsL LhaL whilc hc acknowlcdgcs Lhc rolc su-
pcrhcrocs play in his work, hc is criLical o Lhc way Lhcsc gurcs characLcr-
izc pcrccpLions o his choscn mcdium. In Lhc inLroducLion Lo Lhc volumc o
McSweeneys Quarter|y Concern LhaL hc cdiLcd, Warc noLcs, Comics arc Lhc
only arL orm LhaL many normal pcoplc sLill arrivc aL cxpccLing a spccic
cmoLional rcacLion (laughLcr) or a spccic conLcnL (supcrhcrocs).

Tough
Lhc univcrsal validiLy o Lhis claim is incrcasingly dubious (duc in parL Lo
Lhc aLLcnLion paid Lo graphic novclisLs such as ArL Spicgclman, Warc, and
oLhcrs), iL is undoubLcdly Lhc casc LhaL Lhc ghosLs o Lhcsc prcjudiccs con-
Linuc Lo haunL Lhc popular rcccpLion o conLcmporary comics. Tc LiLlc o
Davc Fggcrss New York Tmes rcvicw o 1mmy CorrganALcr Wham! Pow!
Shazam!LcsLics Lo Lhis acL.
:
Any progrcss LhaL comics makc Loward criLi-
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 1 5
cal acccpLancc is casL as a Lurn away rom Lhc supcrhcro, a movcmcnL LhaL is
sccmingly ncvcr complcLc and LhaL inorms Lhc rcccpLion o cach ncw graphic
narraLivc.
Tis Sisyphcan impassc nds a sLriking analoguc in whaL mighL bc dc-
scribcd as Lhc rozcn LcmporaliLy o many supcrhcro narraLivcs. UmbcrLo Fco
has characLcrizcd Lhis Limclcss sLaLc as Lhc onciric climaLc o Lhc supcrhcro,
a kind o sLoryLclling in which whaL has happcncd bcorc and whaL has hap-
pcncd aLcr appcar cxLrcmcly hazy.

DcspiLc Lhcir scvcnLy-odd ycars o os-

Lcnsibly conLinuous narraLivc hisLory, characLcrs likc Supcrman and BaLman
ncvcr agc and always cvcnLually rcLurn Lo a kind o undamcnLal narraLivc
sLasis no maLLcr whaL happcns in a givcn sLory. Fvcn as Lhc largcr narraLivc
conLcxLs o Lhcsc characLcrs havc gradually Lransormcd, Lhis ramcwork al-
lows Lhcm Lo mainLain Lhc illusion o xiLy. HisLorics o changc, dcvclop-
mcnL, and cvoluLion arc Lhcrcby supprcsscd, conLribuLing Lo Lhc imagc o Lhc
supcrhcro gcnrcand iLs rcadcrsas Lrappcd in a pcrpcLual adolcsccncc.

Warcs imporLanL carly LcxL Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics/I Cucss, rsL

publishcd or RAw in , cvidcnccs a simmcring irriLaLion wiLh such
pcrccpLions (scc plaLc :). ScLLing word againsL imagc, Trilling AdvcnLurc
SLorics/I Cucss supcrimposcs a rcccLion on Lhc narraLors mundanc child-
hood cxpcricnccs ovcr Lhc imagcs o a supcrhcroic acLion sLory.

NoLing LhaL
Lhc narraLor spcaks o a youLhul passion or supcrhcrocs, Ccnc Kanncnbcrg
1r. suggcsLs LhaL Lhc sLory is ulLimaLcly abouL Lhc boys inabiliLy Lo subsumc
Lhc subLlcLics o rcal cxpcricncc undcr Lhc caLcgorics o his anLasy lic.
6
AL
Lhc samc Limc, Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics / I Cucss is also a mcLadiscursivc
lamcnL on Lhc rcading publics Lcndcncy Lo associaLc all comics wiLh a singlc
gcnrc. Hcrc, a rcalisLic concssional narraLivc is subsumcd inLo Lhc imagc rcp-
crLoirc o Lhc supcrhcro, iLs bcaLs and rcvclaLions co-opLcd in Lhc scrvicc o a
wholly dicrcnL Lalc. AL Lhc lcvcl o Lhc visual, Lhc narraLors rccollccLions arc
cccLivcly boilcd down Lo Lhc poinL whcrc only his childhood rcading habiLs
rcmain in vicw. In Lhis LcxL Warc Loys noL mcrcly wiLh his works undcrsLand-
ing o iLscl, buL also wiLh how iL is rcccivcd. His apparcnL car is LhaL rcadcrs
will scc his work as an cxLcnsion o supcrhcro narraLivc, irrcspccLivc o iLs
acLual conLcnL.
A rusLraLion wiLh Lhis pcrsisLcnL misrccogniLion is sLagcd wiLh similar irc
on Lhc back o Lhc papcrback cdiLion o 1mmy Corrgan. In licu o an cxplana-
Lory blurb, Warc ocrs a LwcnLy-Lhrcc-pancl narraLivc in his sparc sLylc, dc-
scribing Lhc journcys o Lhc puLaLivc Copy 8,6 o Lhc vcry book LhaL Lhc
poLcnLial rcadcr holds. ALcr bcing prinLcd in China, Lhc book is LakcnrsL
by boaL and Lhcn by LruckLo a Barncs Ignoblc SupcrsLorc in Lhc UniLcd
SLaLcs. Whcn a clcrk in Lhc sLorc aLLcmpLs Lo lc Lhc book undcr w in Lhc
liLcraLurc sccLion, aLcr Lravcrsing TolsLoy, Updikc, and VonncguL, a musLa-
chiocd oldcr man snaLchcs iL rom his hands. Fxprcssing a scnLimcnL Warc
sccmingly holds Lo bc disgraccully univcrsal, Lhc managcr rcmarks, Look|
. . . Tis is a graphic novcl . . . grajk nohvcl . . . iLs kds |t . . . you know
supcrhcro sLu . . . or retards|
,
Tcrc is a dcgrcc o chcckincss Lo Lhis sc-
qucncc, cspccially whcn onc comcs Lo Lhc cnd and nds LhaL Lhc cnLirc busi-
ncss has bccn scL up as a parody o ads cncouraging Lhc adopLion o Lhird
world childrcn. Iikcwisc, a circular sLamp noLing LhaL 1mmy Corrgan was Lhc
1 6 J ACOB B ROGAN
winncr o boLh Lhc Amcrican Book Award and Lhc :oo Cuardian FirsL Book
Prizc scrvcs as a smirking rcmindcr LhaL Lhis LcxL has carncd rcspccL in spiLc
o iLs orm. FurLhcr, Lhis sLamp prcscnLs an ironic LwisL on Lhc Comics Codc
AuLhoriLys Scal o Approval LhaL oncc graccd Lhc covcrs o virLually cvcry
mainsLrcam comic book.
8
On Lhc onc hand, iL suggcsLs how ar comics havc
comc sincc Lhc Comics Codc AuLhoriLys cccLivc dissoluLion, whilc, on Lhc
oLhcr hand, iL scrvcs as a poinLcd rcmindcr o Lhc lcngLhs Lhc mcdium musL
go Lo validaLc iLscl i iL is Lo bc acccpLablc Lo a widcr audicncc.
Tc anxicLics cxprcsscd in Lhis sccnc arc vcry rcal. FirsL, Lhc managcrs
painul, dclibcraLc pronunciaLion o Lhc Lcrm graphic novcl suggcsLs LhaL
Lhis Lcrm, onc cnginccrcd Lo discnLanglc Lhc mcdiums morc rcspccLablc
ocrings rom Lhcir supposcdly vulgar origins, ools no onc. Indccd, onc nccd
only look Lo Lhc graphic novcl sccLion o a rcal Barncs and Noblc Lo nd LhaL
ocrings by supcrhcro publishcrs DC and Marvcl Comics dwar works likc
Warcs in availabiliLy. Sccond, Lhc juxLaposiLion o Lhc graphic novcl Lo Lhc
supcrhcro gcnrc produccs a bridgc bcLwccn Lhcm LhaL consLrucs boLh as syn-
ccdochcs o a largcr climaLc o juvcniliLy. According Lo Lhis logic, comics havc
noL maLurcd and pcrhaps ncvcr will. Morcovcr, Lhc managcrs addrcss Lo Lhc
clcrk conLains a guardcd LhrcaL, suggcsLing LhaL anyonc who Lrics Lo disLin-
guish bcLwccn Lhc orm and iLs mosL promincnL gcnrc is also rcLardcd. Tc
prcpondcrancc o arLiclcs proclaiming Comics Crow Up! conLinually rcin-
scribcs Lhis pcrccpLion, cvcn as Lhc arLiclcs Lhcmsclvcs claim Lo rcuLc iL.

WhaL such LiLlcs suggcsL is LhaL cvcn as Lhc mcdium grows up, iL rcmains
haunLcd by boLh iLs own childishncss and LhaL o iLs audicncc. Indccd, Lhc
phrasc iLscl can casily bc misrcad, Lakcn as an impcraLivc along Lhc lincs o,
Hcy, comics! Crow up alrcady! raLhcr Lhan as a consLaLivc claim LhaL Com-
ics have grown up. Somc, likc Douglas Wolk, suggcsL LhaL wc avoid Lhc prob-
lcm alLogcLhcr by simply spcaking as Lhough Lhc mcdium has maLurcd, cvcn
as wc scck Lo complicaLc Lhc bclic LhaL iL was cvcr wholly childish Lo bcgin
wiLh.
o
OLhcrs havc aLLcmpLcd Lo Lurn Lhc problcm on iLs hcad, LrcaLing Lhc
connoLaLion o juvcniliLy as a rcsourcc.

For Warc, howcvcr, no casy circum-

vcnLions o Lhc problcm arc orLhcoming, ncccssiLaLing a scarch or alLcrna-
Livc soluLions LhaL is cnacLcd on virLually cvcry pagc o 1mmy Corrgan.
The Death of the Superhero
Tc rsL way ouL o Lhc pcrccpLion LhaL comics arc a undamcnLally inanLilc
mcdium is Lhc symbolic dcaLh o Lhc supcrhcro. Farly in 1mmy Corrgan, Lhc
novcls cponymous proLagonisL spoLs a capcd man drcsscd in Lhc cosLumc o
a supcrhcro on a lcdgc across rom his cubiclc. Tc Lwo wavc Lo onc anoLhcr,
and Lhcn Lhc laLLcr jumps, landing accdown on Lhc sidcwalk bclow. AL rsL a
crowd gaLhcrs around Lhc body, buL Lhcy cvcnLually dcparL, lcaving Lhc color-
ul corpsc Lo rcsL alonc on Lhc oLhcrwisc drcary sLrccL (6). Among Lhosc
who bricy lingcr by Lhc body is a man carrying whaL appcars Lo bc Lwo largc
arL porLolios, pcrhaps a sLand-in or Lhc carLoonisL himscl. IL is LcmpLing Lo
rcad Lhis gurcs passing inLcrcsL as indicaLivc o Lhc aLLiLudc Lhc book as a
wholc will Lakc Loward Lhc supcrhcroLhc bric acknowlcdgmcnL o a dcad
orm. Tc idca hcrc is LhaL, givcn Limc, Lhc gcnrc will kill iLscl o, bccoming
noLhing morc Lhan an objccL o obscurc inLcrcsL.
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 1 7
Howcvcr, Lhc corpsc is a mcrc allcgorical counLcrciL, a subsLiLuLc by which
Lhc novcl sacriccs Lhc supcrhcro in cgy. Pagcs aLcr Lhc iniLial incidcnL,
1immy noLiccs a ncwspapcr LhaL dcscribcs Lhc accidcnL. ILs hcadlinc bcgins,
Supcr-Man Icaps Lo DcaLh, a promising alLcrnaLivc Lo Lhc claims o ncw-
ound maLuriLy ciLcd abovc. YcL Lhc papcr conLinucs, MysLcry Man WiLhouL
IdcnLicaLion Falls Six SLorics in Colorcd PanLaloons, Mask / DcniLcly noL
Lhc Tclcvision AcLor, AuLhoriLics Say (o).
:
Tus, cvcn wiLhin Lhc narraLivc,
Lhc caccmcnL o Lhc supcrhcro is doubly a ailurc. NoL only is iL noL Lhc rcal
Lhing, iL is noL cvcn Lhc acLora man who has, as wc will scc, alrcady playcd a
ccnLral parL in Lhc narraLivcwho sLands in Lhc placc o Lhc rcal Lhing. Scnd-
ing Lhc doppclgangcr Lo his dcaLh Lhcrcby rcvcals iLscl as incccLual mock-
cry. 1oscph IiLvak obscrvcs, Mockng, as Lhc Lcrm suggcsLs, involvcs boLh
dcrision and mimicry, or involvcs dcrision n mimicry.

Hcrc, Lhc inabiliLy

o Lhc auLhoriLics Lo idcnLiy Lhc body cnLails a ailurc Lo propcrly imiLaLc
Lhc original, arguably voiding any aLLcmpL Lo dcbasc iL. In posiLioning iLscl
as Lhc wiLncss Lo Lhc supcrhcros suicidc, Lhc novcl succccds mosL clcarly aL
unvciling iLs own rclucLanL ascinaLion wiLh Lhc gurc iL osLcnsibly opposcs.
WiLh Lhis in mind, onc noLcs Lhc way LhaL boLh 1immys gazc and Lhc nar-
raLivcs aLLcnLion lingcr ovcr Lhc body, cvcn aLcr iL has bccn abandoncd by
oLhcrs, sLaying wiLh iL unLil an ambulancc arrivcs Lo rcmovc Lhc rcmains (,).
Tcrc is an air o cLcrniLy Lo Lhis momcnL o capLivaLion, Lhc abscncc o any
lcxical indicaLor o Limcs passagc lcaving Lhc scqucnccs Lcmporal ow am-
biguous.

FurLhcr, aL scvcral poinLs, Lhc window ouL o which 1immy looks

uncLions as a sccond ramc wiLhin Lhc ramcs LhaL makc up Lhc pagc. Ccncr-
ally spcaking, Lhc division o pancls is Lhc mosL basic uniL o Limcs passagc in
comics, mcaning LhaL Lhcsc ramcs wiLhin ramcs cngcndcr Lhc scgmcnLaLion
o Limc unLo iLscl, indcniLcly prolonging cach momcnL. Timc is noL arrcsLcd
hcrcarrows clcarly indicaLc Lhc movcmcnL rom onc pancl Lo Lhc ncxLbuL
iLs pacc and Lhc rcadcrs placc in iL arc rcndcrcd unccrLain. TogcLhcr, Lhcsc
acLors lcavc boLh 1immy and Lhc counLcrciL supcrhcroic corpsc hc conLcm-
plaLcs suspcndcd in Lhc onciric climaLc o Lhc supcrhcro. As Fco noLcs, mosL
rcal changc in supcrhcro comics risks bcing rcvcalcd as Lhc producL o ancy
or drcam.

IL is Lhc sLablc body o Lhc supcrhcro LhaL ascinaLcs hcrc, whilc iLs
dcaLh is likc somc imaginary Lalc or WhaL I` sccnario, a rcvcric rom which
ths narraLivc musL cvcnLually awakcn. Iikc 1immy, Lhc novcl cannoL quiLc
bring iLscl Lo look away, cnLrappcd as iL is in Lhis Limclcss LcmporaliLy. WhaL
1mmy Corrgan musL nd, Lhcn, is noL a ncw insLrumcnL o assassinaLion, Lhc
bursLing shcll LhaL will aL lasL picrcc Lhc supcrhcros skin, buL a ncw way o
sccing.
Parody and the Law of the Father
Such a rcsh pcrspccLivc mighL wcll bc ound in parody. 1udiLh BuLlcr has
argucd LhaL corLs aL parody Lakc rooL in Lhc parodisLs idcnLicaLion wiLh
his or hcr objccL. Tc poinL is ulLimaLcly a simplc onc: Lo parody somcLhing,
onc musL bc ablc Lo sLagc oncs rclaLion Lo iL, buL Lhis rclaLion musL iLscl
bc sLagcd in such a way as Lo lcavc Lhc prccisc naLurc o Lhc connccLion un-
ccrLain.
6
Parody mighL Lhus bc undcrsLood noL as a mcrc spccLaclc o dcni-
graLion, buL as a proccss o disrupLion. ILs powcr dcrivcs rom iLs abiliLy Lo
1 8 J ACOB B ROGAN
unscLLlc rcgimcs o corrcspondcncc and non-corrcspondcncc, similiLudc and
dicrcncc. BuLlcrs ormulaLion providcs a Lidy summaLion o Lhc ambiguiLics
aL work in 1mmy Corrgans rcconsidcraLion o Lhc supcrhcro, a rcconsidcra-
Lion organizcd, as wc will scc, around Lhc ambiguous connccLion bcLwccn Lhc
gurc o Lhc supcrhcro and 1immys aLhcr. Tis is a pracLicc LhaL promiscs
Lo implicaLc 1mmy Corrgan wiLhin Lhc discoursc LhaL iL criLiqucs, hclping Lo
makc ambivalcnL Lhc narraLivcs rclaLionship Lo Lhc supcrhcro.
In 1mmy Corrgans opcning pagcs, Lhc young proLagonisL aLLcnds an au-
Lograph-signing cvcnL hcld in honor o an acLor known or playing Supcrman
on Lclcvision. Whcn 1immys moLhcr arrivcs on Lhc sccnc, Lhc acLor ocrs Lo
Lakc hcr ouL Lo dinncr as soon as hc gcLs o work (:). IaLcr, Lhc man gocs
homc wiLh Lhc Lwo and spcnds Lhc nighL wiLh 1immys moLhcr. Tis acL o
scducLion csLablishcs a oundaLional corrcspondcncc bcLwccn Lhc supcrhcro
and Lhc aLhcr, cvcn as iL bcgins Lo disrupL Lhc prisLinc imagc o convcnLional
hcroism. Tc acLor bccomcs a bridgc bcLwccn Lhc Lwo gurcs, ocring boLh
a visiblc sLand-in or 1immys abscnL paLcrniLy and a Langiblc manicsLaLion
o his anLasy lic. SupporLing Lhis associaLion is Lhc way Lhc acLors acc ap-
pcars, albciL maskcd, in ull in a pancl, as hc rcmarks, Hcllo, son (:). Hc is
onc o only Lhrcc characLcrs noL paLrilincally rclaLcd Lo 1immy Lo bc shown
in Lhis manncr, a acL LhaL liLcrally draws him inLo Lhc Corrigan gcncalogy.
TaL hc can bc ully rcprcscnLcd only so long as hc rcmains maskcd implics
LhaL iL is prcciscly his cmbodimcnL o a anLasy LhaL allows him Lo cmcrgc
in Lhc visual rcgisLcr o Lhc LcxL. Madc anonymous, hc bccomcs a LcmplaLc
onLo which 1immys paLrilincagc will bc projccLcd. Tis cccL has a disrupLivc
conscqucncc o iLs own, making iL pcrpcLually unclcar whcLhcr iL is Lhc aLhcr
who is Lhc modcl or Lhc supcrhcro, or Lhc supcrhcro who is Lhc modcl or Lhc
aLhcr.
TroughouL Lhc novcl LhaL ollows, associaLions bcLwccn Lhcsc Lwo gurcs
ping-pong back and orLh. Whcn 1immy mccLs his long-abscnL aLhcr, or
cxamplc, hc is Lold Lo siL down unLil Lhc cldcr Corrigan gcLs o work, cx-
pliciLly cchoing Lhc acLors iniLial aLLcmpL Lo proposiLion 1immys moLhcr (:,
6) (scc g. :.). Warc projccLs Lhis rcmark ovcr a prcsumably anLasizcd im-
agc o 1immy looking on as his aLhcr has scx wiLh an unknown woman who
is almosL ccrLainly his moLhcr. His aLhcrs imaginary grunLs arc inscribcd
dirccLly bcncaLh Lhis rcal rcmark, suggcsLing a crudc doublc mcaning Lo Lhc
suggcsLion hc has ycL Lo [gcL] o work and producing a dcgrcc o ormal
conLinuiLy bcLwccn Lhc aLhcr o anLasy and Lhc aLhcr o acL.
,
Tis supcr-
imposiLion o word and imagcnoL so unlikc Lhc ormal sLraLcgy aL work in
Lhc carlicr Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics / I Cucsshas Lhc urLhcr cccL o
rcLroacLivcly porLraying Lhc Supcrman acLor as Lhc violcnL aLhcr o an ovcr-
dcLcrmincd primal sccnc. Sccmingly Lriggcrcd by Lhc phrasc [gcL] o work,
Lhc narraLivcs dcsccnL Lhrough a scrics o placcholdcrs and sLand-ins inLo
anLasy suggcsLs LhaL iL was, guraLivcly spcaking, Supcrman who rsL slcpL
wiLh 1immys moLhcr and Supcrman who has sLood in Lhc imaginary placc o
Lhc aLhcr all along.
8
ComplicaLing maLLcrs is Lhc acL LhaL 1immys own largcly rcnounccd scx-
ualiLy is cnLanglcd in his idcnLicaLion wiLh Lhc supcrhcroic aLhcr. Farlicr, in
Lhc opcning cpisodc, 1immy dons a handmadc mask bcorc a mirror, suggcsL-
ing a undamcnLal idcnLicaLion wiLh Lhc supcrhcro as Lhc guaranLor o his
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 1 9
own scl-imagc. In 1acqucs Iacans mcmorablc phrasc, Lhis disguisc bccomcs
Lhc armor o an alicnaLing idcnLiLy, Lhc mcans by which Lhc LoLaliLy o his
own body is madc visiblc Lo him.

TaL is, in Lhc complcLc imagc o himscl

LhaL a child sccs in Lhc mirror, his scl-idcnLiLy is consLiLuLcd Lhrough a rccc-
Lion LhaL is ncvcr ully his own.
:o
Our concrcLc rcccLions arc, in a scnsc, g-
urcs o our paLcrniLy, Lhc pcrson or pcrsons LhaL prcccdc us and bring us inLo
bcing. For 1immy, Lhis illusion o opLics is liLcralizcdhc bccomcs wholc by
Laking on Lhc rolc o Lhc characLcr LhaL holds Lhc vacaLcd posiLion o his ab-
scnL aLhcr. Tc narraLivc conscqucnccs o Lhis idcnLicaLion bccomc clcarcr
Lhc ollowing morning, whcn Lhc acLor sncaks ouL bcorc 1immys moLhcr
wakcs, hands 1immy his own sLagc mask, and Lclls 1immy Lo cxplain LhaL
hc had a rea| good tme (). A cw minuLcs laLcr, 1immys moLhcr appcars in
Lhc kiLchcn, only Lo bc conronLcd by Lhc spccLaclc o hcr now-maskcd son,
who, in a pancl LhaL rhymcs visually wiLh Lhc acLors own carly appcarancc,
parroLs Lhc words hc has bccn Lold Lo convcy. Tc as-ycL unrcprcscnLcd pri-
mal sccnc is hcrcby prcgurcd as Lhc conrmaLion o 1immys scl-idcnLiLy.
In Lhc proccss, hc simulLancously assumcs Lhc posiLion o Lhc supcrhcro and
his moLhcrs lovcr. I 1immys imaginary scl-imagc is doomcd Lo ailurc, iL is
prcciscly bccausc hc can ncvcr ully cmbody Lhis rolc, barrcd rom lling iL by
Fig. 2.1. On their rst
meeting, Jimmy and his fa-
ther mirror each other in
a sequence that gives way
to a fantasy of the primal
scene. Chris Ware, Jimmy
Corrigan: The Smartest Kid
on Earth (New York: Pan-
theon, 2000), 36.
2 0 J ACOB B ROGAN
Lhc prohibiLivc sLrucLurcs o Lhc inccsL Laboo, sLrucLurcs LhaL psychoanalyLic
LhoughL cquaLc wiLh Lhc aLhcrs law. Simply puL, 1immy can ncvcr ully bc
Lhc gurc hc cmulaLcs bccausc Lo do so would involvc iniLiaLing a orbiddcn
rclaLionship wiLh his moLhcr.
:
Tc paLcrnal giL o scl-idcnLiLy Lhus comcs aL a pricc, Lhc rcnunciaLion
o 1immys own dcsirc. TroughouL Lhc novcl, hc is Lrappcd in a sorL o pcr-
pcLual adolcsccncc, ablc Lo saLisy his longings only Lhrough his masochisLic
anLasy lic. Tis is a concciL LhaL makcs him a pcrccL doublc or Lhc sup-
poscd rcadcrs o supcrhcro comics, or, cvcn, or Lhc comics mcdium iLscl.
::

Onc cpisodc nds him rccording Lhc sounds LhaL surround him as hc siLs in
an urban park. Hc rccords rsL Lhc song o a bird, Lhcn Lhc passing o an air-
planc, and nally Lhc bric convcrsaLion o a pair o lovcrs (6). Tc rsL
Lwo iLcms scrvc as rcmindcrs o Lhc amous manLra, ILs a bird, iLs a planc,
iLs Supcrman! By connccLion, Lhcn, Lhc boyricnd o Lhc cmalc spcakcr, a
man shc calls Lhc mosL wondcrul guy Ivc cvcr mcL, mighL bc undcrsLood
as Lhc Lhird mcmbcr o Lhis ccsLaLic scqucncc. Supcrhcrocs, Lhc ormulaLion
gocs, arc Lhosc who arc lovcd as wcll as Lhosc whosc dcsirc can bc rcLurncd by
anoLhcr. For 1immy, howcvcr, Lhc idcnLicaLion wiLh Lhc supcrhcro is always
an idcnLicaLion wiLh somcLhing LhaL is iLscl oLhcr, somcLhing LhaL guaran-
Lccs Lhc cohcrcncc o his own dcsircs cvcn as iL prcscnLs Lhcm as pcrpcLually
disLanL rom him.
:
Hc has only Lhc imagc o whaL iL is Lo bc a scxualizcd
adulL, buL lacks Lhc undcrsLanding o whaL iL mcans Lo Lruly bc grown up.
Wc can rcad 1immys alicnaLion rom his scxualiLy, and pcrhaps his alicn-
aLion in gcncral, as an allcgory o Lhc sLaLus o comics. As Warcs own rcmarks
suggcsL, Lhc promincncc o Lhc supcrhcro gcnrc in comics mcLonymically
congurcs Lhc mcdium o which iL is a parL as kids liL [. . .] or rcLards (back
covcr). 1immys proLracLcd adolcsccncc would Lhcn sLand in or Lhc ongoing
ailurc o Lhc mcdium Lo grow up in Lhc cycs o Lhc largcr rcading public.
:

Tis is noL mcrcly a problcm o rcccpLion, buL also o producLion. So long as iL
is Lhc supcrhcro LhaL providcs an cxpcricncc o scl-cohcrcncc, 1immy cannoL
comc Lo Lcrms wiLh dcsircs LhaL arc his own. Comics, likcwisc, arc cccLivcly
barrcd rom bccoming somcLhing oLhcr Lhan whaL Lhcy osLcnsibly havc bccn.
Tis is a sorL o paLcrnalisLic pcdagogy, a modc LhaL, as Fco puLs iL, rcquircs
Lhc hiddcn pcrsuasion LhaL Lhc subjccL is noL rcsponsiblc or his pasL, nor
masLcr o his uLurc.
:
Supcrhcrocs hcrc uncLion as Lhc limiL o Lhc comics
mcdiums aspiraLional horizon, a poinL LhaL Lhcy always approach, buL can
ncvcr surpass.
Tus, Lhc supcrhcro is a pcrvcrsc Frcudian aLhcr-o-cnjoymcnL, LhaL
monsLcr o Lhc psychc LhaL Lakcs all plcasurc or iLscl and ocrs nonc Lo iLs
progcny. In Totem and Taboo, Sigmund Frcud Lclls Lhc sLory o Lhc mcmbcrs o
a primiLivc hordc who arc orbiddcn by Lhcir aLhcr Lo Lakc any o Lhc womcn
o Lhc Lribc as Lhcir own. FrusLraLcd, Lhcy cvcnLually kill and caL Lhc paLcr-
amilias.
:6
Oncc Lhis acL is complcLc, Lhcir ambivalcncc abouL Lhcir aLhcr,
whosc sLrcngLh and powcr lcd Lhcm Lo lovc him, ovcrwhclms Lhcm wiLh guilL.
Tis in Lurn prompLs Lhcm Lo Lakc Lhc ormcrly cxLcrnal prohibiLions o Lhc
aLhcr inLo Lhcmsclvcs, producing a psycho-scxual codc o rcnunciaLion LhaL
ironically rcanimaLcs Lhc prohibiLions Lhcy oncc sLrugglcd Lo ovcrcomc.
:,
Onc
nccd noL Lakc Lhis psychoanalyLic myLh aL iLs word Lo acknowlcdgc iLs cx-
planaLory orcc. Tc law o Lhc aLhcr rcprcscnLs Lhc inLcrnalizcd cxprcssion
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 2 1
o our ambivalcncc Loward Lhosc who shapc us, Lhc coupling o our admira-
Lion or whaL Lhcy ocr wiLh our irriLaLion aL LhaL which Lhcy prohibiL.
Tis ambivalcncc is vcry much aL work in Lhc way 1mmy Corrgan occa-
sionally Lakcs up Lhc possibiliLy o Lhc supcrhcro as savior or proLccLor, cx-
ploring Lhc projccLcd imagc o an idcal aLhcr only Lo rcuLc iL. In an cpisodc
LhaL comcs roughly a quarLcr o Lhc way Lhrough Lhc book, 1immy is hiL by
a mail Lruck and knockcd Lo Lhc ground (scc g. :.:). For a singlc pancl, Lhc
Lrucks drivcr, sccn rom 1immys supinc pcrspccLivc, is rcplaccd by an imagc
o Lhc maskcd acLor, his hair now whiLc and his acc roundcd. On Lhc ollow-
ing pagccomposiLionally a ncarly cxacL horizonLal and vcrLical mirror o
Lhc rsLLhc drivcr is pushcd ouL o Lhc ramc by 1immys aLhcr. Clcarly ouL
o brcaLh, Lhc oldcr man hus, Hcs minc . . . Hcs . . . hm . . . h . . . . (8)
(scc g. :.). Tc momcnL is aL rsL sLriking or Lhc willingncss o 1immys a-
Lhcr Lo claim Lhc boy hc abandoncd, ocring Lhc possibiliLy o rcconciliaLion
in and Lhrough crisis. Tis doubling suggcsLs a morc posiLivc undcrsLand-
ing o Lhc hcrc liLcral mirroring o Lhc aLhcr and Lhc supcrhcro. SimulLanc-
ously, howcvcr, onc mighL rcad somcLhing morc sinisLcr inLo Lhc comparison.
1amcss inarLiculaLc gasps hcarkcn back Lo Lhc grunLs o 1immys carlicr an-
Lasizcd primal sccnc. In Lhis lighL, 1amcss insisLcnL asscrLions o paLcrnal
Fig. 2.2. Hit by a mail
truck, Jimmy briey imag-
ines that the driver is an
aged superhero. Chris
Ware, Jimmy Corrigan:
The Smartest Kid on Earth
(New York: Pantheon,
2000), 97.
2 2 J ACOB B ROGAN
owncrshipHcs mne| . . . Hcs wcaring my pants| . . . (8)can bc un-
dcrsLood as cxprcssions o Lhc aLhcrs law. TaL is, Lhcy rcpcaL Lhc way LhaL
1immys acknowlcdgmcnL o his paLcrniLy Lraps him in a sLrucLurally incrior
posiLion. Tc supcrhcro is Lhcrcby congurcd noL only as a salvic gurc, buL
also as Lhc signicr par exce||ence o lial rcsLricLion and consLrainL.
I so, onc o Lhc novcls projccLs may bc Lo undcrminc Lhc orcc o Lhis law
Lhrough parodic iLcraLion. ShorLly aLcr 1immys iniLial cncounLcr wiLh his
aLhcr, Lhc cldcr Corrigans car is sLolcn, a acL LhaL 1immy mcckly poinLs ouL.
As is oLcn Lhc casc wiLh such momcnLs o caLasLrophc in Lhc narraLivc, Lhc
immcdiaLc conscqucnccs o Lhc LhcL do noL play ouL on Lhc pagc. InsLcad,
Lhc narraLivc divcrgcs inLo onc o 1immys anLasics in which hc spcaks o Lhc
incidcnL Lo an unsccn child: Scared? Ha ha . . . oh no I wasnL scarcd. Bccausc
i I had bccn I ncvcr would havc mcL your mother and Lhcn wc would ncvcr
havc had you (). Tc LhcL o 1amcss car, an cpisodc o rcal paLcrnal impo-
Lcncc, Lhus opcns Lhc possibiliLy o 1immys own anLasizcd scxual poLcncy,
cvcn as iL poinLs Lo Lhc limiLcd horizon o his own idca o maLuriLy.
:8
In Lhc
proccss, iL also puLs him in Lhc posiLion o Lhc aLhcr, his normally rcLiccnL
spccch rcplaccd by a surprising loquaciLy. In assuming Lhc rolc o Lhc aLhcr,
hc has bccomc, Lhough in anLasy alonc, Lhc masLcr o a discoursc LhaL oncc
cludcd him.
Fig. 2.3. Jimmys father lays
claim to his son, taking the
place of both superhero
and driver. Chris Ware,
Jimmy Corrigan: The Smart-
est Kid on Earth (New
York: Pantheon, 2000), 98.
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 2 3
Howcvcr, Lhis projccL o ullling Lhc supcrhcroic aLhcrs placc is doomcd
Lo ail, undcrmincd by iLs rcdcploymcnL o Lhc vcry logic iL sccks Lo disrupL.
PaLcrnal powcr inLcrvcncs in 1immys anLasy in Lhc orm o a Liny, porLly Su-
pcrman who appcars aL Lhc window. Tis cvcnL dcrails 1immys narraLion and
inspircs him Lo dcscribc noL whaL osLcnsibly happcncd, buL whaL is happcn-
ing, orcing him Lo shiL rom a How I mcL your moLhcr sLory Lo an accounL
o Lhc man on Lhc windowsill.
:
WiLh Lhc loss o his discursivc masLcry, 1im-
mys anLasy spirals ouL o his conLrol, and Supcrman grows massivc, liLing
Lhc housc and Lhcn Lossing iL back Lo Lhc carLh. 1immys drcam son is sccn or
Lhc rsL Limc, his limbs scaLLcrcd around Lhc upcndcd housc. Hcrc wc lcarn
LhaL Lhc now-ragmcnLcd childs namc is Billy, a Lclling acL givcn ncarly cvcry
prcvious mcmbcr o 1immys paLrilincagc has bccn namcd 1amcs. Trough
1mmy Corrgans cxpansivc narraLivc, Lhc amilial circumsLanccs o cach o
Lhcsc mcn cnclosc Lhcm, such LhaL Lhc namc Lhcy sharc incrcasingly comcs Lo
sccm a prison. WhaL Lhis child rcprcscnLs, Lhcn, is Lhc dcsirc or a uLurc LhaL
makcs a radical brcak wiLh Lhc pasL, onc LhaL quickly dcsccnds inLo vaudcvil-
lian Lragcdy. To scck a ncw namc is, up Lo a poinL, Lo scck a ncw law. YcL Lhc
condiLions by which Lhis law is auLhorizcd arc prcciscly Lhosc o Lhc prior
law, allowing iL Lo rcLurn wiLh a vcngcancc, as Lhc violcnL inLrusion o Lhc
supcrhcro suggcsLs. Indccd, iL is no accidcnL LhaL Billy is Lhc diminuLivc o
William, Lhc namc o 1immys paLcrnal grcaL-grandaLhcr. Fvcn Lhc sccming
brcak 1immy makcs rom his pasL Lhcrcorc rcinscribcs an alrcady-wriLLcn
narraLivc o parcnLal auLhoriLy. Hcrc wc musL also rccall BuLlcrs obscrvaLion
LhaL insoar as parody bcgins in idcnLicaLion, iL somcLimcs ails Lo cngcndcr
a nal disassociaLion. Unablc Lo achicvc Lruc rupLurc, Lhc succcssul parodisL
musL work rom insidc LhaL which is parodicd.
Genealogies, Familial and Superheroic
Sccmingly awarc o Lhis ncccssiLy, Warc nds a morc producLivc sLraLcgy o
rcsisLancc Lo Lhc supcrhcroic lcgacy Lhrough gcncalogy. 1mmy Corrgans in-
vcsLigaLion o Lhc rcal complcxiLics o amily hisLory nds iLs purcsL orm in
Lhc books considcraLion o Lhc giving o namcs. On Lwo scparaLc occasions,
mcdical docLors rccr Lo 1immy as Supcrman. Tc rsL occurrcncc, coming
aLcr 1immys accidcnL wiLh Lhc mail Lruck, is all buL unprompLcd. Iargcly
orgcLLablc in and o iLscl, Lhc incidcnL sccms Lo bc Lhc producL o liLLlc morc
Lhan bcdsidc banLcr.
o
Tc sccond incidcnL is morc clcarly occasioncd by Lhc
Supcrman swcaLshirL LhaL 1immy borrows rom his aLhcr and wcars aLcr
Lhc laLLcrs own ulLimaLcly aLal car accidcnL. In boLh cascs, Lhc plcasurcs o
idcnLicaLion mighL bc rcad as rcparaLivc acLs. I 1immys problcm is onc o
alicnaLion rom his own imagc, Lhis casual acL o rcnaming ocrs him a ncw
rclaLion Lo himscl. 1immy, always an incrior and bclaLcd copy o Lhc aLhcrs
idcal imagc, is inviLcd Lo occupy Lhc placc o Lhc Loo-pcrccL surrogaLc. Tc
poinL is noL LhaL Lhis rcchrisLcning scLs him rcc, only LhaL, as wc will scc, iL
hclps casc Lhc burdcn o amily hisLory. Whcrc Lhc acL o naming has prcvi-
ously procccdcd rom aLhcr Lo son, Lhcsc docLors suggcsL Lhc possibiliLy o a
lcss lincar sLrucLurc o rclaLion and inhcriLancc.
FurLhcr laycrs o complcxiLy arc cvidcnL in Lhc Supcrman swcaLshirL LhaL
inspircs Lhc sccond naming. Tough borrowcd rom 1immys aLhcr, Lhc shirL
2 4 J ACOB B ROGAN
is acLually a giL rom his adopLcd daughLcr, Amy. Indccd, so Loo is Lhc
Dad shirL LhaL 1immy uncomorLably appropriaLcs carlicr in Lhc LcxL, boLh o
Lhcm FaLhcrs Day giLs (). Tis rcvclaLion scrvcs as an imporLanL rcmindcr
LhaL Lhc appcarancc o supcrhcroismor, or LhaL maLLcr, paLcrniLyis bc-
sLowcd, noL a givcn. WhaLcvcr powcrs Lhc amilys symbolic sLrucLurcs o pro-
hibiLion and conLrol posscss, Lhcy do noL simply prcccdc us. Tus, Lhc orcc
o Lhc aLhcrLhc mask hc wcarsis in parL Lhc giL o Lhc child, his own
cmpowcrcd idcnLiLy Lhc producL o various cxchangcs and rclaLions bcLwccn
aLhcrs and Lhcir progcny.
As wc lcarn in onc o Lhc novcls many invcsLigaLions o 1immys anccsLry,
1immys grcaL-grcaL-grandaLhcr was also a docLor. AlLhough Lhis man docs
noL appcar in Lhc novcl asidc rom miniaLurc pancls in Lhc books opcning
diagram, hc cccLivcly rcLurns in Lhc placc o Lhc Lwo docLors wiLh whom
1immy inLcracLs. Trcc gcncraLions o 1immys anccsLry arc Lhcrcby clidcd
as Lwo wildly disLanL momcnLs o amily hisLory arc broughL inLo conLacL
wiLh onc anoLhcr Lhrough a doubling LhaL only Lhc rcadcr can rccognizc. Tc
namc Supcrman is cvokcd only Lo aciliLaLc Lhis cxchangc. ILs ccnLral placc
in convcnLional undcrsLandings o Lhc comics mcdium dcmonsLraLcs Lhc sig-
nicancc o Lhis LransacLion, buL Lhc word iLscl has no rcal signicancc o iLs
own. Supcrhcrocs, and Lhc conccrns Warcs work cxprcsscs abouL Lhcm, can
bc undcrsLood as Lhc ground on which arLhcr-rcaching hisLorical inquirics
arc builL. I supcrhcroic anLasy is incscapablc in comicsor Lhc popular pcr-
ccpLion LhcrcoLhcn anLasy iLscl musL bc Lurncd Lo oLhcr cnds.
A possiblc approach is cvidcnL laLc in Lhc LcxL whcn Amy lcads 1immy
Lhrough a scL o picLurcs rom Lhc amilial pasL Lhcy ncvcr sharcd. As Lhcy arc
rcmovcd rom Lhc jumblcd boxcs LhaL conLain Lhcm, cach phoLograph ncaLly
lls a comics pancl (::6). Tcsc rccovcrcd momcnLs arc Lhcrcby broughL
inLo Lhc passagc o Limc in Lhc prcscnL, Lhcir spaLializaLion animaLing Lhcm
in rclaLion Lo boLh Lhcir prcscnLaLion and conLcmplaLion. Amys boxcs arc
Lhus proLo-comics, purc ormal poLcnLialiLy always awaiLing rcLcmporaliza-
Lion by mcans o hcr sclccLion and prcscnLaLion o Lhcm. Tis rcinscrLion o
Lhc imagc inLo Lhc sLrcam o Limc is Lhc pasLs rcincarnaLion, iLs rcbirLh in
a ncw orm Lhrough iLs conLcxLualizcd rcccpLion. SignicanLly, Lhrcc dicr-
cnL rcgisLcrs arc co-implicaLcd hcrc: rsL Lhcrc is Amys producLivc prcscnL
in which shc Lclls a sLory Lhrough Lhc juxLaposiLion and narraLion o imagcs.
NcxL is Lhc pasL LhaL is rcanimaLcd by iL. IasL is Lhc uLurc rcccpLion o Lhc
LcxL, rcprcscnLcd hcrc by 1immys largcly muLc rcsponscs Lo Lhc imagcs Amy
shows him. InLcrcsLingly, 1immy is impliciLly gurcd as a rcadcr o comics,
noLing aL onc poinL aLcr a Lcmporal cllipsis o indcLcrminaLc lcngLh, BuL
whcn I grcw up I gucss I sorLa sLoppcd rcading Lhcm. [. . .] I-I wouldnL r-rcally
r-rcad Lhcm n-now . . . u-unlcss Lhc arL was good (:).

I Amy and 1immy

boLh borc cach oLhcr hcrc, iL is bccausc Lhcir disLincL, almosL accidcnLal rccc-
Lions on comics havc Lhc characLcr o narraLcd drcamsimporLanL Lo Lhcir
subjccLs as Lhcy arc dull Lo cvcryonc clsc. SLricLly spcaking, Lhis scqucncc is
noL libcraLing or any o iLs parLicipanLs. InsLcad, iL poinLs Lo Lhc poLcnLial
o comics Lo inLcrvcnc in and rcarLiculaLc Lhc vcry hisLorical proccsscs rom
which Lhcy cmcrgc.
Amys plasLic approach Lo amily hisLory suggcsLs Lhc possibiliLy o brcak-
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 2 5
ing wiLh Lhc singular hisLoriographic LrajccLory LhaL Lhc supcrhcro Lcnds
Lo imposc on comics, cvcn i iL can ncvcr ully lcavc Lhc supcrhcro bchind.
1mmy Corrgan sccms hcrc Lo call or a morc gcncral orm o gcncalogy LhaL
would accounL or Lhc causal connccLions LhaL sLrcLch bcLwccn various orms
and gurcs raLhcr Lhan a simplc gcncalogy o Lhc supcrhcro. Undcr Lhc acgis
o such an approach, Lhc goal would noL bc Lo cxcludc Lhc supcrhcro, buL Lo
show whaL an cxccssivc ocus on iL has alrcady cxcludcd. Formally spcaking,
Warcs carLooning in 1mmy Corrgan works Lo modcl and rcdoublc Lhc com-
plcx gcncalogics Loward which iLs ploL aspircs. Trough Lhc novcls cxamina-
Lion o Lhc aLhcr, Lhc supcrhcro is shown Lo rcprcscnL buL a soliLary poinL in
Limc. Far rom holding a singlc sLory in placc, Lhc work o gcncalogylikc Lhc
work o carLooningcan manipulaLc Lhis sccmingly singular nodc, puLLing iL
inLo ncw rclaLions o mcaning and consLcllaLions o causaLion. 1immys a-
Lhcr is a ar dicrcnL man whcn sccn Lhrough Amys cycs Lhan his cquaLion
wiLh Lhc supcrhcro would suggcsL, lcss a poLcnLial LyranL Lhan a bcncvolcnL
co-parcnL. His inhcriLancc o Lhis oLhcr rolc is a producL o Lhc cxiblc aLLi-
Ludc Loward Lhc pasL LhaL Amys accidcnLal carLooning cnablcs. Timcs sLablc
ow, Warc rcminds us, is an illusion o Lhc opcraLions o closurc by which wc
connccL cach momcnL Lo Lhc ncxL. WhaL Warc ocrs, Lhcn, is lcss a prcciscly
arLiculaLcd soluLion Lo Lhc problcm o Lhc supcrhcro Lhan a porLraiL o Lhc
supcrhcros own cndlcss cnLanglcmcnLs.
Tc paradigmaLic cxamplc o Lhis Lcchniqucs poLcnLial is a Lwo-pagc
sprcad LhaL appcars ncar Lhc LcxLs conclusion. Showing Amy alonc in Lhc
hospiLal aLcr hcr aLhcrs dcaLh, Lhc pagc suddcnly opcns up Lo rcvcal Lhc
proccss o hcr adopLion. Tcn, in a scrics o shorL sLrips connccLcd by arrows,
Limc Lclcscopcs in a varicLy o dirccLions, showing how Amy camc Lo bc whcrc
shc is (scc plaLcs and o). Tis diagrams purposci iL can bc rcduccd Lo
oncis Lo rcvcal LhaL Amy and 1immy acLually sharc a common anccsLry. Hcr
grandmoLhcr is Lhc illcgiLimaLc child o 1immys grcaL-grandaLhcr and his
Arican Amcrican scrvanL. In Lhc proccss o rcvcaling Lhis inormaLion, Lhc
diagram opcns Lhc novcl Lo momcnLs oLhcrwisc losL Lo iLs mulLi-gcncraLional
narraLivc: a owcr prcsscd in Lhc pagcs o a Biblc, a plain gravc in a miliLary
ccmcLcry. Tcsc rclics o Lhc pasL can appcar only Lhrough Lhc olding o Limc
LhaL comics makc possiblc, mulLiplc passagcs Lurncd inLo and ovcr onc an-
oLhcr likc shccLs o origami papcr, producing rom Lhcm a wholly ncw shapc
LhaL aL oncc inLcrrupLs and cclcbraLcs Lhc passagc o Limc.
:
Comics may noL, in Lhc nal insLancc, bc ablc Lo ully disassociaLc Lhcm-
sclvcs rom Lhc lcgacy o Lhc supcrhcro. Indccd, Lhough rcprcscnLaLions o
supcrhcrocs and Lhcir sLand-ins arc all buL abscnL rom Lhc books closing
pagcs, Warcs lasL imagc poignanLly rciLcraLcs Lhc rich ambivalcncc LhaL has
cchocd LhroughouL Lhc narraLivc. OpposiLc Lhc words Tc Fnd, Warc shows,
in miniaLurc, a young 1immy carricd Lhrough Lhc air by an agcd Supcrman,
snow alling all around Lhcm (,). For all iLs rusLraLions, Lhc supcrhcro rc-
Lurns hcrc as a gurc o rclic, Lhc vcry amiliariLy LhaL makcs iL Lhc mcdiums
cursc providing a nal comorL in Lhc wakc o Lhc novcls many un-rccupcr-
aLcd losscs. Pcrhaps Lhc bcsL comics can do is Lakc advanLagc o Lhcir own
ormal rcsourccs, unvciling orgoLLcn hisLorics and mislaid Lhings, unLil Lhis
consolaLion is no longcr nccdcd.
2 6 J ACOB B ROGAN
Notes
1. Chris Ware, Introduction, in McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13 (San Francisco: McSweeneys,
2004), 11.
2. Dave Eggers, After Wham! Pow! Shazam! New York Times Book Review, November 26, 2000,
1011.
3. Umberto Eco, The Myth of Superman, in The Role of the Reader, trans. Natalie Chilton (Bloom-
ington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 114.
4. In a signicant argument to the contrary, Geoff Klock has sought to make the case that super-
hero comics have grown increasingly self-reexive over the course of the past three decades. This
process of maturation is, Klock asserts, the result of their efforts to grapple with the inuence of
their generic forefathers. While Klocks claims are more compelling than some of his critics are willing
to acknowledge, Wares problem seems to be how to escape the perception of inuence rather than
inuence as such. See Geoff Klock, How to Read Superhero Comics and Why (New York: Continuum,
2002).
5. Chris Ware, Thrilling Adventure Stories / I Guess, rpt. in Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fanta-
graphics, 2003), 3941.
6. Gene Kannenberg Jr., The Comics of Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strate-
gies, in The Language of Comics: Word and Image, ed. Robin Varnum and Christina T. Gibbons (Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2001), 18386.
7. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan (New York: Pantheon, 2000), back cover. All further references to
this text will be indicated in parentheses.
8. Established by the Comics Magazine Association of America in 1954, the Comics Code Author-
ity maintained a strict set of guidelines regulating appropriate content for comics publications. Dis-
tributors refused to circulate titles unless they featured the Authoritys Seal of Approval on their
covers. For a condensed history of the Comics Code see Amy Kiste Nyberg, Comic Book Censor-
ship in the United States, in Pulp Demons, ed. John A. Lent (Madison: Farleigh Dickinson University
Press, 1999), 4268. For a more expansive account see David Hajdu, The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great
Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America (New York: Farrar, 2008).
9. An article in the Morning Call newspaper opens with just such a headline, noting, Comics Grow
Up . . . and So Do Their Readers. Brian Callaway, Comics Grow Up . . . and So Do Their Readers,
Allentown (PA) Morning Call, November 10, 2008, B6.
10. Douglas Wolk, Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean (Cambridge,
MA: Da Capo, 2007), 1.
11. Susan M. Squier, for example, has argued that comics might provide a resource for disability
studies insofar as they unsettle conventional notions of normalcy and disability. See Susan M. Squier,
So Long as They Grow Out of It: Comics, the Discourse of Developmental Normalcy, and Disabil-
ity, Journal of the Medical Humanities 29.2 (2008): 7188.
12. This headline is a reference to the death (and presumed suicide) of actor George Reeves on
June 16, 1959. Reeves played Superman in the 1950s television series. Les Daniels, Superman: The
Complete History (San Francisco: Chronicle, 1998), 9799.
13. Joseph Litvak, Strange Gourmets (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), 61 (Litvaks italics).
14. I draw the term lexia from Gene Kannenberg Jr., who uses it to describe any linguistic ele-
ment in a panel. See Kannenberg, The Comics of Chris Ware, 178.
15. Eco, The Myth of Superman, 114.
16. Judith Butler, Merely Cultural, Social Text 52/53 (1997): 266.
17. This panel, the fth and last on the page, is also notable in that panels one and two and panels
three and four mirror one another, demonstrating an uncanny resemblance between Jimmy and his
father. Breaking this pattern, the fantasized sex scene implies that, despite the visual resemblance
between the two men, something belongs to the father that is yet denied to the son (36). As Daniel
Raeburn shows in his monograph on Chris Wares work, this doubling of father and son is repeated
on the dust jacket of Jimmy Corrigans hardcover edition. When the jacket is properly folded, half of
Jimmys face merges with that of his father. Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2004), 69.
J I MMY C O R R I G A N AND T HE S UP E R HE ROI C L E GACY 2 7
18. Importantly, the correspondence is, rst and foremost, a formal one, arguably existing be-
low the level of the nave Jimmys ctional consciousness. Moreover, in this light, Jimmys vision of
murdering his father on the following page might be understood as a futile attempt to re-contain the
knowledge that here bubbles to the surface of the narrative through the conjunction of these two
gures.
19. Jacques Lacan, The Mirror Stage as Formative of the I Function as Revealed in Psychoanalytic
Experience, in crits, trans. Bruce Fink (New York: Norton, 2006), 78.
20. The mirror may be the most primal form of a panel sequence in comics, the passage of time at
once staged and denied in our encounter with the reective frame.
21. Jimmys fantasy of sex with Amy, his adopted sister (and, as we eventually learn, blood rela-
tion), arguably repeats this otherwise impermissible act in a more acceptable form (333).
22. It bears noting that for Eco sexual renunciation is a mark of the classic superheros oneiric
condition. Eco, The Myth of Superman, 115.
23. In a telling slippage, Jimmy displaces any discontent with this superheroic/paternal stand-in
onto the woman, muttering, Ha ha Bitch, as he replays his tape of her admission. Misogyny here
rears its head as one consequence of the failure to come to terms with the superheros centrality
(94).
24. Jimmy Corrigan as a whole is too capacious and complex for such an approach to be a total
one. Accordingly, my account can only point to one of the many problems at work in the novel, not a
fantastical solution to the novel as a whole.
25. Eco, The Myth of Superman, 117.
26. Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo, trans. James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1950), 17576.
27. Ibid., 178.
28. From the start, the novel couples parental power and potency with the automobile, as it is at
a car show that Jimmy and his mother meet the actor who plays Superman.
29. It bears noting that the tiny man at rst resembles an action gure, suggesting that Jimmys
dream of successfully realized adulthood is defeated by a recognition of the resemblance between this
reverie and the submerged desire for maturity present in childhood play.
30. One might note the way the doctor links Jimmys mysteriously injured foot to the superheroic
mythos, asking, Howd you do this oneleaping tall buildings in a single bound again? (128). Jimmys
bound foot offers a reminder of Oedipuss punctured feet and establishes a further connection be-
tween barred superheroic desire and the Oedipal constellation.
31. On the dust jacket of Jimmy Corrigans hardcover edition, Ware shows that Jimmy is still a col-
lector of comics, indicating his claim that he no longer reads comics is likely a product of his embar-
rassment (dust jacket).
32. Jimmy Corrigans hardcover dust jacket literalizes this practice, at once unveiling further com-
plexities to Jimmys genealogical descent and making them disappear into the folds of the paper itself
(dust jacket).
2 8
The Limits of Realism: Alternative
Comics and Middlebrow Aesthetics in the
Anthologies of Chris Ware
MARC SINGER
Tc LhirLccnLh issuc o McSweeneys Quarter|y Concern, publishcd in Lhc sum-
mcr o :oo, capLurcs Lhc prccisc momcnL LhaL comics Look ovcr Lhc world.
Tc dusL jackcL (scc g. .: pagcs o), an claboraLcly sLrucLurcd comic wriL-
Lcn and drawn by gucsL cdiLor Chris Warc, chroniclcs Lhc LribulaLions o a
loncly carLoonisL who, undcr prcssurc Lo mccL a looming dcadlinc, dccidcs
his comic sLrip docsnL nccd a punchlinc aL all! I mcan . . . |je docsnL havc a
punchlinc, rght? Maybc I should jusL stop, lcL iL cnd whcrc iL is. . . . Tanks Lo
a Limcly divinc inLcrvcnLion, Lhc carLoonisL ollows Lhrough on his idca and
soon his rcadcrs arc praising Lhc sLrip or iLs liclikc rhyLhms and iLs rcalisLic
lack o rcsoluLion. Who woulda LhoughL, Lhc carLoonisL muscs, LhaL in lcss
Lhan one week comic sLrips would supplanL painLing, sculpLurc, and movics
as Lhc worlds dominanL arLorm` In shorL ordcr, Lhc carLoonisL is living in
palaLial surroundings, bclovcd by an adoring public and houndcd by mobs
o cmalc admircrs, all bccausc hc has inLroduccd rcalism inLo his sLrip, now
invcnLivcly LiLlcd Iic o Lhc ScaLcd CarLoonisL (scc g. .).

Whilc Warc prcscnLs Lhcsc dcvclopmcnLs wiLh considcrablc irony (Lhc

scaLcd carLoonisL, dissaLiscd wiLh his ovcrnighL succcss, pondcrs painLing
sLill-lic waLcrcolors unLil hc rcmcmbcrs LhaL non-scqucnLial arL no longcr
holds any valuc in Lhis parallcl acsLhcLic univcrsc), Lhcy arc closcly maLchcd
Lo Lhc projccL o Lhc anLhology Lhcy cnvclop. By dcdicaLing an issuc o Lhc
inucnLial, innovaLivc liLcrary quarLcrly Lo comics, Warc and McSweeneys
oundcr Davc Fggcrs advancc Lhc idca LhaL comics arc incrcasingly rccog-
nizcd as Lhc cuLLing cdgc o visual and liLcrary culLurcpcrhaps noL quiLc
Lhc worlds dominanL arL orm, buL closing in asL.
:
And whilc Lhc comics
asscmblcd wiLhin McSweeneys display a varicLy o sLylcs rom sardonic
humor Lo groLcsquc horror, a majoriLy o picccs sLrivc or somc orm o rcal-
ism, ranging rom documcnLary journalism Lo psychological characLcr sLudy
Lo concssional scl-rcvclaLion. A laLcr volumc also cdiLcd by Warc, Te Pest
Amercan Comcs .oo,, is cvcn morc hcavily wcighLcd Loward auLobiography
and rcalisLic cLion. Warc may jokingly cxaggcraLc Lhc culLural impacL o rcal-
isLic comics on his dusL jackcL, buL his anLhologicscspccially Lhc inLroduc-
Lory cssays LhaL ouLlinc his sclccLion criLcria and his vision o Lhc mcdium o
comicspromoLc rcalism Lo Lhc cxclusion o many oLhcr modcs o comics
T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 2 9
wriLing. In so doing, Lhcy also susLain somc o Lhc hicrarchics o liLcrary and
arLisLic valuc LhaL havc long marginalizcd comics. Warcs asLidious avoid-
ancc o popular gcnrcs and his privilcging o convcnLionally liLcrary modcs
o wriLing pcrpcLuaLc LradiLional, arbiLrary divisions bcLwccn high and low
culLurc cvcn as hc sccks Lo posiLion comics bcLwccn Lhc Lwo. Warcs ground-
brcaking anLhologics arc kcy parLicipanLs in Lhc consLrucLion o comics in-
crcasing culLural lcgiLimacy, ycL Lhcy consisLcnLly rcinorcc many o Lhc samc
assumpLions and valucsavoring Lhc liLcrary, Lhc LcxLual, Lhc rcalisLic
LhaL dcnicd comics such lcgiLimacy in Lhc rsL placc.

Warcs prccrcncc or Lhc rcalisLic can bc Lraccd Lo his rooLs in Lhc alLcrna-
Livc comics movcmcnL o Lhc 8os and os. Tis movcmcnL, as noLcd by
Charlcs HaLcld in Lhc cponymous A|ternatve Comcs (:oo), was inspircd
by Lhc undcrground comix o Lhc 6os and ,os and nourishcd by Lhc
comic book spccialLy markcL LhaL cmcrgcd in Lhc laLc ,os. Unlikc ciLhcr
Lhc undcrgrounds or Lhc mainsLrcam supcrhcro comics avorcd by Lhc dirccL
markcL, howcvcr, alLcrnaLivc comics rcnounccd amiliar gcnrcs in avor o
ormal cxpcrimcnLaLion, graphic and gcncric divcrsiLy, and Lhc bclic LhaL
comics could pursuc Lhc highcsL arLisLic ambiLions.

AspiraLions Lo rcalism
havc always bccn an imporLanL parL o Lhosc ambiLions. HaLcld ciLcs Lhc
cxploraLion o scarchingly pcrsonal and aL Limcs boldly poliLical Lhcmcs as
onc o Lhc disLincLivc caLurcs o Lhc movcmcnL and adds, AuLobiography,
Pages 3031:
Fig. 3.2. Chris Ware,
God, McSweeneys
Quarterly Concern 13 (San
Francisco, McSweeneys,
2004), dust jacket.
Fig. 3.1. How realism
saved comics. Chris Ware,
God, detail. McSweeneys
Quarterly Concern 13 (San
Francisco, McSweeneys,
2004), dust jacket.
3 2 MARC S I NGE R
cspccially, has bccn ccnLral Lo alLcrnaLivc comics.

Hc Lraccs Lhis inLcrcsL in

auLobiography Lo Lhc work o Harvcy Pckar, who csLablishcd a ncw modc
in comics: Lhc quoLidian auLobiographical scrics, ocuscd on Lhc cvcnLs and
LcxLurcs o cvcryday cxisLcncc.
6
1oscph WiLck obscrvcs LhaL Lhis cmphasis
on Lhc quoLidian disLinguishcs Pckars comics rom Lhcir prcdcccssors in Lhc
undcrgrounds, hc suggcsLs Pckars sLylc is closcr Lo Lhc rcalisLs o prosc liL-
craLurc Lhan Lo anyLhing LhaL has appcarcd in comic books bcorc.
,
WiLcks claim LhaL Mark Twain, SLcphcn Cranc, Frank Norris, and oLhcr
masLcrs o Amcrican rcalism consLiLuLc Lhc wcllsprings o [Pckars] homc-
grown acsLhcLic should indicaLc Lhc cxLcnL Lo which comics arLisLs and
criLics alikc havc ramcd Lhc rcalism o Lhc alLcrnaLivc comics movcmcnL
in liLcrary raLhcr Lhan visual Lcrms.
8
Indccd, WiLck acknowlcdgcs LhaL Lhc
arLwork in Pckars comics is oLcn crudc, unsophisLicaLcd, noL convcnLion-
ally rcalisLicwiLh Lhc sLylisLic dcscripLor placcd in quoLcs, as i Lo signal
LhaL Lhc comics rcalism lics in arcas oLhcr Lhan visual convcnLion.

Tis dc-
scripLion highlighLs a Lcnsion wiLhin rcalism iLscl, bcLwccn iLs abiliLy Lo rc-
crcaLc Lhc scmblancc o rcaliLy and iLs inLcrcsL in cxposing oLhcr LruLhs LhaL lic
bcyond mcrc appcarancc. W.1.T. MiLchcll idcnLics Lhis Lcnsion as a conLrasL
bcLwccn illusionism, Lhc simulaLion o Lhc prcscncc o objccLs, spaccs, and
acLions, and rcalism, Lhc capaciLy o picLurcs Lo show Lhc LruLh abouL Lhings
[. . .] ocring a LransparcnL window onLo rcaliLy, an cmbodimcnL o a socially
auLhorizcd and crcdiblc cycwiLncss pcrspccLivc.
o
MiLchclls usc o rcal-
ism muddics Lhc disLincLion, howcvcr, as both illusionism and rcalism
arc imporLanL clcmcnLs o Lhc rcalisL sLylc in liLcraLurc and Lhc visual arLs.
According Lo arL hisLorian Iinda Nochlin, Lhis sLylc sccks Lo givc a LruLhul,
objccLivc and imparLial rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc rcal world, bascd on mcLiculous
obscrvaLion o conLcmporary lic.

Nochlin disLinguishcs bcLwccn rcalisms

LradiLions o aiLhul simulaLion and honcsL obscrvaLion, characLcrizing Lhcm
as, rcspccLivcly, versm|tude and obectvty, sinccriLy, or auLhcnLiciLy.
:
For
many crcaLors and criLics o alLcrnaLivc comics, howcvcr, auLhcnLiciLy o ob-
scrvaLion Lakcs prcccdcncc ovcr vcrisimiliLudc in graphic rcprcscnLaLion
and, pcrhaps bccausc comics arc a visual mcdium, Lhcy Lcnd Lo associaLc il-
lusionism cxclusivcly wiLh visual rcprcscnLaLion, prccrring Lo cvaluaLc and
praisc Lhcir works rcalism in prcdominanLly narraLivc and liLcrary Lcrms.
Warc, onc o Lhc orcmosL gurcs Lo cmcrgc rom Lhc alLcrnaLivc comics
movcmcnL, rccapiLulaLcs Lhis acsLhcLic in his anLhologics, mosL noLably in
Lhc inLroducLion Lo Pest Amercan Comcs .oo,. AlLhough hc cxalLs comics or
Lhcir capaciLy or mimcLic rcprcscnLaLion, which hc conLrasLs againsL Lhc risc
o conccpLualism in Lhc LwcnLicLh-ccnLury visual arLs, Warc gcncrally avors
narraLivc auLhcnLiciLy ovcr visual vcrisimiliLudc. Hc says Lhc qualiLics hc is
rcgularly looking or rom arL and liLcraLurc ulLimaLcly boil down Lo Lclling
Lhc LruLh, hc dccnds Lhc prcpondcrancc o auLobiographical work in con-
Lcmporary comics as a ncccssiLy [. . .] boLh or Lhc arLisLs and Lhc mcdium i
Lhcy arc Lo lcarn how Lo cxprcss rcal human cmoLion, hc argucs LhaL auLo-
biographic scl-cxprcssion is a ncccssary sLcp Lowards undcrsLanding whaL
communicaLcs and works in a mcdium, and hc claims Lhc conLribuLors Lo
his volumc havc all dcvclopcd individual sLylcs wiLh Lhc aim o gcLLing aL
somcLhing ncw or, morc prcciscly, rcal.

To accommodaLc Lhc cxpcrimcnLal,

T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 3 3
dccidcdly non-illusionisLic work o Cary PanLcr, C. F. (ChrisLophcr Forgucs),
and Lhc Papcr Rad collccLivc, Warc suggcsLs Lhcsc arLisLs allow or vcry
sLrangc ycL oddly rcal associaLions and cclings.

WiLh a sucicnLly cxiblc dcniLion, Lhc rcalisL labcl can bc madc Lo L

any arLisL, and Warc incviLably bcsLows iL as a Lcrm o high praisc. Howcvcr,
Lhis labcl masks a scrics o uncriLical and mislcading clisions: Pest Amercan
Comcs .oo, conaLcs mimcLic rcprcscnLaLion wiLh quoLidian rcalism, quoLid-
ian rcalism wiLh auLobiography, and boLh modcs o wriLing wiLh Lclling Lhc
LruLh. AuLobiography poscs a parLicular challcngc in Lhis rcgard, whilc iL may
appcar Lo ocr Lhc mosL honcsL and auLhcnLic rcprcscnLaLions, in pracLicc
iL can also provc Lhc mosL dcccpLivc. As HaLcld cauLions, auLobiographics
dcpcnd as much on abricaLion as on acL, and whaL passcs or rankncss
in comics musL bc a maLLcr o boLh subjccLivc vision and graphic arLicc, a
shoLgun wcdding o Lhc unLrusLworLhy and Lhc unrcal.

Nor is Lhis cquivo-

caLion unknown Lo comics arLisLs. HaLcld ciLcs comics by Danicl Clowcs,
R. Crumb, CilbcrL Hcrnandcz, and Harvcy Pckar LhaL subvcrL, cxploiL, or
ridiculc Lhis incviLablc slippagc bcLwccn LruLh and arLicc, Warcs own Cor-
rigcnda Lo Lhc scmi-auLobiographical 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on
Farth acknowlcdgcs Lhc chasm which gapcs bcLwccn Lhc ridiculous, arLlcss,
dumboundcdly mcaninglcss coincidcncc o rcal lic and my wcak cLion
noL Lo mcnLion my inabiliLy aL kniLLing Lhcm LogcLhcr.
6
YcL his anLhologics
cquaLc auLobiography, honcsLy, and rcalism wiLhouL qucsLion.
Hc insLcad rcscrvcs his skcpLicism or visual vcrisimiliLudc and illusion-
ism. In his inLroducLion Lo McSweeneys , Warc claims, Lhc morc dcLailcd
and rcncd a carLoon, Lhc lcss iL sccms Lo work, and Lhc morc rcsisLanL Lo
rcading iL bccomcs.
,
Warc claboraLcs on Lhis judgmcnL in commcnLs Lo Dan-
icl Racburn: FundamcnLally yourc bcLLcr o using idcograms raLhcr Lhan
rcalisLic drawings. [. . .] Tcrcs a vulgariLy Lo showing somcLhing as you rcally
scc iL and cxpcricncc iL. IL scLs up an odd wall LhaL blocks Lhc rcadcrs cmpa-
Lhy.
8
Whilc Lhcsc commcnLs rcvcal much abouL Warcs arLisLic dccisions in
his own comics, Lhc McSweeneys inLroducLion cxLrapolaLcs his sLylisLic prc-
crcncc or simplicd icons and symbols inLo a gcncral rcnunciaLion o rcalis-
Lic arL. Racburn makcs Lhis rcnunciaLion cxpliciL wiLh his own gloss on Warcs
commcnLs, adding, Rcalism is nc or Lclling Lalcs abouL juL-jawcd good guys
in LighLs who sock dasLards, buL iL is Loo cxpliciL or anyLhing cmoLional. IL
bullics Lhc rcadcrs and Lhcir cmoLions, Lurning scnLimcnL inLo scnLimcnLal-
iLy. 1usL as Lhc old saw holds LhaL in wriLing cLion you should show, noL Lcll,
in comics Lo show Loo much is Lo Lcll Loo much.

AlLhough Racburn cschcws rcalism as a wholc, hc only LargcLs rcalism

in arL, conLrasLing iL wiLh Lhc liLcrary varicLy, wriLcrs o cLion arc supposcd
Lo avor dramaLizaLion and dcLail ovcr cxposiLion and didacLicism, buL com-
ics arLisLs musL avoid ovcrburdcning Lhcir imagcs lcsL Lhc imagcs Lhcmsclvcs
bccomc didacLic. AcLing as Warcs inLcrlocuLor, Racburn claims LhaL rcalisLic
drawing and wriLing arc anLiLhcLical, associaLing rcalisLic picLurcs cxclusivcly
wiLh Lhc supcrhcro advcnLurcs hc and Warc dccry. Ironically, somc supcr-
hcro boosLcrs makc Lhc samc associaLion, Lhough wiLh approval raLhcr Lhan
scorn, in Te S|ver Age oj Comc Pook Art (:oo), Arlcn Schumcr rcscrvcs his
highcsL praisc or Lhc naLuralisLic gurc drawing o Ncal Adams and his imi-
3 4 MARC S I NGE R
LaLors.
:o
WhcLhcr laudaLory or dismissivc, such argumcnLs Lcnd Lo ovcrlook
Lhc idcalizcd and cxaggcraLcd anaLomics, ouLrc scLLings, and hcroic subjccLs
LhaL would morc Lhan disqualiy such comics rom rcalism in Lhc visual arLs.
:

Tc rcalism Racburn dcridcs is Lhc illusionisLic LradiLion o Ncal Adams and
Alcx Ross, noL Lhc social obscrvaLion o Alison Bcchdcl or 1oc Sacco. Whilc
Lhcsc LradiLions may bc scparaLcd by Lhcir cmphasis on dicrcnL componcnLs
o rcalism, Lhc dcLcrmining acLor or Racburn sccms Lo bc Lhcir occupaLion
o dicrcnL gcnrcssupcrhcrocs vcrsus auLobiography, rcalisLic cLion, and
rcporLagcLhaL aspirc Lo dicrcnL lcvcls o auLhcnLiciLy and havc LradiLion-
ally commandcd radically dicrcnL kinds o culLural capiLal.
Warc, Loo, misscs no opporLuniLy Lo disLancc Lhc sclccLions in his anLholo-
gics rom supcrhcrocs and oLhcr popular gcnrcs LradiLionally associaLcd wiLh
comics. Tis is a classic rhcLorical sLraLcgy o Lhc alLcrnaLivc comics movc-
mcnL, which has long dcncd iLscl againsL Lhc anLasy, acLion, humor, and
supcrhcro gcnrcs LhaL dominaLcd Lhc NorLh Amcrican comics markcL aL Lhc
Limc o Lhc movcmcnLs cmcrgcncc in Lhc carly 8os. HaLcld wriLcs, Rcjcc-
Lion o Lhc corporaLisL mainsLrcam givcs Lhc posL-undcrground alLcrnaLivc
sccnc cvcryLhing: iLs raison dcLrc, iLs corc rcadcrship, and iLs problcmaLic,
marginal, and scl-marginalizing idcnLiLy.
::
WiLck incorporaLcs Lhis opposi-
Lional sLancc inLo his own argumcnLs, wiLh many o his claims or Lhc valuc
o noncLion comics prcdicaLcd on Lhcir cvidcnL dcparLurc rom brighLly
colorcd brcakncck ghL sccncs bcLwccn cosmos-spanning powcr gurcs wiLh
Lhc aLc o Lhc univcrsc aL sLakc, Lhc hypcrbolic dcscripLion rc-crcaLcs many
alLcrnaLivc comics arLisLs dcrision or Lhc anLasics Lhcy rcjccL.
:
AlLhough
Warc rcqucnLly incorporaLcs supcrhcro characLcrs inLo his own comics, such
as Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics / I Cucss and Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary, his
T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 3 5
anLhologics cannoL disavow Lhcm oLcn cnough. McSweeneys holds Lhc
commcrcial gcnrcs aL arms lcngLh boLh in Warcs comics conLribuLions (onc
o Lhc sLrips on his dusL jackcL is callcd AdolcsccnL Powcr FanLasy Man,
oLhcrs pokc un aL ormulaic ncwspapcr gag sLrips) and in his inLroducLion,
whcrc hc swcars o any rcsponsibiliLy or Lhosc cllow conLribuLors who rc-
usc Lo ollow suiL: nonc o Lhc words-only auLhors inviLcd Lo conLribuLc
wcrc askcd Lo wriLc abouL supcrhcrocs and Lhcir childhoods, Lhough ncarly
all o Lhcm did.
:
Warc accs no such cmbarrassmcnLs in Pest Amercan Comcs .oo,, which
cxcludcs supcrhcro comics noL simply or Lhcir gcncric caLurcs buL also or
Lhcir mosL common modc o producLion. Warc claims: Tc LradiLional, com-
mcrcially csLablishcd modc o scripLing a sLory and Lhcn simply illusLraLing
iL docs noL admiL Lo Lhc cndcmic poLcnLial in comics Lo liLcrally imaginc and
scc on Lhc pagc, Lo say noLhing o plumbing arcas o imaginaLion and mcmory
LhaL, I Lhink, would oLhcrwisc bc lcL inacccssiblc Lo words or singlc picLurcs
alonc.
:
UndcrsLandably, hc privilcgcs comics crcaLcd by a singlc wriLcr-arLisL,
anoLhcr kcy clcmcnL o Lhc alLcrnaLivc cLhos LhaL valucs comics as avcnucs
or scl-cxprcssion by a lonc crcaLor.
:6
Hc gocs ar bcyond Lhis prioriLizaLion,
howcvcr, whcn hc implics LhaL prosc, singlc imagcs, and cvcn comics crcaLcd
Lhrough Lhc collaboraLivc division o labor arc all somchow lcss ablc Lo ac-
ccss ccrLain arcas o imaginaLion and mcmory Lhan comics produccd by a
singlc wriLcr-arLisL. Warc cxLcnds Lhc division o labor o commcrcial comics
Lo cxLrcmc lcngLhs, scparaLing Lhcsc comics inLo Lhcir componcnL words and
picLurcs as a mcans o dcnying Lhcm Lhc samc capaciLy or cxprcssion, mcan-
ing, and dcpLhi noL cxcluding Lhcm rom ull considcraLion as comics.
:,
Having dismisscd Lhc commcrcial gcnrcs, Warc also scparaLcs his choscn
Fig. 3.3. Ware satirizes
postwar intellectuals
disdain for comics. Chris
Ware, Comics: A Histo-
ry, McSweeneys Quarterly
Concern 13 (San Francisco:
McSweeneys, 2004), 11.
3 6 MARC S I NGE R
milicu rom Lhc world o nc arLs. Tis Limc, howcvcr, Lhc scparaLion is noL
cnLircly volunLary. Tc McSweeneys inLroducLion Lallics Lhc humiliaLing judg-
mcnLs Warcs insLrucLors aL Lhc School o Lhc ArL InsLiLuLc o Chicago madc
abouL his dccision Lo crcaLc comics, in Lhc comic-sLrip hisLory o comics LhaL
runs parallcl Lo his prosc inLroducLion, and acLs aL Limcs as a visual commcn-
Lary on iL, Lhc samc pagc shows a Bcnday-doLLing Roy IichLcnsLcin Lypc who
boasLs LhaL hc uscs comics as a symbol or Lhc spiriLual povcrLy o Amcrican
culLurc (scc g. .).
:8
By Lhc Limc o his Pest Amercan Comcs inLroducLion,
howcvcr, Warc sccms almosL graLcul or Lhis cxpulsion, LrcaLing iL as a or-
LunaLc all LhaL cxcmpLcd comics rom Lhc absLracLionisL and conccpLualisL
bcnL o LwcnLicLh-ccnLury arL. In Warcs Lclling, modcrnism and iLs succcs-
sors all buL sLompcd ouL Lhc idca o sLoryLclling in picLurcs, wiLh comics Lhc
lonc holdouL, hc cvcn gocs so ar as Lo imply LhaL Lhc anLi-comics crusadc o
Lhc laLc os and carly os was somc kind o rcLribuLion or daring Lo Lcll
lurid sLorics in an agc o absLracLion.
:
Hc rcgards comics as a locus, i noL a
havcn, or mimcLic and narraLivc arL during a pcriod LhaL arL hisLorical nay-
saycrs and doomsdaycrs somcLimcs labcl as sucring a crisis o rcprcscnLa-
Lion.
o
I Lhc acadcmy has rcjccLcd comics, iL is Lhc acadcmys loss.
Tc carlicr McSweeneys inLroducLion draws subLlcr disLincLions bcLwccn
painLing and comics arL. ALcr hc argucs LhaL cxccssivc visual dcLail hampcrs
our abiliLy Lo rcad comics, Warc sLaLcs LhaL Lhc rcal arL rcsidcs in Lhc Lac-
LiliLy o an cxpcricncc Lold in picLurcs ouLsidc Lhc boundarics o words, and
Lhc rhythm o how Lhcsc drawings ccl whcn rcad, hc urLhcr claims Lhc
comics arLisLs sLylc is cxprcsscd in how Lhcir characLcrs movc, how Limc
is sculpLcd.

AlLhough hc rclics hcavily on guraLivc, analogic dcscripLions

borrowcd rom music and Lhc plasLic arLs, his cmphasis on rhyLhm, moLion,
and Limc suggcsLs LhaL, much likc ScoLL McCloud, Warc bclicvcs Lhc arL o
comics inhcrcs in iLs abiliLy Lo rcprcscnL Limc Lhrough Lhc juxLaposiLion and
arrangcmcnL o mulLiplc imagcs. Tis complicaLcs his Pest Amercan Comcs
dichoLomy o rccrcnLialiLy and conccpLualism, indicaLing LhaL comics arc di-
crcnL noL simply or rcprcscnLing Lhc world mimcLically buL or rcprcscnL-
ing iL Lhrough mulLiplc imagcs LhaL combinc Lo orm a unicd narraLivc, a
major dicrcncc o orm as wcll as conLcnL.
:
Warc, in posiLioning alLcrnaLivc
comics bcLwccn popular culLurc and Lhc nc arLs, has also raiscd, howcvcr
indirccLly, Lhc inLriguing possibiliLy LhaL comics could occupy a middlc spacc
bcLwccn rcprcscnLaLion and absLracLionor a spacc LhaL lics ouLsidc Lhis bi-
nary cnLircly, nciLhcr bcholdcn Lo rccrcnLialiLy nor bound Lo rcjccL iL.
UnorLunaLcly, Pest Amercan Comcs .oo, dcvoLcs morc cncrgy Lo siLuaL-
ing alLcrnaLivc comics bcLwccn Lhc popular and Lhc cliLc and condcmning
boLh, a mancuvcr sLrikingly rcminisccnL o Lhc posLwar middlcbrow criLics
o mass culLurc as dcscribcd by Icslic Ficdlcr in Tc Middlc againsL BoLh
Fnds (). Ficdlcr noLcs LhaL Lhcsc criLics wcrc as suspicious o modcrnisL
liLcraLurc as Lhcy wcrc o Lhc comics, lcading him Lo concludc, Tc middlc-
brow rcacLs wiLh cqual ury Lo an arL LhaL bacs his undcrsLanding and Lo
onc which rcuscs Lo aspirc Lo his lcvcl. Tc rsL rcminds him LhaL hc has noL
ycL, aLcr all, arrved (and, indccd, may ncvcr makc iL), Lhc sccond suggcsLs Lo
him a condiLion Lo which hc mighL casily rclapsc [. . . and] cvcn suggcsLs whaL
his sLaLc may appcar likc Lo Lhosc a noLch abovc.

Tc middlcbrow criLics arc

noL a pcrccL maLch or Warc: modcrnisL and posLmodcrnisL arL can hardly
T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 3 7
bc said Lo bac his undcrsLanding, and hc docs noL rcjccL Lhc inLolcrablc
noLion o a hicrarchy o LasLc, a hicrarchy o valucs as Ficdlcr mainLains Lhc
anLi-comics crusadcrs did.

QuiLc Lhc opposiLc, his anLhologics rcinorcc Lhc

samc hicrarchics and sLcrcoLypcs LhaL dcnicd comics any culLural capiLal in
Lhc pasL and causcd Warc so much gric aL arL school.
In McSweeneys, Warc lamcnLs LhaL Lhc associaLions o childhood and pu-
criliLy arc sLill hard Lo shakc or many carLoonisLsbuL hc hasLcns Lo add,
NoL LhaL Lhc arL iLscl shouldnL bc blamcd or crcaLing Lhcsc associaLions,
sincc Lhc accumulaLcd world-dump o comics is pilcd high wiLh nonscnsc.

BoLh his dusL jackcL sLrips and his inLroducLory hisLory o comics porLray com-
ics as a crass, dcspiscd, cphcmcral, hopclcssly commcrcializcd mcdium, cvcn
Cod himscl proclaims LhaL carLoonisLs surc goL shaLcd.
6
Danicl Wordcn
has obscrvcd how Lhis scnsc o shamc aL comics vulgar hisLory pcrmcaLcs
Lhc anLhology, providing a common acsLhcLic or Lhc conLribuLors and dcn-
ing Lhc books audicncc.
,
IL is also so common Lo Warcs own work LhaL, in
his prcacc, Warcs ricnd Ira Class quips, Comic book arLisLs oLcn sccm Lo
Lhink o Lhcmsclvcs as marginal gurcs. Im surc somcwhcrc in Lhis issuc o
McSweeneys Chris Warc is bcmoaning how no onc pays aLLcnLion Lo comics,
how Lhcyrc noL Lakcn scriously, how Lhcyrc sccn as childrcns arL.
8
Onc
pagc laLcr, Warc is doing jusL LhaL. His issuc o McSweeneys prcscnLs comics
as an abjccL, shamcul arL orm cvcn as hc casLigaLcs Lhc arL world or vicwing
iL Lhc samc way.
Pest Amercan Comcs .oo, is cvcn morc cquivocal in iLs simulLancous dc-
cnsc and dccnsivc bcliLLlcmcnL o comics. Warc jusLics Lhc prcpondcrancc
o auLobiography in alLcrnaLivc comics (and in his anLhology) by announc-
ing LhaL comics havc cnLcrcd Lhcir laLc adolcsccncc as arL/liLcraLurc and by
dcclaring auLobiography Lhc mosL acilc and immcdiaLc way or novicc arL-
isLs Lo lcarn Lo wriLc cmoLions.

Somc conLcxL mighL hclp illuminaLc Lhcsc

curiously backhandcd argumcnLs: Warc is dccnding auLobiographical comics
againsL a pcrccivcd slighL in a New York Tmes rcvicw by 1ohn Hodgman, who
wriLcs, For all Lhc admirablc corL Lo allow comics Lo Lcll dicrcnL Lypcs o
sLorics, Lhcrc is also a crccping samcncss Lo many o Lhcsc comics: black-and-
whiLc, scmi- or wholly auLobiographical skcLchcs o driLing daily lic and iLs
quicL cpiphanics [. . . and] somcLimcs Lhc cpiphanics arc so quicL as Lo bc in-
audiblc.
o
Hodgmans criLicisms, alLhough dclivcrcd wiLh considcrablc sym-
paLhy, suggcsL somc alLcrnaLivc comics havc scLLlcd inLo a monoLony LhaL
conLravcncs Lhcir own cLhos, a movcmcnL LhaL, according Lo HaLcld, pridcs
iLscl on gcncric divcrsiLy has rcachcd Lhc poinL whcrc Lhc appcarancc o
bracing honcsLy runs Lhc risk o hardcning inLo a scl-scrving, rcpcLiLivc
shLick.

Pcrhaps Lhc worsL sLing, howcvcr, is landcd whcn Hodgman, aLcr sum-
marizing onc parLicularly incrL sLory by 1onaLhan BcnncLL (rcprinLcd in Pest
Amercan Comcs .oo,), yawns, Tis is whcn I Lcnd Lo rcach or Lhc pilc o
supcrhcro comics.
:
Hodgman, Longuc rmly in chcck, rcuscs Lo rcspccL Lhc
hicrarchics o LasLc mainLaincd in Warcs inLroducLions and in Lhc world o
NorLh Amcrican alLcrnaLivc comics in gcncral, Lhc acL LhaL Lhcsc comics do
noL caLurc supcrhcrocs is no longcr sucicnL rcason or Hodgman Lo ignorc
his ccling LhaL many (Lhough by no mcans all) o Lhcsc cpiphanic comics arc
kind o boring.

Warcs rcsponsc is noL Lo rcuLc Lhc chargc buL Lo rcasscrL

3 8 MARC S I NGE R
Lhc hicrarchy. Hc rcanimaLcs Lhc dismissals o his arL school ycars wiLh his
claims LhaL comics havc cnLcrcd Lhcir laLc adolcsccnccpcrhaps a marginal
improvcmcnL ovcr childhood, which Warc associaLcs wiLh supcrhcro and
humor comicsand LhaL Lhcy havc ocuscd on auLobiography ouL o convc-
nicncc and a lack o any bcLLcr abiliLy Lo cxprcss cmoLion. I Lhcsc dccnscs
sccm paLronizing, cvcn counLcrproducLivc, aL lcasL Lhc hicrarchy o LasLc Lhcy
mainLain placcs Warcs alLcrnaLivc comics in Lhc middlc: Hodgmans supcr-
hcro comics arc scnL back Lo Lhc boLLom o Lhc pilc.
Warcs anLhologics rcinorcc Lhis hicrarchy Lhrough Lhcir sclccLion and
caLcgorizaLion o comics arLisLs. BoLh volumcs skcw hcavily Loward various
orms o liLcrary rcalism or lic wriLing: cpiphanic cLion, auLobiography, di-
ary comics, drcam journals. Tcsc gcnrcs accounL or anywhcrc rom onc-
Lhird Lo onc-hal o Lhc comics in McSweeneys (dcpcnding on how bordcr
cascs likc Danicl Clowcss aggrcssivcly, ironically mundanc Tc DarlingLon
Sundays arc classicd).

Tc Lrcnd is cvcn morc pronounccd in Pest Amer-

can Comcs .oo,, wiLh Lhc abscncc o hisLorical comics arLisLs likc Rodolphc
Topcr, Ccorgc Hcrriman, or Charlcs Schulz (all caLurcd in McSweeneys),
wcll ovcr hal o Lhc arLisLs havc produccd auLobiographic or rcalisLic comics,
and auLobiographics alonc accounL or morc Lhan a Lhird o Lhc collccLion.
Warc urLhcr calls aLLcnLion Lo Lhis narrow rangc by grouping his sclccLions
LogcLhcr by gcnrc and sLylc, cxaccrbaLing Lhc imprcssion LhaL his collccLions
arc govcrncd by only a cw modcs o wriLing.
Nowhcrc is Warcs Lcndcncy Lo promoLc auLobiographical comicsand Lo
pigconholc alLcrnaLivc comics arLisLs in a handul o gcnrcsmorc appar-
cnL Lhan in his handling o womcn arLisLs. O Lhc LhirLy-Lwo comics arLisLs
includcd in Pest Amercan Comcs .oo,, jusL ninc arc womcn. (Two arc Lhc
wic and daughLcr o undcrground comix lcgcnd R. Crumb.) McSweeneys
is cvcn lcss inclusivc, wiLh womcn accounLing or only Lhrcc ouL o LhirLy-
scvcn arLisLs. In rcsponsc Lo complainLs abouL Lhis lack o rcprcscnLaLion,
Warc wraps up his Pest Amercan Comcs inLroducLion wiLh a raLhcr prickly
dccnsc o his sclccLion proccss, sLaLing, I am noL o Lhc cuL o Lhc cloLh Lo
chcck an arLisLs gcniLalia aL Lhc door, and dismissing Lhosc who sLill ccl
compcllcd Lo Lally poinLs or onc or anoLhcr chromosomcLypical rcvcrsals
LhaL scck Lo shiL Lhc blamc onLo anyonc who wanLs Lo addrcss issucs o gcn-
dcr cxclusion, bascd on Lhc old allacy LhaL acknowlcdging gcndcr dicrcncc
is iLscl a orm o discriminaLion. Hc adds, Nor in Lhc casc o Lhis book did I
go ouL in scarch o a couplc o hcrmaphrodiLcs Lo cvcn ouL Lhc scorc, urLhcr
Lrivializing any objccLions Lo Lhc scarciLy o womcn in his collccLions. Warc
conronLs chargcs o cxclusion morc dirccLly whcn hc says hc chosc Lo includc
work LhaL [hc] ound Lo bc Lhc mosL inLcrcsLing, honcsL, and rcvcaling Lo bc
publishcd in Lhc pasL ycar, and LhaL collccLion, as iL Lurncd ouL, includcd com-
ics rom Lhc pcns o boLh scxcs.

Tc dcLachcd posLurc and passivc languagc

(as iL Lurncd ouL) imply LhaL Warc and Lhcn scrics cdiLor Annc FlizabcLh
Moorc wcrc Lruly gcndcr blind in Lhcir sclccLions and plcasanLly surpriscd
wiLh Lhc cquiLablc rcsulL.
6
A look aL Lhc conLcnLs o Pest Amercan Comcs .oo, Lclls anoLhcr sLory. O
Lhc ninc womcn Warc includcd, cighL arc groupcd LogcLhcr, consccuLivcly,
in Lhc auLobiography sccLion, cvcn Lhough Iynda Barrys sLrip Frne Pooks
Comeek is noL auLobiographical. Tc ninLh woman, Miriam KaLin, also works
T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 3 9
in auLobiography buL is wcdgcd bcLwccn Lwo oLhcr 1cwish comics arLisLs,
Sammy Harkham and Bcn KaLchor, in a dicrcnL buL cqually clausLropho-
bic caLcgory. Tc sclccLions barcly acknowlcdgc LhaL womcn crcaLc comics in
oLhcr gcnrcs bcyond auLobiography. Moorcs appcndcd lisL o Lhc oo Dis-
Linguishcd Comics publishcd during Lhc cligibiliLy pcriod includcs hisLory,
biography, anLasy, cLion, and cxpcrimcnLal comics by womcn such as An-
dricc Arp, Mcgan Kclso, Iinda Mcdlcy, Danica Novgorodo, and Bccca Tay-
lor, among scvcral oLhcrs, ycL nonc o Lhcm madc Lhc cuL in a collccLion LhaL
ncvcrLhclcss has room or our David HcaLlcy comics, Lhrcc Ivan BruncLLi
sLrips, and Lhc cnLirc Crumb amily.
,
Whilc Lhc small numbcr o womcn may
rcccL Lhc rclaLivc pauciLy o cmalc crcaLors in NorLh Amcrican comics as a
wholc, Lhis sLark gcndcr scgrcgaLion is Warcs handiworkmosL likcly an un-
inLcndcd conscqucncc o his disproporLionaLc cmphasis on auLobiography,
which rcmains Lhc gcnrc o comics wiLh Lhc mosL promincnL and prcvalcnL
work by womcn. Warc and Moorcs osLcnsibly gcndcr-blind sclccLion proccss
only pcrpcLuaLcs Lhis ghcLLoizaLion. Tc parLiLioning nccd noL bc malicious
or dclibcraLc, mcrcly Lhc mosL cxLrcmc cxamplc o a orcshorLcncd vision o
comics LhaL ocuscs on honcsL and rcvcaling work abovc all clscand na-
vcly cquaLcs Lhosc characLcrisLics wiLh Lhcir mosL obvious orms o cxprcs-
sion in auLobiography and quoLidian rcalism.
Warc ocrs a dicrcnL cxplanaLion o his acsLhcLic prccrcnccs in Pest
Amercan Comcs .oo,. ConLrasLing Lhc rcccnL boom in comics wiLh Lhc ris-
ing populariLy o prosc cLion in an incrcasingly urban and indusLrial ninc-
LccnLh ccnLury, hc conLcnds LhaL in Lhc pasL, as gcography, communicaLion,
and socicLy bccamc morc LighL-kniL, individual pcrccpLions and cxprcssion
bcgan Lo sLandardizc.
8
Warc summarizcs a complcx buL widcly acccpLcd ar-
gumcnL LhaL Lhc Lcchnological and social innovaLions o modcrniLy and Lhc
sccond indusLrial rcvoluLion insLiLuLcd univcrsalizcd, cvcr-shrinking scalcs
o Limc and spacc, providing Lhc world, or Lhc rsL Limc, wiLh a common
ramc o rccrcncc.

Warc Lhcn makcs his boldcsL claim whcn hc asscrLs LhaL

Lhis proccss o univcrsalizaLion is morc or lcss cxacLly Lhc invcrsc o whaLs
bccn happcning in comics or Lhc lasL cw ycars [. . . and] cvcn a casual ip-
Lhrough o Lhc pagcs o Lhis book will dcmonsLraLc a highly individual ap-
proach by cach and cvcry arLisL.
o
Hc posiLions alLcrnaLivc comics as running
counLcr Lo modcrniLy iLscl.
Warcs Lhcsis is admirablc or iLs ambiLion, iLs scopc, and iLs ncaL cncap-
sulaLion o Lhc changcs wroughL by modcrniLy, buL iL also prompLs a cw im-
mcdiaLc objccLions. FirsL, modcrniLy is hardly as cxclusivcly homogcnizing
as Warc suggcsLs, Lhc samc pcriod in Lhc laLc nincLccnLh and carly LwcnLi-
cLh ccnLurics LhaL saw Lhc aLLcmpLcd rcgularizaLion o Limc and spacc also
produccd modcrnisms highly pcrsonalizcd, idiosyncraLic, ragmcnLcd modcs
o pcrccpLion and arLisLic rcprcscnLaLion.

Sccond, and morc imporLanL Lo

undcrsLanding Warcs acsLhcLic criLcria, his claim LhaL cach and cvcry arL-
isL in his anLhology has a highly individual approach is bclicd by Lhc com-
paraLivcly narrow rangc o gcnrcs and arL sLylcs hc has sclccLcd or inclusion.
AlLhough plcnLy o cxccpLions cxisL, Loo many o Lhc Pest Amercan Comcs
conLribuLors prcscnL diarics, auLobiographics, or quoLidian rcalisLic cLion,
or draw in Lhc samc loosc, dclibcraLcly unpolishcd do-iL-yourscl acsLhcLic,
or Warcs claim o univcrsal individualiLy Lo bc morc Lhan hypcrbolc.
:
Tc
4 0 MARC S I NGE R
majoriLy o his conLribuLors work wiLhin a scL o gcncric and sLylisLic convcn-
Lions as wcll dcncd as Lhc commcrcial narraLivc Lcchniqucs hc rcjccLs.
Hc may ncvcrLhclcss bc onLo somcLhing whcn hc locaLcs his conLribu-
Lors wiLhin an acsLhcLic o Lhc individual. Somc o Lhc sclccLions, such as
Sammy Harkhams imaginaLion o lic in a nincLccnLh-ccnLury shLcLl or Dan
ZcLLwochs rccord o Lhc , Iouisvillc ood, skcLch cnLirc communiLics
whilc oLhcrs, likc Lhc rcc-associaLivc cxpcrimcnLs o C. F. and Papcr Rad,
abandon rcalisLic narraLivc cnLircly. MosL o Lhc sLorics in Pest Amercan
Comcs .oo,, howcvcr, arc sLorics o individual dilcmmas, individual cpipha-
nics (or Lhc lack Lhcrco), individual arLisLs or Lhcir surrogaLcs losL in Lhcir
own individual pcrccpLions. Warc is noL incorrccL Lo placc Lhis cmphasis on
individual cxpcricncc in opposiLion Lo Lhc morc social ocus o nincLccnLh-
ccnLury cLion, buL hc sccms unawarc LhaL iL is hardly limiLcd Lo comics.
ChrisLophcr Iasch bcmoancd Lhc populariLy o concssional liLcraLurc in Te
Cu|ture oj Narcsssm (,8), cxcoriaLing iL or iLs scl-indulgcncc.

ConLcm-
porary rcalisLic cLion has prompLcd similar criLiqucs: Ccorgc Packcr noLcs,
RcccnL Amcrican liLcraLurc rcccLs Lhis Lriumph o privaLc lic. Tc wriLing
LhaL has had Lhc grcaLcsL inucncc in Lhc pasL Lwo dccadcs [. . .] is a brcak-
asL-Lablc rcalism, ocuscd inward on mariLal complainLs, childhood Lroublcs,
alcohol, scx, gcncral scl-loaLhing and dissaLisacLion.

By way o cxamplc,
Packcr ciLcs Warc and Moorcs sisLcr scrics, Pest Amercan Short Stores, had
hc wriLLcn Lhis passagc scvcn ycars laLcr, hc could jusL as casily havc ciLcd
Pest Amercan Comcs .oo,. Tc sLorics Warc and Moorc havc sclccLcd do cul-
LivaLc an individual approach, noL in Lhcir sharcd sLylcs buL Lhrough Lhcir
common rcLrcaL inLo inLcrior lic, and Warcs inLroducLion docs hinL aL Lhc
privaLizing acsLhcLic aL work in Lhcsc comics cvcn i hc docs noL acknowlcdgc
LhaL such an acsLhcLic cxisLs. Tis undcrcuLs many o his claims or comics
rcvoluLionary brcak rom prcvailing acsLhcLic sLandardsor whilc Lhcy may
challcngc Lhc posLwar visual arLs ocus on absLracLion and conccpLualism,
his sclccLions all pcrccLly in linc wiLh posLwar Amcrican liLcraLurcs LasLc
or Lhc concssional and quoLidian. Warc has simply cxchangcd onc scL o
canonical sLandards or anoLhcr.
Hc is hardly Lhc only wriLcr Lo imposc Lhc liLcrary worlds prccrcnccs or
rcalism and auLobiography onLo comics. Tc pracLicc is pcrhaps bcsL cxcmpli-
cd by Charlcs McCraLhs New York Tmes Magazne arLiclc on graphic novcls.
Publishcd almosL simulLancously wiLh McSweeneys , Lhc arLiclc boLh rccog-
nizcs and cnablcs comics ncwound rcspccLabiliLy, ycL iL also conaLcs a sin-
glc modc o wriLing wiLh an cnLirc mcdium as McCraLh cvaluaLcs Lhc graphic
novcl in Lhc narrowcsL o liLcrary Lcrms. ALcr quickly dismissing popular
gcnrc cLion rom considcraLion, McCraLh asscrLs LhaL Lhc bcLLcr graphic
novclsLhc comic book[s] wiLh a braininhabiL a placc o longing, loss,
scxual rusLraLion, lonclincss and alicnaLiona landscapc vcry similar, in
oLhcr words, Lo LhaL o so much prosc cLion.

Ignoring Lhc divcrsiLy o his

own inLcrvicwccs, who rangc rom comics journalisL 1oc Sacco Lo supcrhcro
auLcur Alan Moorc, McCraLh cclcbraLcs anomic alLcrnaLivc comics prcciscly
bccausc Lhcy conorm Lo Lhc gcncric prccrcnccs o conLcmporary liLcrary c-
Lionprccrcnccs or rcalism, inLcrioriLy, scl-rcccLion, and, abovc all, au-
Lobiography. Hc also rcduccs all auLobiographical and scmi-auLobiographical
comics Lo a singlc ur-narraLivc, which upon cxaminaLion provcs Lo bc, wiLh
T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 4 1
small variaLions, Lhc rcal lic sLory o almosL cvcryonc who gocs inLo Lhis linc
o work.
6
Tis is a sLory o obscssion, social osLracism, usually cxccssivc
masLurbaLion, ragc and dcprcssion and LhwarLcd cncrgy, a sLory so ormu-
laic LhaL by arLiclcs cnd McCraLh has boilcd iL down Lo ormula Lwicc morc
and uscd iL Lo sum up Lhc livcs o Danicl Clowcs and Chris Warc: brokcn
homc, comics obscssion, ricndlcss, daLclcss adolcsccncc.
,
Whilc lauding
Lhcsc sLorics as Lhc mosL liLcraLc, arLisLic, inLclligcnL sLylc o comics, McCraLh
conncs Lhcm Lo a singlc ploLlinc as prcdicLablc and LriLc as anyLhing pro-
duccd by Lhc supcrhcro acLorics o DC or Marvcl Comics. His arLiclc cxcccds
cvcn Warcs Pest Amercan Comcs inLroducLion in iLs pcnchanL or rcinorcing
Lhc valuc judgmcnLs o Lhc samc culLural csLablishmcnL hc claims graphic
novcls arc supplanLing, bcginning in Lhc sccond paragraph whcn hc sLaLcs, I
Lhc highbrows arc righL, [comics arc] a orm pcrccLly suiLcd Lo our dumbcd-
down culLurc and collccLivc aLLcnLion dcciL.
8
Ironically, Lhosc judgmcnLs no longcr hold Lhc samc sway ovcr much o
Lhc liLcrary world. AuLhors o considcrablc skill and acclaim wcrc challcng-
ing Lhc privilcgcd posiLion o mcmoir, auLobiography, and rcalisLic, cpiphanic
cLion wcll bcorc McCraLh and Warc aLLcmpLcd Lo LranslaLc LhaL privilcgc
ovcr Lo comics. Colson WhiLchcad dissccLcd Lhc ormulaic rcpcLiLions, pan-
dcring mcLaphors, and always-muLcd cpiphanics o Lhc Wcll-CraLcd ShorL
SLory in a :oo: New York Tmes book rcvicw, jusL a cw wccks carlicr Mi-
chacl Chabon, wriLing Lhc inLroducLion Lo a volumc o McSweeneys dcvoLcd
Lo popular gcnrc cLion, dcscribcd his cxhausLion wiLh Lhc conLcmporary,
quoLidian, ploLlcss, momcnL-o-LruLh rcvclaLory sLory in bruLally Darwin-
ian Lcrms, lamcnLing Lhc gcncric dominancc o Lhc momcnL-o-LruLh sLory
LhaL, likc homo sapicns, appcarcd rclaLivcly laLc on Lhc sccnc buL has workcd
vcry quickly Lo wipc ouL iLs rivals.

Chabon and WhiLchcad boLh obscrvc

LhaL quoLidian rcalism is a gcnrc likc any oLhcr, wiLh as much poLcnLial or
rigid ormulas and Lircd convcnLions as any o Lhc popular gcnrcs Warc and
McCraLh dismiss. I liLcrary cLion is, in acL, on Lhc wanc, as McCraLh spcc-
ulaLcs in his rsL paragraph, alrcady on iLs way Lo bccoming a nichc gcnrc
or a shrinking audicncc, iL sccms counLcrinLuiLivc LhaL hc and Warc should
promoLc comics LhaL adopL Lhc sLandards and Lhc gcnrcs LhaL rcign ovcr iLs
dcclinc.
For all LhaL Warc posiLions himscl, in comics and in prinL, againsL arL in-
sLrucLors, book rcvicwcrs, and oLhcr culLural gaLckccpcrs, his anLhologics arc
lcss inLcrcsLcd in cxploding Lhc gaLckccpcrs hicrarchics o LasLc Lhan Lhcy arc
in asccnding wiLhin Lhosc hicrarchics, boLh by duplicaLing Lhc convcnLions
o morc lcgiLimizcd arL orms and by disLancing Lhcmsclvcs rom Lhc kinds
o comics LhaL oncc carncd Lhc highbrows scorn. Warc siLuaLcs Lhc alLcrna-
Livc comics in his anLhologics as a ncw middlcbrow, ccing rom Lhc dcmoLic
cxccsscs o supcrhcrocs and unny animals whilc razzing Lhc ossicd convcn-
Lions o Lhc visual arLs (and, simulLancously, rccrcaLing Lhc ossicd convcn-
Lions o liLcrary cLion). Iikc Ficdlcrs middlcbrow, Warcs anLhologics rail
againsL boLh high and low culLurc, buL Lhcy do so in Lhc inLcrcsL o rccycling
raLhcr Lhan dcnying Lhc culLurcs valuc judgmcnLs. Tcy also advocaLc limiLcd
rangcs o acsLhcLic ambiLion and gcncric producLion or maLurc, sophisLi-
caLcd, culLurally lcgiLimaLcd comics.
6o
WiLh Lhcir clausLrophobic caLcgorics,
Lhcir rccirculaLcd hicrarchics, and Lhcir rcnunciaLion o boLh Lhc nc arLs and
4 2 MARC S I NGE R
popular culLurc in avor o a homogcnous and dcrivaLivc middlc ground, Pest
Amercan Comcs .oo, and McSweeneys do noL rcccL Lhc ull divcrsiLy and
poLcnLial o comics, Lhcy only arm LhaL Warcs vision o alLcrnaLivc comics
no longcr ocrs much o an alLcrnaLivc.
Notes
1. Chris Ware, God, in McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13 (San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2004),
dust jacket.
2. Daniel Worden, The Shameful Art: McSweeneys Quarterly Concern, Comics, and the Politics of
Affect, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 892.
3. Thierry Groensteen discusses the assumptions that have delegitimized comics, including, no-
tably, fears of the corrupting power of the image, suspicion of fantasy or escapism, especially when
it is presented visually, and a mistrust of comics hybrid nature, which violates Western cultures
long-standing separation of text and image. Thierry Groensteen, Why Are Comics Still in Search
of Cultural Legitimization? trans. Shirley Smolderen, in Comics & Culture, ed. Anne Magnussen and
Hans-Christian Christiansen (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2000), 3536.
4. Charles Hateld, Alternative Comics (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), ixx.
5. Ibid., x.
6. Ibid., 109.
7. Joseph Witek, Comic Books as History (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1989), 128, 132.
8. Ibid., 132.
9. Ibid., 126.
10. W.J.T. Mitchell, Picture Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 325.
11. Linda Nochlin, Realism (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1971), 13.
12. Ibid., 1921, 3140. Nochlin also argues that realism, contrary to its claims of objectivity, does
not and cannot offer a transparent window onto reality (1415).
13. Chris Ware, Introduction, in The Best American Comics 2007 (Boston: Houghton Mifin,
2007), xviixviii, xxi.
14. Ibid., xxi.
15. Hateld, Alternative Comics, 114.
16. Chris Ware, Corrigenda, in Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon,
2000), endpapers.
17. Ware, Introduction, McSweeneys 11 (San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2003).
18. Chris Ware, quoted in Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004),
18. Ware is far from the only comics artist to claim that iconically simplied art increases reader
empathy and identication; Scott McCloud makes a similar argument in chapter 2 of Understanding
Comics (Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink, 1993); and Art Spiegelman describes Maus in similar terms
in Joshua Brown, Of Mice and Memory, Oral History Review 16.1 (1988): 91109. However, some
scholars have challenged this association, arguing that iconic style does not determine reader involve-
ment: see Jonathan Frome, Identication in Comics, The Comics Journal 211 (1999): 8286.
19. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 19.
20. Schumer also makes the questionable argument that Adamss expressive anatomical realism
was a necessary precursor for superhero comics to tackle more complex and realistic subjects, quite
the opposite of Wares and Raeburns separation of the two. Arlen Schumer, The Silver Age of Comic
Book Art (Portland, OR: Collectors Press, 2003).
21. Charles Hateld, review of The Silver Age of Comic Art, International Journal of Comic Art 6.1
(2004): 352.
22. Hateld, Alternative Comics, 111.
23. Witek, Comic Books as History, 127.
24. Ware, McSweeneys 12 (San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2003).
25. Ware, Best American, xix.
26. Hateld, Alternative Comics, 16, 18.
T HE L I MI T S OF R E AL I S M: ANT HOL OGI E S OF CHR I S WAR E 4 3
27. Wares logic cannot support his own preferences: if he applied this principle across all genres
of comics, then the work of critically reviled superhero writer-artists such as Todd MacFarlane and
Rob Liefeld would possess more of comics endemic potential than that of alternative comics pio-
neer Harvey Pekar, who never illustrates his own scripts and always collaborates with an artist.
28. Ware, McSweeneys 11.
29. Ware, Best American, xixxx.
30. Ibid., xxii.
31. Ware, McSweeneys 11.
32. The Best American introduction does note that the pre-modernist narrative art of altarpieces
and tapestries was frequently sequential. Ware, Best American, xix.
33. Leslie Fiedler, The Middle against Both Ends, Encounter (August 1955), rpt. in The Collected
Essays of Leslie Fiedler, vol. 2 (New York: Stein and Day, 1971), 428.
34. Ibid., 428.
35. Ware, McSweeneys 11.
36. Ibid., dust jacket.
37. Worden, The Shameful Art, 89394.
38. Ira Glass, Preface, in McSweeneys 7 (San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2001).
39. Ware, Best American, xviii.
40. John Hodgman, Comics Chronicle, New York Times Book Review, June 4, 2006, 18. Ware
does not cite Hodgman by name, but he refers to a June 2006 roundup of various recent comics
and quotes Hodgmans review. He also neglects to mention that Hodgman praises several comics in
the epiphanic style, including two by C. Tyler and Kevin Huizenga that are excerpted in Best American
Comics 2007.
41. Hateld, Alternative Comics, 114.
42. Hodgman, Comics Chronicle, 18.
43. Ibid.
44. Worden notes that the anthologys thematic range is also remarkably homogenous, with
most of the selections drawing on a common tradition in comics that centers on intimacy, shame,
and masculine melancholia. Worden, The Shameful Art, 892, 893.
45. Ware, Best American, xxiii.
46. David Foster Wallace explains the selection process for the Best American series in his In-
troduction to The Best American Essays 2007, ed. David Foster Wallace (Boston: Houghton Mifin,
2007). The series editorin the case of Best American Comics 2007, Anne Elizabeth Mooreculls
the submissions down to roughly 100 nalists. The guest editorin this case, Warechooses which
pieces will be published in the anthology.
47. Anne Elizabeth Moore, 100 Distinguished Comics from August 31, 2005, to September 1,
2006, in Ware, Best American, 32830.
48. Ware, Best American, xx, xxi.
49. See, for example, Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 18801918 (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1983), 1115; and David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge,
UK: Blackwell, 1990), 26083.
50. Ware, Best American, xxi.
51. See Kern, The Culture of Time and Space; and Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity. Brad Prager
has observed that Ware himself works in a modernist mode. Brad Prager, Modernism in the Con-
temporary Graphic Novel: Chris Ware and the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, International Journal
of Comic Art. 5.1 (2003): 195213.
52. Dave Eggers identies many of the hallmarks of this style, currently ascendant in alternative
comics, in his catalogue for a 2008 gallery show of such works. He cites their lighthearted tone,
scrawled writing, uncorrected spelling, casual, even sloppy drawings, loose draftsmanship, and
their intimate and disarming ethos. Unfortunately, he declines to give a name to this affected unaf-
fectedness, choosing (in a tting example of the style) to title his exhibition and catalogue Lots of
Things Like This. Dave Eggers, Lots of Things Like This, in McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 27 (San
Francisco: McSweeneys, 2008), n.p.
53. Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1978), 1621. Hateld has
4 4 MARC S I NGE R
observed how Laschs arguments underwrite many common critiques of autobiographical comics.
Hateld, Alternative Comics, 12930.
54. George Packer, Blood of the Liberals (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000), 390.
55. Charles McGrath, Not Funnies, New York Times Magazine, July 11, 2004, 30.
56. Ibid., 30.
57. Ibid., 30, 33.
58. Ibid., 24.
59. Colson Whitehead, The End of the Affair, New York Times Book Review, March 3, 2002, 8;
Michael Chabon, The Editors Notebook, in McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 10 (San Francisco: Mc-
Sweeneys, 2002), 7.
60. Other anthologists do not prescribe Wares realist aesthetic; The Best American Comics 2008
(Boston: Houghton Mifin, 2008), assembled by Wares friend Lynda Barry and new series editors
Jessica Abel and Matt Madden, displays a very different mix of styles and a marked predilection for
humor, fable, and fantasy.
4 5
Chris Wares Failures
DAVID M. BALL
Why boLhcr Laking Lhc Limc Lo rcad Lhis` ArcnL Lhcrc bcLLcr Lhings you could
bc spcnding your moncy on` IsnL Lhcrc somcLhing worLhwhilc you could bc
doing righL now` Tis is Lhc immcdiaLc rcacLion wc mighL cxpccL rom Chris
Warc aL Lhc LhoughL o a criLical volumc o cssays dcvoLcd Lo his work. Indccd,
hc had much Lhc samc rcacLion whcn rsL inormcd abouL Lhc :oo, Modcrn
Ianguagc AssociaLion roundLablc on his comics LhaL scrvcd as Lhc origin o
Lhis prcscnL collccLion: I musL say, Im noL surc whcLhcr Lo bc plcascd or
Lcrricd LhaL my sLu would all undcr Lhc scruLiny o pcoplc who arc clcarly
cducaLcd cnough Lo know bcLLcr. Id imaginc LhaL your roundLablc will quickly
dissolvc inLo Lopics o much morc prcssing inLcrcsL, or LhaL youll aL lcasL bc
ablc Lo adjourn carly or a placc in linc aL lunch, cLc.

Warcs rcadcrs and ans havc comc Lo cxpccL Lhis characLcrisLic scl-
abncgaLion in all o his public pcrormanccs and publicaLions, an insisLcnL
rhcLoric o ailurc LhaL imbucs cvcryLhing rom Warcs inLcrvicws and criLical
wriLings Lo Lhc layouL and packaging o his hardbound, book-lcngLh publica-
Lions. Warc arLully cdiLs Lhc lcasL aLLcring porLions o rcvicws on Lhc inscL
pagcs o papcrback cdiLions o 1mmy Corrgan, inorming his rcadcrs LhaL Lhc
volumc Lhcy hold is boLh wcighcd down by iLs ambiLion and ncarly impos-
siblc Lo rcad.
:
Warcs scl-wriLLcn caLaloguc or his :oo, solo cxhibiLion aL
Omahas Shcldon Mcmorial Callcry appcarcd undcr Lhc LiLlc Apologics, FLc.
and lamcnLcd Lhc collccLions uncrringly incxprcssivc conLcnLs (scc plaLc
).

Tc cxLcrior band o Warcs hardcovcr Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary Fna| Re-

port to Shareho|ders and Saturday Ajternoon Rany Lay Fun Pook (Lhc LiLlc iLscl
dcvaluing Lhc conLcnLs o Lhc book Lo Lhc rcalm o Lhc sub-liLcrary) is graccd
wiLh a prolix apologia promising LhaL rcadcrs will bc gravcly disappoinLcd
by Lhc conLcnLs o Lhis volumc and ocring a long lisL o oLhcr uncLions
Lhc discardcd book mighL scrvc: A DisappoinLmcnL * A Uscd Book * Trash
* A CuLLing Board * Food or InsccLs and RodcnLs * A Wcapon * Fucl * ALLic
InsulaLion * Tc Focus o an Angry Rcvicw * Rccyclcd Wood Pulp in Lhc Papcr
o a BcLLcr Book * SomcLhing Lo ForgcL abouL on Lhc Floor o Your Car * A Tax
ShclLcr or Lhc Publishcrs.

Fvcn Lhc vcry barcodcs o Warcs works rarcly ap-

pcar wiLhouL a scl-agcllanL quip or rcmindcr Lo Lhc books purchascrs LhaL
Lhcir Limc and moncy could bc bcLLcr invcsLcd clscwhcrc.
BoLh casual and scholarly rcadcrs o Warc havc puzzlcd ovcr Lhc prcva-
lcncc o such cxprcssions o insucicncy and usclcssncss, cxamplcs o which
arc lcgion in his work and pcrmcaLc his cnLirc carccr, rom Warcs disavowals
o his carlicsL sLrips Lo Lhc laLcsL volumc in his ongoing scrializaLion o Te
4 6 DAV I D M. B AL L
ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary. Tis rhcLoric o ailurc appcars boLh paraLcxLuallyin
placcs such as dusL jackcLs, publicaLion inormaLion, and auLhor biographics
LhaL cusLomarily codiy and rcinorcc Lhc LcxLs valuc as a signiying Loolas
wcll as narraLivcly, in sLorics LhaL rouLincly rcvolvc around Lhcmcs o anomic,
humiliaLion, and dcspair.

For somc, Lhis abncgaLion is noLhing morc Lhan

Lhc ouLward manicsLaLion o a scl-cacing auLhor, parL and parccl o comics
arLisLs carcully consLrucLcd pcrsonac as ncglccLcd ouLsidcrs in a harsh and
uncaring world.
6
For oLhcrs, Lhis unrclcnLing rcLurn Lo narraLivcs o uLiliLy
and human sucring rcvcals a morbid ascinaLion wiLh sLorics o loss and
mcaninglcssncss. Douglas Wolk summarizcd Lhis vicw in his Readng Comcs
wiLh a chapLcr LiLlcd Why Docs Chris Warc HaLc Fun` Tcrc hc wriLcs LhaL
Warcs comics havc an cmoLional rangc o onc noLc [. . .] orc[ing] his rcadcrs
Lo waLch his characLcrs sickcn and dic slowly, LormcnL (and bc humiliaLcd in
Lurn by) Lhcir brokcn amilics, and lcad livcs o ailurc and lonclincss.
,
Warcs
rhcLoric o ailurc, according Lo Lhis unrcccLivc criLiquc, Lhinly masks Lhc
bravura prcLcnsions o a graphic gcnius, acLing as a kind o alsc conscious-
ncss bchind which hc can shicld his gcnrc-dcying approach Lo graphic narra-
Livc. Whilc all o Lhcsc cxplanaLions rcccL ccrLain LruLhs abouL Warchc is
in acL cxcccdingly modcsL, docs ocus his crcaLivc cncrgics inLo a worldvicw
indclibly inccLcd wiLh angsL and cxisLcnLial Lcrror, and rcqucnLly docs dis-
avow Lhc scopc o his ambiLions bchind scl-cacing rcmarksaL Lhc samc
Limc Lhcsc rcadings (Wolks mosL promincnL among Lhcm) unncccssarily
rcsLricL Lhc inLcrprcLivc possibiliLics o Warcs LcxLs Lo mcrc pcrsonal (and
by implicaLion, pcrvcrsc) prcdilccLions. In doing so, Lhcy obscurc a broadcr
liLcrary undcrsLanding o Lhc work o Warcs rhcLoric o ailurc and Lhc rolc iL
plays in his aLLcmpLs noL only Lo wriLc comics wiLh Lhc LcxLurc and sophisLi-
caLion o liLcrary cLion, buL Lo havc Lhcm LrcaLcd as such.
In Lhis cssay, I arguc LhaL Lhc rhcLoric o ailurc is onc o Lhc mcans by
which Warc ncgoLiaLcs his aLLcmpLs Lo placc comics in Lhc liLcrary canon. In
doing so, hc is rcinhabiLing a much oldcr Amcrican liLcrary LradiLion, onc LhaL
bcgins as carly as Lhc mid-nincLccnLh ccnLury. Amcrican auLhors havc long
culLivaLcd a scl-conscious rhcLoric o ailurc as a waLchword or liLcrary suc-
ccss, cccLivcly Lransvaluing Lhc mcanings o succcss and ailurc in rccrcncc
Lo Lhcir own wriLing. Tis rcprcscnLcd an corL, among oLhcr objccLivcs, Lo
csLablish a conccpL o liLcrary prcsLigc in an cra o Lhc bcsLsclling novcl. By
spurning commcrcial succcss and romanLicizing Lhc ncglccLcd arLisL, Amcri-
can auLhors bcgan Lo classiy Lhc liLcrary iLscl in opposiLion Lo mass culLurc,
a dcniLion adopLcd and amplicd by subscqucnL gcncraLions o rcadcrs,
criLics, and liLcrary LhcorisLs. In Amcrican liLcraLurc, Hcrman Mclvillc scrvcs
as Lhc archcLypc or Lhis rhcLoric, wriLing in his amous rcvicw cssay Haw-
Lhornc and His Mosscs LhaL iL is bcLLcr Lo ail in originaliLy, Lhan Lo succccd
in imiLaLion. Hc who has ncvcr ailcd somcwhcrc, LhaL man can noL bc grcaL.
Failurc is Lhc Lruc LcsL o grcaLncss. And i iL bc said, LhaL conLinual succcss
is a proo LhaL a man wiscly knows his powcrs,iL is only Lo bc addcd, LhaL,
in LhaL casc, hc knows Lhcm Lo bc small.
8
WriLing in a Limc o cxpanding liL-
cracy, cspccially among ncwly lcisurcd and monicd womcn rcadcrs wiLhin a
broadcning Amcrican middlc class, Amcrican auLhors or Lhc rsL Limc had Lo
disLinguish Lhcir aspiraLions rom a growing mass audicncc aL Lhc samc Limc
LhaL Lhcy noncLhclcss soughL cconomic viabiliLy and susLainablc rcadcrships.
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 4 7
IL was Lhc conicLcd dcsirc Lo boLh capLurc and rcnouncc Lhis mass audicncc
LhaL rsL gavc birLh Lo a rhcLoric o ailurc-as-succcss among Amcrican wriL-
crs, whaL would bccomc a guiding and lasLing paradox o cclcbraLcd liLcrary
ailurc. Wc can wiLncss Lhis samc rhcLoric in NaLhanicl HawLhorncs sLrangc
boasL Lo bc Lhc obscurcsL man in Amcrican lcLLcrs and his corrcsponding
disparagcmcnL o Lhc dd mob o scribbling womcn [among whom] I
should havc no chancc o succcss whilc Lhc public LasLc is occupicd wiLh Lhcir
Lrashand should bc ashamcd o myscl i I did succccd.

In Lhcir conspicu-
ous division o populariLy rom liLcrary valuc and cclcbraLion o ailurc as
an cxclusivc provincc o (malc) liLcrary wriLcrs, auLhors such as Mclvillc and
HawLhornc inauguraLcd a discoursc LhaL would bc claboraLcd LhroughouL Lhc
Amcrican liLcrary canon among boLh auLhors and criLics.
Chris Warc, I arguc, rccognizcs Lhis liLcrary hisLorical LrajccLoryhc illus-
LraLcs and ciLcs rom HawLhornc and His Mosscs in his :oo6 covcr illusLra-
Lion o Lhc WriLcrs on WriLcrs spccial issuc o vrgna Quarter|y Revew
using Lhis canonical dividc bcLwccn liLcrary valuc and populariLy Lo navigaLc
his own ambivalcnccs abouL comics sLaLus as high arL. On onc lcvcl, Warc is
kccn Lo csLablish comics as a mcdium LhaL can boLh cmbody Lhc psychologi-
cal complcxiLy and cpisLcmological diculLy o liLcrary LcxLs and culLivaLc
LhoughLul and disccrning adulL rcadcrs. YcL, Warc is also aLLcnLivc Lo Lhc acL
LhaL his choscn mcdium rcmains closcly bound Lo Lhc cxpccLaLions and audi-
cncc o adolcsccnL liLcraLurc, a popular culLural oundaLion LhaL Lhc rhcLoric
o ailurc would convcnLionally disown. Warcs own rhcLoric o ailurc musL
Lhcn ncgoLiaLc comics risc Lo Lhc sLaLus o graphic narraLivc whilc noL ab-
juring Lhcir mass-culLural appcal, calling inLo qucsLion Lhc popular/prcsLi-
gious dividc LhaL conLinucs Lo vcx boLh liLcrary scholarship and comics Lhc-
ory.
o
I onc wanLs Lo Lcll sLorics LhaL havc Lhc richncss o lic, Warc sLaLcs,
[comics] vocabulary is cxLrcmcly limiLcd. ILs likc Lrying Lo usc limcricks Lo
makc liLcraLurc.

In cqual Lurns cmbracing and rcpudiaLing Lhc mass cul-

Lural oundaLions o comics, boLh acccding Lo and having scrious misgivings
ovcr comics risc Lo Lhc sLaLus o liLcraLurc, Warcs rhcLoric o ailurc maps his
characLcrisLic ambivalcncc Loward Lhc vcry noLion o graphic liLcraLurc.
High and Low in the Comics Library
In Lhc Dcccmbcr , issuc o Lhc Comcs 1ourna|our ycars aLcr Lhc rsL
numbcr o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary was publishcd, buL wcll bcorc hc had
cmcrgcd as a gurc ouLsidc Lhc considcraLion o Lhc comics communiLy
Chris Warc dcsigncd a covcr and appcarcd in a long-orm inLcrvicw in Lhc
pagcs o a pcriodical cxpliciLly oundcd Lo promoLc comics as high-arL culLural
Lrcasurcs. On Lhc covcr, Warc dcpicLs a youLh library housing only comics
and populaLcd by somc o Lhcir mosL rccognizablc crcaLions: Charlcs SchulLzs
Charlic Brown, Rudolph Dirkss Hans KaLzcnjammcr, Richard OuLcaulLs Ycl-
low Kid, and, in Lhc lcL orcground, his own 1immy Corrigan (scc g. .).
Displaying his characLcrisLically cncyclopcdic rcgard or comics hisLory and
inscribing himscl wiLhin Lhis cxalLcd gcncalogy o comics icons, Warc aL Lhc
samc Limc ruLhlcssly parodics comics as a mcdium, displaying a laughablc
Laxonomy on Lhc librarys shclvcs undcr Lhc caLcgory o ArL. SLrucLurcd
likc a nincLccnLh-ccnLury laddcr o progrcss, Warc dividcs graphic narra-
Fig. 4.1. Wares comically
futile comics library. Chris
Ware, The Comics Journal
200 (1997), cover image.
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 4 9
Livc inLo Lhc dcsccnding gcnrcs o FxpcrimcnLal (Lhc appropriaLcly shapcd
Lonut Comcs), RomanLic (Potenta| Move Scrpt Comcs), Concssional (!
Hate Myse|j Comcs), SaLirical (Superheroes Sure are Lumb Comcs), PoliLical
(Ld You Know Pad Stu s Happenng A|| the Tme? Comcs and war s not Cood
Comcs), ScaLological (Pcyc|e Seat Snng Comcs), and nally Lhc joinL caL-
cgory o Pornographic and CriLicism (sharcd by Lhc visually mirrorcd Fros
Comcs and Lhc Comcs 1ourna| iLscl). In parL, Lhis corrcsponds wiLh Lhc jour-
nals rcpuLaLion or scaLhing rcvicws o mainsLrcam comics producLion and
iLs aspiraLions Lo havc a small cadrc o comics arLisLs rccognizcd as worLhy
o Lhc rcgard givcn Lo nc arLisLs and liLcrary auLhors. YcL Warc docs noL
sparc himscl rom Lhis wiLhcring criLiquc, caricaLuring himscl on Lhc cov-
crs o Lhrcc succcssivc volumcs in Lhc Concssional row: ! Hate Myse|j Com-
cs, ! Mght 1erk O Now and Ten Comcs, and MF| Comcs. Fvcn amidsL Lhc
paLcnLly uninspiring conLcnL o Lhis library, Warc noncLhclcss prcvcnLs any
rcading rom Laking placc, Lhc spccLaclc o Nancys visiblc undcrwcar rcndcr-
ing Lhc LhoughL bubblcs o Lhc asscmblcd youLh opaqucly black. IL sccms
LhaL Lhc adolcsccnL urgc and Lhc pruricnL gazc LhaL dominaLcs Lhc boLLom
rung o his comics laddcr o progrcss win Lhc day ovcr whaLcvcr morc noblc
moLivcs mighL animaLc Lhc wcll-mcaning rcadcrs in Warcs youLh library.
Try Lhough Lhcy mighL, Lhc allcgorical cmbodimcnLs o Lhc comics rcadcr arc
unablc Lo clcvaLc Lhcmsclvcs Lo Lhc rcalm o Lhc liLcrary.
Wryly saLirizing Lhc sLaLcd mission o Lhc Comcs 1ourna| Lo promoLc Lhc
bcsL Lhc arL orm has Lo ocr, parLicularly Lhosc comics which arc ullling
rcading maLcrial or adulLs, Lhc accompanying LcxL scrvcs as Lhc sccond hal
o Lhis dipLych o comics ambivalcncc:
:
The Comics Journal - The magazine of news, reviews, and mean-spirited back-stabbing.
Published by the Fantagracs [sic] Co. who shrewdly employ it as a promotional organ
for the promulgation of their own products & periodicals. The critical companion for
those connoisseurs of the cartoon art who are otherwise too mentally incompetent to
judge whether something is of quality themselves. Celebrating a decade and a half of
Muscular Weightlifters in stretchpants & capes
Monsters, aliens, spaceships, and robot girls with tits
Cute animals that drive cars and talk to each other.
Its a big party and everyones invited! Featuring lengthy discussions with artisans
who make their livings drawing weird-looking bald kids.
Marvel at the survival of a childrens literature stuck in the twilight of puberty for
over one hundred years and join in a spirited roundtable positing its future as a mature
medium capable of worldly accomplishments, derring-do, and a host of other thrilling
stations. All spiffed up with fancy covers, heartfelt tributes, and inarticulate spite, this
issue will be the one to keep for weeks to come.
13
Tcrc arc nonc involvcd in Lhc producLion, Lransmission, and consumpLion
o Lhc magazinccdiLors, subscribcrs, rcadcrs, cvcn Warc himsclwho rc-
main unscaLhcd by Lhis uproarious scnd-up o scl-promoLion.

AL Lhc Limc,
FanLagraphics scrvcd as boLh Lhc publishcr o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary and
Lhc Comcs 1ourna|, and Warcs inLcrvicwcr, Cary CroLh (picLurcd aL Lhc boL-
Lom o Lhc composiLion as SchulLzs Iucy siLLing bchind hcr iconic lcmon-
adc-sLand-cum-psychiaLrisLs-couch), was boLh Lhc magazincs cdiLor and
5 0 DAV I D M. B AL L
Warcs. Whilc Lhc covcr imagc rcprcscnLs a lcnding library LhaL Lransccnds
Lhc rcalm o Lhc commodiLy, howcvcr parodically, Lhc LcxL rcinLroduccs Lhc
mass-markcL milicu in which comics rcmain cnsconccd. DcspiLc Warcs and
Lhc journals manicsL dcsirc Lo clcvaLc comics Lo Lhc sLaLus o Lhc liLcrary, Lhc
covcr complicaLcs an casy ncgaLion o comics convcnLional associaLions wiLh
Lhc mass rcadcrship in which iL rsL cmcrgcd in Amcrica, bcginning wiLh
Lhc ncwspapcr circulaLion wars o Lhc laLc nincLccnLh and carly LwcnLicLh
ccnLury (Tc Ycllow Kid bcing aL Lhc ccnLcr o Lhcsc ncwspapcr wars) and
cxLcnding Lhrough Lhc hcgcmony o supcrhcro gcnrc comics sincc Lhc laLc
os.

Warc rcminds us LhaL Lhc asccndanL alLcrnaLivc comics and graphic

novcls so vigorously promoLcd in Lhc pagcs o Lhc Comcs 1ourna| arc cqually
implicaLcd in, and susccpLiblc Lo, Lhc inucnccs o mass culLurc.
6
Tc ironics o commodicaLion arc cvcn prcscnL in Lhc pagcs o Lhc journal
iLscl whcrc, in Lhc modc o Lhc aux advcrLiscmcnLs or commcrcial goods in
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary LhaL alscly promisc consumcr bliss, Warc dcsigncd
a pagc sclling a rccsLanding cardboard display or his ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary
volumcs. Originally consLrucLcd or usc in rcLail sLorcs, Lhc display has gra-
cious pockcLs [LhaL] hug cach issuc o Lhc scrics wiLh Lhc samc carc a proud
cmalc marmoscL would givc Lo a ncw liLLcr, Lhc advcrLiscmcnL promising
LhaL Lhis garganLuan monsLrosiLy will surcly ll LhaL prcviously undcncd
void in your unsaLuraLcd cxisLcncc. HAPPINFSS IS ONIY so.oo AWAY!
,

An advcrLiscmcnL or an advcrLiscmcnL, a promoLion or Lhc promoLional or-
gan, Lhc oor display LransacLs Lhc vcry promulgaLion o Lhcir own producLs
and pcriodicals so vchcmcnLly mockcd in Lhc Comcs 1ourna| covcr.
Tis kccnly pcrccivcd ambivalcncc or commcrcial succcss, couplcd wiLh
Warcs paincd awarcncss o Lhc comics as a mcdium incradicably bound Lo Lhc
commcrcial, could bc undcrsLood as Lhc guiding moLi o his cnLirc ocuvrc.
In Lhc Comcs 1ourna| inLcrvicw, Warc consisLcnLly parrics CroLhs insisLcnL
dcnigraLion o Lhc mcdia baLh and pop culLurc pap o his and Warcs child-
hoods, highlighLing Lhc imporLancc o mass-culLural rcsourccs in liLcrary au-
Lhors such as FlaubcrL and TolsLoy and poinLing Loward Lhc origins o Lhc
novcl and Lhc now-canonizcd Amcrican musical LradiLions o jazz, ragLimc,
and Lhc blucs rom wiLhin a popular-culLural ramc.
8
Indccd, Lhc vcry omni-
prcscncc o Lhc ACMF NovclLy IibraryLhc namc Warc has givcn noL only Lo
Lhc cLiLious produccr o his comics, buL now LhaL hc scl-publishcs his own
work, Lhc acLual namc LhaL appcars in his Iibrary o Congrcss daLarcminds
Warcs rcadcrs LhaL his LcxLs arc also commodiLics: boughL, sold, cxchangcd,
apprcciaLing or dcprcciaLing in valuc irrcspccLivc o Lhcir orm or conLcnL.
Warcs publicaLions simulLancously scck Lo ascinaLc and inuriaLc collccLors
wiLh Lhcir variablc sizcs, cdiLions, scrializcd iLcraLions, and cuL-ouL dioramas
LhaL cncouragc rcadcrs Lo alLcrnaLcly dcsLroy and prcscrvc (or, in doing boLh,
purchasc mulLiplc copics o) Lhc LcxL and subscqucnLly showcasc Lhcm in
Lhcir own pcrsonal oor display.
In his novcl-in-progrcss RusLy Brown, Warcs cxploraLion o main char-
acLcrs who arc aL Lhc samc Limc anaLical, i piLiablc, comics collccLors only
cxLcnds whaL has bccn a long-running mcLaLcxLual mcdiLaLion on comics
sLaLus as mass-markcL maLcricl. In Lhc childhood sccncs LhaL consLiLuLc a
largc porLion o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 6, RusLy carrics wiLh him a Supcr-
girl acLion gurc LhaL scrvcs as boLh a sccuriLy blankcL and croLic cLish. Tc
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 5 1
doll cnsurcs RusLy will bc Lhc LargcL o Lhc oLhcr childrcns abusc whilc also
anLicipaLing his laLcr mania or collccLing and prcscrving Lhc losL LoLcms o
his LraumaLizcd childhood. Whilc such LoLcms rclivc Lhcsc carly ailurcs, Lhcy
also rcmind Warcs rcadcrs o Lhc mass-markcL supcrhcro comics LhaL sLand
as uncomorLablc orcbcars Lo his own work, much in Lhc samc way 1immys
Supcrman swcaLshirL haunLs Lhc sccond hal o 1mmy Corrgan.

CollccLing
is Lhus boLh Lhc agcnL o RusLys prccipiLous dcclinc in adulLhoodin Te
ACMF Report hc is playing wiLh his collccLiblcs, oLcn wrcLchcdly nakcd and
in Lcars, amidsL a rapidly dcLcrioraLing homc licand a rcmindcr o comics
Lics Lo commcrcial cxchangc.
:o
In a miniaLurc scrics LiLlcd Tc AdvcnLurcs
o Lhc C. I. 1im AcLion Club, whcrc RusLy publishcs a anzinc in ordcr Lo
dcraud his ricnd and cllow collccLor Chalky WhiLc ouL o his collccLiblcs,
RusLy alscly assurcs Chalky, You know Im noL in iL or Lhc money . . . Im
morc inLcrcsLcd in Lhc arLisLry o Lhc piccc.
:
Hcrc Lhc high-arL poLcnLiali-
Lics o Lhc comics mcdium so clcarly prizcd by Warc scrvc mcrcly as abjccL
cxchangc, RusLys acL o auLhorship scrving as noLhing morc Lhan a Lhin vcil
or commcrcial acLiviLy.
Truc Lo orm, Warc boLh cvinccs and pcrorms Lhis dialccLic bcLwccn arL-
isLry and commcrcc in his own rolc as auLhor. In Te ACMF Report, Warc has
onc o his cLional pcrsonac, Ccorgc Wilsonan alias Warc rcscrvcs or his
scl-dcscribcd crass hackcry which I ccl was alLcrcd cnough rom my origi-
nal idca (i Lhcrc was onc) LhaL I donL wanL my namc on iLpcn a aux
scholarly hisLory o Lhc ACMF NovclLy Company.
::
Buricd in iLs ooLnoLcs is a
mcdiLaLion on Warcs own namc LhaL sLaLcs: Tough somc rcscarchcrs havc
suggcsLcd Warc Lo possibly bc a surnamc, Lhc word liLcrally mcans commod-
iLy in Fnglish, and, I bclicvc, Lhc IcLLcrcr [a gurc Wilson posiLs as Lhc Lruc
auLhor and guiding oundcr o ACMF] also inLcndcd iL Lo bc rcad as such.
:

Down Lo Lhc mulLiplc rcsonanccs o his namc, Warc rcpcaLcdly rcminds us
LhaL Lhc spccLcr o Lhc commodiLy inhcrcs in his comics dcspiLc Lhcir high-arL
and liLcrary aspiraLions.
Vicwcd broadly, Warc aligns Lhis mass-markcL/high-arL Lcnsion wiLhin Lhc
comics mcdium Lo Lhc rhcLoric o succcss and ailurc, rcspccLivcly. Tc gurc
o Ccorgc Wilson, boLh as a commcrcial hack and a haplcss rcscarchcr o Lhc
ACMF NovclLy Company, is onc such gcsLurc. Wilsons cxhausLivc and laugh-
ably incpL corL in Lhc inLroducLion Lo Te ACMF Report (hc sucrs rom
ncrvous cxhausLion in Lhc waiLing room o Lhc companys hcadquarLcrs) can
Lhus bc rcad as onc such noblc ailurc. Wilsons ailcd inLroducLion is also a
laycrcd homagc Lo oLhcr cclcbraLcd liLcrary ailurcs. In corrcspondcncc, Warc
has callcd Wilson Lhc Ishmacl characLcr o Te ACMF Report, a rccrcncc
Lo Lhc cxcccdingly mcdiLaLivc and scholarly narraLor o Hcrman Mclvillcs
Moby-Lck.
:
Charlcs KinboLc, Lhc brillianLly mad and obscssivc liLcrary criLic
in Vladimir Nabokovs Pa|e Fre, is anoLhcr cxpliciL liLcrary rccrcncc cvokcd
in Wilsons labyrinLhinc inLroducLion.
:
BoLh Ishmacl and KinboLc scrvc as
gurcs o Lhc admirably oolish mcLaLcxLual narraLor, characLcrs whosc lovc
or lcLLcrs boLh susLains and dcsLroys Lhcm. Wilsons ailcd aLLcmpLs Lo Lcll
Lhc sLory o ACMF can Lhus bc sccn as a liLcrary hcroic acL o rcading, how-
cvcr quixoLic, a similar cxcgcLical Lask askcd o Warcs own rcadcrs as Lhcy
sLrain Lhcir cycs Lo navigaLc Lhc sinuous and dcmanding inLroducLion. Fail-
urc is similarly Lhc hallmark o all Warcs mosL iconic characLcrsQuimby
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 5 3
Lhc Mouscs violcnLly ambivalcnL lovcs, 1immy Corrigans pcrpcLual social
awkwardncsscs, RusLy Browns unrcmiLLing loscrdomwho dcspiLc Lhcsc
manicsL ailings arc noncLhclcss drawn Lo cngagc rcadcrs sympaLhics.
Tc ip sidc o Lhis cclcbraLion o, and scl-idcnLicaLion wiLh, hcroic ail-
urc is Lhc Lhoroughgoing disavowal o succcss. Iikc Lhc rhcLoric o ailurc,
Lhis liLcrary suspicion o succcss has an cqually long hisLory in Amcrican lcL-
Lcrs, onc origin o which is Ralph Waldo Fmcrsons lccLurc Succcss, rsL
dclivcrcd undcr LhaL LiLlc in 8. AlmosL cxacLly conLcmporancous wiLh
Mclvillcs cclcbraLion o ailurc, Fmcrson wriLcs: Ren ne reusst meux que |e
succs. [NoLhing succccds likc succcss.] And wc Amcricans arc LainLcd wiLh
Lhis insaniLy, as our bankrupLcics and our rccklcss poliLics may show. Wc arc
grcaL by cxclusion, grasping, and cgoLism. Our succcss Lakcs rom all whaL
iL givcs Lo onc. Tis a haggard, malignanL, carcworn running or luck.
:6
I
ailurc was Lhc LouchsLonc or an cmcrging liLcrary cliLc in Amcrica in Lhc
mid-nincLccnLh ccnLurya movc mirrorcd by Lhc conLcmporary gcncra-
Lion o comics arLisLs championcd by Warc who aspirc Lo wriLc graphic nar-
raLivcs wiLh Lhc cmoLional and cpisLcmological dcpLh o liLcraLurcsucccss
rcprcscnLs Lhc grasping, acquisiLivc disposiLion LhaL has cqually dcncd Lhc
Amcrican characLcr rom iLs carlicsL hisLory.
:,
Warc rcndcrs a sLarkly liLcral
rcprcscnLaLion o Lhis suspicion o succcss in his advcrLiscmcnL or Succcss
Brand SnorL in Lhc opcning pagcs o Te ACMF Report (scc g. .:). Hcrc
Warc parodics Lhc rough masculiniLy o cigarcLLc and alcohol advcrLiscmcnLs
LhaL cquaLc scl-poisoning wiLh ruggcd individualism, narraLing mail piloLs
usc o mcLhamphcLaminc on Lhc job (wiLh prcdicLably disasLrous rcsulLs) Lo
do Lhc work o Lcn mcn, and sLill ccl grcaL whcn I gcL o o work aL cighL.
:8

YcL iL is noL drug culLurc LhaL is Lhc LargcL o Warcs saLirc so much as Lhc
idca o succcss iLscl, rclcnLlcss commcrcial acLiviLy as opposcd Lo inLcllccLual
and liLcrary scnsibiliLics, which is hcrc and clscwhcrc conaLcd wiLh rccklcss
consumpLion and gurcd as a dangcrous and dcbiliLaLing addicLion. SLarL
snorLing Success Loday, Lhc advcrLiscmcnL promiscs, and scc or yourscl. So
smooLhc. So surc. So . . . Success.
:
UndcrsLanding Lhis largcr liLcrary hisLorical LrcaLmcnL o cclcbraLcd ail-
urcs, whcrc succcss is vicwcd as anLiLhcLical Lo arLisLic aims, allows us Lo
bcLLcr undcrsLand Lhc counLcrinLuiLivc LhrusL o Chris Warcs omniprcs-
cnL rhcLoric o ailurc. In Lhc samc , Comcs 1ourna| inLcrvicw wiLh Cary
CroLh, Warc sLaLcs: You havc Lo havc high sLandards. [. . .] You havc Lo bc
scl-criLical. [. . .] ILs an honcsL ccling o ailurc mosL o Lhc Limc. BuL iLs
abouL Lhc only way you can kccp a clcar vicw o Lhings.
o
RaLhcr Lhan scnsc-
lcss scl-dcprccaLion or morbid ascinaLion, ailurc bccomcs a kind o arLisLic
vision, parL o a largcr LradiLion o Amcrican auLhors pcrsisLcnL invocaLions
o Lhc rhcLoric o ailurc Lo convcy Lhcir highcsL aspiraLions or liLcrary suc-
ccss. From Hcrman Mclvillcs claim LhaL ailurc is Lhc Lruc LcsL o grcaLncss
Lo Hcnry Adamss scl-idcnLicaLion wiLh Lhc morLiying ailurc in [his] long
cducaLion and William Faulkncrs cagcrncss Lo bc judgcd by his splcndid
ailurc Lo do Lhc impossiblc, such rhcLorical gcsLurcs havc occupicd Lhc ccn-
Lcr o canonical claims Lo Amcrican auLhorship and auLhoriLy.

Tis rhcLoric
is parLicularly rccognizablc in Warc and his pccr comics arLisLs prcciscly as
Lhcy aspirc Lo liLcrary sophisLicaLion, rccapiLulaLing a movc madc by Amcri-
can novclisLs and cssayisLs bcorc Lhcm.
:
Tus cvcn dcspiLc Warcs criLical
Fig. 4.2. An advertise-
ment for Success Brand
Snort. Chris Ware, The
ACME Novelty Library Final
Report to Shareholders and
Saturday Afternoon Rainy
Day Fun Book (New York:
Pantheon, 2005), 2.
Pages 5455:
Fig. 4.3. Chris Ware,
Writers on Writers,
special issue of Virginia
Quarterly Review (2006):
cover image.
5 6 DAV I D M. B AL L
succcsscs and sLrong salcs gurcs, dcspiLc his insisLcncc on Lhc mass-culLural
and incxorably commcrcial naLurc o Lhc comics mcdium, Lhc rhcLoric o ail-
urc conLinucs Lo hold sway ovcr his noLion o Lhc possibiliLy o a graphic
liLcraLurc.
Misadventures in Literary History
Chris Warc ocrs onc o Lhc mosL visiblc rcprcscnLaLions and cmbodimcnLs
o Lhis liLcrary rhcLoric o ailurc in his :oo6 covcr illusLraLion Lo Lhc vr-
gna Quarter|y Revews spccial issuc LiLlcd WriLcrs on WriLcrs (scc g. .).

Conccivcd as a sLudy in liLcrary inucncc, wiLh conLribuLions rom conLcm-
porary wriLcrs who wcrc askcd Lo incorporaLc liLcrary orcbcars as characLcrs
in Lhcir sLorics, Lhc issuc is adorncd wiLh Warcs wraparound covcr LhaL o-
crs a comically bric hisLory o liLcrary inucncc rom Lhc prchisLoric cra Lo
1amcs 1oycc. In Lhc manncr o his Lhumbnail hisLorics o comics and nc
arL, WriLcrs on WriLcrs is aL oncc cncyclopcdic and parodic, dcmonsLraL-
ing a commanding knowlcdgc o iLs subjccL and a paLcnL dcsirc Lo hold LhaL
samc subjccL Lo a playul ridiculc.

IL is also a caLaloguc o liLcraLurc as a

conronLaLion wiLh ailurc: Lhc auLhors o Lhc gospcls dcbaLing Lhc accuracy
o Lhcir LranscripLions o 1csuss words, a blind MilLon wiLh a rccalciLranL
amanucnsis, Dickcns conLcnding wiLh a dcadlinc, and DosLocvsky in chains
(scc g. .). All o Lhcsc ailurcs aL Lhc samc Limc anLicipaLc subscqucnL liL-
crary achicvcmcnL, bc iL Lhc long cxcgcLical LradiLion gcncraLcd by Lhc gos-
pcls inLcrnal inconsisLcncics, MilLons scminal pocLic achicvcmcnLs such as
Paradse Lost subscqucnL Lo his blindncss, Dickcnss innovaLions in prosc c-
Lion and prodigious ouLpuL as a rcsulL o his scrial dcmands, or DosLocvskys
Lowcring novcls composcd aLcr his cxilc Lo Sibcria. DispuLc, misundcrsLand-
ing, and sucring arc rcprcscnLcd LhroughouL as Lhc prccondiLions o liLcrary
producLion.
AnoLhcr o Warcs allcgorics o auLhorship conrms his LrcaLmcnL o ailurc
as a gcncraLivc dcvicc or liLcraLurc: his Supcrhcro/Cod gurc LhaL appcars in
a silcnL, cyclical narraLivc LhaL wraps LhroughouL Te ACMF Report.

OsLcn-
sibly Lhc narraLivc o an unrcdccmcd cgoLisL, onc who dcsLroys cvcryLhing
hc Louchcs (in onc cpisodc hc Lcars Lhc usclagc o a planc in ighL Lo savc
a young girl as his consorL), Lhis gurc also cvinccs Lwo disLincL momcnLs o
auLhorial crcaLiviLy. Tc rsL comcs in prison, whcrc hc scraLchcs ouL, wiLh
a nail, his cnLirc narraLivc in miniaLurc on Lhc prison walls. IL is a consum-
maLc Warcian momcnL, cndlcssly rccrring Lo his own acL o auLhorship as
hc Lurns Lhc narraLivc mirror o his own comics in upon iLscl, onc insLigaLcd
(likc DosLocvsky in chains, or Dickcns chaincd Lo his dcsk) by Lhc auLhors
abjccLion. Tc sccond acL o crcaLion happcns aL Lhc vcry bcginning o Lhc
narraLivcs cyclc whcn his proLagonisL, doomcd by immorLaliLy Lo ouLlivc Lhc
human rclaLions in his lic (and, by Lhc logic o Lhc narraLivc, having ingcsLcd
biLc by biLc Lhc cnLirc univcrsc hc had prcviously crcaLcd), idly punchcs holcs
in Lhc surrounding blackncss LhaL bccomc Lhc sLars o a ncw world. BoLh acLs
o crcaLion arc Lhc conscqucncc o ailurc and iLs aLLcndanL sucring.
Tcy also, in Lhcir rcwriLing o alrcady-wriLLcn narraLivcs, spcak Lo a largcr
sLrugglc aLLcndanL on cvcry oLhcr auLhor gurcd in WriLcrs on WriLcrs:
Lhcy arc all Lcllcrs o Lwicc-Lold Lalcs, all haunLcd by anLcrioriLy. Curscd by
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 5 7
rcpcLiLion, liLcrally consuming Lhc world hc crcaLcs, Lhc wriLcr pcrpcLually
conLcnds wiLh an alrcady-wriLLcn univcrsc.
6
In rcwriLing liLcrary hisLory as a
romancc o ailurc, a ailurc cach auLhor is doomcd Lo rcpcaL or Lhcmsclvcs,
Warc wriLcs his own ascinaLion wiLh ailurc inLo a longcr LrajccLory cxLcnd-
ing rom Crcck anLiquiLy Lo liLcrary modcrnism. YcL Lhis dcning ailurc in
Lhc urgc Lo crcaLc ancw is also always a noblc ailurc, csLablishing a raLcrniLy
o csLccmcd auLhors who sLrugglc hcroically againsL Lhc dcmands o Lhcir arL
and Lhc mass culLurc LhaL cxcrLs iLs prcssurcs upon Lhcm. Whcn Lhcy arcnL
conncd Lo Lhcir rcspccLivc garrcLs, in chains, or condcmncd Lo hcllLhosc
rcmaining auLhors noL shown aL work ovcr Lhcir dcsks arc rcqucnLly bcdrid-
dcn (Lhc blind MilLon, Lhc mad CcrvanLcs, Lhc opium-addlcd Colcridgc)
Lhcy arc subjccL Lo Lhc cqually conning prcssurcs o Lhc liLcrary markcLplacc.
PlaLo cxhausLcd by prcscnLing his Dialogucs as panLomimc shows, Virgil bc-
holdcn Lo his impcrial paLrons, Shakcspcarc cxaspcraLcd wiLh his acLors or
misscd lincs, Dickcns hcld capLivc by his scrial dcadlincscach spccLcr o Lhc
liLcrary markcLplacc Lakcs shapc alongsidc Lhcsc morc convcnLional imagcs
o sucring aLLcndanL upon Lhc acL o wriLing.
,
YcL Lhc vcry inLrusion o Lhc
markcLplacc in Lhis mock liLcrary hisLory poinLs Loward Warcs acknowlcdg-
mcnL o iLs dialccLical orcc and Lhc gcncraLivc rolc iL has in Lhc producLion
o arL, his scnsc o Lhc liLcrary ncvcr wholly unbound rom Lhc orccs o cco-
nomic cxchangc.
Indccd, whaL holds Lruc or liLcraLurc in Warcs Lhumbnail hisLory also
holds Lruc or Lhc hisLory o comics, as cvidcnccd by an analogous compo-
Fig. 4.4. An excerpt from
Wares condensed history
of literary history and
inuence. Chris Ware,
Writers on Writers, de-
tail, special issue of Virginia
Quarterly Review (2006):
cover image.
5 8 DAV I D M. B AL L
siLion rsL complcLcd or his :oo McSweeneys comics anLhology. From a
prchisLoric cavc arLisL clubbcd Lo dcaLh or missing a dcadlinc Lo Rodolphc
Topcrs ouLragc aL Lhc piracy o Amcrican copyrighL law, Warcs comics his-
Lory documcnLs Lhc mcdiums dcvclopmcnL amidsL sLulLiying markcL prcs-
surcs. All Lhrcc cpisodcs also picLurc Lhc comics arLisL in Warcs habiLual posc:
clcnchcd miscrably ovcr his cascl, his lic doomcd Lo dccadcs o grinding
isolaLion, solipsism and uLLcr social disrcgard, as Warc wriLcs on a acing
pagc o Te ACMF Report LiLlcd Ruin: Your Iic Draw: CarLoons!
8
Warc pic-
Lurcd Lhis samc miscrablc carLoonisL on Lhc covcr o his cxhibiLion caLaloguc
0n!nked surroundcd by caricaLurcs o happy crcaLors in oLhcr mcdia (sculp-
Lurc, LhcaLcr, song, balloon animal arLisLry), singling ouL Lhc comics crcaLor
or cspccial sucring.

Tcsc narraLivcs o misrccogniLion, abjccLion, and

abandonmcnL imaginc a hisLory whosc progrcss is rcpcaLcdly LhwarLcd by an
uncaring or unimaginaLivc audicncc, onc inLcnL on rcducing Lhc mcdium Lo
iLs lowcsL common dcnominaLor. Warc picLurcs various chccrlcadcrs or Lhc
causc who dcmcan Lhc mcdium in Lhcir praisc: a procssor avcrs, I uscd Lo
|ove Lo rcad Lhcm as a boy!, a Roy IichLcnsLcin sLand-in opincs, I usc Lhcm
as a symbol or Lhc spiriLual povcrLy o Amcrican culLurc, and a librarian
gushcs, I Lhink Lhcyrc wondcrul, bccausc Lhcy gcL pcoplc inLcrcsLcd in rea|
rcading! (scc g. .). To an cnLhuscd rcadcr who sLaLcs, Comics arc now,
likc, a rcspccLcd languagc, wiLh an acsLhcLic grounding all Lhcir own| [. . .]
Tcy addrcss Lopics likc Lhc holocausL, spiriLualiLy, noLions o idcnLiLy, and
scx! P|us Lhcy win PuliLzcr Prizcs . . . and Harvey Awards! Warc imagincs
noLhing buL LhoughLlcss disrcgard: DonL cvcr boLhcr mc agan| Im Lrying Lo
gcL Lo Lhc Lop lcvcl o my Superman vidco gamc!
o
WhaL hcld Lruc or Warcs
comics rcadcrs in his lcnding library on Lhc covcr o Lhc Comcs 1ourna| applics
Lo comics arLisLs Lhcmsclvcs in Lhis laLcr hisLory. Tc work o comics-as-liL-
craLurc is rcpcaLcdly conncd Lo and consLiLuLcd by Lhc rcaliLy o comics-as-
commodiLics. YcL Lhis is cqually Lruc or liLcraLurc and nc arL, an cmcrging
comics avanL-gardc sharcs wiLh Lhcsc oLhcr convcnLionally privilcgcd mcdia
Lhc dcsirc Lo Lransccnd Lhc commcrcial, and Lhc ailurc Lo complcLcly do so.
Tcsc ailurcs Lakcn LogcLhcrLhc ailurc Lo Lransccnd mass culLurc, Lhc ail-
urc Lo producc LcxLs libcraLcd rom Lhc wcighL o prcvious auLhors, Lhc ailurc
o a mcdium doomcd Lo misrccogniLion and ncglccLarc all inLcgral parLs o
Chris Warcs scnsc o Lhc liLcrary.
Tc rcward o rcading Warcs rhcLoric o ailurc rcmains Lhc abiliLy Lo pcr-
ccivc his work as an cxLcnsion o a long liLcrary LradiLion and as a Lhcoriza-
Lion o LhaL LradiLions ambivalcnccs and anxicLics. Iocally, Lhis allows us Lo
scc Quimbys vaudcvillian violcncc as an cngagcmcnL wiLh carly LwcnLicLh-
ccnLury Amcrican popular culLurc, 1immy Corrigans ignoblc ailurcs as parL
o a LradiLion o Amcrican auLhors liLcrary loscrs rom Mclvillc Lo Nabokov,
and RusLy Browns ruincd lic as homologous Lo Lhc auLhors own qucsL or
liLcrary prcsLigc. Sccn morc globally, rcmaining aLLcnLivc Lo Warcs rhcLoric
o ailurc allows us Lo apprcciaLc his work wiLhin a broadcr liLcrary conLcxL.
In a conLcmporary momcnL in which graphic narraLivcs arc aspiring Lo Lhc
canonical sLaLus o liLcraLurc, Warc posiLs LhaL Lhc hisLory o comics as a
mass-culLural mcdium rcccLs similar LranslaLions undcrgonc by Lhc liLcrary
canon. Chris Warcs ailurcs arc onc mcchanism o Lhis LranslaLion o com-
ics inLo liLcraLurc.
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 5 9
Notes
1. Chris Ware, e-mail to the author, September 1, 2007.
2. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, paperback ed. (New York: Pantheon,
2006), endpapers.
3. Chris Ware, Apologies, Etc. (Omaha: Sheldon Memorial Gallery, 2007), n.p.
4. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy
Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005), front cover.
5. For an analysis of the signifying role of paratexts, see Grard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of
Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
6. For an analogous moment, one among many, see Art Spiegelmans claim that [by being] forged
in a crucible of humiliation and trauma, cartoonists are made, not born. . . . The young mist must
escape into fantasy and/or develop a rareed sense of humor to survive. Art Spiegelman, Breakdowns:
Portrait of the Artist as a Young %@&*! (New York: Pantheon, 2008), n.p.
7. Douglas Wolk, Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean (Cambridge: Da
Capo, 2007), 347.
8. Herman Melville, Hawthorne and His Mosses, in The Piazza Tales and Other Prose Pieces, vol.
9 of The Writings of Herman Melville, ed. Harrison Hayford, Hershel Parker, and G. Thomas Tanselle,
13 vols. to date (Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library,
1968present), 24748.
9. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Preface, in Twice-Told Tales, vol. 9 of The Centenary Edition of the Works
of Nathaniel Hawthorne, ed. William Charvat et al., 23 vols. to date (Columbus: Ohio State University
Press, 1962present), 3; Hawthorne, January 19, 1855, letter to George D. Ticknor in The Letters,
18531856, vol. 17 of The Centenary Edition, 304. For analogous moments of such an insistence on the
separation of prestige from popularity in the writers of the American Renaissance see, for example,
Melvilles October 6, 1849, letter to Lemuel Shaw and June 1, 1851, letter to Nathaniel Hawthorne
in Correspondence, vol. 14 of The Writings of Herman Melville, 13839, 19094; and Henry David Thor-
eaus October 28, 1853, journal entry on his receipt of the 706 unsold copies of A Week on the Concord
and Merrimack Rivers in The Journals of Henry David Thoreau, ed. Bradford Torrey and Francis H. Allen
(Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith, 1984), 45960. The irony of Hawthornes declaration in his 1851
preface that no author would dispute his claim as the obscurest man of letters in America is that his
contemporaries were in fact eager to make such a claim, each distancing himself from a suspect popu-
larity and cultivating instead a chorus of male prestige in an era of the womens bestselling novel.
10. An outline of this theoretical genealogy would include Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer,
Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (1944; rpt., New York: Continuum, 2002); Clem-
ent Greenberg, Avant-Garde and Kitsch, in Art and Culture: Critical Essays (Boston: Beacon, 1961);
Theodor Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, ed. Gretel Adorno and Rolf Tiedemann, trans. C. Lenhardt (1970;
rpt., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984); Peter Brger, Theory of the Avant-Garde, trans. Michael
Shaw (1974; rpt., Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984); Andreas Huyssen, After the Great
Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986). This
putative divide between high art and mass culture has increasing come under critical scrutiny, one
important example being Michael Norths Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1999). Comics theorists, in their seemingly endless debates about the rela-
tive value and role of early newspaper comics, the superhero genre, and large publishing houses like
DC and Marvel vis--vis independent and alternative comics, have widely ignored these analogous
debates in conventional literary scholarship.
11. Chris Ware qtd. in Chip Kidd, Please Dont Hate Him, Print 51.3 (1997): 43.
12. Mission Statement of the Comics Journal, February 25, 2009. http://www.tcj.com (accessed
October 25, 2008).
13. Chris Ware, cover illustration for the Comics Journal 200 (1997).
14. Ibid.
15. For an analysis of Wares editorial role in republishing early twentieth-century comics artists
like George Herriman and Frank King, see Jeet Heers essay in this volume.
16. Here, and throughout his oeuvre more generally, Wares cultivation of a coterie audience, am-
6 0 DAV I D M. B AL L
bivalence toward mass culture, and relentless citationality can be regarded as an extension of literary
modernist aims and anxieties within contemporary graphic narratives. For a more in-depth look at
these literary historical stakes, see my Comics against Themselves: Chris Wares Graphic Narratives
as Literature in Contemporary American Comics: Creators and Their Contexts, ed. James Lyons and Paul
Williams (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, forthcoming).
17. Chris Ware, advertisement, Comics Journal 200 (1997): 103. True to form, Ware adorns even
this display with the rhetoric of failure, noting in his instructions to the comics retailer the many
wonderful features is [sic] has to offer, such as weakness of structure, ammability, and recyclability.
See http://acmenoveltyarchive.org. For an analysis of this display, see Martha Kuhlmans essay in this
volume.
18. Chris Ware and Gary Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Comics, Comics Journal 200
(1997): 11971.
19. For an analysis of Wares ambivalence toward superhero comics, see Jacob Brogans essay in
this volume.
20. See Ware, The ACME Report, 2, 15, 63, 69, 85, 87, 90, 95, 101. The focus on Rustys and Chalkys
collectibles, as opposed to Jimmys disavowed comic collection in Jimmy Corrigan, itself represents a
further remove of comics into the realm of the commodity.
21. Ibid., 2.
22. Chris Ware, February 2004, qtd. in http://www.kempa.com/blog/archives/2004_02.html (ac-
cessed October 25, 2008). The attribution to Wilson can be found in his Special Note to Librarians.
See Ware, The ACME Report, 68.
23. Ware, The ACME Report, 19.
24. Chris Ware, e-mail to the author, January 25, 2009.
25. Ware discusses Pale Fire explicitly in his essay on Richard McGuire. Chris Ware, Richard
McGuire and Here: A Grateful Appreciation, Comic Art 8 (fall 2006): 6.
26. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Success, in Society and Solitude, vol. 7 of The Collected Works of Ralph
Waldo Emerson, ed. Ronald A. Bosco and Douglas Emory Wilson, 7 vols. to date (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1971present), 146.
27. For a fascinating history of success and failure in nineteenth-century America, especially with
regard to economic history and bankruptcy law, see Scott Sandage, Born Losers: A History of Failure in
America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005).
28. Ware, The ACME Report, 2.
29. Ibid.
30. Comics Journal 200 (1997): 12425.
31. Melville, Hawthorne and His Mosses, 24748; Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams,
ed. Ernest Samuels (1918; rpt., Boston: Houghton Mifin Co., 1973), 164; William Faulkner, Lion in the
Garden, ed. James B. Meriwether and Michael Millgate (New York: Random House, 1968), 238.
32. Daniel Worden in his The Shameful Art: McSweeneys Quarterly Concern, Comics, and the
Politics of Affect, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006), makes an analogous claim for Wares turn as edi-
tor, stating that the intersection of intimacy, shame, and gender melancholy provides an avenue for
this anthology to make a case for the artistic merit of comics (894). Indeed, authorship is exclusively
gendered male in the Writers on Writers composition discussed below (with the one exception of
a tea-sipping and giggling Jane Austen), a bias perpetuated in many places throughout Wares oeuvre.
See, for example, his 826 Valencia mural depicting male desire as creative force, reprinted in Chris
Ware, Quimby the Mouse (New York: Pantheon, 2003), back cover. For a critique of this impulse in
Wares editorial work, see Marc Singers essay in this volume.
33. Chris Ware, cover illustration, Virginia Quarterly Review, Special Issue: Writers on Writers
(2006).
34. For these parallel thumbnail histories, see Ware, The ACME Report, 69, 24. For a more thor-
ough analysis of Wares Our History of Art, see Katherine Roeders essay in this volume.
35. This storyline can be traced by reading pages 1, 3, 4455, 57, 60, 7677, 96, 1001, 104, and
the endpapers of Wares The ACME Report in succession.
36. The oedipal narrative in Harold Blooms account of misprison, which privileges the primal
CHR I S WAR E S F AI L UR E S 6 1
struggle between strong poets [who] make [poetic] history by misreading one another, so as to clear
imaginative spaces for themselves, has dominated critical discussion of inuence and anteriority in
literary history. Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Inuence: A Theory of Poetry, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1997), 5. A systemic, and to my mind more persuasive, account of this tension lo-
cated in a reading of language rather than the authors psychobiography can be found in Paul de Man,
Literary History and Literary Modernity, in Blindness and Insight, 2nd ed. (1971; rpt., Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 14265. Fittingly, such claims about language and the literary
writ large as citation are themselves not unique. Compare Ralph Waldo Emerson, Quotation and
Originality, in Letters and Social Aims, vol. 8 of The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. E. W.
Emerson, 12 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifin, 190304); and Jonathan Lethem, The Ecstasy of Inu-
ence, Harpers Magazine (February 2007): 5971.
37. The ip side of this coin is equally telling: scenes of pleasure (Chaucers guilt-ridden masturba-
tion, Flauberts pederasty) are shown to be moments of self-satisfaction or willed expropriation.
38. Ware, The ACME Report, 25.
39. Chris Ware, ed., UnInked: Paintings, Sculpture, and Graphic Works by Five Cartoonists (Phoenix:
Phoenix Art Museum, 2007), front cover.
40. Ware, The ACME Report, 24.
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Artistic Intersections
This page intentionally left blank
6 5
Chris Ware and the Burden of Art History
KATHERINE ROEDER
As Lhc rccipicnL o signicanL accoladcs rom Lhc nc arL csLablishmcnL, Chris
Warc is in rarc company in Lhc comics cld.

In :oo:, Warc bccamc Lhc rsL

comic arLisL cvcr Lo bc inviLcd Lo cxhibiL aL Lhc WhiLncy Muscum o Amcrican
ArLs Bicnnial.
:
Hc was Lhc subjccL o solo cxhibiLions aL Lhc Muscum o Con-
Lcmporary ArL in Chicago in :oo6 and Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Ncbraskas Shcldon
Mcmorial ArL Callcry in :oo,. Hc has gallcry rcprcscnLaLion and, in :oo,, was
askcd Lo curaLc a show or Lhc Phocnix Muscum o ArL.

YcL a closc rcading

o Our HisLory o ArL, a scqucncc LhaL appcars among Lhc opcning pagcs o
Te ACMF Report, suggcsLs his complicaLcd and conLcnLious rclaLionship Lo
his arL hisLorical rooLs.

FirsL produccd or Lhc WhiLncy Bicnnial as Te wht-

ney Prevarcator, Lhc works original LiLlc is iLscl a provocaLion. Docs Warc bc-
licvc himscl Lo bc Lhc sham arLisL, misLakcnly includcd in Lhc cxhibiLion, or
docs Lhc WhiLncy Bicnnial iLscl, sLanding in or Lhc grcaLcr arL world csLab-
lishmcnL, propagaLc Lhc grcaLcr raud` Chris Warc paradoxically sLakcs ouL
an ouLsidcr posiLion in rclaLion Lo Lhc arL world, whcn iL is cvidcnL LhaL his arL
hisLorical rccrcnccs arc wcll inormcd and his work is incrcasingly cxhibiLcd
in prcsLigious gallcrics and muscums. Tis cssay dcscribcs Lhis ambivalcncc
as iL is ovcrLly LhcmaLizcd in his work and cxplorcs how his advocacy or a
grcaLcr awarcncss o comics inorms his criLiquc o LradiLional arL hisLorics.
Our HisLory o ArL is a scrics o cpisodcs sprcading across our pagcs in
Te ACMF Report, spanning rom Lhc PalcoliLhic Lo Lhc ConLcmporary Agc
(scc plaLc ,). Tc usc o a pcrsonal pronoun in Lhc LiLlc raiscs Lhc qucsLion o
whosc hisLory is bcing Lold, implying LhaL all hisLorics arc ulLimaLcly sLorics
inormcd by Lhc spccic inLcrcsLs and prcjudiccs o Lhcir Lcllcrs. WiLhin Lhis
small buL dcnsc spacc, Warc qucsLions Lhc validiLy o cxisLing arL hisLorical
modcls by juxLaposing hisLory, alsc hisLory, and counLcr-narraLivcs. FurLhcr
cxaminaLion o Lhc ormal dcsign and conLcnL o Lhcsc pagcs rcvcals a cri-
Liquc o Lhc cvoluLionary modcl o arL hisLory as wcll as aLLcmpLs Lo inscrL
comics inLo LhaL dominanL narraLivc. Warc rcpcaLcdly cmploys classic arLisLic
Lropcs wiLhin Lhcsc pancls, including Lhc alicnaLcd and insccurc arLisL, Lhc
modcrnisL grid, Lhc primal siLc o Lhc drawing Lablc, and Lhc Lcrror o Lhc
blank canvas. Hc uscs rcpcLiLion and paLLcrn Lo poinL Loward Lhc cyclical na-
Lurc o hisLory and arL movcmcnLs.
Warc orcgrounds his arL hisLorical ucncy in Lhcsc pancls whilc simulLa-
ncously disavowing iL. Tcllingly, his mosL incisivc criLicism is o high arLs Lcn-
dcncy Lo prcLLiy ugly LruLhs, Lhough hc also lcvcls Lhis criLicism aL himscl.
Hc accomplishcs Lhis wiLh a small comic wiLhin a comic, Lhc rcd-hucd CiLy o
6 6 K AT HE R I NE ROE DE R
Cold. On Lhc pagc dcvoLcd Lo Lhc FnlighLcnmcnL, Lhc mini-comic rccounLs
Lhc slavc Lradc, rcminding vicwcrs LhaL many grcaL works o arL wcrc Lhc cul-
Lural byproducLs o dcvasLaLing social and nancial sysLcms. In Warcs own
work, Lhc abundancc o dccoraLion and visually harmonious dcsign clcmcnLs
hold Lhc poLcnLial Lo disLracL rom Lhc discordanL and cmoLionally wrcnching
conLcnL o Lhc narraLivc, a dcning characLcrisLic LhroughouL his ocuvrc. Tc
CiLy o Cold scgmcnLs makc visiblc an acsLhcLicizing o hisLorical opprcs-
sion and violcncc LhaL Lakcs placc noL only wiLhin Lhc LradiLional LrajccLory
o arL hisLory, buL also in Lhc hisLory o carLooning and wiLhin Our HisLory
o ArL iLscl.
WriLing in Lhc Lhird pcrson in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary ,, Warc addrcsscs
his uncasc wiLh Lhc arL hisLorical csLablishmcnL dirccLly: Tough admiLLcdly
Lraincd as an arLisL, hc ncvcr clL cnLircly aL homc in Lhc gcncrally approvcd
scLLing, ashion and didacLic charLcr o LhaL parLicular indusLry.

DcspiLc
his discomorL wiLh Lhc world o high arL, his knowlcdgc o arL hisLory is
vasL and omniprcscnL. IL is on display in his ooLnoLcd apprcciaLion o Philip
CusLon in McSweeneys Quarter|y Concern and in Lhc rccrcnccs Lo PicLcr
Brucgcl Lhc Fldcr and Masaccio ound in his skcLchbooks, scaLLcrcd among
Lhc drawings o sLrangcrs, buildings, and cvcryday objccLs.
6
Tcrc is a Lcnsion
bcLwccn Warcs procsscd insccuriLy abouL Lhc arL world and his amiliariLy
and casc wiLh iLs convcnLions. His disavowals o arL hisLory and iLs criLical ap-
paraLus arc incisivc bccausc Lhcy arc groundcd in amiliariLy, whilc Lhc criLi-
cisms hc lcvcls scrvc Lo draw aLLcnLion Lo conLradicLions and complicaLions
wiLhin his own work.
Warcs discomorL wiLh Lhc high arL acadcmy daLcs back Lo his ncgaLivc
cxpcricnccs aL arL school. In his book-lcngLh monograph on him, Danicl Rac-
burn dcscribcs how Warc was discouragcd and mockcd by insLrucLors aL Lhc
School o Lhc ArL InsLiLuLc o Chicago.
,
Civcn Warcs dissaLisacLion wiLh his
own arL cducaLion, iL comcs as no surprisc LhaL Lhc high school arL Lcachcr
hc dcpicLs in his scrializcd novcl-in-progrcss RusLy Brown is laughablc and
incccLual. Howcvcr, Lhc arLisL rcminds us LhaL all his criLicism is ulLimaLcly
scl-dirccLcd by naming Lhc rusLraLcd arL Lcachcr Mr. Warc and giving him
an appcarancc rcmarkably similar Lo oLhcr scl-porLraiLs by Lhc arLisL. Pudgy,
balding, and middlc-agcd, Mr. Warc is inLroduccd Lo rcadcrs o Te ACMF
Nove|ty Lbrary , siLLing in his classroom drawing a rudc caricaLurc o a cl-
low Lcachcr, who happcns Lo bc RusLy Browns aLhcr. Mr. Warcs inLcracLions
wiLh sLudcnLs rcvcal an unsaLiscd and cmoLionally sLunLcd man. Hc is a rus-
LraLcd arLisL whosc crcaLivc ouLpuL consisLs o mcan-spiriLcd carLoons abouL
his collcagucs and highly dcrivaLivc painLings. Mr. Warcs arLwork, which can
bc sccn in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 6, rcscmblcs a pop arL pasLichc o Roy
IichLcnsLcin, Fd Ruscha, and comics iconography.
8
Tc painLings arc accom-
panicd by a painully prcLcnLious LrcaLisc, ull o jargon and criLic-spcak. YcL,
whcn Mr. Warc draws Lhc rcadcrs aLLcnLion Lo his Limc-consuming Lcchniquc
by noLing, Whcrc IichLcnsLcin cmploys a mcchanical Lcchniquc Lo makc his
doLs, minc arc all donc by handcach row Lakcs abouL onc Lo vc hours Lo
complcLc . . . look closcly and youll scc!, onc canL hclp buL bc rcmindcd o
Lhc labor-inLcnsivc qualiLy o Chris Warcs own work.

As always, Warcs criLi-

cal cyc is unsparing. Hc managcs Lo skcwcr arLisLs, carLoonisLs, arL Lcachcrs,
and himscl wiLh Lhis singlc characLcr. A closc rcading o Lhc classroom sccnc
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE B UR DE N OF ART HI S T ORY 6 7
in which Mr. Warc comically modcls or his drawing class (which includcs
Chalky WhiLcs sisLcr Alicc) suggcsLs boLh Warcs mockcry o arL pcdagogy as
wcll as his knowlcdgc o arL hisLorical prcccdcnLs.
A sLill-lic arrangcmcnL in Lhc ccnLcr o Lhc classroom caLurcs a bicyclc
whccl proppcd up on a chair and ankcd by a Lall jug and a rcd applc. Tc
display rccalls Marccl Duchamps Pcyc|e whee| o , Lhc pivoLal occasion
whcn Lhc arLisL axcd a bicyclc whccl Lo a kiLchcn sLool Lo crcaLc his rsL
rcadymadc.
o
Duchamps clcvaLion o ordinary objccLs as arL qucsLioncd Lra-
diLional arL-making pracLiccs, including Lhc sLill-lic LradiLion, and rcdcncd
common undcrsLanding o Lhc arL objccL. A bullcLin board on Lhc rooms lcL
wall posiLs Lhc samc qucsLion LhaL Duchamps rcadymadcs poscd ncarly a
ccnLury ago, asking WhaL is arL` in jaunLy ycllow and rcd Lypc. Tc applc
has cvcn morc associaLivc propcrLics, Lhc mosL obvious bcing Lhc allusion Lo
Lhc orbiddcn ruiL o Lhc Ccncsis narraLivc, LLing or Mr. Warc, givcn his
inappropriaLc LhoughLs rcgarding his cmalc sLudcnLs, cspccially ncw sLudcnL
Alicc WhiLc, whosc disLincLivc rcd swcaLcr maLchcs Lhc color o Lhc applc. Tc
applc is also cvocaLivc o Lhc work o Rcnc MagriLLc, who uscd iL as a moLi
LhroughouL his carccr, as in Te Son oj Man (6), whcrc a oaLing applc ob-
scurcs Lhc acc o MagriLLcs anonymous bourgcois busincssman. IL lls Lhc
canvas in Ts !s Not an App|e (6), a painLing LhaL combincs imagc and LcxL
Lo draw aLLcnLion Lo Lhc insLabiliLy o languagc, a Lhcmc which prcoccupicd
MagriLLc, as cvidcnccd by his mosL amous painLing, Te Treachery oj !mages
(:), also known as Cec nest pas une ppe. Warcs inLcrcsL in MagriLLc is
noL surprising, givcn his cxploraLion o communicaLion ailurc and Lhc inad-
cquacy o languagc in works likc 1mmy Corrgan.
Warc has alludcd Lo MagriLLc on oLhcr occasions. Tc rsL volumc o Te
ACMF Nove|ty Late Pook conLains a comic whcrcin Warc Lrics Lo rcconcilc
whaL makcs comics a disLincL mcdium. WiLhin Lhc comic, hc draws a black-
board caLuring a drawing o an cyc ncxL Lo Lhc word cyc, wiLh an asLcrisk
noLing Lhc rccrcncc Lo MagriLLc. Hc wriLcs, Tcrcs a big dicrcncc bcLwccn
sccing and rcading, bcorc noLing LhaL comics arc somcLhing LhaL is boLh
sccn and rcad simulLancously.

MagriLLc has provcn Lo bc a uscul arLisL or

carLoonisLs aLLcmpLing Lo cxplain Lhc signicancc o Lhc inLcrrclaLionship o
word and LcxL. ScoLL McCloud uscs Te Treachery oj !mages in his LcxL 0n-
derstandng Comcs, a landmark LrcaLisc on Lhc mcdium.
:
Warcs rccrcncc
Lo MagriLLc Lhcrcby conjurcs an alLcrnaLivc hisLory o arL, onc in which Lhc
problcms poscd by MagriLLc arc jusL as compclling as Lhosc raiscd by Du-
champ.
Whcrcas Duchamp Look arL down a paLh away rom narraLivc, as did Pica-
sso and Pollock, MagriLLcs inLcrcsLs align morc closcly wiLh Lhosc o Warc.
AlLhough MagriLLc was inLcrcsLcd in visual languagc, hc also painLcd objccLs
in a rcalisL manncr, dcmonsLraLing during a pcriod dominaLcd by absLracLion
LhaL rcalism was sLill capablc o making vicwcrs rcLhink Lhcir cxpccLaLions.
1usL as words orm an csscnLial componcnL o Lhc composiLion in MagriLLcs
painLing, words arc givcn cqual visual wcighL on Warcs pagcs, as in scvcral
insLanccs in Lhc arL class scqucncc in which Lhc passagc o Limc is convcycd
Lhrough a solid bluc pancl wiLh whiLc lcLLcring conLaining Lhc words shorLly
and anyway.

IcLLcrcd sound cccLs arc also uscd hcrc in sLark conLrasL

Lo Lhc archcLypal kapow! and blam! o Coldcn Agc supcrhcro comics, in-
6 8 K AT HE R I NE ROE DE R
sLcad, Lhc arLisL injccLs Lhc pagc wiLh Lhc cvcryday sounds o Lhc k-chnk o a
door opcning, Lhc shuing and Lidying o papcrs, and Lhc placcmcnL o a SLy-
rooam cocc cup upon a dcsk. Tc usc o such anLi-sound cccLs dovcLails
wiLh Mr. Warcs painLings, in which words likc pow and blam arc couplcd
wiLh qucsLion marks, Lhcrcby dcaLing Lhcir rhcLorical powcr. Tc inclusion
hcrc o small audiLory dcLails works Lo quicLly convcy Lhc soundLrack o an
uLLcrly ordinary, banal day in high school. Iikc MagriLLc, Warc is aLLuncd Lo
Lhc sLrangcncss o ordinary lic.
Mr. Warc himscl modcls or Lhc sLudcnLs, hc picks up Lhc applc and movcs
Lhrough a scrics o poscs in a scqucncc rcminisccnL o Fadwcard Muybridgcs
scqucnLial phoLographs o human locomoLion.

On Lhc adjoining pagc, in Lhc

uppcr lcL corncr, wc scc Mr. Warc aL his mosL ridiculous: bcnL aL Lhc waisL
wiLh his rcar in Lhc air acing his sLudcnLs (scc g. .). RaLhcr Lhan rcading
cach pancl scqucnLially rom lcL Lo righL, Warc dcmands LhaL Lhc rcadcr look
morc closcly in ordcr Lo undcrsLand Lhc narraLivc o Lhc pagc. Tc LcxL lcads
us Lhrough Lhc imagc, moving rsL across Lhc uppcr Lwo-Lhirds o Lhc pagc
and Lhcn across Lhc lowcr Lhird, which likc Lhc uppcr rcgisLcr is urLhcr subdi-
vidcd in Lwo. Tc Lhird and largcsL pancl anchors Lhc pagc, providing a birds-
cyc vicw o Lhc arL classroom. Tc lasL Lwo pancls o Lhc uppcr rcgisLcr orm
onc imagc, cmploying Lhc polypLych as a dcvicc in comics LhaL daLcs back
Lo Lhc carly LwcnLicLh-ccnLury comic sLrips o Winsor McCay, showing Alicc
WhiLc and anoLhcr cmalc sLudcnL working on Lhcir skcLchcs as snow alls
Fig. 5.1. In this episode of
Rusty Brown, Chalky
Whites sister takes
drawing lessons from a
disaffected art teacher
named Mr. Ware. Chris
Ware, The ACME Novelty
Library 17 (Chicago: The
ACME Novelty Library,
2006), 35.
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE B UR DE N OF ART HI S T ORY 6 9
soLly ouLsidc. Warc dividcs Lhc pancls aL Lhc poinL whcrc Lhc dcsk on which
Lhc womcn arc drawing should bc, so LhaL Lhc guLLcr running bcLwccn Lhc
Lwo pancls also rcads as Lhcir drawing Lablc. Tc cnLirc pagc dcmonsLraLcs
Warcs command o wholc-pagc dcsign as wcll as his propcnsiLy or showing
a sccnc rom mulLiplc vicwpoinLs. Wc scc Lhc arL classroom rom a posiLion
sLanding in Lhc snow ouLsidc Lhc school, rom Mr. Warcs conLorLcd posc as
hc pccks up Aliccs skirL, rom Aliccs pcrspccLivc as shc puLs pcncil Lo pagc
Lo draw Lhc gurc, and, nally, Lhc vicw Lhc sLudcnLs havc o Lhcir Lcachcr,
o his acc upsidc down and looking Lhrough his lcgs whilc his Lic danglcs in
ronL o his hcad. Tis lasL imagc is rcpcaLcd Lhrcc Limcs, bringing a syncopa-
Lion Lo Lhc pagc, as Lhc visagc o Mr. Warc bccomcs cvcr morc absLracL and
groLcsquc, Lhc vicwcr is alcrLcd Lo Lhc Lruc naLurc o his characLcr, his arLisLic
posLuring scrving as a mcrc aadc LhaL allows him Lo lccr aL prcLLy young
girls.
Warcs aLLcnLion Lo all-ovcr pagc dcsign and his obscssivc cyc or Lclling
dcLails rcvcals iLscl slowly ovcr Limc. A vicwcr could bc orgivcn or glossing
ovcr such nc poinLs during an iniLial rcading o Lhc comics. YcL iL is or Lhis
rcason LhaL Warcs arLwork is morc amcnablc Lo a muscum scLLing Lhan Lhosc
o somc o his collcagucs. Whcn his drawings arc isolaLcd rom Lhcir original
conLcxL and placcd on a gallcry wall, iL allows Lhc vicwcr Lhc spacc Lo dclibcr-
aLc upon Lhc inLricacics o cach individual drawing. Danicl Racburn cxprcsscs
a common criLicism abouL cxhibiLing comics in arL insLiLuLions: Comics do
noL bclong undcr Lhc Lrack lighLing o SoHo anyway. Comics may bc a visual
arL, buL Lhcy arc an arL o wriLing. FxLracLing a pagc rom a comic book and
puLLing iL bchind glass is likc cuLLing a paragraph rom a shorL sLory and ram-
ing iL.

Racburn is corrccL Lo arguc LhaL somcLhing is losL whcn comics arc

isolaLcd rom Lhcir original rcading conLcxL, howcvcr, such sLaLcmcnLs dis-
counL Lhc visual impacL o comic arL, dismissing iLs connccLions Lo arL hisLori-
cal anLcccdcnLs by privilcging iLs rclaLionship Lo liLcraLurc or by csLablishing
comics as a scparaLc mcdium alLogcLhcr. Comics arc noL produccd wiLh Lhc
muscum vicwcr in mind, jusL as alLarpicccs losc Lhcir liLurgical conLcxL whcn
cxhibiLcd in an arL gallcry. Howcvcr, iL is shorLsighLcd Lo Lhink LhaL Lhcrc is
noLhing Lo bc gaincd rom Lhis ncw vicwing cxpcricncc. By placing comics in
a muscum, visiLors arc cncouragcd Lo Lhink abouL how comics rclaLc Lo Lhc
broadcr hisLory o arL and Lo makc visual connccLions across mcdiums. Warc
himscl qucsLions Lhc placc o comics in muscum scLLings: RcccnLly, many
cxhibiLions and muscum shows havc prcscnLcd walls o comic sLrip originals
as arL Lo Lhc vicwing public as ycL onc morc proo o comics asccnding lcgiLi-
macy. [. . .] BuL docs raming and hanging somcLhing up on Lhc wall auLomaLi-
cally makc iL arL` AcLually who carcs`
6
DcspiLc Warcs objccLions, howcvcr, arL muscums havc noncLhclcss bccn
accordcd culLural auLhoriLy in our socicLy. As a rcsulL Lhcy play a rolc, as Warc
acknowlcdgcs, in lcgiLimizing comic arL in Lhc cycs o a largcr public. Warcs
discomorL wiLh Lhc arL csLablishmcnL bccomcs mosL apparcnL whcn hc
himscl is aordcd insLiLuLional powcr, a Lrcnd cvidcnccd mosL clcarly in his
Lurn as gucsL curaLor o an cxhibiLion LiLlcd 0n!nked. Pantngs, Scu|pture, and
Craphc works by Fve Cartoonsts. Hc wriLcs in Lhc rsL paragraph o Lhc cxhi-
biLion caLaloguc (which hc also cdiLcd): Comics, wiLh rarc cxccpLion, arc a vi-
sual languagc, onc composcd o picLurcs inLcndcd Lo bc rcad and disLribuLcd
7 0 K AT HE R I NE ROE DE R
as mass-produccd objccLs, noL scruLinizcd individually as onc mighL carcully
pcrusc a painLing or a drawing.
,
Such sLaLcmcnLs appcar Lo arguc againsL Lhc
usculncss o cxhibiLions such as Lhc onc hc was askcd Lo curaLc. DcspiLc his
misgivings abouL displaying comics in muscums amidsL painLings and draw-
ings, Warc acccpLcd an inviLaLion Lo cxhibiL his work aL Lhc WhiLncy Muscum
o ArL in :oo:.
Warcs ambivalcncc Loward Lhc arL csLablishmcnLs inLcrcsL in comics was
apparcnL in his conLribuLion Lo Lhc WhiLncy Bicnnial. Warc crcaLcd a posLcr
or Lhc bicnnial LhaL calls Lo mind a ull-color ncwspapcr broadshccL. Tc Li-
Llc, Te whtney Prevarcator, is drawn in Lhc sLylc o a ncwspapcr masLhcad.
According Lo Lhc hcadcr, iL is publishcd biannually and conLains all your a-
voriLcs . . . arL hisLorical quips and gags, phrasing which draws aLLcnLion Lo
high arLs procliviLy or Laking iLscl Loo scriously. Applying Lhc Lcrminology
o comics Lo high arL compcls Lhc vicwcr Lo considcr how languagc and prc-
scnLaLion, bc iL a ncwspapcr broadsidc or a whiLc box gallcry spacc, shapcs
our pcrccpLion o whaL is and is noL arL. Tc posLcr urLhcr sLaLcs LhaL iL is a
lighL divcrsion rom Lhc largcr problcms o will, consciousncss, and culLural
aspiraLion, urLhcr rcinorcing Lhc culLurally prcscribcd rolcs o Lhc comics
as brcczy cnLcrLainmcnL, sLanding in opposiLion Lo Lhc muscum as Lcmplc Lo
high scriousncss. Tc pagc dcsign acLs as a nod Loward comic arL hisLory and
Lhc rolc o ncwspapcrs in Lhc dcvclopmcnL o Lhc mcdium. AddiLionally, Lhc
broadshccL ormaL is uscul in LhaL iL allows Warc Lo posiLion himscl ouLsidc
o Lhc muscum, raLhcr Lhan a parLicipanL in Lhc cxhibiLion, hc has Lakcn on
Lhc rolc o rcporLcr.
Warc rcpcaLcdly qucsLioncd Lhc soundncss o including his work in Lhc bi-
cnnial arL cxhibiLion, a vicw apparcnLly sharcd by PcLcr Schjcldahl, who callcd
iL a show in which arL is mooL cxccpL as a caLchall or objccLs and acLivi-
Lics LhaL arcnL clcarly somcLhing clsc oras in Lhc skillcd buL scl-absorbcd
comic sLrips o Chris Warcarc Loo cool Lo ignorc. (Iikc Lclcvision advcrLis-
crs, Lhis Bicnnial panLs aLcr Lhc youLh markcL.)
8
Warc hcads o such criLics
by conLinually ocring up his own skcpLicism abouL his posiLion in Lhc arL
world, wriLing on onc occasion LhaL [his] work has appcarcd, incxplicably, in
Lhc WhiLncy Bicnnial o Amcrican ArL in :oo:.

In Te whtney Prevarcator, arL hisLory is Lold Lhrough a scrics o comic

sLrips. Tc posLcr is asLcr paccd and morc concisc Lhan Lhc vcrsion ound in
Te ACMF Report, iL lacks Lhc Lhrcc largc pancls LhaL hclp uniy and propcl Lhc
narraLivc o Our HisLory o ArL. Fxcluding Lhc largcr pancls allows Warc Lo
connc Lhc sLory Lo onc pagc and bcLLcr prcscrvc iLs rcscmblancc Lo Lhc com-
ics sccLion o a Sunday ncwspapcr. Tc pancls arc givcn individual hcadcrs Lo
disLinguish Lhc sLorics o dicrcnL individuals and movcmcnLs. IL is a logical
organizaLion in LhaL mosL arL hisLorics arc organizcd around Lhc compcLing
narraLivcs o individuals and groups. Tc sccLions arc also dicrcnLiaLcd by
color choiccs, rcds, blucs, and carLh Loncs prcdominaLc. Tc color choiccs arc
inLcnLional, as Warc rcvcals whcn hc wriLcs in a LcxL pancl undcr Lhc hcadcr
Did you know . . . LhaL Lhc Dark Agcs, Manncrism, & PosL-Modcrnism arc
all pretty much the same thng| ILs true| Tcsc cool or inLcllccLualizcd cras
arc sysLcmic codicaLions o Lhc prcvious warm or cmoLional discovcrics
which prcccdcd Lhcm! (8). Hcrc Warc uscs simplc words, hcavily-puncLuaLcd
wiLh cxclamaLion poinLs in Lhc rhcLorical sLylc o un acLs, Lo convcy his a-
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE B UR DE N OF ART HI S T ORY 7 1
miliariLy wiLh acsLhcLic Lhcory and a hisLory o ormalism LhaL daLcs back Lo
Hcinrich Wolin and Alois Ricgl.
:o
By drawing on Lhc convcnLions o comic
sLrip dialogucs and advcrLising copy, Warc implics LhaL Lhcrc arc morc dirccL
ways o Lalking Lo vicwcrs abouL arL, implicaLing arL insLiLuLions and criLics
or bcing ovcrly didacLic and alicnaLing Lhcir audicnccs. So as Lo makc his
poinL visually as wcll as vcrbally, hc cmploys cool colors such as bluc Loncs Lo
indicaLc Lhc ccrcbral movcmcnLs likc posLmodcrnism, whilc warm colors and
carLh Loncs indicaLc Lhc cmoLional pcriods such as Lhc Rcnaissancc. Tc
cumulaLivc cccL is Lo suggcsL Lhc comics sccLion o Lhc Sunday ncwspapcr,
caLuring an array o comics by mulLiplc auLhors. Howcvcr, Lhc sLylisLic inLcg-
riLy o Lhc pagc givcs away Lhc acL LhaL Lhis is Lhc producL o a singlc arLisL
and LhaL Lhc individual sLorics Lic LogcLhcr Lo crcaLc an ovcrarching narraLivc
abouL Lhc dcvclopmcnL o WcsLcrn arL.
Tc dicrcnccs bcLwccn Te whtney Prevarcator and Our HisLory o ArL
as iL appcarcd in Te ACMF Report arc noL insignicanL. Tc WhiLncy piccc
bcgins during Lhc classical cra, whilc Lhc longcr vcrsion originaLcs in Lhc Pa-
lcoliLhic. IL is noLcworLhy LhaL Warc cxpands backward Lo includc prchisLoric
arL, as scvcral comic hisLorians discuss Lhc cavc painLings aL Iascaux as bcing
Lhc rsL cxamplcs o scqucnLial arL.
:
His indirccL rccrcncc Lo comic scholar-
ship Lhcrcby locaLcs comics aL Lhc ccnLcr o Lhc hisLory o arL. In Lhc cxpandcd
vcrsion, Lhc sLory unolds ovcr our pagcs, Lhrcc o which caLurc largc ccnLral
imagcs composing morc Lhan hal Lhc pagc, all o Lhcsc imagcs bcing abscnL
in Lhc original posLcr. IasLly, Lhcrc is a ull pagc dcvoLcd Lo Lhc ciLizcn-arLisL-
consumcr o Lhc uLurc in Lhc sLylc o his rccurring LiLlc, Talcs o Tomorrow.
Tcsc addiLions crcaLc a morc ar-rcaching narraLivc, ambiLious in iLs scopc as
iL movcs rom prchisLory all Lhc way inLo Lhc uLurc.
::
Warc uscs rcpcLiLion and symmcLry Lo uniy Lhc cnLirc scqucncc. Tc
arLisL, or cxamplc, appcars Lo bc Lhc samc man (Lhc arLisL is always malc)
LhroughouL Lhc scrics. His physical appcarancc rcmains consisLcnL, wiLh his
oblong acc, buLLon nosc, worry lincs on brow and undcr cycs, and a dispro-
porLionaLcly pcar-shapcd body. Pcriod drcss is Lhc only markcr LhaL disLin-
guishcs him rom onc cpoch Lo Lhc ncxL. Tc similariLics arc mosL cvidcnL
in Lhc Lhrcc largc ccnLral pancls whcrc Lhc arLisL is shown in Lhc samc posc,
siLLing down Lo work wiLh a drawing implcmcnL in hand, acing Lhc Lcrror
o Lhc blank pagc. Tc rsL largc pancl shows a cavcman siLLing on an ani-
mal carcass, prcparing Lo skcLch on a sLrcLchcd animal skin. Tc sccond largc
pancl shows a Lypical scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury DuLch arLisL in his sLudio, com-
plcLc wiLh a cabincL o curiosiLics, a sLill-lic display, as wcll as a globc and a
wall map, all o which invokc Lhc prospcrous DuLch Lradc which uclcd Lhcir
acLivc arL markcL. Tc Lhird pancl shows an arLisL o Lhc uLurc, ouLLLcd in
a spacc suiL and aLLachcd Lo oxygcn Lanks. Numcrous composiLional parallcls
also Lic Lhc Lhrcc imagcs LogcLhcr. All Lhrcc mcn draw wiLh a quill pcn and ink
poL, dcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL Lhcy arc anachronisLic Lools or boLh Lhc cavcman
and Lhc man o Lhc uLurc. All Lhrcc arc working in a shclLcrcd, proLccLcd arca
whilc a vicw Lo Lhc largcr world lics jusL bchind Lhcm, rcinorcing Lhc idca o
Lhc arLisL as obscrvcr.
Tc cavc dwcllcrs abodc looks ouL onLo a chaoLic sccnc o violcncc and
rapc wiLh a volcano cxploding in Lhc disLancc, nonc o which has any noLicc-
ablc cccL on Lhc arLisL, who is uninspircd in spiLc o all Lhc acLiviLy occur-
7 2 K AT HE R I NE ROE DE R
ring jusL ouLsidc his cavc. Tc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury appcarcd Lo bc a sacr
Limc, and Lhc vicw ouL Lhc arLisLs windows shows mcrchanLs wandcring Lhc
sLrccLs. Tc only dangcr Lo bc sccn is a man sLcpping inLo a puddlc and a
banana pccl lying ominously in Lhc allcyway, waiLing or somconc Lo Lakc a
all. Tc inclusion o Lhc banana pccl, LhaL sLaplc o vaudcvillc rouLincs and
gag carLoons, inLcrjccLs a comic scnsibiliLy inLo Lhc narraLivc by rcminding
vicwcrs LhaL slapsLick humor, likc Lhc acsLhcLic impulsc, is cvcr prcscnL. To
Lhc righL is a waLcr vicw, and a sailing ship is sccn in Lhc disLancc, gcsLuring
Loward Lhc dangcrs o lic aL sca and rcinorcing Lhc imporLancc o Lradc and
commcrcc Lo Lhc pcriods arL markcL. Tc rsL sccnc shows many pcoplc in
Lhc background, cwcr pcoplc arc dcpicLcd in Lhc sccond sccnc and no oLhcr
humans can bc sccn ouL Lhc window o Lhc Lhird largc pancl, indicaLing Lhc
incrcasing isolaLion o modcrn lic. Human prcscncc is mcrcly suggcsLcd by
Lhc lighLs in disLanL buildings and aircraL oaLing by. Billboards command
vicwcrs Lo caL, buy, and waLch, suggcsLing LhaL Lhc acL o vicwing, whcLhcr
iL bc dirccLcd aL Lclcvision or culLural arLiacLs in a muscum, is jusL anoLhcr
orm o consumpLion. Wc waLch as Lhc arLisLs physical condiLions improvc
ovcr Limc: Lhc cavcman works amidsL animal carcasscs, applc corcs, and cx-
crcmcnL, whilc Lhc scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury DuLchman has rcsh brcad, a jug o
winc, and a chambcr poL aL his disposal. IasLly, Lhc man o Lhc uLurc is con-
nccLcd Lo a scrics o Lubcs LhaL cvidcnLly managc his physical nccds or him.
And ycL, rcgardlcss o Lhcir crcaLurc comorLs, all Lhrcc mcn arc crcaLivcly
blockcd, suggcsLing Lhc Limclcss anxicLy o Lhc blank pagc.
Warc privilcgcs Lhc acL o drawing, as opposcd Lo painLing, as Lhc primal
siLc or Lhc crcaLivc impulsc. Oncc again, his unailing cyc or small dcLails is
on display, as in Lhc skull LhaL acLs as an inkpoL in Lhc rsL largc pancl and is
rcpcaLcd in Lhc sccond, whcrc iL can bc ound on Lhc Lop lcvcl o Lhc arLisLs
cabincL o curiosiLics, waiLing Lo bc Lakcn ouL and uscd in a mcmcnLo mori
sLill lic. OLhcr dcLails orm a connccLivc Lhrcad Lhrough Lhc composiLion,
or cxamplc, a Crcck arLisL chiscls a woman in marblc, Lhc samc sculpLurc
laLcr appcars as a modcl or Mr. Manncrism (Lhough by Lhcn hcr arms havc
brokcn o, la Lhc Vcnus dc Milo). A miniaLurc vcrsion o Lhc sLaLuc appcars
in Lhc DuLch arLisLs wunderkammer. IaLcr, in Lhc modcrnisL arL scqucncc,
arLisLs arc shown working rom livc modcls who arc poscd in Lhc samc posi-
Lion as Lhc sLaLuc. Visual rcpcLiLion lcnds uniLy Lo Lhc ovcrall pagc dcsign. IL
also cmphasizcs Lhc conLinuing imporLancc o hisLory Lo arL by alluding Lo
Lhc acL LhaL Rcnaissancc arL and Manncrism wcrc hcavily indcbLcd Lo Lhc
rc-discovcry o anLiquiLics rom Lhc Classical cra.
As wiLh any hisLory, Warcs own inLcrcsLs and procliviLics color Lhc narra-
Livc. As prcviously indicaLcd, drawing prcdominaLcs as Lhc mcdium o choicc.
Tc archcLypal carLoonisL Rodolphc Topcr cvcn makcs an appcarancc in Lhc
sLrip LiLlcd Nobody Iikcs Mc, whcrc in an aLLcmpL Lo imprcss CocLhc hc
dccidcs Lo combinc Lwo disparaLc clds o civilizaLion inLo onc . . . LhaL sorL
o Lrick is all Lhc ragc aL Lhc momcnL . . . lcsscc now . . . aha! ! know . . . Ill mix
up arL and liLcraLurc . . . Tat|| gcL his goaL! (,). Tus Warc is ablc Lo inLcrjccL
a kcy gurc rom Lhc hisLory o comic arL inLo Lhc narraLivc. Whilc Topcr
is bcginning Lo rcccivc morc rccogniLion, as cvidcnccd by Lhc Lwo rcccnL vol-
umcs dcvoLcd Lo him publishcd by David Kunzlc and rcvicwcd by Warc or
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE B UR DE N OF ART HI S T ORY 7 3
Pookjorum, Lhc arLisL is noLiccably abscnL rom any major arL hisLory survcy
LcxL.
:
Warcs pcrsonal canon o arL hisLorical anLcccdcnLs is idiosyncraLic and
divcrsc, ranging rom William HogarLh Lo Rcnc MagriLLc and Philip CusLon,
ycL Lhc inucncc cach has on his arLisLic producLion is cvidcnL. FighLccnLh-
ccnLury BriLish arLisL William HogarLh is an obvious choicc or a carLoonisL,
givcn his background as a saLirisL and his innovaLivc usc o Lhc prinL mcdium
Lo crcaLc scqucnLial narraLivcs. According Lo 1ohn Carlin, Warc kccps an im-
agc rom HogarLhs Te Ana|yss oj Peauty aL homc on a wall ncar his drawing
Lablc.
:
Te Ana|yss oj Peauty was an illusLraLcd LrcaLisc on acsLhcLic Lhcory
in which HogarLh dcscribcd six principlcs LhaL individually conLribuLc Lo an
objccLs bcauLy: Lncss, varicLy, rcgulariLy, simpliciLy, inLricacy, and quanLiLy.
Such qualiLics pcrmcaLc Warcs arLwork, rom Lhc disarmingly simplc gurc
dcsigns Lo Lhc inLricaLcly dcLailcd pagc composiLions caLuring various shapcs
and orms Lo lcnd Lhc pagc visual inLcrcsL, combincd wiLh Lhc rcpcLiLivc usc
o parLicular imagcs which work Lo uniy Lhc ovcrall pagc (scc g. .:). Tc
cngravcd plaLcs accompanying Te Ana|yss oj Peauty arc similar Lo dcsigns by
Warc in LhaL Lhcy arc dcnsc, dcLailcd works LhaL dcmand closc looking and
rcward carcul considcraLion. PlaLc caLurcs a largc ccnLral sccnc in which
a man in conLcmporary drcss sLands in a courLyard conLcmplaLing ancicnL
Fig. 5.2. In the rst plate
from William Hogarths
inuential treatise on
aesthetics, Hogarth re-
duces the human form to
its essential recognizable
components. William
Hogarth, The Analysis of
Beauty, Plate I (London: J.
Reeves, 1753).
7 4 K AT HE R I NE ROE DE R
sLaLuary. Smallcr pancls dcpicLing a rangc o drawing Lcchniqucs bordcr Lhc
imagc. As i Lhcy wcrc cxLracLcd rom a drawing manual, Lhc small pancls
conLain cvcryLhing rom simplc linc drawings Lo complcx porLraiLs rcndcrcd
Lhrcc-dimcnsional by shading and modcling. Tc composiLion mirrors LhaL o
Our HisLory o ArL, which includcs smallcr pancls o varying sizcs LhaL sur-
round a largc, ccnLral imagc.
NoL only do Warcs acsLhcLic inLcrcsLs dovcLail wiLh Lhosc ouLlincd by
HogarLh, Lhc carlicr arLisL also sharcs Warcs conLcmpL or arL csLablish-
mcnLs cliLisL Lcndcncics. His LrcaLisc was dubbcd a war on connoisscurs
bccausc iL was purposcully dcvoid o prcLcnLious languagc and jargon. Ho-
garLh dcsigncd Lhc work Lo appcal Lo Lhc cmcrging markcL o middlc-class arL
paLrons: HogarLh Look sLrong cxccpLion Lo Lhc acadcmic vicw LhaL a sLudy o
Lhc works o Lhc masLcrs could bc a subsLiLuLc or a sLudy o naLurc. His criLi-
cism o Lhc connoisscurs was LhaL Lhcy wcrc Loo conccrncd wiLh manncrs,
and Lhus wiLh a manncrcd vicw o naLurc, whilsL hc was conccrncd wiLh a di-
rccL vicw o naLurc, hc dcplorcd arLicialiLy and cusLom.
:
Warc is similarly
disLrusLul o Lhc currcnL arL csLablishmcnL and iLs insisLcncc on mainLaining
hicrarchics o LasLc, cspccially Lhosc LhaL rclcgaLc comics as a mcdium Lo a
sub-arLisLic lcvcl.
Warcs disLasLc or conLcmporary arL is cvidcnL in RcducLio ad absurdum
(RcducLion Lo Lhc absurd), whosc vcry LiLlc suggcsLs Warcs bclic LhaL mod-
crn arL has losL iLs way, bccoming incrcasingly rcmovcd rom Lhc projccL o
rcvcaling naLurc and boggcd down by LhcorcLicians. Tc bicyclc whccl LhaL
was ound in Mr. Warcs arL class rc-suraccs in Lhc ourLh pancl o Lhis mini-
comic. A Duchamp sLand-in pus on a pipc (channcling MagriLLc) whilc dc-
claring, Im going Lo sLop making arL complcLcly and jusL occasionally scrcw
sLu LogcLhcr, sincc noLhing much maLLcrs, anyway (8). Tc WhiLncy posLcr
similarly cnds on a cynical noLc. Tc boLLom pancl conLains a comic sLrip
callcd Tcy Iovc Mc, which opcns by posiLioning Lhc vicwcr on Lhc ouLsidc
looking inLo a brighLly liL gallcry spacc. Tc cxLcrior sccnc is signicanL, Warc
oncc morc posiLions himscl as an ouLsidcr casLing a criLical cyc on arL world
dcalings. Tc ncxL pancl is an inLcrior shoL o a man on a ccll phonc aL Lhc
Tony Baloni Finc ArL Callcry chaLLing up a poLcnLial cusLomcr. His iniLial
appcal Lo his clicnL could jusL as casily bc Lhc comc-on o a drug dcalcrI
goL somc ncw sLu I Lhink you mighL bc inLcrcsLcd in . . . yeah, rcal crazy shiL,
ycah, (8)whilc Lhc namc o Lhc gallcry (Tony Baloni, which rhymcs wiLh
phony baloncy, also calls Lo mind Lhc word Lony as in posh and baloncy
as in hogwash, implying an arL gallcry dcaling in posh hogwash) also signals
Lo Lhc vicwcr LhaL his inLcnLions may noL bc cnLircly purc.
:6
Tc arL dcalcr
piLchcs his hoL young arLisL as a commodiLy, ocring his clicnL Lhc poLcnLial
Lo gcL in on Lhc ground oor (8). Tc ollowing pancl, which appcars only in
Our HisLory o ArL, is callcd PosL modcrn PosL morLcm and iL is anoLhcr
damning commcnL on conLcmporary arL and Lhcory. InsLcad o working aL a
drawing Lablc or cascl, Lhc arLisL is aL his lapLop, muddlcd by Lhc Lhcorics o
Iacan and Daridas (sp`) (8). O coursc, Warc himscl uscs a compuLcr Lo
color his drawings, dcmonsLraLing ycL again his abiliLy Lo dirccL criLicism aL
himscl as wcll as oLhcrs.
DcspiLc Lhc digs aL modcrnisL and posLmodcrnisL arL and Lhcory, Chris
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE B UR DE N OF ART HI S T ORY 7 5
Warc has cxprcsscd cnLhusiasm abouL Philip CusLon, Lhc absLracL arLisL who
rcLurncd Lo guraLion in Lhc mid-6os. Tc cshy, moLLlcd, raw orms LhaL
ll CusLons canvas havc liLLlc in common wiLh Lhc prccisc gcomcLric orms
and aL arcas o color LhaL prcdominaLc in Warcs nishcd work. Howcvcr,
Warcs publishcd skcLchcs rcvcal LhaL hc is jusL as comorLablc working wiLh
a rccr, looscr drawing sLylc. Iikc HogarLh, CusLon was noL always apprcci-
aLcd in his own Limc, and arL criLics such as HilLon Kramcr aLLackcd him or
using rccognizablc subjccL maLLcr.
:,
Warcs apprcciaLion o Philip CusLon in
McSweeneys is boLh an odc Lo CusLons rcclamaLion o guraLion and a
rcjccLion o Lhc Lypc o arL criLicism propagaLcd by ClcmcnL Crccnbcrg and
his ollowcrs, which dismisscd any work dcviaLing rom Lhc goal o aLLaining
acsLhcLic puriLy Lhrough mcdium spcciciLycriLicism LhaL would by iLs
own sLandards dcvaluc Lhc narraLivc arL ound in comics. Tough CusLons
criLical rcpuLaLion has sincc bccn rcsusciLaLcd, and Crccnbcrgian modcrnism
is no longcr asccndanL, Warc sLill ccls Lhc nccd Lo makc Lhc argumcnL or
CusLons imporLancc.
:8
Closc cxaminaLion o Warcs arL and wriLing rcvcals skcpLicism Loward
boLh arL criLicism and arL muscums, which work in collusion Lo lcgiLimaLc
arL hisLorical narraLivcs. In his :oo: LcxL Stores oj Art, arL hisLorian 1amcs
Flkins bcgins by rclaying a classroom cxcrcisc: hc asks his sLudcnLs Lo pro-
ducc a map o arL hisLory as iL appcars Lo Lhcm. Hc dcscribcs somc o Lhc
morc invcnLivc corLs bcorc conccding LhaL, nccdlcss Lo say, drawings likc
Lhcsc canL ully dcscribc Lhc shapc o hisLory. Tcy arc Loo simplc, and bc-
sidcs, mosL o us donL normally Lhink in diagrams. Drawings and diagrams
arc unashionablc in arL hisLory, bccausc Lhcy arc Loo ncaL Lo rcprcscnL Lhc
rcal LruLh.
:
Warcs Our HisLory o ArL is in many ways a similar projccL. Hc
uscs simplc orms and diagrams Lo convcy complcx idcas abouL how hisLory
is shapcd and whom iL bcncLs. Flkins acknowlcdgcs, Tc cxcrcisc is simplc
buL iL isnL simplcmindcd: iL can hclp dislodgc Lhc wcighL o pcdagogy and
uncovcr a scnsc o arL hisLory LhaL is closcr Lo Lhc way Lhc pasL is imagincd,
clL, and uscd [. . .] OLhcrwisc arL hisLory is jusL a paradc, dcsigncd by oLhcr
pcoplc, cndlcssly passing you by.
o
By inscrLing comic arL inLo Lhc narraLivc,
Warc qucsLions Lhc ways in which acadcmic scholarship conLinucs Lo privi-
lcgc ccrLain orms o arL-making aL Lhc cxpcnsc o oLhcrs. Warc is uniqucly
posiLioncd Lo do so, having bccn wclcomcd inLo Lhc vcry insLiLuLions LhaL his
work criLiqucs. Hc has ound mulLiplc avcnucs Lo accomplish Lhis Lask: by
curaLing his own cxhibiLions, by publishing book rcvicws and arLiclcs abouL
Lhc undcrapprcciaLcd arLisLs who wcrc mcaningul or him, and by crcaLing
comics likc Our HisLory o ArL, Warc conLinucs Lo rcwriLc arL hisLory.
Notes
1. Roxana Marconi, Comic Abstraction: Image Breaking, Image Making (New York: Museum of Mod-
ern Art; London: Thames & Hudson, 2007). Contemporary art museums are becoming more inter-
ested in comic art as evidenced by the Museum of Modern Arts 2007 exhibition, Comic Abstraction.
However, by their emphasis on artists who appropriated comic art forms as a means of cultural
critique, while simultaneously excluding any practicing cartoonists, the MoMA exhibition reinforced,
rather than surmounted, the high-low divide.
2. Lawrence Rinder, Whitney Biennial 2002 (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art,
2002).
7 6 K AT HE R I NE ROE DE R
3. Chris Ware, ed. UnInked: Paintings, Sculpture, and Graphic Works by Five Cartoonists (Phoenix:
Phoenix Art Museum, 2007).
4. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy
Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005). All further references to this text will be indicated in
parentheses.
5. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 17 (Chicago: The ACME Novelty Library, 2006), copy-
right page.
6. Chris Ware, Philip Guston: A Cartoonists Appreciation, McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13
(San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2004), 8591; Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Datebook (Montreal:
Drawn & Quarterly, 2003), 115; Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Datebook, Volume Two (Montreal:
Drawn & Quarterly, 2007) 83.
7. Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 12.
8. Mr. Wares pop art paintings can be found in Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 16 (Chicago:
The ACME Novelty Library, 2005), 3637.
9. Ibid., 37.
10. Duchamp would later distinguish between untouched objects, which were deemed ready-
mades, and common objects which he altered slightly, as in this example where he fused the wheel to
the kitchen stool. Such altered objects were referred to as assisted readymades.
11. Ware, The ACME Novelty Datebook, 40.
12. Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics (Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink, 1993), 2425.
13. For discussion on how text reads as image in Wares work see Gene Kannenberg Jr., The
Comics of Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strategies, in The Language of Comics: Word
and Image, ed. Robin Varnum and Christina Gibbons (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001),
17497.
14. Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 17, 32. Muybridge also appears in Ware, A Short History of
Cartooning, in The ACME Report, 24, and his exhibit at the Worlds Columbian Fair shows up in Jimmy
Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 278.
15. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 17.
16. Ware, Preface, UnInked, i.
17. Ibid.
18. Peter Schjeldahl, Do It Yourself: Biennial Follies at the Whitney, New Yorker, March 25, 2002,
98.
19. Ware, UnInked, editors biography.
20. Heinrich Wlfin, Principles of Art History: The Problem of the Development of Style in Later Art,
trans. Marie D. Hottinger (1915; rpt., New York: Dover, 1932); Alois Riegl, Problems of Style: Founda-
tions for a History of Ornament, trans. Evelyn Kain (1893; rpt., Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1992).
21. Will Eisner, Comics & Sequential Art (Tamarac, FL: Poorhouse, 1985), 101.
22. The other changes to the Whitney Prevaricator include the addition of a strip called Post Mod-
ern Post Mortem as well as a sixth installment of the red-hued City of Gold strip and a sequence
called I Love Myself, which follows They Love Me.
23. David Kunzle, Father of the Comic Strip: Rodolphe Tpffer (Jackson: University Press of Missis-
sippi, 2007); David Kunzle, Rodolphe Tpffer: The Complete Comic Strips (Jackson: University Press of
Mississippi, 2007); Chris Ware, Strip Mind, Bookforum 15.1 (2008): 45, 58.
24. John Carlin, The Real Comic Book Heroes, TATE Etc. 9 (2007). http://www.tate.org.uk/
tateetc/issue9/realcomicbookheroes.htm (accessed February 25, 2009).
25. Richard Woodeld, Introductory Note, in Analysis of Beauty, by William Hogarth (1753; rpt.,
New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1974), i.
26. Tony Baloni Fine Art might also reference the Tony Shafrazi Gallery, which established its
reputation by championing Keith Haring, an artist who regularly incorporated grafti and comics into
his work.
27. Hilton Kramer, A Mandarin Pretending to be a Stumblebum, New York Times, October 25,
1970, D27.
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE B UR DE N OF ART HI S T ORY 7 7
28. Peter Schjeldahl, the same critic who was so disparaging of Wares inclusion in the Whitney
Biennial, was among those who revised their opinion of Guston. Schjeldahl writes, Reliving it, I
understand both why it took me more than a decade to come around to late Guston and why I now
regard that work as the most important American painting of its time. See The Junkmans Son: A
Philip Guston Retrospective, New Yorker, November 3, 2003, 102.
29. James Elkins, Stories of Art (New York: Routledge, 2002), 11. Elkins has been a professor in the
Department of Art History, Theory, and Criticism at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago since
1989. Chris Ware attended the Art Institute from 1991 to 1993.
30. Elkins, Stories of Art, 11.
7 8
In the Comics Workshop:
Chris Ware and the Oubapo
MARTHA B. KUHLMAN
In ordcr Lo dclvc inLo Lhc complcxiLy o Chris Warcs work, I would likc Lo
bcgin by pausing Lo considcr a composiLion by Lhc DuLch arLisL 1oosL SwarLc
bccausc iL dcmonsLraLcs somcLhing undamcnLal abouL Warcs sLrucLural ap-
proach Lo Lhc mcdium o comics. Tis composiLion, LiLlcd Te Comx Factory,
appcarcd in Dcccmbcr 8o as Lhc covcr o Lhc sccond issuc o RAw maga-
zinc, Lhc indcpcndcnL and avanL-gardc publicaLion cdiLcd by ArL Spicgclman
and Franoisc Mouly.

Tc covcr is signicanL noL only bccausc Warcs work

would appcar in RAw Lcn ycars laLcr, Lhus bringing him inLo Lhc old o oLhcr
cxpcrimcnLal and inLcrnaLional comics arLisLs, buL also bccausc Lhis parLicu-
lar imagc had a lasLing inucncc on Lhc dcvclopmcnL o his own uniquc acs-
LhcLic.
:
By rcprcscnLing Lhc comic sLrip as an claboraLc LhcaLcr scL wiLh Lhc
characLcrs waiLing or Lhcir cuc, puLLing on makcup, and lcarning Lhcir lincs,
SwarLcs covcr cxposcs Lhc mcchanisms bchind Lhc orm, and alludcs Lo pro-
ccsscs LhaL arLisLs Lypically conccal (scc plaLc 8). Tc dcpicLion o Lhc comic
sLrip as a consLrucLcd mcdium inviLcs Lhc vicwcr Lo pry iL aparL by posing
somc basic qucsLions: How is iL puL LogcLhcr` According Lo whaL rulcs` And
whaL happcns backsLagc LhaL wc do noL gcL Lo scc`
Warcs ocus on Lhc ormal propcrLics o Lhc mcdium suggcsLs his ani-
Lics wiLh arLisLs in Lhc widcr cld o Frcnch and Bclgian comics, alLhough
Lhcsc connccLions havc bccn largcly unrccognizcd dcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL hc
is rclaLivcly wcll known among comics scholars and carLoonisLs rom Lhcsc
counLrics.

To shcd somc lighL on Lhcsc maLLcrs in a comparaLivc conLcxL, I

will discuss Warcs comics rom a pcrspccLivc inormcd by Lhc Frcnch liLcrary
LradiLion, spccically, Oulipo (LOuvror de Ltterature Potente||e) and Oubapo
(LOuvror de Pande Lessnee Potente||e), which sLand or Lhc Workshop o Po-
LcnLial IiLcraLurc and Lhc Workshop o PoLcnLial Comics, rcspccLivcly. For
boLh Warc and Oubapo, Lhc conccpL o Lhc workshop or acLory bccomcs a
kcy Lropc as Lhcy scl-consciously crcaLc an avanL-gardc orm o comics.
By indicaLing parallcls bcLwccn Warcs work in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary
scrics, 1mmy Corrgan, and Oubapo works, I show how ormal cxpcrimcnLa-
Lion in Lhc mcdium and abouL Lhc mcdium ocrs anoLhcr poinL o cnLry inLo
Lhc labyrinLh o Warcs graphic narraLivcs. Warc and Lhc Frcnch arLisLs I dis-
cuss dclibcraLcly orcground Lhc ormal consLrainLs and possibiliLics o Lhcir
choscn mcdium by posiLing comics as a kind o gamc, impliciLly and cxplic-
iLly. Morcovcr, Lhcir works sharc an ironic cdgc and spccically criLiquc mass-
I N T HE COMI CS WOR K S HOP : WAR E AND T HE OUB AP O 7 9
manuacLurcd comics and consumcrism morc gcncrally.

I am noL suggcsL-
ing a dirccL linc o inucncc bcLwccn Oubapo and Warc, in acL, Lhc Frcnch
group ulLimaLcly claims Warc as an anLicipaLory plagiarisL raLhcr Lhan Lhc
rcvcrsc.

NoncLhclcss, Lhcrc arc a numbcr o inLriguing similariLics undcrly-

ing Lhcir rcspccLivc arLisLic projccLs, parLicularly in Lhcir common cmphascs
on craLsmanship and arLisLic inLcgriLy.
Into the Comix Factory
Oubapo has iLs origins in Oulipo, an organizaLion oundcd in 6o by wriLcr
and maLhcmaLician Raymond Qucncau, scicnLisL Franois Ic Iionnais, and
oLhcrs.
6
Tc basic prcmisc o Oulipo is LhaL by subjccLing liLcraLurc Lo di-
crcnL Lypcs o consLrainLs and possibiliLics, Lhc auLhor is ablc Lo usc Lhcsc
gcncraLivc dcviccs Lo crcaLc ncw liLcrary orms. In Lhcir cmbracc o inLcr-
sccLions bcLwccn maLhcmaLics, puzzlcs, and liLcraLurc, Lhc group cvcnLually
cxpandcd Lo includc such wriLcrs as ILalo Calvino, Ccorgcs Pcrcc, and 1acqucs
Roubaud. Tc pracLiLioncrs o Oulipo saw Lhcmsclvcs as workcrs Linkcring in
a acLory o languagc, much likc SwarLcs sLagc scL, inLroducing an air o play
and mischic inLo Lhc liLcrary cnLcrprisc. As Ccorgcs Pcrcc puLs iL, liLcrary
hisLory sccms dclibcraLcly Lo ignorc wriLing as pracLicc, as work, as play, all
conccrns Oulipo would dirccLly addrcss.
,
To ciLc jusL Lwo amous cxamplcs
o Oulipo LcxLs, Qucncaus One Hundred Tr||on Poems (Cent m||e m||ards de
pomes) consisLs o Lcn sonncLs whosc individual lincs can bc inLcrminglcd Lo
producc o

possiblc pocms and Ccorgcs Pcrccs lipogram novcl, A vod (La

Lsparton), incrcdibly managcs Lo avoid using Lhc lcLLcr c.
8
Oubapo, oundcd in : aL Lhc insLigaLion o comics LhcorisL Ticrry
CrocnsLccn, Lakcs Lhc conccpL o Lhc consLrainL and applics iL Lo Lhc mcdium
o comics.

From Lhc bcginning, Lhc group had liLcrary connccLions, Lwo in-
LroducLory cssays Lo Lhc rsL Oubapo journal wcrc wriLLcn by Oulipo mcm-
bcrs.
o
Morcovcr, adopLing Oulipo mcLhods was a sLraLcgic bid or arLisLic
crcdibiliLy and aligncd Lhc movcmcnL wiLh Lhc avanL-gardc in ordcr Lo makc a
conscious brcak rom Lhc public pcrccpLion o mass-markcL comics and com-
ics as solcly cnLcrLainmcnL or childrcn.

IL is also signicanL LhaL Oubapo

ariscs in Lhc indcpcndcnL Parisian publishing housc IAssociaLion, which, as
comics hisLorian BarL BcaLy noLcs, radically rcsLrucLurcd Lhc popular conccp-
Lion o Lhc comic book in Francc by [brcaking] wiLh boLh Lhc corporaLc and
gcncric modcl o comics producLion in Lhc os.
:
Tcsc books immcdiaLcly
lookcd dicrcnL rom Lhc colorul, largc ormaL comics o Lhc TinLin/AsLcrix
varicLy, which IAssociaLion mcmbcr 1can-ChrisLophc Mcnu dcrisivcly rccrs
Lo as 8CC (8 pagc albums wiLh a cardboard covcr).

InsLcad, Lhc publishcr

prinLs on hcavy papcr, avors black and whiLc comics conccrning morc com-
plcx and sophisLicaLcd Lhcmcs, and uscs simplc, clcganL covcrs noL unlikc
rcspccLcd Frcnch liLcrary publishcrs such as Callimard.

Oubapo includcs
1can-ChrisLophc Mcnu, 1ochcn Ccrncr, Icwis Trondhcim, Franois Ayrolcs,
and Licnnc IccroarL (among oLhcrs), and IAssociaLion has publishcd our
volumcs o Lhcir journal, Oupus, in addiLion Lo scvcral ull-lcngLh works and
sLand-alonc projccLs.

Civcn LhaL Lhc mission o IAssociaLion is Lo csLablish an avanL-gardc

pcdigrcc or comics, similar Lo RAw magazinc, Oubapo is an idcal incubaLor
8 0 MART HA B . K UHL MAN
or cxpcrimcnLs in comics. Tcy opLcd or Lhc
word ouvror, rom Lhc ull vcrsion o Lhc namc
(LOuvror de Pande Lessnee Potente||e), which
sounds much morc anLiquc Lhan Lhc morc
convcnLional ate|er and has Lhc connoLaLion
o a womcns scwing circlc or a workroom in
a convcnL.
6
Tis is a somcwhaL saLirical ap-
propriaLion, sincc Lhcrc is only onc woman in
Lhc group (Annc Baraou), and Oubapo works
Lcnd Lo display a ribald scnsc o humor. Tc
group rcLains, howcvcr, a scnsc o collccLivc
cnLcrprisc in iLs cxploraLions o Lhc comics
mcdium. Mcnu, Lhc mosL ouLspokcn LhcorcLi-
cian o Lhc group, argucs LhaL comics alrcady
arc a kind o consLrainL, which is why Oubapo
is noL so dicrcnL rom Lhc comics LhaL wc [in
IAssociaLion] makc.
,
As is Lhc casc wiLh Ou-
lipo, Lhcir goal is Lo LwisL or subvcrL Lhc codcs
o Lhc LradiLional bande dessnee.
8
Turning now Lo Warc, wc can alrcady disccrn
a numbcr o compclling inLcrsccLions bcLwccn
his projccLs, Lhc mission o IAssociaLion, gcn-
crally, and LhaL o Oubapo, spccically.

FirsL
o all, Warc also disLanccs his work rom main-
sLrcam comicsmosL noLably in Lhc Amcrican
conLcxL, supcrhcro comic bookscvcn whilc hc uscs Lhis maLcrial or his
own saLirical purposcs.
:o
As an cdiLor or Lhc comics issuc o McSweeneys
and Pest Amercan Comcs .oo,, Warc is a kcy mcmbcr o a ncw gcncraLion o
alLcrnaLivc comics arLisLs including Bcn KaLchor, ScLh, Adrian Tominc, Ivan
BruncLLi, and Danicl Clowcs.
:
AlLhough Lhcsc arLisLs work in a divcrsc rangc
o sLylcs and subjccLs, Lhcy sharc an inLcrcsL in bringing a lcvcl o arLisLic sc-
riousncss Lo Lhc mcdium. AddiLionally, as wiLh publicaLions by IAssociaLion,
Lhcrc is an cmphasis on craLsmanship in Warcs irrcgularly sizcd issucs o
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary, which span a varicLy o dimcnsions and rcquirc
cxLraordinary caLs o prinLing.
::
In acL, Lhc cnLirc ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary
projccL can bc undcrsLood as an cxpansion o SwarLcs Comx Factory or Lhc
noLion o Lhc Oubapo workshop. Tis connccLion is cspccially apparcnL in Lhc
ACMF NovclLy Iibrary FrccsLanding Cardboard Display, inLcndcd Lo hold
Lhc variously sizcd issucs o Lhis comic. Tc cardboard acLory rcprcscnLcd
hcrc is charmingly whimsical and ycL unscLLlingly grim, busLling wiLh gcars,
pullcys, and convcyors.
:
In Lhc uppcr sLory, micc lasso word balloons LhaL
oaL bcncaLh Lhc cciling, sLamp Lhcm onLo Lhc pancls, and add LcxL according
Lo Lhc insLrucLions o a rodcnL-orcman. Mcanwhilc, anoLhcr sLrcam o micc
arc unccrcmoniously cxccuLcd, dumpcd inLo carLs, Lhcn nailcd onLo pancls
and asscmblcd inLo pagcsa crucl sccnario maskcd by chccrul colors and an
aLLracLivc display.
Warc rcvisiLs Lhc Lropc o Lhc acLory in Te ACMF Report in a slyly scl-
rccrcnLial hisLory o Lhc ACMF NovclLy Iibrary Company. Tc auLhor o Lhis
documcnL, Ccorgc Wilson, an cxccssivcly pompous rcscarchcr, promiscs Lo
Fig. 6.1. The ofces at
LAssociation, Paris. Chris
Ware, The ACME Nov-
elty Datebook: Volume Two
(Montreal: Drawn & Quar-
terly, 2008), 78.
I N T HE COMI CS WOR K S HOP : WAR E AND T HE OUB AP O 8 1
dclivcr Lhc rsL, and probably only Lruc hisLory o Lhc Company, rom iLs
surprising bcginning wiLh Lhc Original IcLLcrcr, Lhrough Lhc culLural rcvolu-
Lion, up Lo Lhc prcscnL days CFO and Chic DraughLsman, F. C. Warc.
:
Tc
cmphasis on Lhc IcLLcrcr is noLcworLhy, sincc Warc docs, in acL, draw all o
his onLs by hand and has won numcrous awards or his lcLLcring.
:
As Dan-
icl Racburn rclaLcs, Warc pcrormcd Lhc cxcrciscs rom old hand-lcLLcring
manuals and copicd ruiL, cigar and cosmcLics labcls in ordcr Lo aLLain a pro-
cicncy, Lhcn a ucncy, in Lhc incrcasingly anLiquc arL o hand-lcLLcring.
:6
In
a sharp saLirc o mass-produccd comics, Warc dcvclops an cxquisiLc conLrasL
bcLwccn Lhc soliLary and painsLaking work o Lhc individual lcLLcrcr and Lhc
massivc, burcaucraLic cdicc dcpicLcd in Lhc comic. An imprcssivc Lwo-pagc
sprcad ocrs Lhc vicwcr a cuLaway vicw o Lhc company rcndcrcd in black
and whiLc, which is compriscd o rooms o draughLsmcn, LhirLy sLorcrooms
o comics, a prinLing machinc, an arL gallcry, numcrous duLiul sccrcLarics,
a Lcnnis courL, and an inLimidaLing waiLing room (whcrc Lhc unorLunaLc
rcscarchcr has paccd or hours, unablc Lo gain admiLLancc Lo Lhc sccrcLs in-
sidc).
:,
Tis rcprcscnLaLion rcinorccs Lhc impacL o Lhc hisLory as a wry,
scl-rccxivc gcsLurc bccausc Lhc rcscarchcr is ulLimaLcly cxcludcd rom Lhc
sccrcL comics cxpcrimcnLs wiLhin, alLhough Lhc rcadcr has acccss Lo Lhcm
in Lhc pagcs o Lhc book. BuL how Lhcsc cxpcrimcnLs work, or whaL Lhcy
mighL mcan, is anoLhcr qucsLion cnLircly.
The Mechanism of the Constraint
In ,, 1can-ChrisLophc Mcnu dcclarcd Warc an honorary mcmbcr o Ou-
bapo on Lhc sLrcngLh o his cxpcrimcnLal work in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary:
Warc cmphasizcs Lhc possibiliLics o Lhc mcdium wiLh as much brio as play-
ulncss. In a scnsc, hc is an Oubapicn who, againsL all cxpccLaLions, docs noL
know iL, bccausc consLrainLs (narraLivc or ormal) sccm always vcry prcscnL
in Lhc uncLioning o Warcs work.
:8
1an BacLcns, a rcnowncd Bclgian criLic,
has also drawn aLLcnLion Lo Lhc imporLancc o consLrainLs in Warcs comics
and dcscribcs his work as a orm o mulLi-laycrcd poly-scqucnLial wriLing
and rcading in which Lhc rcadcr has no righL Lo play rccly wiLh Lhc auLhors
arrangcmcnL o maLcrial, buL musL scrupulously ollow iL Lo slowly discovcr
Lhc myriad rclaLionships on Lhc pagc iLscl.
:
To undcrsLand how Lhcsc rc-
laLionships arc sLrucLurcd, wc nccd Lo undcrsLand Lhc principlc o Lhc con-
sLrainL and how iL applics Lo Lhc cxpcrimcnLal aspccL o Warcs comics.
Tc innovaLion o Oulipo is LhaL by invcnLing spccic rulcs and limiLa-
Lions, or consLrainLs, pracLiLioncrs could opcn up ncw visLas in languagc and
liLcraLurc. As Marccl Bcnabou wriLcs, Lhc consLrainL orccs Lhc sysLcm ouL o
iLs rouLinc uncLioning, Lhcrcby compclling iL Lo rcvcal iLs hiddcn rcsourccs.
o

Onc can makc a parallcl claim or comics as wcll, alLhough Lhc undamcnLal
building blocks o Lhc mcdium arc dicrcnL. For Oulipo, consLrainLs opcraLc
aL Lhc lcvcl o an individual lcLLcr (likc Lhc lipogram novcl, A vod), a word, a
linc (in Qucncaus sonncLs), or a largcr scmanLic uniL such as a sLanza, para-
graph, or chapLcr. Sincc onc o Lhc dcning caLurcs o comics is scqucnLial-
iLy, individual pancls on Lhc comics pagc can bc rcconccivcd as picccs o a
puzzlc LhaL Lhc arLisL can manipulaLc, Lhus, rcshuing Lhc pancls according
Lo spccic paLLcrns is onc mcLhod o crcaLing Oubapo consLrainLs.

Tc oLhcr
8 2 MART HA B . K UHL MAN
main dicrcncc rom Oulipo is LhaL wc musL considcr Lhc inLcrplay bcLwccn
words and imagcs in comics, Lhcsc Lwo scmanLic Lracks can work in accord
wiLh cach oLhcr, or, as is oLcn Lhc casc in Oubapo cxpcrimcnLs, Lhcy arc dc-
libcraLcly conLrasLcd Lo crcaLc ironic or jarring cccLs.
:
In CrocnsLccns inLroducLory cssay Lo Oupus , Lhc rsL work Lo discuss Lhc
opcraLions o Oubapo in dcLail, hc idcnLics Lwo classcs o consLrainLs: onc is
generatve, LhaL is Lo say, a comic is crcaLcd rom scraLch bascd upon spccic
limiLaLions, Lhc sccond is transjormatve and alLcrs cxisLing maLcrial accord-
ing Lo a givcn rulc.

WiLhin Lhc gcncraLivc caLcgory, conc restrcton rccrs

Lo comics LhaL supprcss onc inLcgral clcmcnL in ordcr Lo producc Lhc graphic
cquivalcnL o a lipogram. Ayrolcs dcLly cmploys Lhis rulc Lo humorous cccL.
Tc rsL cpisodc o his comic Faux TriniLy (FcinLc TriniLc) consisLs cnLircly
o a simplc Lhrcc-by-Lhrcc grid o pancls, cach wiLh onc word balloon oricnLcd
in a dicrcnL dirccLion dcpcnding upon Lhc spcakcr. Tc cxcrcisc includcs Lhc
capLion: To counLcrbalancc Lhc numcrous cxamplcs o muLc comics, Fran-
ois Ayrolcs proposcs a blind comic, in anLicipaLion o comics wiLhouL words
or picLurcs, hc cxplains.

Ayrolcss highly scl-rccrcnLial cxamplc o iconic

rcsLricLion cxcludcs whaL wc normally cxpccL Lo nd in comics: imagcs. In-
sLcad, Lhc comic is rcduccd Lo a scrics o word balloons LhaL arc poinLcd in di-
crcnL dirccLions, dcpcnding on Lhc spcakcr: Papa! Papa! WhaL is iL, boy`
Docs Cod cxisL` Ask your moLhcr Mama, Mama! Ycs, whaL is iL` Docs
Cod cxisL, mama` I donL know, dcar. A spccch balloon dirccLcd rom Lhc
hcavcns concludcs Lhc mcLaphysical discussion: WhaL abouL mc` No onc is
asking mc`

Mcnu ciLcs an cxamplc o iconic rcsLricLion in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary

LhaL is a comic composcd o a six-by-six grid o idcnLically sizcd pancls wiLh
Lhc samc bluc lamp sLand in Lhc ccnLcr.
6
Tc comic ncvcr dirccLly rcprcscnLs
Lhc spcakcrs, insLcad, Lhc dialoguc Lakcs placc ouLsidc o Lhc ramc and Lhc
lamp bccomcs a symbol o Lhc LumulLuous changcs LhaL onc amily cxpcri-
cnccs ovcr a numbcr o gcncraLions as Lhcy movc rom housc Lo housc, and
Lhc childrcn movc inLo Lhcir own aparLmcnL.
,
Warc uscs iconic rcsLricLion
Lo connoLc loss and alicnaLion, cspccially in a numbcr o comics, collccLcd
in Qumby the Mouse, LhaL conccrn Warcs ailing grandmoLhcr. Only cmpLy
inLcriors arc rcprcscnLcd whilc Lhc dialogucs bcLwccn Warc and his grand-
moLhcr, or Warcs own narraLion, arc dicgcLic.
8
In 1mmy Corrgan, Warc uscs
Lhis samc Lcchniquc Lo conccal Lhc accs o cmalc characLcrs (wiLh a cw cx-
ccpLions), in ordcr Lo convcy 1immys lack o rapporL wiLh womcn.

Whilc
Ayrolcs uscs Lhc dcvicc Lo playully qucsLion Lhc cxisLcncc o Cod, Warc,
whosc dirccL inspiraLion in Lhis casc is Richard McCuircs comic sLrip Hcrc,
uscs Lhis abscncc Lo cmphasizc his characLcrs scnsc o loss, alicnaLion, and
mclancholy.
o
Out of Sequence
Pcrhaps mosL inLriguing arc Lhc consLrainLs LhaL disrupL scqucnLialiLy, sincc
Lhcsc rulcs radically Lransorm our basic pcrccpLion o Lhc ground rulcs o
Lhc comics mcdium. Two urLhcr subcaLcgorics undcr Lhc gcncral rubric o
gcncraLivc cxpcrimcnLs arc mulLilincariLy (|a p|ur|ecturab|te) and random
scqucncc (|a consecuton a|eatore), boLh o which arc applicablc Lo Oubapos
I N T HE COMI CS WOR K S HOP : WAR E AND T HE OUB AP O 8 3
and Warcs comics. CrocnsLccn dcscribcs acrosLic sLrips, which can bc rcad
as onc vcrLical sLrip in connccLion wiLh scvcral horizonLal oncs, morc com-
plcx vcrsions o Lhis modcl, rcalizcd or Lhc Oubapo projccL Oubapo vacatons
(Les vacances de Oubapo), can bc rcad boLh lcL Lo righL and Lop Lo boLLom,
in a grid.

Duc Lo Lhc cxigcncics o Lhc consLrainL, howcvcr, Lhc narraLivc

possibiliLics o Lhcsc cxpcrimcnLs arc rclaLivcly limiLcd. Iongcr, morc clabo-
raLc projccLs includc IccroarLs vcous Crc|e (Cerc|e vceux), which is a LhirLy-
pagc palindromc comic abouL a mad scicnLisL and his assisLanL who consLrucL
a Limc machinc in Lhcir laboraLory. FxacLly halway Lhrough Lhc book, onc
uniquc pancl signals Lhc shiL Lo a narraLivc scqucncc LhaL is Lhc mirror oppo-
siLc o Lhc prcccding sccLion.
:
AL Lhc arLhcsL cnd o scqucnLial cxpcrimcn-
LaLion is Lhc Oubapo gamc Scroubabb|e, an cxamplc o random sequence, in
which Lhc picccs arc individual pancls rom vc narraLivcs in dicrcnL sLylcs,
Lhc objccL o Lhc gamc, as in Scrabblc, is Lo dcvisc comprchcnsiblc scqucnccs
on a grid raLhcr likc a crossword puzzlc.

Warc has bccn consisLcnLly inLcrcsLcd in comics LhaL violaLc Lhc rcadcrs
cxpccLaLions o scqucnLialiLy rom his carly ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary sLrips in
Lhc os Lo his mosL rcccnL producLions. In Qumby the Mouse, a collccLion
o sLrips rom o Lo , Lhc aorcmcnLioncd sLrips conccrning Warcs
grandmoLhcr do noL aL all ollow a lcL-Lo-righL, Lop-Lo-boLLom logic, arrows
lcad around Lhc pagcs pursuing dicrcnL LangcnLs o LhoughL and mcmory.
OLhcr sLrips rcscmblc a rampanL asscmbly linc or Rubc Coldbcrg dcvicc gonc
wrong, again cvoking Lhc mcLaphor o a comics acLory. Tc amous Oulipo
quoLc LhaL sLaLcs Oulipians arc raLs who musL build Lhc labyrinLh rom which
Lhcy proposc Lo cscapc sccms cspccially applicablc Lo Quimbys anLics.

In
onc sLrip, Quimby is suckcd up inLo a pipc, dcposiLcd in a car, dumpcd onLo a
convcycr bclL, asscmblcd and disasscmblcd, and hiL rcpcaLcdly by a mallcL, iL
is diculL Lo disccrn, in Lhc midsL o Lhis chaos, in which dirccLion Quimby is
Lravcling.

Tomas BrcdchoL, Isaac CaLcs, and oLhcr criLics havc drawn aLLcnLion Lo
how Warcs comics do noL ollow lcL-Lo-righL, Lop-Lo-boLLom convcnLions o
Lhc WcsLcrn rcadcr, onc can approach Lhc mulLilincar pagcs in 1mmy Cor-
rgan rom scvcral dirccLions.
6
Whcn rcad in conjuncLion wiLh Oubapo, iL
sccms signicanL LhaL Lhcsc parLicular cxamplcs uncLion as puzzlcs LhaL
musL bc solvcd i onc is Lo undcrsLand Lhc ull inLricacics o Lhc ploL. Rcad-
crs havc Lo makc a conccrLcd corL Lo rcalizc, or insLancc, LhaL Amy and
1immy arc rclaLcd by blood Lhrough 1immys grcaL grandaLhcr and his Ari-
can Amcrican scrvanL.
,
AnoLhcr manicsLaLion o mulLilincar comics, Oncc
Upon a Timc, publishcd in Spicgclman and Moulys rsL Ltt|e Lt. Fo|k|ore
8 Fary Ta|e Funnes collccLion, prcscnLs our variaLions on Lhc sLory o an
unorLunaLc rog who alls in lovc wiLh a princcss.
8
Nonc o Lhcsc cndings
can rcally bc consLrucd as happy: in onc, Lhc wol sLcals rogs banjo, in Lhc
sccond, Lhc wol brings Lhc banjo Lo Lhc grandmoLhcrs anLiquc sLorc, Lhc
Lhird sLory cnds wiLh Lhc wol sclling Lhc rogs banjo, and in Lhc ourLh sLory
Lhc princcss rcgrcLs LhaL shc marricd Lhc wol raLhcr Lhan Lhc rog. Fach sLory
is oricnLcd aL a nincLy-dcgrcc anglc rom Lhc ncxL such LhaL Lhc rcadcr musL
roLaLc Lhc book Lo gcL Lhc ull cccL.

Ltt|e Lt also conLains Lhc random-scqucncc consLrainL in a childrcns gamc

dcviscd by Warc callcd Fairy Talc Road Ragc, which includcs a gamc board,
8 4 MART HA B . K UHL MAN
chiLs in cighL colors, our sLoryboards, our playing picccs, and a dic, all o
which can bc cuL ouL and asscmblcd by Lhc diligcnL child. ILs noLablc LhaL Lhc
gamc board is missing a spacc or a happy cnding, insLcad, Lhc playcrs ac-
cumulaLc colorcd chiLs on Lhcir sLory board, which looks likc a bingo-card vcr-
sion o Mad Iibs (cach spacc is a spccic grammaLical caLcgory or aLLribuLc),
unLil Lhcy havc complcLcd a cohcrcnL sLorylinc. O Lhc cighL possiblc dcnouc-
mcnLs, only Lwo arc posiLivc: acquircd supcrpowcrs and livcd happily cvcr
aLcr. IL is up Lo Lhc child Lo supply Lhc moral o Lhc sLory. Warc includcs Lhc
ollowing disclaimcr aL Lhc cnd o scvcral dcLailcd paragraphs o insLrucLions
in minuLc Lypc: No insurancc is madc againsL poLcnLial alLcraLion in moral
consLiLuLion, world ouLlook, or LcmpcramcnL, nor is any child guaranLccd a
good Limc, or cvcn mild amuscmcnL.
o
As is Lhc casc wiLh his vcrsions o Lhc
comics acLory, Warc manipulaLcs Lhc ironic dissonancc bcLwccn Lhc playul
sLrucLural gamcs wiLh comics orm and Lhc mclancholy conLcnL o Lhc sLory.
Tis is cspccially Lruc whcn wc considcr how boLh Oubapo and Warc dclibcr-
aLcly conLrasL Lhc LcxL wiLh Lhc corrcsponding imagcs.
Pastiche and Dtournement
Undcr Lhc gcncral class o LransormaLivc cxpcrimcnLs LhaL CrocnsLccn dc-
scribcs, Lhc mosL obvious is verba| substtuton, in which Lhc original LcxL o
an cxisLing comic is subvcrsivcly alLcrcd. Oubapo mcmbcr Franois Ayrolcs
Lransorms scvcn pagcs rom Te : !s Leavng (: est au depart), by 1can Cra-
Lon, by subsLiLuLing Lhc original LcxL wiLh a hisLorical dialoguc on Lhc onLol-
ogy o Lhc bande dessnee.

A young man jaunLily slidcs down Lhc banisLcr Lo

rcgalc his parcnLs wiLh a song, buL Lhc scdaLc couplc is only annoycd by his
cxubcrancc (scc g. 6.). Rcad wiLh Lhc LcxLual subsLiLuLions, howcvcr, Lhis
bourgcois sccnc bccomcs a sLaLcmcnL abouL comics as an arL orm. In Lhc
Frcnch conLcxL, Ayrolcss Oubapo cxpcrimcnL rccalls Lhc LacLic o detourne-
ment, which appropriaLcs imagcs rom advcrLising and popular culLurc and
Lransorms Lhcm inLo subvcrsivc mcssagcs. Fmploycd by Lhc SiLuaLionisLs
in Lhc 6os, dcLourncmcnL in Lhc orm o vcrbal subsLiLuLion in comics was
rcqucnLly uscd as a criLiquc o consumcr culLurc.
:

Mcnu ciLcs onc o Warcs carly sLrips rom RAw, Trilling AdvcnLurc SLo-
rics / I Cucss Lo supporL his claim LhaL Warc is Oubapicn, sLaLing LhaL Lhc
comic also opcraLcs on Lhc principlc o vcrbal subsLiLuLion.

AlLhough Warcs
comic is dicrcnL in LhaL hc crcaLcs a pasLichc o an oldcr comic raLhcr Lhan
appropriaLing an cxisLing sLrip, Lhc claim is worLh rcvisiLing.

Warc combincs
uncomorLablc rccollccLions o his grandaLhcr and sLcpaLhcrs racism and a
mcmory o a slumbcr parLy aL Lhc housc o a black ricnd. AL rsL, Lhis sLory
appcars cnLircly scparaLc rom Lhc accompanying imagcs LhaL narraLc a baLLlc
bcLwccn a mad scicnLisL and a supcrhcro in a sLylc rcminisccnL o goldcn
agc comics, howcvcr, Lhc LcxLual and visual Lracks occasionally coincidc (scc
plaLc :). On Lhc Lhird pagc, or cxamplc, a young rcporLcr clcarly modclcd on
Iois Ianc looks pcrplcxcd and Lhc spccch balloon abovc hcr rcads: I said LhaL
I LhoughL LhaL cvcryonc was colorcd, buL hc said LhaL I didnL undcrsLand.
Tc lasL pancl o Lhc comic dcpicLs Lhc supcrhcro saving Lhc woman rcporLcr,
which concludcs boLh Lhc advcnLurc sLory and Warcs auLobiographical narra-
Livc wiLh Lhc capLion IL was jusL my mom and mc, anyway. By cxploiLing Lhc
I N T HE COMI CS WOR K S HOP : WAR E AND T HE OUB AP O 8 5
discrcpancy bcLwccn Lhc supcrhcro sLory and Lhc auLobiographical cpisodc,
Lhc comic cxposcs Lhc sLrucLural dividc bcLwccn word and imagc, oncc again
subvcrLing Lhc rcadcrs cxpccLaLions Lo ironic cccL.

Tis Lcnsion bcLwccn orm and conLcnL pcrvadcs Lhc advcrLising in Te

ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary scrics as wcll, which aL rsL glancc sccms Lo promisc
wcalLh, amc, and happincss, buL in acL providcs no such consolaLion dcspiLc
Lhc appcarancc o Scars CaLalog cnLrics, coupons, or scl-hclp ocrs. Onc no-
Licc rcprinLcd in Te ACMF Report advcrLiscs simply Lhc ncw Lhing: rcsh
rom Lhc mysLcrious plasLic assholc o popular culLurc. All shiny and rcady
or you Lo puL in your homc, vidco casscLLc playcr, or mouLh. Wow! [. . .] Somc
pcoplc Lhink LhaL Lhis is whaL iLs all abouL, anyway. Maybc you could cvcn
spcnd your lic making Lhis sLu, Lhc sLu LhaL pcoplc sccm Lo wanL. WhaL
could bc bcLLcr` Happincss awaiLs.
6
Iikc Lhc Frcnch cxamplcs o dcLournc-
mcnL ound in SiLuaLionism and Oubapo, bcncaLh Lhc rcassuring onLs and
clip-arL-sLylc graphics lurk incisivc criLiqucs o consumcrism, Lhc bourgcois
amily, scl-hclp, Amcrican orcign policy, and racc rclaLionsLo namc jusL
a cw rccurring subjccLsor anyonc who Lakcs Lhc Limc Lo rcad Lhc small
prinL.
The Writerly Text, or Art as Technique
In a convcrsaLion wiLh Racburn, Warc commcnLs, I rarcly cvcr did a comic
jusL or Lhc sakc o cxpcrimcnLaLion, and iL would bc anachronisLic Lo sug-
gcsL LhaL Oubapo consLiLuLcs an inucncc upon Warcs work sincc his carlicsL
comics prcdaLc Lhc ormaLion o Lhc group in .
,
AL bcsL, Oubapo can only
Fig. 6.3. A domestic scene
is transformed into a
cheer for comics: Long
live sequential narration!
Comics! Comics! Ouch!
Baaah! . . . A book with
writing! Image courtesy
of @ 2003 Franois Ay-
roles and LAssociation.
Franois Ayroles, Le 9
est au Dpart, Oupus 2
(2003): 43.
8 6 MART HA B . K UHL MAN
appropriaLc Warc Lhrough Lhc playul LiLlc o anLicipaLory plagiarisL. Morc-
ovcr, Lhc wry wiL o Oubapo sccms ar rcmovcd rom Lhc quicL anguish o
1mmy Corrgan or Qumby the Mouse. Somc havc rcproachcd Lhc work o Ou-
bapo or bcing Loo gimmicky, and cvcn Oubapo mcmbcrs admiL LhaL con-
sLrainLs arc aL bcsL a sourcc o inspiraLion raLhcr Lhan a sLraighLjackcL.
8
Kill-
ocr, a mcmbcr o Lhc group, cxplains his aLLiLudc Loward Oubapo as ollows:
Trough a consLrainL, onc can discovcr and rcproducc a plcasing acsLhcLic
wiLhouL iLs sysLcmaLic applicaLion.

UlLimaLcly, whaL is illuminaLing abouL

juxLaposing Oubapo Lo Warcs comics is Lhc way in which Lhcsc comparisons
rcvcal how Warcs work is oundcd upon a rangc o ormal mcchanisms and
consLrainLs (cvcn i Lhcsc mcchanisms arc lcss ovcrL or dclibcraLc), much likc
Lhc machincry in SwarLcs Comx Factory.
6o
Tc purposc o Oubapo, according Lo CrocnsLccn, is Lo inviLc a morc vigi-
lanL kind o rcading, a rcading LhaL would bc morc invcsLigaLivc and morc
rccxivc [. . .] Oubapo pagcs rcquirc Lhc acLivc parLicipaLion o Lhc rcadcr.
6

In Lhis rcspccL, Oubapo corrcsponds Lo whaL Roland BarLhcs would Lcrm a
wriLcrly LcxL, as opposcd Lo a rcadcrly onc, Lhc ormcr dcmands an acLivc
rcadcr who produccs Lhc LcxL, whilc Lhc laLLcr only rcinorccs passiviLy and
consumpLion. Rcading is noL a parasiLical acL, wriLcs BarLhcs, iL is a orm
o work.
6:
Warcs dcscripLion o comics rcccpLion is noL ar rom Lhis noLion
o a wriLcrly LcxL: ILs noL in any way a passivc mcdium. Tc maLcrial is incrL
unlcss yourc rcgarding iL. A lm can bc a vcry poLcnL, cmoLional, LhoughL-
provoking cxpcricncc, or you can jusL siL Lhcrc wiLh your mouLh opcn and
waLch cars cxplodc i you wanL Lo [buL] iL Lakcs a ccrLain amounL o corL Lo
rcad cvcn Lhc mosL vacuous comic sLrip. IL docsnL do anyLhing unlcss yourc
rcading iL. IL involvcs Lhc rcadcr in a similar way LhaL liLcraLurc docs.
6
By Lhinking o Warcs work as a acLory or comics cxpcrimcnLs, wc gain
anoLhcr lcvcl o apprcciaLion or whaL hc sccks Lo accomplish in rcinvcnLing
Lhc mcdium. Rcadcrs musL slow down and rcad his comics wiLh a dcgrcc o aL-
LcnLivcncss normally rcscrvcd or liLcraLurc i Lhcy arc Lo grasp Lhc paLLcrns
and gamcs LhaL bind Lhc narraLivc LogcLhcr Lhrough an claboraLc inLcrlacing
o orms.
6
Spicgclman, whosc long-sLanding inLcrcsL in cxpcrimcnLal comics
lcd Lo Lhc crcaLion o RAw magazinc, quoLcs VicLor Shklovsky in his inLroduc-
Lion Lo Preakdowns, a rcissuc o his comics rom Lhc ,os: Tc Lcchniquc o
arL is Lo makc objccLs unamiliar, Lo makc orms diculL. Bccausc Lhc pro-
ccss o pcrccpLion is an acsLhcLic cnd in iLscl and musL bc prolongcd, arL is a
way o cxpcricncing Lhc arLulncss o an objccL.
6
For Warc, Spicgclman, and
Oubapo arLisLs, LcsLing Lhc limiLs o Lhc mcdium is a way o boLh conLinuing
an avanL-gardc LradiLion and asscrLing LhaL comics arc a vibranL orm o arL.
Notes
Special thanks to Ccile Daheny and Geert Mesters for their helpful comments. Unless indicated
otherwise, all translations from the French are mine.
1. See Read Yourself RAW, ed. Art Spiegelman and Franoise Mouly (New York: Pantheon, 1987),
31. The original cover was for RAW 1.2, RAW Books, 1980.
2. Chris Ware published his rst strip in RAW 2.2 in 1990, followed by Thrilling Adventure Sto-
ries / I Guess in RAW 2.3 in 1991. For a detailed history of RAW magazine, see Bill Kartalopouloss A
I N T HE COMI CS WOR K S HOP : WAR E AND T HE OUB AP O 8 7
RAW History: The Magazine, Indy Magazine (winter 2005). http://64.23.98.142/indy/winter_2005/
raw_02/index.html (accessed January 21, 2009).
In an interview with Todd Hignite, Ware specically mentions Joost Swartes artwork as having
special importance for him: I should mention that Joost Swartes amazing cover of RAW [2.2] taught
me everything I know about coloring using printing tints, and it was only years later that I found out
that Franoise had colored it herself. Todd Hignite, In the Studio: Visits with Contemporary Cartoonists
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 256. Moreover, Ware especially admires the conceptual
quality of Swartes comics; see his interview with Gary Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Com-
ics, Comics Journal 200 (1997): 131.
3. For an overview of Wares place in American comics, see Jeet Heers essay in this volume. Ware
has received signicant acclaim from French critics, winning both the Alph Art award for the best
graphic novel and the critics prize for Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth at the famed comics
festival in Angoulme in 2003. See the translation of his interview with Gary Groth, Chris Ware: Le
plus astucieux dessinateur de la plante Bang! 2 (2003): 10. See also Benot Peeterss documentary,
Chris Ware, un art de mmoire, Arte television, 2005. Available on Youtube (accessed January 21,
2009).
4. For an analysis of Wares ambivalence toward comics mass-cultural associations, see David
Balls essay in this volume.
5. Jean-Pierre Mercier, Condences oubapiennes, 9e Art 10 (2004): 80. Gilles Clement, one of
the Oubapo theorists, comments: The number of oubapiens by anticipation proves that, by their
very structure, comics have led a good number of people to push the limits of the intrinsic constraints
of comics to make something different [Le nombre doubapiens par anticipation prouve que, par ses
structures mme, la bande dessine a amen beaucoup de gens pousser lextrme une des contraintes
intrinsques de la bande dessine pour en faire autre chose] (ibid., 80).
6. The initial group also includes Jacques Bens, Claude Berge, Jacques Duchateau, Latis, Jean Les-
cure, Jean Queval, and Albert-Marie Schmidt. See Herv Le Tellier, Esthtique de LOulipo (Bordeaux:
Le Castor Astral, 2006), 78.
7. Georges Perec, qtd. in Warren Motte, ed. and trans., Oulipo: A Primer of Potential Literature
(Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive, 1998), 5.
8. See Raymond Queneaus exponential sonnet in the Oulipo Compendium, ed. Harry Mathews
and Alastair Brotchie (London: Atlas, 1998), 1433; and Georges Perec, A Void, trans. Gilbert Adair
(Jaffrey, NH: David Godine, 2005). As of the writing of this essay, Oulipo is still an active group and
published a selection of works under the title The State of Constraint: New Work from Oulipo in
McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 22:1 (2006).
9. According to Jean-Christophe Menu, the idea of Oubapo was rst raised in 1987 in Cerisy-la-
Salle, the same place where Oulipo began, when Thierry Groensteen and Lewis Trondheim met at a
workshop of Oulipo comics (atelier de bandes dessines oulipiennes) that Groensteen had organized.
But the group did not become ofcial until 1992. See the interview conducted by Jean-Pierre Mer-
cier with Oubapo members, Condences oubapiennes, 9e Art 10 (2004): 7680. There is also an
American section of Oubapo, although they do not have a journal. They do, however, have a Web site
that cites many of the French examples and offers a place for American cartoonists to experiment as
well. For example, Matt Maddens 99 Ways to Tell a Story is inspired by Raymond Queneaus Exercises
de style. See http://www.tomhart.net/oubapo/ (accessed January 23, 2009).
10. Marcel Bnabou, Oulipo: Prsentation, and Nol Arnaud, La potentialit absolue, in Oupus
1 (1997): 37.
11. Jean-Christophe Menu, Ouvre-Bote-Po, Oupus 1 (1997): 9.
12. Bart Beaty, Unpopular Culture: Transforming the European Comic Book in the 1990s (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 2007), 910.
13. Jean-Christophe Menu, Plates-bandes (extension 1), lprouvette 1 (2006): 19798.
14. Beaty, Unpopular Culture, 30.
15. See the inaugural edition, Oupus 1, January 1997, and the deliberately non-chronological issues
that follow: Oupus 2 (2003); Oupus 3 (2000); and Oupus 4 (2005), all published by LAssociation.
8 8 MART HA B . K UHL MAN
16. See Mottes discussion of ouvroir, 9, in his Oulipo.
17. La bande dessine est dj une contrainte sur ce plan, cest pourquoi lOubapo nest pas si diffrent de
la bande dessine que lon fait les uns et les autres. See Mercier, Condences oubapiennes, 80.
18. The purpose of Oubapo is to tordre ou dtourner les codes de la bande dessine traditionnelle.
Thierry Groensteen, Un premier bouquet de contraintes, Oupus 1 (1997): 13.
19. Ware rst met the artists at LAssociation in 1998 when he went to the comics festival in
Angoulme, France. But he was not familiar with the work of Oubapo specically. Chris Ware, e-mail
to the author, January 11, 2009.
20. See Jacob Brogans essay in this volume.
21. For a critical view of Wares editorial role in McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13 (2004) and Best
American Comics (2007), see Marc Singers essay in this volume.
22. LAssociation wanted to publish the French edition of Jimmy Corrigan, but the editors balked
when they realized how exacting Ware can be about the colors and the printing process. See Barbara
Lambert, Au nom du pre, du ls et du croquis, Livres Hebdo, November 15, 2002, 1819.
23. Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 80.
24. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy
Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005), 18.
25. Ware won the Harvey Award for best lettering in 1996, 2000, 2002, and 2006. See www
.harveyawards.com.
26. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 19.
27. Ware, The ACME Report, 2021.
28. Jean-Christophe Menu, Le prodigieux travail de Chris Ware, 9e Art: Les cahiers du Muse de
la bande dessine 2 (1997): 53.
29. Jan Baetens, New = Old, Old = New: Digital and Other Comics Following Scott McCloud and
Chris Ware. http://www.altx.com/ebr/ebr11/11ware.htm (accessed January 23, 2009).
30. Marcel Bnabou, qtd. in Motte, Oulipo, 41.
31. In the context of comics, Beaty argues, sequentiality is the dening feature of the medium:
Thus, for the modernist project of comics to be fully engaged, artists must turn to comics that ex-
plore the formal limits of that sequentiality. This is a project that has been most clearly articulated by
OuBaPo. Beaty, Unpopular Culture, 77.
32. Groensteen, Un premier bouquet, 16.
33. Ibid., 1358.
34. Franois Ayroles, Feinte Trinit, Oupus 2 (2003): 24.
35. Ware also enjoys tinkering with metaphysical humor. See his various God comics, especially
the cover of McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13.
36. Menu, Le prodigieux travail de Chris Ware, 53.
37. Chris Ware, Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003), 33.
38. Ibid., 2831.
39. In an interview with Gary Groth, Ware explains that this is a deliberate choice: I wanted to
be sure [. . .] that the empathies of the reader were clearly with the main character. And I felt that
anytime I showed another characters face, that feeling or tone was ruined. Qtd. in Groth, Under-
standing (Chris Wares) Comics, 141. It is true that grandmothers face appears, and the mothers
face is represented once, but these instances are rare. See Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest
Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 153, 154, 264 (grandmother), 371 (mother).
40. Interview with Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Comics, 13536.
41. See Oupus 3 (2000). These strips originally appeared in the newspaper Libration over the
summer of 2000.
42. tienne Lcroart, Circle vicieux (Paris: LAssociation, 2005).
43. tienne Lecroart, Franois Ayroles, Jochen Gerner, Killoffer, Jean-Christophe Menu, Scrou-
babble (Paris: LAssociation, 2005). Each player starts with seven pieces, as in Scrabble, and attempts
to create a viable narrative. According to the instructions on the box, the coherence of the strips
are judged by the participants over the course of the game. Who has won the game is left to the
individual discretion of the players.
I N T HE COMI CS WOR K S HOP : WAR E AND T HE OUB AP O 8 9
44. Motte, Oulipo, 22.
45. Ware, Quimby the Mouse, 16.
46. Thomas Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares Jimmy
Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 86990.
47. See Ware, Jimmy Corrigan, 250, 35758. See also Isaac Catess essay in this volume.
48. Art Spiegelman and Franoise Mouly, eds., Little Lit: Folklore & Fairy Tale Funnies (New York:
RAW Junior, 2000). Oubapien Lewis Trondheim contributed an excellent example of a multilinear
comic, A-maze-ing Adventure, in the second edition, Little Lit: Strange Stories for Strange Kids (New
York: RAW Junior, 2001), 5253.
49. For an even more melancholy version of this story, see McSweeneys 6, in which the frog sells
his legs to buy a diamond ring to win the love of the princess. The frogs plans go awry, however,
when the ring is stolen by the wolf, who then marries the princess. Wares initial contribution was
considered too pessimistic to be included in a childrens book. See Chris Ware, A Very Sad Story
about a Frog and a Banjo, Not at All Appropriate for Children, We Now Know Who: McSweeneys 6
(San Francisco: McSweeneys, 2001), 13135.
50. Spiegelman and Mouly, Little Lit: Folklore & Fairy Tale Funnies, endpapers.
51. Franois Ayroles, Le 9 est au Dpart, Oupus 2 (2003): 43. Ayroles is mocking the tremen-
dously popular French comic Michel Vaillant, created by Jean Graton in 1957, a strip devoted to the
adventures of a F1 race-car driver. As of the writing of this essay, Gratons son Philippe is continuing
the series. See www.michelvaillant.com (accessed January 23, 2009).
52. There are some examples of Situationist comics in chapter 3 of Simon Fords The Situationist
International: A Users Guide (London: Black Dog, 2005), 10130.
53. Menu, Le prodigieux travail de Chris Ware, 54.
54. The strip Thrilling Adventure Stories / I Guess, originally published in RAW 2.3, is reprinted
in Ware, Quimby the Mouse, 3941.
55. Rocco Versaci, This Book Contains Graphic Language: Comics as Literature (New York: Con-
tinuum, 2007), 74.
56. Ware, The ACME Report, 66.
57. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 11.
58. Interview with Jean-Christophe Menu conducted by Matt Wivel, Comics Journal 277 (2006):
16465.
59. travers une contrainte, on peut dcouvrir une esthtique qui nous plat, et la reproduire sans le ct
systmatique de la contrainte. Mercier, Condences oubapiennes, 78.
60. I am not arguing that these constraints are necessarily deployed as consciously or as deliber-
ately as they are in the case of Oubapo. Rather, it seems that Ware begins with the story and then
nds various patterns and structures for expressing his ideas.
61. Oubapo inviter une lecture plus vigilante, plus investigatrice et plus reexive les pages oubapi-
ennes ncessitent la participation active du lecteur. Thierry Groensteen, Ce que LOubapo rvle de la
bande dessine, 9e Art 10 (2004): 7275.
62. Roland Barthes, S/Z, trans. and intro. by Richard Howard (New York: Noonday, 1974), 10.
63. See the interview with Andrea Juno, Chris Ware, in Dangerous Drawings: Interviews with
Comix and Graphix Artists (New York: Juno, 1997), 53.
64. Groensteen uses the term tressage, or braiding, to discuss Oubapo and formally complex
comics, in Ce que LOubapo rvle de la bande dessine, 74. For a discussion of how tressage applies
to Wares work, see Shawn Gilmores essay in this volume.
65. Art Spiegelman, Breakdowns: Portrait of the Artist as a Young %@&*! (New York: Pantheon,
2008), n.p.
9 0
Comics and the Grammar of Diagrams
ISAAC CATES
Chris Warcs comics rouLincly includc pcculiar and inscruLablc dcviccs, cx-
Lcrnal Lo Lhc comics narraLivc, dcsigncd Lo LcsLiy Lo Lhc inLcnsiLy o Warcs
auLhorial aLLcnLion: his rcadcrs cncounLcr akc caLalog advcrLiscmcnLs and
coupons, collccLiblc Lrading cards, old-up papcr-craL projccLs, souvcnir cal-
cndars, cssays and indicia in painully minuLc LcxL, and mulLi-parL diagrams
o almosL incviLably discouraging complcxiLy. Tcsc dcviccs may scrvc as bar-
ricrs againsL Lhc casual rcadcr jusL as much as Lhcy rcward Lhosc who arc
morc scrious or morc commiLLcd. By Lhcir dcnsiLy and Lhcir mcLiculous dc-
sign, Warcs non-narraLivc dcviccs imply LhaL a complcLc apprcciaLion o Te
ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary or 1mmy Corrgan comcs only wiLh inLcnsc rcadcrly
labor. Obviously ouLsidc Lhc sLorys main narraLivc dicgcsis, Lhcsc ancillary
maLcrials ncvcrLhclcss oLcn rcvisc Lhc rcadcrs scnsc o Lhc main LcxL.

Tc
old-up papcr-craL modcls in 1mmy Corrgan, or cxamplc, noL only ocr an
alLcrnaLivc consLrucLion o narraLivc Limc, buL also poLcnLially blur Lhc linc
bcLwccn rcadcr, acLivc parLicipanL, and characLcr.
:
Morcovcr, 1mmy Corrgans
diagrams, by rcvcaling Lhings Lo Lhc rcadcr LhaL arc unknown Lo Lhc poinL-o-
vicw characLcrs, subsLanLially alLcr Lhc cmoLional Lcnor o Lhc graphic novcls
conclusion, broadcning iLs scopc bcyond 1immys brcakdown, worry, and iso-
laLion. Warcs mcLiculous diagrams rcvcal and obscurc Lhis inormaLion aL Lhc
samc Limc: by sLaLioning dcLails in poinLcdly diculL diagrams, hc disLanccs
Lhcir cccLs and Lhcir mcaning rom a casual or prcliminary rcading o his
comic. Tis complicaLing, liLcrary usc o diagrams Lo laycr mcaning bcLwccn
rcadings is Lhc subjccL o Lhis cssays rsL sccLion, buL Warcs diagrams also
havc implicaLions LhaL go bcyond an inLcrprcLaLion o 1mmy Corrgan. In Lhc
cnd, Lhcy also suggcsL a undamcnLal ormal connccLion bcLwccn comics and
diagrams LhaL comics criLics havc wriLLcn liLLlc abouL, and Lhc sccond hal o
Lhis cssay will dcscribc Lhis connccLion and somc o Lhc possibiliLics or com-
ics sLoryLclling LhaL iL, in Lurn, makcs possiblc.
Diagrams in Jimmy Corrigan
Tc Lhrcc diagrams LhaL conccrn Lhc characLcrs in 1mmy Corrgan all con-
ccal or obscurc inormaLion abouL Lhosc characLcrs LhaL is rcvcalcd nowhcrc
clsc in Lhc book, buL Lhc purposc o Lhc books rsL diagram is mosL di-
culL Lo asscss.

Tc ronL cndpapcrs, dcnsc wiLh apparaLus in characLcrisLi-

cally cyc-sLraining LcxL, conLain a daunLing diagram LhaL ocrs Lo cxplain
Lhc ncw picLorial languagc o comics and carLooning and Lhc way LhaL Lhis
COMI CS AND T HE GR AMMAR OF DI AGR AMS 9 1
languagc is good or showing sLu and lcaving ouL big words (ii). In
onc largc circlc, ncar Lhc lcL cdgc o Lhc diagram, Warcs rccurring characLcr
Quimby (Lhc mousc) sLrikcs Sparky (Lhc bodilcss caL hcad) wiLh a mallcL, nc
arrows lcad inLo Lhis circlc Lo annoLaLc Lhc various clcmcnLs o Lhc simplc,
rcadily lcgiblc singlc-pancl carLoon (scc g. ,.). Tc Lrio o lincs radiaLing
rom Lhc mallcL, or cxamplc, may indicaLc sound, or brighLncss, or a mcnLal
sLaLc, anoLhcr parL o Lhc diagram shows LhaL sincc Sparkys cyc is an anglc
and noL a doL, wc should rcad Lhosc Lhrcc lincs as indicaLing pain or concus-
sion (shown as Lhrcc oaLing sLars). AnoLhcr scL o boxcs shows a scrics o
possiblc posiLions or Lhc linc LhaL rcprcscnLs Quimbys cycbrow and shows
LhaL Lhc currcnL anglc indicaLcs angcr (LhaL is, lincs o hcaL coming rom his
hcad), which could arisc ciLhcr bccausc hc lovcs Sparky (a hcarL bcLwccn Lhcir
hcads) or bccausc hc docsnL lovc Sparky (a crosscd-ouL hcarL). OLhcr parLs
o Lhc diagram siLuaLc Lhis momcnL in Lhc hisLory o Lhc cosmos, locaLc Lhc
drawing sLylc bcLwccn morc rcalisLic picLurcs and languagc, suggcsL Lhc way
LhaL sound (and Lhcrcby nosLalgia) can bc incrrcd rom Lhc imagc, and show
LhaL Lhc anLhropomorphic crcaLurcs arc a hybrid o human and animal orms.
Fach o Lhc sub-diagrams in Lhis Lhoroughly annoLaLcd carLoon consisLs o
dcnscly packcd pancls ull o prcciscly Lhc sorLs o carLoon icons Lhc diagram
is osLcnsibly dcsigncd Lo clucidaLc. Tus, only Lhosc rcadcrs who arc alrcady
convcrsanL wiLh iLs idiom o symbols will bc ablc Lo inLcrprcL iLs cxplana-
Lions, which arc in Lurn morc complicaLcd Lhan Lhc singlc slapsLick pancl Lhcy
proposc Lo cxplain.
In somc ways, Lhis imagc is Warcs cquivalcnL or Lhc Poneer spacccraL
plaquc: a dcnsc, hcavily cncrypLcd diagram, in which much o Lhc diagrams
work is dcdicaLcd Lo cxplicaLing iLs own sysLcm o codcs. A porLion o Lhc
diagram cvcn sccms Lo Lakc issuc wiLh ScoLL McClouds oLcn-rcpcaLcd dcni-
Lion o comics as juxLaposcd scqucnLial imagcs.

Tc singlc-pancl carLoon in
Lhc largc circlc, aLcr all, would noL counL as comics by McClouds dcniLion,
sincc Lhcrc arc no oLhcr imagcs in scqucncc wiLh iL. In Lhc uppcr lcL corncr o
Warcs diagram, a scL o pancls aLLachcd Lo Lhc moLion-linc arc bchind Quim-
bys mallcL sccm Lo asscrL LhaL Lhis singlc pancl, cncoding movcmcnL as iL
docs, is cquivalcnL in iLs dcnoLaLion wiLh a Lwo-pancl scqucncc (which is also
picLurcd). Tc moLion linc and acLion lincs arc cquivalcnL, Warc suggcsLs, Lo
Lhc imagincd Limc clapsing in Lhc guLLcr bcLwccn scparaLc pancls. Morcovcr,
Lhc diagram asscrLs, a singlc-pancl carLoon LhaL uscs symbols insLcad o sc-
rial imagcs is closcr in iLs mcLhods Lo rcading, making morc usc o Lhc mind
Lhan Lhc cyc and Lhc hcarL. Tc Lwo-pancl scqucncc, by conLrasL, is morc akin
Lo LhcaLcr and privilcgcs Lhc cyc insLcad o Lhc mind.
In shorL, Warcs diagram sccms Lo bc arguing or a scnsc o Lhc comics
mcdium LhaL is much ncarcr Lo languagc and linguisLic conccrns Lhan Mc-
Clouds: onc LhaL givcs as much crcdiL Lo comics claboraLc sysLcm o signs
as iL docs Lo Lhc basic grammar o visual scqucnccs. Tis rcviscd dcniLion
mighL also allow or morc varicLy in Lhc naLurc o visual juxLaposiLion Lhan
mcrc narraLivc scqucncc, sincc scvcral o Lhc scrics o pancls in Lhis diagram
arcnL scqucnLial: oLcn Lhcy prcscnL arrays or rangcs o possibiliLics, rom
which a singlc cxamplc is sclccLcd.

SomcLimcs pancls arc scL in scqucncc bc-

causc onc analyzcs or dcLcrmincs iLs ncighbor. Tc rclaLions may bc associa-
Livc, analyLic, or mcLonymic, Lhcy nccd noL Lcll a sLory. Tc Quimby-Sparky
COMI CS AND T HE GR AMMAR OF DI AGR AMS 9 3
diagram Lhus prcparcs Lhc rcadcr or a comics grammar cvcn morc challcng-
ing Lhan Lhc onc 1mmy Corrgan Lypically cmploys. Tc irony o Lhis dcnsc,
compacL, and complicaLcd cxplanaLion o Lhc way Lo undcrsLand a comic is,
o coursc, LhaL Lhc rcadcr musL alrcady know comics shorLhand in ordcr Lo bc
ablc Lo rcad iL in Lhc rsL placc: iL cxcludcs Lhc unpracLiccd rcadcr iL prcLcnds
Lo insLrucL. ScL ncxL Lo a prosc cssay LhaL asscrLs comics cxLrcmc popular-
iLy wiLh dumb pcoplc, Lhc diagram ocrs Lo mock or rusLraLc cvcn Warcs
morc cxpcrL rcadcrs.
Tis diagram in Lhc cndpapcrs o 1mmy Corrgan is hardly Lhc mosL com-
plicaLcd or obscurc o Warcs diagrams. Warcs dcsign or Lhc sLorcronL o 8:6
Valcncia prcscnLs an abbrcviaLcd hisLory o human dcsircs and achicvcmcnLs
in morc Lhan Lwo hundrcd picLographs and pancls,
6
many o his carly Qumby
the Mouse sLrips Loy wiLh diagrammaLic dcviccs,
,
and a hugc Lwo-pancl dia-
gram in Te ACMF Report maps ouL our quadranLs o virLucs and viccs, Lcm-
pcramcnLs and acial cxprcssions, scasons, clds o cndcavor, and so orLh.
8

MosL o Lhc diagrams in 1mmy Corrgan, by conLrasL, sccm quiLc dclibcraLc in
Lhcir rclaLion Lo Lhc narraLivc, rcvcaling inormaLion abouL Lhc inLcrconncc-
Lion o Lhc characLcrs LhaL is availablc Lo no onc wiLhin Lhc sLory.
Tc Lhrcc major diagrams LhaL involvc Lhc characLcrs and Lhcir hisLorics
ocr supplcmcnLs, cxplanaLions, and complicaLions hiddcn in Lhc main
sLory. Somc o Lhcsc dcLails arc quiLc disLanL rom Lhc ccnLral narraLivc: Lhc
largc old-ouL map-diagram rom Lhc inLcrior o Lhc dusL jackcL (pp. iiiiv o
Lhc papcrback) shows Lhc dcaLh o 1immys paLcrnal grandmoLhcr and Lhc
immigraLion rom Ircland o 1immys grcaL-grcaL-grandaLhcr, a physician
also namcd 1. Corrigan, as wcll as Lhc capLurc, LransporLaLion, and salc o
Amys anccsLors as slavcs in Lhc pcriod bcorc Lhc Civil War. IL also rcvcals
LhaL 1immy is lying whcn hc Lclls his adopLcd hal-sisLcr Amy LhaL hc sorLa
sLoppcd rcading comics whcn [hc] grcw up (:): in acL, hc noL only bags
and boxcs currcnL issucs o Superman, as Lhc map-diagram rcvcals, buL hc also
caLalogucs his collccLion. 1immys kiLchcn closcL is dcvoLcd Lo long boxcs, Lhc
spccialLy hardwarc o comics sLoragc (scc plaLc ).
All Lhcsc dcLails cxpand Lhc cLional world o 1mmy Corrgan (puLLing
rooLs inLo locaLions ar rom Chicago and Waukosha), and in LhaL scnsc Lhcy
ocr a rcward or Lhc rcadcrs invcsLigaLion and cycsLrain, cvcn i Lhcir rcv-
claLions only obliqucly accL Lhc graphic novcls ploL. Truc, Lhc diagram sug-
gcsLs, morc Lhan Lhc main LcxL o Lhc novcl mighL, LhaL 1mmy Corrgan rcp-
rcscnLs onc scgmcnL o a long hisLorical scqucncc o Lragic and loncly charac-
Lcrs appcaring and disappcaring on a much largcr sLagc. Tcrc is somcLhing
rusLraLing, howcvcr, abouL Lhc insisLcnL LrivialiLy o somc o Lhcsc daLa: a
oor plan o 1immys aparLmcnL, a six-sLcp dcscripLion o his comics sLoragc
proccss, our Liny n agrante de|cto pancls o Lhc bachclor William Corrigan
philandcring his way Lhrough Chicago. Tis claboraLc diagram cnrichcs Lhc
world o 1mmy Corrgan mainly by suggcsLing LhaL Lhc paincd minuLiac o
Lhc main dicgcsis arc supporLcd by Lhousands o similarly awkward momcnLs
LhaL Lhc graphic novcl ncvcr shows us.
A sccond diagram (8), discusscd aL lcngLh in Tomas BrcdchoLs ar-
Liclc on comics archiLccLurc in 1mmy Corrgan, rcvcals Lhrough a scrics o
shiLs in chronology and pcrspccLivc LhaL Lhc windows in 1immys Chicago
aparLmcnL wcrc originally insLallcd by 1immys grcaL-grandaLhcr William,
Fig. 7.1. Wares key to the
New Pictorial Language
explains something simple
in a very complicated way.
Chris Ware, Jimmy Cor-
rigan: The Smartest Kid on
Earth (New York: Panthe-
on, 2000), endpapers.
9 4 I S AAC CAT E S
who laLcr cmcrgcs as an imporLanL characLcr in Lhc nincLccnLh-ccnLury scc-
Lions o Lhc book.

Tis apparcnLly Lrivial coincidcncc, placcd as iL is among

1immys cvcrcd and worricd anLasics abouL mccLing his aLhcr or Lhc rsL
Limc, sccms almosL rcassuring: iL asscrLs a connccLion Lhrough his malc orc-
bcars, a connccLion LhaL liLcrally shclLcrs him cvcn Lhough hc is unawarc o
iL.
o
Tc diagram also Lclls us, howcvcr, LhaL 1immys aLhcr isnL long or Lhis
world: in a scrics o small, bluc, righL-Lo-lcL-rcading pancls aL Lhc boLLom
o Lhc diagrams rsL pagc, Lhc aLhcrs prcscnL momcnL is immcdiaLcly suc-
cccdcd by a hcadsLonc and a gravc. For Lhc carcul rcadcr, Lhcn, Lhis diagram
Lclcgraphs 1immys aLhcrs dcaLh morc Lhan Lhrcc hundrcd pagcs bcorc iL
happcns. Tis kind o cxLcnsion o Lhc rcadcrs awarcncss is noL possiblc in
Lhc main narraLivc ramc, LcLhcrcd as Lhc comic is (aL Lhis poinL) Lo 1immys
poinL o vicw. To csLablish an cxLcrnal or auLhorial pcrspccLivc, Warc in-
scrLs a diagram: sincc Lhc diagram uscs Lhc spacc o Lhc pagc Lo convcy in-
ormaLion insLcad o a vicwpoinL on Lhc sLory, iL naLurally suggcsLs a morc
absLracLcd, morc objccLivc posiLion LhaL allows, or cxamplc, gcncraLions Lo
bc comprcsscd inLo a bric spacc. By prcscnLing an alLcrnaLivc Lo Lhc sLcady
scqucnLial march o comics narraLivc, Warcs diagrams allow Lhc sorL o rcL-
rospccLivc or omniscicnL vicw o Lhc sLorys cvcnLs LhaL oLhcr auLhors mighL
rcscrvc or capLions in Lhc voicc o a Lhird-pcrson narraLor.

Tc nal and mosL Lclling o Lhc diagrams in 1mmy Corrgan also uscs Lhis
sLraLcgy, covcring scvcral gcncraLions in a small porLion o Lhc pagc. Tis
Lwo-pagc diagram appcars ncar Lhc cnd o Lhc book, immcdiaLcly aLcr iLs cli-
max, whcn Amy pushcs 1immy away aLcr hcaring Lhc ncws o Lhcir aLhcrs
dcaLh (,8) (scc plaLcs and o). AL rsL glancc, Lhc ausLcrc, diagram-
maLic, and opcn usc o spacc on Lhcsc pagcs sccms likc a airly cold scqucl Lo
Amys unhcard words o apology as shc rcalizcs LhaL 1immy has disappcarcd.
Tc diagram, howcvcr, cncodcs cnough inormaLion abouL Amys anccsLry
(and 1immys) LhaL rcading iL carcully orccs a rcvision in boLh Lhc mcaning
o Lhc books conclusion and Lhc undcrlying connccLions bcLwccn Lhc books
Lwo chronologically scparaLc sLorics. Tc diagram Lraccs Amys anccsLry
back Lhrough Lhc inormaLion barricrunbrcachablc or Lhc characLcrso
hcr adopLion. In snapshoLs o Lhrcc gcncraLions, Lhc diagram shows Amys
moLhcr giving hcr up or adopLion in 6, dcposiLs Amys maLcrnal granda-
Lhcr in a World War II soldicrs gravc, and rcvcals LhaL hcr moLhcrs aLhcrs
moLhcr was Lhc daughLcr o 1immys grcaL-grandaLhcr, Lhc looming, abusivc
aLhcr in Lhc hisLorical ashback sccLions o Lhc graphic novcl. 1immys grcaL-
grandaLhcr rcs May, Lhc Arican Amcrican maid who is Amys grcaL-grcaL-
grandmoLhcr, whcn May is prcgnanL wiLh his illcgiLimaLc child. In a Lypical
Lurn o Warcs liLLlc Lragcdics, in acL, hc rcs hcr or ocring a biL o kindncss
Loward his son bchind his back (:), shc rcLurns in winLcr, a cw monLhs
laLcr, wcighcd down by somc burdcn, conccalcd aL Lhc waisL o hcr coaL, buL
runs o inLo Lhc snow aLcr 1amcs sccs hcr, ocring no cxplanaLion (:o).
Tis diagram is Lhc only conrmaLion ocrcd in Lhc book LhaL Lhis bur-
dcn is William Corrigans unborn child (and 1amcss ncvcr-known hal-
sisLcr). Tc acL o Amy and 1immys consanguiniLyand, morcovcr, hcr
vcry closc blood rclaLion Lo liLLlc 1amcs, who is now Lhc old man shc calls
Cranpamakcs 1immys panickcd rcLrcaL on Lhc prcvious pagcs a Lragcdy
o possiblc connccLions unrcalizcd. WiLhouL Lhc inormaLion in Lhis diagram,
COMI CS AND T HE GR AMMAR OF DI AGR AMS 9 5
1immys Tanksgiving rcLurn Lo his moLhcr and his work cubiclc sccms likc a
sad rcLurn Lo his own sLaLus quo, onc in a scrics o misscd opporLuniLics or
Lhc maladroiL proLagonisL, wiLh Lhc inormaLion in Lhis diagram, howcvcr,
1immys disappcarancc is a Lragic ailurc o amily rcconciliaLion or Amy as
wcll.
Tcrc arc scvcral rcasons why Warc mighL bury Lhis connccLion bcLwccn
Amy and hcr adopLcd amily in a diagram (and, or LhaL maLLcr, in small and
visually obscurc dcLails in Lhc diagram), and Id likc Lo arguc LhaL Lhc cccL hc
achicvcs wiLh Lhis choicc is acLually quiLc subLlc. Warc mighL havc simply sc-
crcLcd Lhc inormaLion hcrc likc an FasLcr cgg or Lhc mosL diligcnL rcadcr, Lo
rcward morc carcul scruLiny wiLh a morc poignanL cnding. Tis would makc
a nicc parablc abouL rcadcrly carc or sLudcnLs in a liLcraLurc class, buL iLs
hard Lo comc away rom Warcs work wiLh a scnsc LhaL hc imagincs rcward-
ing his ans. (Tc hardcovcr 1mmy Corrgans dusL jackcL, aLcr all, LouLs iL as
a bold cxpcrimcnL in rcadcr Lolcrancc.) Warc mighL insLcad rcsorL Lo Lhc
diagram hcrc, as in Lhc carly diagram abouL 1immys window, bccausc Lhcsc
acLs can only bc rclaLcd ouLsidc o Lhc narraLivc dicgcsis. Sincc 1mmy Corr-
gan is anchorcd so closcly in a cw characLcrs poinLs o vicw (mosLly 1immys
and 1amcss), inormaLion known Lo nonc o Lhcsc characLcrs can only appcar
ouLsidc o Lhc visual narraLivc. FurLhcrmorc, and pcrhaps morc inLcrcsLing,
iLs possiblc LhaL Lhc cvcnLual rcvclaLion rclics on a proccss o scruLiny or
invcsLigaLion in ordcr or iLs cmoLional impacL Lo ccl carncd or gcnuinc: i
Amys amily hisLory wcrc simply dclivcrcd, insLcad o bcing somcLhing Lhc
rcadcr musL hunL or, or cncounLcr on a sccond or Lhird rcading, Lhc coinci-
dcncc o Lhc characLcrs kinship mighL sccm considcrably conLrivcd. As iL is,
and wiLh Lhc prcccdcnL o Lhc oLhcr diagram csLablishing hisLorical coinci-
dcnccs, Lhc unlikcly connccLion bcLwccn Lhcsc Lwo characLcrs ccls morc likc
a sccrcL Lhan a cLion.
Comics, Diagrams, and Information Design
Warcs pcrsisLcnL inLcrcsL in diagrams also rcachcs bcyond Lhc immcdiaLc
narraLivc nccds o his graphic novcl. Warc is clcarly curious abouL Lhc pos-
sibiliLics crcaLcd by imporLing allicd mcdia inLo his comics, or by lcarning
rom Lhc dcviccs o rclaLcd mcdia. As wc will scc, Lhc common grammar o
comics and diagramsLhcir sharcd rcliancc on juxLaposiLions or conLinuiLics
in Lwo-dimcnsional spacc Lo indicaLc connccLions o mcaningcsLablishcs a
numbcr o non-narraLivc possibiliLics wiLh which Warc and oLhcr carLoonisLs
occasionally cxpcrimcnL.
Tc arL o Lhc diagram is onc o a numbcr o ways in which Warcs comics
Lcchniquc is inormcd by disciplincs or mcdia LhaL arcnL oLcn considcrcd
by liLcrary criLics. Ccnc Kanncnbcrg has wriLLcn comprchcnsivcly on Warcs
inLcrcsL in Lypography and Lypc dcsign, or cxamplc,
:
and Warc is also clcarly
inLcrcsLcd in music and in archiLccLurc.

In 1mmy Corrgan in parLicular,

Warc also rcpcaLcdly invokcs Lhc carly, prc-cincmaLic Lcchnology o moving
picLurcs. Iikc comics, and likc Warcs scvcral diagrams, Lhcsc carly dcviccs
Lhc zocLropc, magic lanLcrn slidcs, and Lhc zoopraxiscopc o Lhc carly pho-
Lographcr Fadwcard Muybridgc, all o which appcar in 1mmy Corrganrcly
on scqucnLial imagcs Lo dcpicL cvcnLs in scrics.

WiLhin Lhc graphic novcl,

9 6 I S AAC CAT E S
o coursc, all o Lhcsc moving-picLurc imagcs arc also comics: unlcss wc rc-
movc, cuL aparL, and build Warcs modcl zocLropc, Lhc Lwclvc imagcs o a
cruLch-walking roboL can only bc rcad as a comic, wiLh iLs imagcs hclpully
moving rom lcL Lo righL along Lhc Lop o Lhc pagc.

McCloud has poinLcd

Lo Lhc similariLy bcLwccn Lhcsc Lwo mcdiums ways o rcprcscnLing moLion,
claiming LhaL bcorc iLs projccLcd, lm is jusL a [ . . . ] vcry slow comic,
prinLcd on cclluloid insLcad o on papcr.
6
Warcs various invocaLions o carly
moLion-picLurc Lcchnology, rcprcscnLcd as comics (wiLh minimal changcs
rom pancl Lo pancl, in Lhc casc o Lhc zocLropc), Lhus also dirccL us Lo rc-
cxaminc Lhc vcry slow scqucnccs LhaL arc ubiquiLous in 1mmy Corrgan.
ILs casy Lo dcscribc Lhcsc slow, momcnL-Lo-momcnL scqucnccs1immys
aLhcr awkwardly kccping 1immy company in a docLors occ, or cxamplc
(:)as sLaLic, buL Lhc rcpcLiLion o imagcs also hcighLcns our aLLcnLion Lo
slighL variaLions o moLion, body languagc, and acial cxprcssion.
,
Iikc Lhcsc
cvocaLions o carly moLion-picLurc Lcchnology, Warcs diagrams urgc us Lo rc-
cxaminc Lhc mcLhods o Lhc main comic as wcll as Lhc undamcnLal proximiLy
o Lhc rclaLcd mcdia. NavigaLing Warcs dcnsc and dclibcraLcly obscurc dia-
grams should prcparc Lhc rcadcr Lo rcad diagram-likc dcviccs on his comics
pagcs as wcll as Lhc sLrucLural or grammaLical similariLy bcLwccn comics and
diagrams in Lhcir oundaLions.
Warcs scnsc o Lhc comics mcdium is clcarly rclaLcd Lo Lhc visual workings
o diagrams, and in Lhc cnd his work asscrLs a basic connccLion bcLwccn Lhc
grammar o comics sLoryLclling and Lhc grammar o inormaLion display LhaL
may opcn up inLcrcsLing ncw possibiliLics or comics. As iL happcns, Warcs
comics arc akin Lo diagrams in a numbcr o ways, somc o which (Lhough
noL Lrivial) arc morc sLraighLorward Lhan Lhc undamcnLal similariLy o Lhcir
grammars. Tc rsL o Lhcsc is Lhc aL, simplicd carLooning sLylc LhaL
characLcrizcs mosL o Warcs maLurc work, in which many objccLs and cvcn
characLcrs ncarly rcscmblc picLographs or idcograms.
Dcscribing his own roughcr buL similarly simplicd visual work, ArL
Spicgclman rcpcaLcdly comparcs Lhis drawing sLylc Lo diagrams. Spicgclman
similarly asscrLs, or cxamplc, LhaL Lck Tracys ChcsLcr Could undcrsLood
bcLLcr Lhan anyonc LhaL comic sLrip drawing isnL rcally drawing aL all, buL
raLhcr a kind o diagramming.
8
In an cssay on his carly onc-pagc piccc DonL
CcL Around Much Anymorc, Spicgclman asscrLs, All comic-sLrip drawings
musL uncLion as diagrams, simplicd picLurc-words LhaL indicaLc morc Lhan
Lhcy show.

Hcrc, Spicgclman rccrs Lo morc Lhan Coulds in-pancl LcxL la-

bcls (c.g., Two-way TV wrisLwaLch) or Lhcir rclaLion Lo Lhc spccch balloon
and oLhcr graphic dcviccs: hc uscs Lhc idca o a diagram Lo dcscribc Lhc car-
Looning sLylc LhaL ScoLL McCloud calls iconic. Iconic drawings arc simplicd
Lo Lhc poinL o bcing almosL purc symbol, wiLh incsscnLial or non-scmanLic
visual clcmcnLs absLracLcd away. McCloud sccs Lhcsc iconic drawings as bc-
ing morc likc words, in LhaL Lhcir proccss o signicaLion is diminishingly
a maLLcr o rcscmbling Lhc Lhing Lhcy rcprcscnL, incrcasingly a maLLcr o ac-
ccpLcd symbolic convcnLions.
:o
Warc, Loo, dcscribcs a dcsirc or his drawings Lo rcad likc wordsor
Lhcm Lo Lriggcr mcaning as immcdiaLcly as a prinLcd word will or a liLcraLc
rcadcr, so LhaL whcn you scc Lhcm you canL makc yourscl noL rcad Lhcm.
:

As a modcl o Lhc immcdiaLc picLorial lcgibiliLy LhaL Warc dcsircs, Danicl Rac-
COMI CS AND T HE GR AMMAR OF DI AGR AMS 9 7
burn, ollowing Spicgclman, ciLcs Frnic Bushmillcrs Nancy: IL Lakcs morc c-
orL noL Lo rcad Nancy Lhan iL docs Lo rcad iL.
::
Tc uniormiLy o Warcs linc,
Lhc opcnncss o his visual orms, his aL clds o color, and Lhc simplicaLion
o organic background clcmcnLs likc Lrccs and bushcs unLil Lhcy rcscmblc
symbols on an archiLccLs plan: all o Lhcsc clcmcnLs o Warcs sLylc arc cngi-
nccrcd Lo approach Lhis Bushmillcr-likc (or Could-likc) immcdiacy, a kind o
sLylisLic Lransparcncy.
And ycL, Warcs comics arc, as a gcncral rulc, anyLhing buL casy Lo rcad.
Along wiLh Lhis sccmingly LransparcnL carLooning, Warc aL Limcs dclivcrs
dcnsc LcxL, complicaLcd pagc layouLs, and ccnLral characLcrs whosc main aL-
LribuLcs arc cmoLional paralysis or painul awkwardncss. McCloud argucs
LhaL Lhc iconic sLylc o drawing somchow cnablcs rcadcr idcnLicaLion wiLh
Lhc characLcrs, and alLhough McClouds asscrLion hcrc is among his mosL du-
bious, Lhcrc is onc clcmcnL o LruLh bchind iL: sincc Lhis iconic or diagram-
maLic drawing privilcgcs Lhc scmanLically chargcd parLs o a drawing, iconic
drawings o characLcrs accs arc (or can bc) casicr Lo rcad or Lhcir cmoLional
signicaLion.
:
I wc consLruc Lhings likc cycbrow posiLion or Lhc linc crcaLcd
by Lhc mouLh as cmoLional signicrsas Lhcy do sccm Lo bcLhcn Lhc rc-
ducLion o a carLoon acc Lo Lhcsc signicanL lincs makcs Lhc characLcrs in-
Lcrnal sLaLc rcad, idcally, as clcarly as a word, lcgiblc in cvcry pancl whcrc wc
scc his acc.
:
ILs hard Lo imaginc a proLagonisL morc closcd o Lo cmoLional
connccLion Lhan 1immy, buL Lhc rcpcaLcd, virLually unchanging icon o his
worricd acc Lclcgraphs his cmoLions wiLh cxcruciaLing clariLy. AlLhough Lhc
womcn in 1mmy Corrgan arc drawn jusL as iconically, Warc Lakcs pains Lo ob-
scurc Lhcir accs (oLhcr Lhan Amys) in ncarly cvcry pancl, prcsumably Lo limiL
Lhc lcgibiliLy o Lhcir inLcrior sLaLcs. 1immys moLhcr, or cxamplc, is visiblc
many Limcs bcorc wc scc hcr acc, Liny and aL Lhc boLLom o Lhc pancl, aL Lhc
cnd o Lhcir Tanksgiving dinncr (,), cvcn in 1amcss drcam o imprcssing
Lhc rcd-haircd girl, wc only scc Lhc sidc o hcr bonncL (:6).
:
WhaLcvcr Warc is aiming aL wiLh his diagrammaLic, iconic drawing, Lhcn,
iL isnL mcrcly Lhc rcadcrs idcnLicaLion wiLh Lhc characLcrs or any casc o
acccss Lo Lhc characLcrs inLcrioriLy. InsLcad, iL sccms Lo bc an appcal Lo Lhc
possibiliLy LhaL drawings mighL approach Lhc scmioLic dirccLncss o languagc,
cvcn Lhough Lhc Lwo kinds o mark-making parLicipaLc in disLincL kinds o
signicaLion. Whcrcas words arc, wiLh Lhc possiblc cxccpLion o onomaLo-
pocia, always arbiLrary signicrs, cvcn vcry iconic drawings rcly on naLural
(non-arbiLrary) signicaLion: Lhcy visually rcscmblc Lhc Lhings Lhcy signiy.
:6

And ycL, i iconic or diagrammaLic drawing approachcs ccrLain languagc-likc
qualiLics o signicaLioniLs common nouns rccrring Lo gcncral Lypcs
raLhcr Lhan Lo spccic individuals, iLs simplicaLion, as Spicgclman suggcsLs,
indicaLing LcxLurc or subLcxL iL docs noL showLhcn iconic drawings would
sccm Lo bc Lhc naLural vocabulary o boLh Lhc diagram and Lhc carLooncd
liLcrary comic.
:,
Howcvcr, Lhis iconic vocabulary is Lhcn acLivaLcd by Lhc grammar o vi-
sual juxLaposiLion LhaL is gcncrally undcrsLood Lo bc ccnLral Lo comics as a
mcdium. Warcs inLcrcsL in diagrams clcarly gocs bcyond Lhcir picLographic
idiom. Tc way LhaL diagrams rclaLc and manipulaLc Lhcir symbols is also a
largc parL o Warcs comics pocLics, buL Lhis is an aspccL o Warcs work
(and an aspccL o Lhc comics mcdium) LhaL has rcccivcd liLLlc aLLcnLion. Tc
9 8 I S AAC CAT E S
prccmincnL LhcorisL o Lhc diagram is probably Fdward TuLc, Lhc auLhor o
scvcral landmark books on inormaLion dcsign. TuLcs work, dirccLcd Loward
sLaLisLicians and graphic dcsigncrs, primarily advocaLcs grcaLcr clariLy and
inLcgriLy in inormaLion displays, ocring sLraLcgics or rcvising cluLLcrcd,
dcccpLivc, or oLhcrwisc incccLivc diagrams and or maximizing a charLs
daLa-Lo-ink raLio.
:8
Civcn LhaL Lhcsc arc TuLcs goals, wc should cxpccL him
Lo ocr rclaLivcly liLLlc abouL Lhc poLcnLial liLcrary uscs o diagrams or abouL
ways LhaL comics likc Warcs mighL dclibcraLcly cxploiL complcxiLy or cluLLcr.
In Lhc coursc o disLinguishing clcar inormaLion dcsign rom charLjunk,
howcvcr, TuLc docs ocr a numbcr o insighLs inLo Lhc languagc o graphics
LhaL can hclp us Lo scc how Warcs comics work. For cxamplc, TuLc advocaLcs
againsL high-conLrasL juxLaposiLions o color or cqual-widLh bands o black
and whiLc bccausc o Lhc aLcr-imagcs and vibraLion,
:
or Lhc shimmcr and
moirc vibraLion,
o
LhaL Lhcsc graphic clcmcnLs can causc. Warc uscs boLh
o Lhcsc discomorLing cccLs dclibcraLcly in 1mmy Corrgan. High-conLrasL
rcd and grccn vibraLc, or cxamplc, in Lhc pancl during 1immys visiL Lo Lhc
docLors occ whcn hc muLLcrs, Uh . . . I gucss (:).

And Lhc opLical dis-

comorL o TuLcs black-and-whiLc shimmcr is visiblc on ncarly cvcry pagc
o 1mmy Corrgan, in Lhc Loo-narrow whiLc guLLcrs bcLwccn his Lhick, cvcn
pancl bordcrs. In boLh o Lhcsc cascs, Warc ouLs Lhc rulcs o graphic dcsign
dclibcraLcly in ordcr Lo raLchcL up Lhc visual discomorL LhaL accompanics
1immys cvcr-mounLing anxicLy.
AlLhough hc is conccrncd wiLh clariLy morc Lhan wiLh arL, TuLcs cxamplcs
o wcll-dcsigncd diagrams do occasionally rcscmblc comics. In a chapLcr on
MulLiplcs in Spacc and Timc, or cxamplc, hc prcscnLs a scL o Muybridgcs
moLion-analysis phoLographs on Lhc samc pagc as Huygcnss Limc-scrics
drawing o SaLurns orbiLal paLh and a scL o maps showing conLincnLal driL.
As Warcs inLcrcsL in Muybridgc rcminds us, cach o Lhcsc Limc-scrics dia-
grams rcads, scqucnLially, likc a comic.
:
Diagrams o Lhc movcmcnL o a sca-
horsc or a gccko also usc simplicd imagcs (carLoons) in scqucncc Lhrough-
ouL Lhc Limc-scrics sccLion o TuLcs chapLcr on Craphical Fxccllcncc.

No-
Lably, TuLc LrcaLs Lhcsc comics or proLo-comics as i Lhcy arc inLcrchangcablc
wiLh Lhc oLhcr, morc charL-likc diagrams in Lhcsc chapLcrs. Hc also analyzcs a
numbcr o comics or comics-likc diagrams in a chapLcr o vsua| Fxp|anatons
LhaL dcals wiLh Lhc diagrams uscd Lo cxplain magic Lricks. Bccausc slcighL o
hand rcquircs scvcral sLagcs o movcmcnL, Lhcsc diagrams Lypically includc
mulLiplc imagcs o Lhc samc discmbodicd hands, rcvcaling or suggcsLing Lhc
gcsLurcs and manipulaLions LhaL makc Lhc Lrick work. Ncarly all o Lhcsc dia-
grams combinc drawings wiLh words, and Lhcy oLcn also havc rccoursc Lo
oLhcr carLooning shorLhand: moLion lincs, impacL lincs, and ghosLcd ovcrlap-
ping imagcs. As TuLc poinLs ouL, Lhcsc arc dcvicc[s] oLcn uscd in comics.

Tc acL LhaL TuLc docs noL sccm Lo disLinguish bcLwccn cxplanaLory comics
and cxplanaLory diagrams could providc his mosL provocaLivc conLribuLion
Lo Lhc sLudy o comics, cvcn i Lhis conLribuLion is ncvcr arLiculaLcd in Lhosc
Lcrms.
ILs naLural or comics or comics-likc scqucnccs such as Muybridgcs phoLo-
graphs Lo appcar in discussions o Lhc diagrammaLic rcprcscnLaLion o cvcnLs
unolding ovcr Limc or dcpicLions o Limc-scrics daLa. I a singlc dimcnsion o
inormaLion (daLa abouL a singlc variablc) is ploLLcd ovcr Limc, a sLraighLor-
COMI CS AND T HE GR AMMAR OF DI AGR AMS 9 9
ward Lwo-dimcnsional graph is Lhc obvious choicc. I morc Lhan onc variablc
musL bc corrclaLcd ovcr a rclaLivcly small numbcr o Limc samplcs, Limc-slicc
diagrams or Lhc daLaonc graph pcr samplcd momcnLcan csscnLially bc
rcad as a comic wiLh graphs or charLs or scqucnLial pancls.

BuL or dia-
grams and charLs, Lhc mcasurcd progrcss o Limc is only onc o many dicr-
cnL sorLs o daLa LhaL Lhc Lwo dimcnsions o Lhc pagc can dcscribc. A charL
could ploL inaLion againsL uncmploymcnL, LcmpcraLurc againsL conducLiv-
iLy, aLomic numbcr againsL aLomic volumc, or ycars in Chicago againsL LhaL
Chicagoans avcragc monLhly phonc bill.
6
Diagrams usc spaLial proximiLy Lo dcnoLc a widc rangc o connccLions
linkagcs o mcaning, and noL ncccssarily o Limc. Sincc comics is a narraLivc
mcdium, iL incviLably uscs Lhc dcvicc o graphic juxLaposiLion mainly or nar-
raLivc cnds. I comics is such a ncar cousin Lo Lhc diagram, howcvcr, and i dia-
grams can borrow Lhc graphic idiom o comics Lo cxplain Lhc movcmcnLs o a
scahorsc or a slcighL o hand, Lhcn Lhcrc can bc liLLlc rcason or comics noL Lo
borrow rom Lhc widcr rangc o graphic scmanLics allowcd Lo Lhc diagram. In
parLicular, boLh Chris Warcs diagrams and Fdward TuLcs appropriaLion o
scqucnLial arL should rcmind us o Lhc valuablc possibiliLy or liLcrary comics
o diagram-likc non-chronological juxLaposiLions, scqucnccs o imagcs LhaL
arc rclaLcd in ways LhaL havc lcss Lo do wiLh Limc Lhan wiLh oLhcr inLcrrcla-
Lions o mcaning: mcLaphor, opLions and poLcnLialiLics, LhcmaLic synopsis,
spaLial rclaLionships, and many oLhcr unplumbcd possibiliLics.
Wc nccd noL look ar Lo nd graphic juxLaposiLions in Warcs work LhaL
dcpicL rclaLionships oLhcr Lhan chronological scqucncc. Tc scvcral LiLlc
pagc cmbcllishmcnLs in Lhc carly pagcs o 1mmy Corrgan, or cxamplc, o-
cr juxLaposiLions LhaL arc morc mcLaphorical or mcLaLcxLual Lhan narraLivc.
An carly pagc in Lhc graphic novcl ocrs a Lwclvc-pancl grid o possiblc accs
or 1immys aLhcr (:8), juxLaposcd likc Lhc possiblc posiLions o Quimbys
cycbrow in Lhc cndpapcrs diagram. FurLhcrmorc, in somc Lwo-pagc sprcads
in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8, spaLial juxLaposiLion scrvcs morc LhcmaLic
or symbolic purposcs. Onc common layouL in Lhis issuc has six sccLions o
LcxL and pancls arraycd around a singlc ccnLral pancl LhaL crosscs Lhc gap
bcLwccn pagcs. Tcsc ccnLral imagcs arc somcLimcs snapshoLs o Lhc charac-
Lcrs aL roughly Lhc samc pcriod in Lhc sLory, buL Lhcy arc somcLimcs imagcs
o an cmpLy room, or cxamplc, or an orchid blossomLhc laLLcr suggcsLing
an claboraLc group o LhcmaLic connccLions bcLwccn Lhc proLagonisLs bro-
kcn rclaLionship, hcr laLcr carccr as a orisL, and Lhc cmoLional aLcrmaLh o
hcr dccision Lo havc an aborLion. Tc orchid also cchocs (in iLs appcarancc
and iLs placcmcnL on Lhc pagc) Lwo similarly symmcLrical gynccological im-
agcs rom pornographic vidco and a sLudcnL painLing on Lhc prcccding pagcs,
making Lhc naLurally scxual aspccL o Lhc owcr much morc cxpliciL. Whilc
Lhcsc ccnLral LhcmaLic pancls arc noL among Warcs mosL aggrcssivcly cxpcri-
mcnLal mancuvcrs, Lhcy do clcarly parLicipaLc in Lhc grammar o diagrams,
by which spaLial proximiLy or arrangcmcnL may indicaLc rclaLionships oLhcr
Lhan chronological scqucncc.
A numbcr o oLhcr carLoonisLs havc also cxploiLcd Lhc diagrammaLic po-
LcnLial o Lhc comics pagc. CarLoonisLs as dicrcnL as Dan ZcLLwoch and Posy
Simmonds nd iL uscul Lo includc a non-narraLivc, labclcd illusLraLion inLo
an oLhcrwisc scqucnLial scrics o pancls or pagcs.
,
PcLcr Blcgvads playully
1 0 0 I S AAC CAT E S
cxpcrimcnLal Levathan rcqucnLly mixcs scqucnLial imagcs wiLh juxLaposi-
Lions moLivaLcd by lcss chronological conccrns: alLcrnaLivc opLions, graphs
or allcgorical maps, and cvcn in onc casc a sLaLisLical graphic borrowcd rom
TuLcs Te vsua| Lsp|ay oj Quanttatve !njormaton.
8
In Paul Karasik and
David Mazzucchcllis comics adapLaLion o Paul AusLcrs Cty oj C|ass, Lhc
pancls LhaL accompany PcLcr SLillmans monologuc and Lhc oLhcr cxLcndcd
spccchcs arc scqucnLial in Lhc scnsc LhaL Lhcy ollow Lhc ordcr o Lhc LcxL, buL
Lhcir rclaLionship Lo Lhc LcxL and Lo cach oLhcr owcs morc Lo a mcLaphorical
principlc o juxLaposiLion.

In all o Lhcsc cascs, Lhc diagrammaLic poLcnLial

o comics (cvcn i iL is noL acknowlcdgcd in Lhosc Lcrms) allows Lhc picLorial
spacc o Lhc pagc Lo pull away rom sLricL, camcra-likc sLoryLclling, inLo Lhc
picLorial cquivalcnL o synopsis, analysis, or cxplanaLion.
ALcr Warc, Lhc conLcmporary carLoonisL mosL inLcrcsLcd in Lhc pocLics or
poLcnLial o Lhc diagram is probably Kcvin Huizcnga, whosc work had unLil
rcccnLly only appcarcd in anLhologics and scl-publishcd mini-comics. Huiz-
cngas comics, oLcn moLivaLcd by largc and absLracL inLcllccLual qucsLions,
consisLcnLly LrcaL diagrams as onc o many opLions or convcying Lhcsc idcas.
In Lhc rsL issuc o Canges, or cxamplc, Huizcngas cponymous proLagonisL
Clcnn Cangcs conLcmplaLcs Lhc possibiliLy LhaL, givcn inniLc Limc and a -
niLc amounL o maLLcr in Lhc univcrsc, inniLc combinaLionslikc Lhc books
in Borgcss Iibrary o Babclwould cvcnLually bring abouL cvcry possiblc
univcrsc. Whilc Clcnn is losL in Lhcsc LhoughLs, Lhc comics dicgcLic imagcry
disappcars in avor o diagrams, which labcl somc o Lhc pcrmuLaLions o Lhc
many univcrscs wiLh samc sLory, cxccpL in Frcnch, scnLicnL squid, and
univcrsal bliss (scc g. ,.:).
o
In a dicrcnL sLory laLcr in Lhc samc collcc-
Lion, as Clcnn waLchcs his wic slccping, hc imagincs all Lhc pcoplc ovcr Lhc
ccnLurics who havc also lain awakc waLching Lhcir bclovcds, and his LhoughLs
dissolvc inLo a mandala o paircd hcads on pillows, suggcsLing Lhc inniLc
numbcrs o Lhcsc human slccpcrs.

Tc rsL o Lhcsc cxamplcs is dcniLcly

a diagram, Lhc sccond, a carLoon illusLraLion o Clcnns prcoccupaLion. And
ycL Lhcy arc ncarly Lhc samc imagc: circular rcpcLiLion implying inniLc rccur-
sion, diminishingly small uniLs, o which Clcnn himscl is parL o only onc.
ProximiLy in Lhcsc imagcs implics a rclaLionship o comparison, morc Lhan
causaLion, and Lhcir rclaLionship Lo Lhc main world o Huizcngas comic is
nciLhcr cnLircly dicgcLic (Clcnn docsnL liLcrally scc Lhcsc Lhings) nor cnLircly
non-dicgcLic (Lhcy arc illusLraLions o whaL Clcnns inLcrnal monologuc dc-
scribcs). In a comic markcd by graphical simpliciLy, Lhcsc diagram-likc com-
ics arc crucial Lo illuminaLing Huizcngas idcas. ILs diculL Lo imaginc Lhcsc
idcas convcycd visually wiLhouL rccoursc Lo a diagram. Iikc Warcs diagrams,
as TuLc would suggcsL, Lhcy cncodc inormaLion dcnscly, also likc Warcs
diagrams, Lhcy ocr an alLcrnaLivc Lo sLricLly dicgcLic imagcry and iLs limiLcd
cxplanaLory pcrspccLivc.
Chris Warcs diagrams arc, Lhus, morc Lhan mcrcly anoLhcr complicaLion
in a complcx graphic novcl and morc Lhan mcrcly anoLhcr cxcursion inLo Lhc
rcalm o non-dicgcLic cphcmcra. As wc havc sccn, Warc uscs Lhcsc diagrams
Lo conccal and Lo rcvcal inormaLion LhaL alLcrs Lhc cmoLional Lcnor o 1mmy
Corrgan. Formally, by invoking Lhc non-narraLivc aspccLs o Lhc diagram
iLs capaciLy Lo usc juxLaposiLion or non-Lcmporal rclaLionships o mcaning
Warcs diagrams suggcsL ncw possibiliLics o mcLaphor, mcLa-narraLivc, and
Fig. 7.2. Two diagrammatic
visions of innity from
Kevin Huizengas Ganges.
Image courtesy of Kevin
Huizenga. Kevin Huizenga,
Ganges 1 (Seattle: Fanta-
graphics, 2006), n.p.
1 0 2 I S AAC CAT E S
oLhcr morc pocLic dcviccs or Lhc sLill-dcvcloping languagc o comics. ILs a
LcsLamcnL Lo Lhc pliabiliLy o Lhis sLrangc hybrid mcdium LhaL iL can so cas-
ily absorb Lhc Lcchniqucs o oLhcr mcdia (lm, LhcaLcr, painLing, prosc), buL
Lhc closc rclaLionship bcLwccn comics and diagrams is as undamcnLal as Lhc
spccch balloon. Warcs diagrams, nally, hclp Lo rcmind us o Lhis aniLy, Lhc
basic connccLion bcLwccn comics scqucnLial imagcs and Lhc Limc-scrics in a
charL, and Lo dcmonsLraLc Lhc poLcnLial or ormal invcnLion LhaL Lhis an-
iLy implics. Tc diagrams in 1mmy Corrgan, in parLicular, show noL only Lhc
sccrcL inLcrrclaLions o his main characLcrs, buL also Lhc capaciLy o comics aL
oncc Lo conccal and Lo rcvcal, Lo mcan in mulLiplc ways simulLancously.
Notes
I owe several of this essays points (large and small) to conversations with my friend and frequent
collaborator Mike Wenthe, who always deserves my grateful acknowledgment. I am also indebted to
Kevin Huizenga, not only for granting permission to reproduce his work in this collection, but also for
a conversation at the Small Press Expo that sparked my interest in the connection between comics
and diagrams. Two of my former students, Shawn Cheng and Lindsay Nordell, signicantly added to
my understanding of Wares graphic design in essays they wrote when Jimmy Corrigan was hot off the
presses. I would also like to thank the editors of this collection and my co-panelists at the 2007 MLA
Convention, whose clear sight and energy saw the work into publication.
1. Here, I am not using the term diegesis in contrast to mimesis in the Aristotelian sensethat is,
not to invoke a question of telling versus showing. (The visual aspect of a comic is straightforward
mimesis or imitation, in the Aristotelian sense. As Aristotle uses these terms, the only diegetic ele-
ment of a comic would be its narrative captions.) Rather, I mean diegesis in the sense that lm scholars
use the term, as distinct from the non-diegetic elements of a lm: the soundtrack, the subtitles, and so
forth, which are available to the viewer but outside the world of the lm and its characters. Borrow-
ing this terminology from lm studies, the ordinary non-diegetic elements of a comic include labels,
narrative captions, and, to an extent, sound effects or speech balloons (which denote diegetic sounds
but in forms that the characters do not perceive).
2. See Thomas A. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares
Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006) 86990.
3. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), iiiiv. Fur-
ther citations of this text will appear parenthetically in the body of the essay.
4. Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink, 1993),
79.
5. McCloud famously categorizes panel-to-panel transitions into six types, all of which are narra-
tive in nature except for the non-sequitur type. McCloud, Understanding Comics, 7073.
6. This complicated narrative diagram also appears as the back cover of Chris Ware, Quimby the
Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003).
7. See, for example, Ware, Quimby, 10.
8. In this case, the diagram may be more an expression of Wares effort and attention than a
narrative or explanatory device: much of the graphic effort in the image goes to elements (like the
manifold radiating lines) that carry little meaning. This profusion of effort for a few small jokes (for
example, comparing the artists conducting, painting, and theater with Gods rock guitar, advertising,
and pornography) is in keeping with the aesthetic of surplus detail and information that animates The
ACME Report.
9. Thomas A. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares
Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 885.
10. Of course, this is also the section of the book in which a gargantuan Supermanoften, in
Wares comics, a gure for the abandoning or abusive fathercrushes Jimmys house (an imagined
house in which hes tucking in his imaginary son, Billy).
COMI CS AND T HE GR AMMAR OF DI AGR AMS 1 0 3
11. Bredehoft focuses on the diagrams capacity to represent other, non-linear ways of construing
time or narrative. He makes much of the circularity of this diagram, which begins and ends with the
same view through the apartment window, altered by the progress of decades. Bredehoft, Comics
Architecture, 879.
12. Gene Kannenberg Jr., The Comics of Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strate-
gies, in The Language of Comics: Word and Image, ed. Robin Varnum and Christina T. Gibbons (Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2001), 17483. See also Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2004), 1821.
13. See Raeburn, Chris Ware, 2326. Ware reacts to Goethes assertion that architecture is fro-
zen music by writing, This is, I think, the aesthetic key to the development of cartoons as an art
form. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Datebook (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2003), 190.
14. William Corrigan glazes the windows in the Zoopraxographical Hall at the Chicago Worlds
Columbian Exposition for an Englishman (254); though Muybridge isnt mentioned by name, it must
be his exhibit. The magic lantern slides tell a story with projected serial images on 13638, and the
fold-up zoetrope is on 2223.
15. As Bredehoft points out, the structure of the zoetrope prevents it from telling an extended
narrative, or indeed any narrative that escapes the essential circularity of its mechanism. Every set
of zoetrope images must return frequently to its original position and go through the same motions
again. Bredehoft extends this claim, too, suggesting that this device raises the question of how the
particular architecture of comics does and does not constrain comics narratives in terms of time and
sequence. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, 871. In some ways, diagrams raise the same question,
but they also offer alternative answers that can expand the ways a comic describes or construes
time.
16. McCloud, Understanding Comics, 8.
17. For an analysis of Wares use of slowness in his comics, see Georgiana Banitas essay in this
volume.
18. Art Spiegelman, Comix: An Idiosyncratic Historical and Aesthetic Overview, in Art
Spiegelman: Comix, Essays, Graphics, & Scraps: From Maus to Now to Maus to Now (Palermo: Sellerio
EditoreLa Centrale dellArte, 1998), 77.
19. Spiegelman, Dont Get Around Much Anymore: A Guided Tour, in Art Spiegelman, 8.
20. McCloud, Understanding Comics, 49. Unlike words, however, cartoon drawings remain natural
rather than arbitrary symbols. Even McClouds highly abstracted stick-gure face resembles a human
face in important ways; a cartoon drawing of a tree will look like a (perhaps highly generalized) tree,
rather than being an unrelated set of marks (T-R-E-E) or sounds (el arbl).
22. Chris Ware, qtd. in Raeburn, 20.
22. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 20, quoting Spiegelman, Comix, 74. Spiegelman, in turn, attributes this
observation to the cartoonist Wally Wood, though he supplies no source for the anecdote.
23. McCloud, Understanding Comics, 4143. For a thorough dismantling of McClouds theory, see
Jonathan Frome, Identication in Comics, Comics Journal (April 1999): 8286. Frome perceptively
points out, for example, that a at character or a cruel villain, drawn in the same style as an interest-
ing, sympathetic protagonist, would not encourage the same sort of reader identication; Charlie
Brown encourages more identication than a nameless boy with no story context because readers
are led to identify with ctional characters by story and personality, not because of the way theyre
drawn (ibid., 82). The cats in Maus are drawn just as iconically as the mice, but the Nazis are rarely
individualized enough to merit a readers sympathy. Personally, I nd it incredible that McClouds as-
sertions about reader identication have survived in our critical discourse for as long as they have.
24. For a report on the psychology of facial expressions, see Malcolm Gladwell, The Naked
Face, New Yorker, August 5, 2002, 3849.
25. The full-face view of Jamess deceased mother in his keepsake photo (145, 264) is thus all the
more haunting.
26. The distinction between arbitrary and natural signiers hearkens back to the linguistic theory
of Ferdinand de Saussure. According to Saussurian linguistics, ordinary linguistic signs (words) do not
resemble the things they represent; the connection between sign and signied is therefore arbitrary.
1 0 4 I S AAC CAT E S
Even the most iconic drawing of a face or a teacup resembles the object it represents; some stan-
dard comics iconography (like the thought balloon) begins to drift into arbitrary signication, but the
drawings themselves remain natural and not arbitrary signs. Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General
Linguistics, trans. Wade Baskin (New York: McGraw Hill, 1966).
27. Its worth remembering, however, that complex and nuanced effects are also possible in com-
ics that take up a much more particularized, much less iconic drawing style. Eddie Campbells pen-
and-ink cartooning, for example, relies on sketchy, impressionistic renderings of appearance, rather
than static iconic forms.
28. In particular, see Edward Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed. (Cheshire,
CT: Graphics Press, 2001).
29. Edward Tufte, Envisioning Information (Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1990) 82.
30. Tufte, Visual Display, 1078.
31. Raeburn also mentions the vibrational effect of color in this panel. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 71.
32. In Understanding Comics, McCloud also conjures up Muybridges time-series photographs (and
other technologies of the moving image) in a discussion of the ways in which comics depict movement
(10810).
33. Tufte, Visual Display, 36.
34. Edward Tufte, Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative (Cheshire, CT:
Graphics Press, 1997), 61.
35. Several of these appear in Tufte, Visual Explanations, 1059. See also Tufte, Visual Display, 42.
36. Tufte, Visual Display, 48, 49, 103, 129.
37. See, for example, Dan Zettwochs character model-sheet diagrams in Storm of the Hillsmen,
in Kramers Ergot 7 (Oakland, CA: Buenaventura, 2008), 40, or his multiple cutaways and instruc-
tional illustrations of the haunted-house illusion in Cross Fader, in Kramers Ergot 6 (Oakland, CA:
Buenaventura and Avodah Books, 2006), 613. Posy Simmonds illustrates Gemma Boverys fantasy
of a life with her young French lover (and a job as a professional interior designer) with an elaborate
allegorical diagram-cum-frontispiece: Gemma Bovery (New York: Pantheon, 1999), 70.
38. Peter Blegvad, The Book of Leviathan (Woodstock, NY: Overlook, 2000), 2627, 156.
39. Paul Auster, Paul Karasik, and David Mazzucchelli, Paul Austers City of Glass (New York: Avon,
1994), 1523, 2729, 3845, etc.
40. Kevin Huizenga, Ganges 1 (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2006), 3.
41. Ibid., 28. Further impressive diagram-comics happen in Huizengas self-published Gloriana
(Super Monster 14), which was republished as Or Else 2 (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2005).
Plate 1. This map, on the inside cover of the hardbound edition of Jimmy Corrigan, charts transatlantic connections between Irish
immigration and the Middle Passage. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), reverse cover jacket.
Plate 2. Ware appropriates the early superhero style of comics to relate an autobiographical
anecdote from his early childhood. Chris Ware, Thrilling Adventure Stories / I Guess, RAW
2.3 (1991): 81.
Plate 3. Jordan Lint reminisces about his college days. Chris Ware, May 15
th
1989: Jordon Lint to the age of 35, Virginia Quarterly Review
84.4 (2008): 183.
Plate 4. Chris Wares solo exhibition at the Sheldon Art Memorial Gallery in Lincoln, Nebraska. Chris Ware, Exhibition Catalogue, Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, February 16April 29, 2007.
Plate 5. This Gasoline Alley Sunday page by Frank King shows the main characters Walt and Skeezix amid an autumn scene. Chicago Tribune,
December 4, 1927. Reprinted with permission from Sundays with Walt and Skeezix (Sunday Press Books, 2007).
Plate 6. Chris Wares Rusty Brown composition echoes Kings birds-eye view of a father and son walking through the woods on a fall
day. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005),
60.
Plate 7. The opening page of Our History of Art charts the dawn of the aesthetic impulse from cave art through to the Renaissance.
Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005),
Plate 8. The Comix Factory, by Joost Swarte, represents comics as a constructed medium. Image courtesy of Joost Swarte. Joost Swarte,
Read Yourself RAW, ed. Art Spiegelman and Franoise Mouly (New York: Pantheon, 1987), 31.
Plate 9. A two-page diagram reveals Amys otherwise unknowable ancestry. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 357.
Plate 10. Second page of Amys ancestry. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 358.
Plate 11. Residents of an early twentieth-century apartment building are comforted by their dreams in Building Stories. Chris Ware, The
ACME Novelty Library 18 (Chicago: The ACME Novelty Library, 2007), 23.
Plate 12. Residents of the same apartment building, now in the late twentieth century, fantasize about the past in Building Stories. Chris
Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 18 (Chicago: The ACME Novelty Library, 2007), 25.
Plate 13. Now silenced and empty, the building is conspicuously out of step with the rapidly gentrifying neighborhood. Chris Ware,
Building Stories: Epilogue, New York Times Magazine, April 16, 2006, 37.
Plate 14. Jim Crow Magic Lantern slide. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 70.
Plate 15. Amy Corrigans racial imagining. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 293.
Plate 17. Ware exploits moment-to-moment panel transitions in order to create the dilated sense of time that is central to his
ordinariness aesthetic. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 13, New York Times Magazine, December 18, 2005, 35.
Plate 16. Slow motion, subjective time. Exceedingly brief time spans are expanded over multiple panels. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The
Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 5.
Plate 18. The protagonists confession of a life-injury is acknowledged and then transformed by other signicant moments related to her
sexual being and the plumbers familial loss. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 22, New York Times Magazine, February 19, 2006, 43.

Plate 19. Memory as an interaction of text, image, and reading experience. Chris Ware, Paper Dolls [detail], Chicago Reader,
March 21, 2003.

Plate 20. Memory as a comic strip within a comic strip. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 5, New York Times Magazine, October 16, 2006,
31.
The Urban Landscape
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1 0 7
On Modernisms Ruins: The Architecture of
Building Stories and Lost Buildings
DANIEL WORDEN
In the ruins of great buildings the idea of the plan speaks more impressively than in
lesser buildings, however well preserved.
Walter Benjamin, The Origin of German Tragic Drama
In a Lwo-pagc scqucncc o Chris Warcs Building SLorics, archiLccLurc boLh
cvidcnccs and wiLhsLands Lhc passagc o Limc.

BoLh pagcs dcpicL Lhc samc

Chicago aparLmcnL building in palc ycllow morning lighL, onc in Lhc carly, Lhc
oLhcr in Lhc laLc LwcnLicLh ccnLury. On Lhc rsL pagc, Lhc aparLmcnL build-
ing has dccoraLivc molding around iLs roo and curLaincd windows (scc plaLc
). A horsc-drawn wagon carrying milk passcs undcrncaLh Lhc rsL-oor
bcdroom window. Warc narraLcs Lhc sccnc in cursivc lcLLcring: A young boy,
ngcrs idly wandcring bcncaLh his quilL, drcams o Lhc uLurc, and how hc
mighL win Lhc hcarLand Lhc bodyo Lhc girl downsLairs (:). Tc lcL-
Lcring complcmcnLs Lhc conLcnL, cursivc lcnds Lhc narraLivc voicc inLimacy
and scnLimcnLaliLy, as i Lhcsc omniscicnL rcmarks could also bc ound in a
diary, carcully scripLcd by hand. Abovc Lhis LcxL, Lhcrc is a scrics o inscL
circular pancls which dcpicL Lhc boys anLasy romancc, hc bccomcs a piloL,
ics around Lhc world, wriLcs I lovc you in Lhc sky, marrics his downsLairs
ncighbor, Lhcn Lakcs hcr upsLairs Lo his childhood bcdroom, sLill dccoraLcd
wiLh a modcl biplanc hanging rom Lhc cciling by a hook. In Lhc lowcr porLion
o Lhc pagc, Warc ocuscs on Lhc objccL o Lhc boys anLasy: Mcanwhilc, Lhis
samc girl is awakcncd by Lhc josLling o closcly-packcd milk boLLlcs, a gcnLlc
sound shcs lovcd all hcr lic (:). Warc cndows Lhc sccnc wiLh nosLalgia or
Lhis carlicr indusLrial cra, consLiLuLcd by horsc-drawn milk carLs and hcroic
biplanc aviaLion. Tc characLcrs arc comorLcd by Lhcir Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury
urban surroundings and anLasizc abouL Lhc uLurc.
Tc ncxL pagc Lakcs placc in laLc LwcnLicLh-ccnLury Chicago, and Lhc build-
ing has bccn sLrippcd o iLs roo ornamcnL and curLains (scc plaLc :). Warc
again narraLcs his characLcrs anLasics: Tc samc morning, many dccadcs
laLcr: A young woman, hcr mind gonc idlc ovcr Lhc ovcrwhclming rcaliLy o
hcr lonclincss, muscs as Lo Lhc original usc o a hook, worming iLs way ouL
o Lhc cciling dirccLly abovc hcr hcad (:). Tc young woman is Lhc cmalc
proLagonisL o Building SLorics, an cmploycc o a local owcr shop who has
a prosLhcLic lcg. In a scrics o inscL pancls, shc imagincs Lhc hook supporLing
1 0 8 DANI E L WOR DE N
a curLain dividing Lhc bcdroom, a hanging planLcr, a cloLhcslinc, and nally a
Loy spaccship in a boys bcdroom, Lhc closcsL maLch Lo Lhc prcvious imagc o
Lhc boys modcl biplanc. On Lhc sLrccL lcvcl, a bluc Lwo-door car has rcplaccd
Lhc horsc-drawn carriagc, and Lhc girl who livcd on Lhc rsL oor, now an
cldcrly landlady, lics in bcd imagining, in anoLhcr inscL pancl, LhaL Lhc klink-
Link o a boLLlc, smashing on Lhc pavcmcnL bclow is Lhc sound o Lhc prcvi-
ous pancls milkman (:). In Lhc carlicr pagc, anLasy lic grapplcs wiLh Lhc
uLurc, and Lhc prcscnL is comorLing. In Lhc conLcmporary scLLing, howcvcr,
Warcs characLcrs only mcdiLaLc on Lhc pasL. Building SLorics conLrasLs Lhc
possibiliLics cmbcddcd wiLhin archiLccLural spacc in Lhc carly LwcnLicLh ccn-
Lury wiLh Lhc archival anLasics abouL Lhc samc spacc LhaL providc comorL in
laLc LwcnLicLh-ccnLury Amcrica.
Warcs inLcrcsL in archiLccLurc is urLhcr dcvclopcd in Lost Pu|dngs, an
on-sLagc radio & picLurc collaboraLion wiLh NaLional Public Radio hosL Ira
Class.
:
Lost Pu|dngs is abouL Tim Samuclson, Lhc CulLural HisLorian o Lhc
CiLy o Chicago, his mcnLor, Lhc phoLographcr and urban prcscrvaLionisL Rich-
ard Nickcl, and Lhcir lovc o Iouis Sullivans Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury Amcrican
archiLccLurc. Tc work was originally pcrormcd as a slidcshow, combining
Warcs drawings, Ira Classs inLcrvicw wiLh Samuclson, and a musical sound-
Lrack. IL has sincc bccn publishcd as a book and DVD scL.

In Lhis projccL,
Warcs illusLraLcd slidcs mimic boLh comics and archiLccLural sLrucLurclikc
comics Lhcy procccd scqucnLially and occupy a small parL o a largc scrccn,
and likc archiLccLural sLrucLurc Lhcy consLrucL paLLcrns and sLrucLurcs on Lhc
scrccn, manipulaLing and concrcLizing spacc. Warc commcnLs LhaL onc o Lhc
Lhings LhaL drcw him Lo Lhc projccL was iLs cmphasis on Iouis Sullivans carly
modcrnisL archiLccLurc, which sccmcd Lo bc rozcn |je.

As a orm, comics
rcly on dialccLical rclaLionships bcLwccn Lhc ragmcnL and Lhc wholc, cach
pancl is boLh discrccL and bound Lo iLs prcdcccssors and anLcccdcnLs.
Warcs phrasc rozcn lic suggcsLs an analogous ragmcnLaLion, a ncccs-
sary cpisodic momcnL LhaL can bc obscrvcd in and o iLscl, ycL also placcd in
a Lcmporal conLinuum. As I will arguc, Warc manipulaLcs Lhis rclaLionship in
complcx ways LhaL map oLhcr conccpLsLhc rclaLionship o Lhc acsLhcLic Lo
Lhc vcrnacular, mclancholy Lo plcasurc, soliLudc Lo bclonging, and hisLory Lo
Lhc prcscnLonLo Lhc ormal sLrucLurc o comics and Lhc slidcshow. In so
doing, Warcs comics and slidcshow cmphasizc Lhc collccLivc visions, hopcs,
and drcams cmbcddcd in ragmcnLcd cvcryday lic. For Warc, archiLccLurc is
analogous Lo comics. Tis is madc clcar in Te ACMF Nove|ty Latebook, whcrc
Warc quoLcs CocLhcs claim LhaL archiLccLurc is rozcn music and Lhcn adds
his own LhoughL LhaL Lhis is, I Lhink, Lhc acsLhcLic kcy Lo Lhc dcvclopmcnL
o carLoons as an arL orm.

Dccaying and dilapidaLcd archiLccLurc rcsonaLcs

as loss, as cvidcncc o Lhc irrcvcrsiblc passagc o Limc, ycL archiLccLural ruins
cmanaLc pasL grandcur. Warcs comics, Lhcn, ocus on ruins and Lhc mclan-
choly Lhcy cliciL in an aLLcmpL Lo rcndcr Lhc irrcvcrsiblc passagc o Limc inLo
an acsLhcLic objccL. In boLh Building SLorics and Lost Pu|dngs, mclancholy
is rcmadc inLo Lhc imaginaLion o Lhc ruin as wholc Lhrough an cngagcmcnL
wiLh Lhc builL cnvironmcnL.
Chris Warcs works arc oLcn populaLcd wiLh mclancholic, dcspondcnL,
shamcd gurcs, unhappy and ill aL casc wiLh conLcmporary lic. In his rcading
o 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth, Brad Pragcr argucs LhaL Warc
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND L O S T B U I L D I NG S 1 0 9
bclongs Lo Lhc modcrnisL canon, alongsidc gurcs likc WalLcr Bcnjamin, Sig-
mund Frcud, and Franz Kaka, prcciscly bccausc hc is commiLLcd Lo dcpicL-
ing Lhc unhappy armor o cvcryday lic and Lclling Lhc impossiblc sLory o in-
dividual origins in Lhc agc o mcchanical rcproducLion.
6
Douglas Wolk claims
LhaL Warcs xaLion on mclancholy givcs his comics an cmoLional rangc o
onc noLc, in parL bccausc morc Lhan any oLhcr conLcmporary carLoonisL cx-
ccpL pcrhaps RobcrL Crumb, Warc is aL homc in Lhc gallcry-arL world, which
prccrs iLs manicsLaLions o plcasurc-in-looking ironizcdor, aL lcasL, hcld
aL arms lcngLh.
,
Unlikc Pragcr, Wolk is impaLicnL wiLh Warcs ocus on alicn-
aLion and argucs LhaL Lhc alicnaLion prcvalcnL in works likc Building SLorics
cvidcnccs Warcs connccLion Lo Lhc cliLc arL world. Wolks populism, Lhough,
misscs ouL on Lhc vcry possibiliLics o ncgaLivc criLiquc LhaL Pragcr cmpha-
sizcs. Pragcr locaLcs in Warcs work a sLrong Lcndcncy Lo dcmysLiy indusLrial
Amcrica as an arLicial landscapc, void o lcgiLimaLc plcasurcs and raughL
wiLh psychic Lcnsion.
As Lhc abovc cxamplc rom Building SLorics dcmonsLraLcs, onc o Lhc
major ways in which Warc sLagcs Lhis criLiquc is by juxLaposing Lhc pasL wiLh
Lhc prcscnL, bcsL cxcmplicd by his rccurring comparison o Lurn-o-Lhc-
ccnLury Lo conLcmporary Chicago. Tis cmphasis on Lhc pasLs rclaLionship
Lo Lhc prcscnL bcars a sLriking similariLy Lo Bcnjamins Angcl o HisLory, a
gurc arLiculaLcd in his Tcscs on Lhc Philosophy o HisLory Lo allcgorizc
Lhc inabiliLy Lo know Lhc pasL whcn our own posiLion in Lhc prcscnL is con-
sLanLly in ux. Bcnjamin dcscribcs an angcl Lurncd Loward Lhc pasL. Whcrc
wc pcrccivc a chain o cvcnLs, hc sccs onc singlc caLasLrophc which kccps pil-
ing wrcckagc upon wrcckagc and hurls iL in ronL o his ccL. Tc angcl would
likc Lo sLay, awakcn Lhc dcad, and makc wholc whaL has bccn smashcd ycL is
blown orward by Lhc winds o progrcss.
8
Warcs inLcrcsL in nosLalgia, child-
hood plcasurcs, and orgoLLcn arLiacLs uncLions in a similar way. Warcs
dcpicLions o archiLccLurc arc noL curaLorial in naLurc buL, likc Bcnjamins
Angcl o HisLory, sLrivc Lo makc Lhc pasL LoLal. ArchiLccLurc is a vchiclc Lo
convcy boLh Lhc accLivc possibiliLics o cxpcricncing Lhc pasL as a wholc and
Lhc pcrpcLual rusLraLion o Lhc inabiliLy Lo rcconsLrucL modcrniLys ruins
scamlcssly. Warcs ocus on modcrniLys ruins is an aLLcmpL, howcvcr impos-
siblc, Lo inusc cvcryday lic wiLh hisLory.
In boLh Building SLorics and Lost Pu|dngs, archiLccLurcs valuc hingcs
upon iLs sLaLus as boLh ragmcnL and wholc, ruin and complcLc sLrucLurc.
In On Lhc Muscums Ruins, Douglas Crimp argucs LhaL posLmodcrn arL
cmcrgcs rom a criLiquc o whaL WalLcr Bcnjamin Lcrmcd aura, Lhc Lraccs o
originaliLy, crcaLivc gcnius, and Lhc arLisLs prcscncc in a work o arL. Crimp
wriLcs, Trough rcproducLivc Lcchnology posLmodcrnisL arL dispcnscs wiLh
Lhc aura. Tc anLasy o a crcaLing subjccL givcs way Lo Lhc rank consca-
Lion, quoLaLion, cxccrpLaLion, accumulaLion, and rcpcLiLion o alrcady cxisL-
ing imagcs. NoLions o originaliLy, auLhcnLiciLy, and prcscncc, csscnLial Lo Lhc
ordcrcd discoursc o Lhc muscum, arc undcrmincd.

Crimps asscrLion LhaL

posLmodcrnism crcaLcs works o arL LhaL arc bound Lo a culLural ncLwork
raLhcr Lhan Lo auLonomous valuc claboraLcs upon WalLcr Bcnjamins amous
argumcnL, in Tc Work o ArL in Lhc Agc o Mcchanical RcproducLion, LhaL
phoLography and lm changc Lhc Lcrms o arL, rcndcring conccpLs o aura
and auLhcnLiciLy obsolcLc in Lhc acc o rcproducibiliLy.
o
1 1 0 DANI E L WOR DE N
Tis shiL in acsLhcLics rom aura Lo rcproducibiliLy has progrcsscd un-
cvcnly, and Lhis uncvcnncss is cspccially cvidcnL in Lhc ways in which Warcs
work has bccn incorporaLcd inLo muscum discoursc. For cxamplc, Danicl
Racburns monograph ocuscs on Warc as arLisL, wiLh much aLLcnLion paid
Lo original linc drawings, onc-o-a-kind modcls, and arLisLic proccss.

Ccnc
Kanncnbcrg 1r. also claims a kind o acsLhcLic aura or Warcs work whcn
hc wriLcs LhaL Warcs Qumby the Mouse sLrip collccLions rccall sonncL sc-
qucnccs, in LhaL cach pagc is a singlc uniL and Lhc aggrcgaLc wholc is morc
conccrncd wiLh communicaLing mood and ccling Lhan in prcscnLing narra-
Livc.
:
Kanncnbcrgs cmphasis on Warcs arL as a wholc objccL and an cxprcs-
sion o a singular vision ignorcs Lhc vcry condiLions o boLh comics as a mc-
chanically rcproduciblc orm and modcrn arL. Tc abovc-mcnLioncd Lwo-pagc
scqucncc in Building SLorics cmbcds ciLaLion wiLhin iLs vcry sLrucLurc by rc-
producing Lhc samc aparLmcnL building in dicrcnL hisLorical momcnLs. For
Lhc characLcrs in Lhc prcscnL-day narraLivc as wcll as Lhc rcadcr, cnjoymcnL
cmcrgcs rom Lhc imaginaLion, rcpcLiLion, and ciLaLion o Lhc pasL. Warcs
comics, Lhcn, ccrLainly cmploy dcviccs oLcn aLLribuLcd Lo posLmodcrnism.
UlLimaLcly, Lhough, Lhc comics ocus on Lhc impossiblc caL o brcaLhing lic
inLo hisLory mcans LhaL Warc is lcss inLcrcsLcd in criLiquing aura and auLhcn-
LiciLy Lhan in charLing aura as a hisLorical phcnomcnon. IiLcrary criLic 1arcd
Cardncr argucs LhaL Lhc comic orm is idcally suiLcd Lo carrying on Lhc viLal
work Bcnjamin callcd or gcncraLions carlicr: making Lhc prcscnL awarc o
iLs own archivc, Lhc pasL LhaL iL is always in Lhc proccss o bccoming.

As
Warcs Building SLorics dcmonsLraLcs, Lhis archival work cnLails noL jusL
arLisLic producLion buL Lhc vcry Lypcs o borrowing, ciLaLion, and conLcxLu-
alizaLion cmblcmaLic o posLmodcrn arL. Warc laLchcs onLo ncglccLcd and
ruincd arLiacLs rom modcrnism LhaL bring Lo lighL paradoxically novcl ycL
dcrivaLivc acsLhcLic plcasurcs. TaL is, Warcs work is bcsL vicwcd as a caLalog
o modcrnisms ruins, an archivc LhaL illuminaLcs ncglccLcd, losL, and orgoL-
Lcn possibiliLics, as cvidcnL in Lhc hisLorical imaginings in Building SLorics
and Lost Pu|dngs.
Warcs acsLhcLic rclaLionship Lo public spacc rccalls anoLhcr o WalLcr
Bcnjamins subjccLs, Lhc modcrnisL gurc o Lhc neur, an acsLhcLc who
nds cnjoymcnL in wandcring Lhrough and obscrving urban spacc. Warcs
inLcgraLion o a modcrnisL acsLhcLic inLo a posLmodcrn rcashioning o Lra-
diLional arLisLic caLcgorics crcaLcs a spacc or Lhc rcoricnLaLion o arL Loward
cmcrging mcdia and culLural ormaLions. In his discussion o modcrnism and
posLmodcrnism, arL hisLorian T. 1. Clark rcmarks LhaL, in ordcr Lo rcspond
Lo raLhcr Lhan mimic our visual agc, conLcmporary arL musL sLrikc aL Lhc
ounding assumpLion, Lhc Lruc sLrucLurc o drcam-visualizaLion.

As Clark
poinLs ouL, onc o Lhcsc ounding assumpLions is Lhc bclic LhaL rcaliLy iLscl
is now cnLircly composcd o imagcs. Onc o Lhc implicaLions o Lhis bclic
is LhaL Lhc world iLscl is cnLircly consLrucLcd and LhaL in Lhis agc o ncw
mcdia and digiLizaLion, wc arc aL Lhc cnd o hisLory.

AL rsL glancc, comics

sccm Lo bc a parL o Lhis posLmodcrn imagc-world, owing Lo iLs Lwo dominanL
polcs o conLinuiLy-obscsscd supcrhcro maLcrial and indcpcndcnL, arL com-
ics LhaL Lcnd Lo bc auLobiographical in naLurc. Tc comics mcdium, in boLh
cascs, is scl-conLaincd and scl-rccrcnLial. In conLrasL, Warcs graphic nar-
raLivcs challcngc Lhc apparcnL scamlcssncss o Lhc orm by ocusing on Lhc
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND L O S T B U I L D I NG S 1 1 1
acsLhcLics o mclancholy and ragmcnLaLion, cxposing Lhc conLingcncy and
impcrmancncc o modcrn Amcrica. In iLs prcscnL orm, Building SLorics is
iLscl a ragmcnLcd work, publishcd in scrial insLallmcnLs o Te ACMF Nov-
e|ty Lbrary and oLhcr pcriodicals. Warc Lhrivcs on Lhc incomplcLc ycL con-
Linually sLrivcs Loward somc LoLaliLy. In so doing, his work locaLcs rcncwcd
possibiliLics or plcasurc, LhoughL, and work rom wiLhin hisLory raLhcr Lhan
ouLsidc o iL.
Warcs ongoing Building SLorics, cspccially Lhc scgmcnL publishcd in
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8, rcprcscnLs cvcryday lic in Lhc laLc LwcnLicLh
ccnLury as inhcrcnLly and irrcdccmably ragmcnLcd. Whilc Lhc aparLmcnL
building is sadly ignoranL o Lhc rcjuvcnaLing powcrs o rcnovaLion (or cvcn
rcsLoraLion), Lhc cmalc proLagonisL is painully scl-conscious: Proken sim-
ply isnL a sLrong cnough word or whaL somconc can do Lo your hcarL . . . iLs
morc likc annihilaLcd or punchcd ouL . . . buL no word capLurcs Lhc undcni-
ablc, obliLcraLcd cmpLincss LhaL having a brokcn hcarL ccls likc . . . iLs as i I
had a holc in mc LhaL I dcspcraLcly wanLcd Lo ll, Lo Lurn myscl insidc ouL likc
a dirLy shirL Lhrown on Lhc oor, Lo pull myscl backwards Lhrough Lhc slccvc
. . . anythng . . . jusL Lo ll Lhc void (, ). Tc buildings lack o awarcncss
and Lhc proLagonisLs void boLh rcsulL in ruinaLion, and Warcs dcpicLion o
Lhc proLagonisL as onLologically incomplcLc implics LhaL ruinaLion is duc lcss
Lo a lack o mainLcnancc Lhan Lo Lhc mcrc and incviLablc passagc o Limc. Tc
nal Lwo-pagc sprcad in Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8 rcLurns Lo Lhc building,
prcscnLing rsL iLs aadc and Lhcn, on Lhc acing pagc, iLs inLcrior rooms
wiLh Lhc aadc rcmovcd (:). Unlikc Lhc cmalc proLagonisL, Lhc building
is noL consLiLuLcd as a void hcrc buL as a rcposiLory o sccrcLs, dcpLh, and
bclonging. Tc narraLivc voicc asks, who hasnt tred whcn passing a build-
ing, or a homc, aL nighL Lo pccr pasL hal-closcd shadcs and blinds hoping Lo
caLch a glimpsc inLo Lhc privaLc livcs o iLs inhabiLanLs` (). Tis invokcd
curiosiLy is ovcrlaid wiLh Lhc allurc o unspcakablc sccrcLs. Tc building iL-
scl, Lhcn, is poiscd Lo ll Lhc proLagonisLs own void.
Warcs Building SLorics gcsLurcs Lo a possiblc way ouL o mclancholy
Lhrough Lhc sharcd cxpcricncc o living in Lhc builL cnvironmcnL and iLs po-
LcnLial Lo rcndcr Lhc privaLc sphcrc public. NaLhalic op dc Bccck rcmarks LhaL
Warcs Building SLorics [urgcs] an illuminaLcd awarcncss o looking, Lhink-
ing, cxpcricncing, and giving cnhanccd aLLcnLion Lo Lhc objccLs wc producc
and consumc.
6
Tis illuminaLcd awarcncss rcmains painully unrcalizcd
by Lhc proLagonisL in Lhc cxisLing Building SLorics, and Lhc scnsc o mcl-
ancholy, o inLcrnalizcd loss, is liLcralizcd by Lhc cmalc proLagonisLs pros-
LhcLic lcg.
,
Shc rcmains unablc Lo cxpcricncc hcr building as a sLabilizing and
grounding clcmcnL in hcr sccmingly cmpLy lic, ycL Warcs uscs o archiLcc-
Lurc conLain a promisc o a richcr lic. Similarly, Lhc collaboraLivc slidcshow
projccL Lost Pu|dngs makcs clcar LhaL Warcs goal is noL simply Lo dramaLizc
Lhc cmcrgcncc o a morc cngagcd cxpcricncc o cvcryday lic wiLhin Lhc nar-
raLivc ramc, buL also Lo rcalizc LhaL cxpcricncc in Lhc rcadcr or vicwcr. I
Warcs usc o archiLccLurc is mcanL Lo halL Lhc ow o narraLivc Limc, as
Tomas BrcdchoL argucs, Lhcn iL docs so Lo inusc narraLivc wiLh hisLory,
wiLh conLcxL LhaL dcsLroys Lhc narraLivcs auLonomy and orgcs connccLions
Lo Lhc cxpcricncc o Lhc vicwcr.
8
Whilc Building SLorics gcsLurcs Lo an un-
rcalizcd connccLion bcLwccn subjccLs and hisLory, mcdiaLcd by Lhc builL cn-
1 1 2 DANI E L WOR DE N
vironmcnL, Lost Pu|dngs ocrs a casc sLudy o whaL a richcr livcd cxpcricncc
mighL cnLail.
Tis richcr livcd cxpcricncc cmcrgcs, in parL, rom Lhc ormal complcxi-
Lics o Lhc slidcshow. Tc imagcs in Lost Pu|dngs somcLimcs illusLraLc Class
and Samuclsons rcmarks and somcLimcs dcparL rom Lhc audio Lo dcpicL a
scparaLc sccnc. In Lhc slidcshows audio Lrack, Samuclson narraLcs his child-
hood lovc o Iouis Sullivans archiLccLurc, his involvcmcnL wiLh Richard
Nickcls aLLcmpLs Lo prcscrvc Sullivan buildings and dccoraLions, and Nickcls
Lragic dcaLh during a collapsc insidc o Lhc Chicago SLock Fxchangc Buildings
wrcckagc. Nickcls dcaLh parallcls Lhc loss o Sullivans archiLccLurc, boLh Lhc
phoLographcr/urban prcscrvaLionisL and Lhc archiLccLurc hc dicd prcscrving
arc rcprcscnLcd by illusLraLions drawn rom Nickcls phoLographs. Tis Lracc
o Lhc rcal, mcdiaLcd Lhrough Warcs mcLiculous, sLraighL-cdgcd drawings,
rcndcrs Nickcls projccL and Lhc archiLccLurc as boLh rcal and imaginary, ob-
jccLivc and subjccLivc.
In his narraLion, Ira Class discusscs Lhc mclancholic prcdicamcnL o Nick-
cls and Samuclsons lovc o Sullivans oncc undcrapprcciaLcd and now ccl-
cbraLcd archiLccLurc: I you lovc somcLhing Lhc world docsnL puL any valuc
on, yourc prcLLy much scLLing yourscl up or a lic ull o hcarLbrcak. Onc
building aLcr anoLhcr LhaL Tim lovcd, buildings whcrc hc had rooLcd around
wiLh Richard, Lhcyrc all gonc.

Irrccovcrablc loss is a Lhcmc in many highly

acclaimcd graphic novcls, mosL noLably Alison Bcchdcls Fun Home, Marjanc
SaLrapis Persepo|s, and ArL Spicgclmans Maus. As Hillary ChuLc argucs, com-
ics lcnd Lhcmsclvcs Lo Lhc LrcaLmcnL o Lrauma, loss, and mclancholy bccausc
Lhcy Lcnd Lo rcusc Lo show [Lrauma] Lhrough Lhc lcns o unspcakabiliLy or
invisibiliLy, insLcad rcgisLcring iLs diculLy Lhrough invcnLivc (and various)
LcxLual pracLicc.
:o
Comics aim Lo work Lhrough LraumaLic loss, and Lost Pu|d-
ngs docs Lhis by bringing Lhc vcry losL buildings rccrrcd Lo in iLs LiLlc back
inLo Lcmporary cxisLcncc. During Lhc slidcshow, which was rsL shown dur-
ing livc pcrormanccs o Lhc Ts Amercan Lje radio show in largc LhcaLcrs,
Lhc audicncc cxpcricnccs Lhc prcscncc o buildings now abscnL rom conLcm-
porary Chicago. Tc DVDs opcning scqucncc makcs a poinL o Lhis original
conLcxL. On a black scrccn, simplc whiLc lcLLcrs rcad: Tis was dcsigncd as a
slidcshow, noL a movic. / IL was originally prcscnLcd on a darkcncd sLagc. Tc
audio porLion was rcad and mixcd wiLh music and quoLcs, livc, in dim lighL,
downsLagc lcL. Tc slidcs wcrc advanccd manually. / PicLurcs o buildings
wcrc Lall as buildings. Fvcn Lhc smallcsL imagcs wcrc prcLLy bigLhrcc ccL
high. TaLs onc mcLcr, i yourc waLching Lhis in Furopc. / Tcrc arc sccLions
whcrc Lhc scrccn gocs black. During Lhosc sccLions, Lhc audicncc waLchcd
Lhc audio bc mixcd, in Lhc low lighL.
:
As Lhc narraLor and mixcr, Ira Class,
along wiLh Lhc slidc projccLionisL, lcnds a scnsc o immcdiacy and prcscncc
Lo Lhc slidcshow. IL is noLablc hcrc LhaL Lhc Lcchnologics uscdaudio mix-
ing and slidc projccLiondo noL nccd Lo bc opcraLcd in pcrson. As on Lhc
DVD, Lhcy can casily bc rccordcd and playcd in sync wiLhouL on-sLagc mixing.
Tc insisLcncc on Lhc slidcshows original conLcxL on Lhc DVD as wcll as Lhc
choicc Lo pcrorm Lhc voiccovcr narraLion livc poinLs Lo Lost Pu|dngs uLo-
pian promisc: hisLory can bc incorporaLcd inLo livcd cxpcricncc. Tis prom-
isc, Lhough, can ncvcr bc ully rcalizcd. Tc DVD will ncvcr Lruly rcplicaLc Lhc
cxpcricncc o Lhc livc slidcshow, jusL as Lhc imagc o a building projccLcd on a
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND L O S T B U I L D I NG S 1 1 3
gianL scrccn can ncvcr maLch Lhc cxpcricncc o walking around and Lhrough
Lhc building iLscl. As cxpcricnccd on DVD, Lhc slidcshow calls aLLcnLion Lo
iLscl as a ruin o an carlicr pcrormancc, subjccL Lo Lhc samc crosion o prcs-
cncc and cxpcricncc as Sullivans archiLccLurc.
Lost Pu|dngs is, o coursc, a dcparLurc rom Warcs Lypical mcdium o
choicc. Tc slidcshow ocrs possibiliLics LhaL arc, signicanLly, amplica-
Lions o Lhc inLimacy, hisLory, and rcadcrly parLicipaLion cnLailcd in Lhc com-
ics orm. In Lhc laLc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, as curaLor Darsic Alcxandcr argucs,
Lhc slidcshow bccamc a way or arLisLs such as Nan Coldin and 1ack SmiLh Lo
sLrucLurc Lhcir works around issucs o subjccLiviLy LhaL oLcn involvcd cmo-
Lional, psychological, or social dilcmmas.
::
Slidc projccLion carrics wiLh iL
associaLions o amily and communiLy bclonging, such as Lhc vacaLion slidc-
show shown by a amily Lo ricnds and rclaLivcs. Lost Pu|dngs rcdirccLs Lhcsc
inLimaLc and nosLalgic connoLaLions Lo Lhc builL cnvironmcnL. InsLcad o ccl-
ing accLion or, and warm rccollccLions o, vacaLions and amily bclonging,
Lhc audicncc cngagcs wiLh archiLccLurc as a scnLimcnLal objccL. FurLhcrmorc,
Lhc Lcchnology o slidc projccLion sccms obsolcLc in Lhc LwcnLy-rsL ccnLury,
adding Lo Lhc nosLalgia o Lhc projccL. By using Lhis oldcr orm, and cvcn
morc so by insisLing on iLs prioriLy cvcn in Lhc digiLal rccording o Lhc analog
slidcshow, Lost Pu|dngs makcs Lhc obsolcLc proximaLc and rcanimaLcs Lhc
ruin.
In Lost Pu|dngs, Warc manipulaLcs Lhc scrccn in a similar ashion Lo Lhc
way hc sLrucLurcs a comics pagc.
:
As Warc sLaLcs on Lhc DVDs commcnLary
Lrack, hc uscd corncrs o Lhc scrccn Lo sLand or ccrLain parLs o Lhc sLory
[. . .] visually, I could puL Lhosc similar parLs o Lhc sLory in Lhc samc parL
o Lhc scrccn so LhaL Lhcrc could bc somc sorL o visual connccLion.
:
Tc
slidcshow iLscl, as a mcdium, ocrs a parallcl Lo comics in LhaL Warc has a
scL ramc, likc a blank pagc or cvcn a pagc wiLh a morc convcnLional grid o
pancls. Warc also rcmarks on Lhc DVD commcnLary Lrack LhaL Lhc slidcshow
imagcs wcrc rusLraLing bccausc Lhcy would noL bc prcscrvcd in prinL: Somc
o Lhcsc drawings, cspccially Lhc largcr oncs, would only bc up on scrccn or
a couplc o scconds or so. And Ivc ncvcr had LhaL ccling bcorc, Lhinking,
oh, Im spcnding all o Lhis Limc on a drawing, and iLs jusL going Lo cnd up
vanishing aLcr a sccond and a hal.
:
Tc quickly vanishing imagcs paral-
lcl Lhc losL buildings Lhcmsclvcs, cvoking boLh immcdiaLc cxpcricncc and
iLs cphcmcraliLy. Tc slidcshows pacing is analogous Lo Lhc LcmporaliLy o
comics Lhcmsclvcs, which, according Lo ArL Spicgclman, arc a paradc o pasL
momcnLs always prcscnLing a prcscnL LhaL is pasL.
:6
Lost Pu|dngs, Lhcn, cx-
pands upon a ormal characLcrisLic o comics by rcndcring Lhc imagc in Limc
as wcll as spacc.
Iouis Sullivan himscl dcscribcd his work as acsLhcLic bccausc o iLs rooLs
in childhood cxpcricncc. In his 8: cssay OrnamcnL in ArchiLccLurc, Sul-
livan rcmarks LhaL in ordcr Lo cngagc in arLisLic work, Lo crcaLc organic orms,
onc musL Lurn again Lo NaLurc, and hcarkcning Lo hcr mclodious voicc, lcarn,
as childrcn lcarn, Lhc acccnL o iLs rhyLhmic cadcnccs.
:,
Lost Pu|dngs also
links organic orm Lo childhood, using nosLalgia and youLhul whimsy Lo dra-
maLizc a scnLimcnLal connccLion Lo archiLccLurc. Tc slidcshow bcgins wiLh
Tim Samuclsons rccollccLion o daydrcaming in his clcmcnLary school class-
room. As Lhc Lcachcr wriLcs on Lhc chalkboard, Samuclson imagincs whaL
1 1 4 DANI E L WOR DE N
Lhc room musL havc lookcd likc carlicr in Lhc ccnLury, whcn Lhc woodwork
was sLill [prisLinc], insLcad o bcing rcally dark brown wiLh all o Lhis accu-
mulaLcd shcllac LhaL had Lurncd color ovcr Lhc ycars, whcn iL was a bcauLiul
goldcn oak color and Lhc brown wainscoLing and Lhc lighL xLurcs wiLh big
glass globcs hanging rom Lhc cciling.
:8
Warcs slidcs rsL dcpicL Lhc young
Samuclson, slouchcd aL his dcsk, in small pancls on Lhc boLLom righL o Lhc
scrccn, and Lhcn show an cnlargcd drawing o Lhc classroom, wiLh inscL pan-
cls rcprcscnLing Samuclsons imagincd original wood, moldings, and lighLing.
Samuclson Lhcn mcnLions LhaL his childhood daydrcam cvcn cxLcndcd Lo Lhc
wall clock, rcmarking LhaL hc wanLcd Lo gcL rid o Lhc clccLric clocks and puL
Lhc wind-up school clocks [back up. . . . I likcd] Lhc wholc idca o having a
clock LhaL you could wind and hcar Lhc passagc o Limc go Lick Lock, Lick Lock,
Lick Lock.
:
WiLh Lhis sLaLcmcnL, Warc prcscnLs a scrics o slidcs in Lhc samc
pancl on Lhc scrccn, dcpicLing a clock bcing wound and Licking, which slowly
appcars and rcappcars in a dcsccnding diagonal down Lhc scrccn. For Samu-
clson, as or Warc, hisLory is prcscnL Lhrough objccLs, and Lhc passagc o Limc
cnLails a rcgrcLul dcclinc in Lhc valuc ascribcd Lo Lhosc objccLs. Comics and
Lhc slidcshow allow or Lhcir rcanimaLion.
Warcs slidcshow urLhcr cmphasizcs Samuclsons drcamlikc approach Lo
archiLccLurc whcn young Samuclson gocs Lo scc a Mr. Magoo lm in Sulli-
vans Carrick TcaLrc, jusL prior Lo iLs dcmoliLion. In Lhis scqucncc, Lhc slidc-
show dcparLs rom Lhc audio Lrack. Warcs cursivc scripL narraLcs Tim Samu-
clsons LhoughLs: I rcmcmbcr Lhc rsL Limc I goL Lo scc Lhc TcaLrc. / I Lold
my moLhcr I wanLcd Lo scc a movic showing Lhcrc . . . / . . . somc dumb kids
carLoon . . . / . . . buL whaL I rea||y wanLcd Lo scc was Lhc building. / I spcnL
Lhc wholc Limc looking up aL Lhc archcs, aL Lhc ornamcnL, / illuminaLcd by
Lhc ickcring lighL o Lhc lm. / IL was wondcrul.
o
As Lhcsc cursivc words
appcar on Lhc scrccn, connoLing Lhc samc inLimacy as Lhcy do in Building
SLorics, pancls dcpicL Lhc young Samuclson going Lo and cvcnLually siLLing in
Lhc LhcaLcr. Tc slidcshow Lhcn illuminaLcs sccLions o Lhc Carrick TcaLrcs
dccoraLivc cciling, whilc undcrncaLh Lhcsc imagcs is a lowcr Licr o pancls
LhaL shows Lhc young Samuclson walking along a busy ciLy sLrccL, looking
up aL Lhc buildings. Tc oLhcr pcdcsLrians arc in black ouLlinc, and Samucl-
son is in ull color. Samuclson is clcarly privilcgcd in Lhcsc illusLraLions as an
isolaLcd individual who is ablc Lo makc Lhc quoLidian cxpcricnccs o siLLing
in a movic LhcaLcr and walking down a ciLy sLrccL inLo momcnLs o acsLhcLic
plcasurc.
Tc disjuncLurc and soliLudc cmphasizcd LhroughouL Lhc LhcaLcr scqucncc
by Lhc boLLom pancls ollows noL only rom Samuclsons and Warcs idca o
mclancholic acsLhcLicism buL also rom Sullivans own social vision. As archi-
LccLural hisLorian William 1ordy rcmarks, Sullivan LhoughL in boLh hypcr-
individualisL and collccLivisL Lcrms, wiLh no middlc connccLions bcLwccn Lhc
Lwo: [Sullivans] Lhinking jumpcd rom an idcalizaLion o Lhc crcaLivc scl Lo
an idcalizcd absLracLion o socicLy. Tc void in Sullivans rcasoning rcccLcd
boLh his pcrsonal soliLudc and a pcrsisLcnL lack in Amcrican culLurc. Tcrc
was no scnsc o communiLy in bcLwccn [. . .] ornamcnLaLion on Lhc onc hand
(Lhc mark o Lhc individual gcnius), Lhc cccL o Lhc wholc on Lhc oLhcr (Lhc
sign o collccLivc aaLus), somcLhing missing in bcLwccn.

Lost Pu|dngs,
Lhough, ocrs a rcsoluLion Lo Lhis dichoLomy. By involving Lhc audicncc in
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND L O S T B U I L D I NG S 1 1 5
Lhc apprcciaLion o ruincd archiLccLurc, Lhc building iLscl bccomcs an acL o
imaginaLion and conLcmplaLion. Whilc occupanLs o an acLual Sullivan build-
ing mighL Lakc iL or granLcd in Lhc rush o Lhcir cvcryday livcs, Lhosc who
ncvcr occupicd onc buL imaginc whaL onc would bc likc bridgc Lhc gap bc-
Lwccn individual auLonomy and collccLivc bclonging. TogcLhcr, Lhrough Lhc
LhcaLrical prcscnLaLion o Lhc slidcshow, Lhc audicncc cxpcricnccs LhaL which
cannoL bc cxpcricnccd in soliLudc buL only as a mcmbcr o a crowd: archiLcc-
Lurc in public spacc. Tc aLLcmpL Lo producc social bclonging Lhrough cngagc-
mcnL wiLh acsLhcLic objccLs is a crucial componcnL o Warcs work, and onc
LhaL adds warmLh Lo whaL mighL oLhcrwisc sccm Lo bc a cold, prccisc drawing
sLylc LhaL privilcgcs orm ovcr cmoLion.
Warc rcarLiculaLcs Samuclsons lovc o Sullivans archiLccLurc in Lhc slidc-
shows sLrucLurc. AL onc poinL, whcn Samuclson, as a young boy, makcs his
way inLo Iudwig Mics van dcr Rohcs occ Lo bcg him noL Lo rcplacc Sullivans
Fcdcral Building, Warcs slidcshow mimics a carLoon lm. Tis shiL, rom
largcly individual slidcs ollowing Lhc narraLion and a mcllow, conLcmplaLivc
soundLrack, Lo a jazzy lm narraLivc ironically dramaLizcs Warcs own scnsc
LhaL comics should bc disLincL rom lm, jusL as Iouis Sullivans organic, dc-
Lailcd buildings arc disLincL rom Mics van dcr Rohcs ormalisL sLylc. Sulli-
vans buildings connoLc warmLh, inLimacy, and dcpLh, whilc Mics van dcr Ro-
hcs buildings sccm by conLrasL cold, disLanL, and shallow. To dramaLizc Lhis
acsLhcLic dicrcncc, Lhc slidcshow slips inLo Lhc lcss-Lhan-scrious modc o a
Mr. Magoo carLoon, rccrcncing Lhc carlicr momcnL in Lhc slidcshow whcn
Samuclson prccrs Lo look aL Lhc ornaLc cciling o Sullivans Carrick TcaLrc
Lhan waLch Lhc dumb kids carLoon projccLcd on Lhc scrccn.
:
As Chip Kidd
rcporLs, Angcrcd by Lhc noLion LhaL comics arc closcly rclaLcd Lo lm, Warc
argucs LhaL lm is a passivc mcdium rcquiring primarily rom iLs audicncc
Lhc abiliLy Lo siL and sLarc. Comics aL Lhcir bcsL cngagc Lhc vicwcr in a dicr-
cnL manncr, allowing rcadcrs Lo hclp conLrol Lhc pacing ciLhcr by Laking in a
pagc aL oncc, or by rcading pancl by pancl.

Warcs manipulaLion o Lhc slidc-

shows pacing sccms Lo bc anoLhcr cxprcssion o Lhis rcsisLancc Lo rcadcrly
passiviLy. By cmbcdding wiLhin Lhc slidcshow a lmic scqucncc, Warc sLrivcs
Lo dicrcnLiaLc Lhc slidcshow rom lm. Tc Mics van dcr Rohc scqucncc,
wiLh iLs ormal dcparLurc and upbcaL soundLrack, opposcs Lhc morc scrious
discussion o Sullivans archiLccLurc. Tis porLion o Lhc slidcshow poinLs Lo a
radical brcak bcLwccn Lhc ornaLc carly modcrnism o Sullivan and Lhc insLi-
LuLional, ormalisL modcrnism o Mics van dcr Rohc. FurLhcrmorc, Mics van
dcr Rohcs archiLccLurc is casL as a sLylc LhaL pcrmcaLcs cvcry accL o modcrn
lic, cspccially wiLh Lhc slidc LhaL noLcs: Ironically, Tim now |ves in a Mics
van dcr Rohc building.

In Lhc lmic scqucncc, young Samuclson is givcn a hcaring wiLh Mics van
dcr Rohc, who, wiLh his iconic cycglasscs, is drawn as Mr. Magoo, making
liLcral his supposcd inabiliLy Lo scc Lhc bcauLy o Lhc Sullivan building hc was
prcparing Lo rcplacc. ALcr plcading or Lhc Sullivan building, Samuclson, in
a pcrormcd Ccrman acccnL, vcnLriloquizcs Mics van dcr Rohcs rcsponsc:
Somcday I hopc you look aL Lhc ncw building and scc many o Lhc qualiLics
you admircd in Lhc old.

InsLcad, Samuclson privilcgcs vanishcd LraiLs ovcr

ncw sLrucLurcs. As Ira Class commcnLs during Lhc slidcshow, Whcncvcr Tim
walks in Chicago, hc sccs noL jusL Lhc buildings LhaL arc Lhcrc, hc sccs Lhc
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND L O S T B U I L D I NG S 1 1 7
buildings LhaL uscd Lo bc Lhcrc. Tc wholc skylinc is haunLcd or him. Samu-
clsons haunLcd ciLy also illuminaLcs a morc complcx acsLhcLic sLaLcmcnL
abouL Lhc ncccssiLy Lo vicw Lhc builL cnvironmcnL as a hisLorical cnLiLy. Paral-
lcling Lhc dialccLical rclaLion in comics bcLwccn Lhc ragmcnL and Lhc wholc,
Lhc pancl and Lhc pagc, Lhc pagc and Lhc LcxL, Lost Pu|dngs sLagcs a dialccLi-
cal rclaLionship bcLwccn livcd cxpcricncc and hisLory, individualiLy and Lhc
builL cnvironmcnL.
Lost Pu|dngs builds an cvcn morc subLlc associaLion bcLwccn archiLcc-
Lurc and comics in iLs usc o inscLs. In onc slidc, aLcr Samuclson discusscs
Nickcls dcaLh, wc scc a largc drawing o Lhc Fcdcral Building LhaL rcplaccd
Sullivans Chicago SLock Fxchangc Building. Warc illusLraLcs Lhc building, likc
many o Lhc oLhcr largc slidcs o archiLccLurc, hcad-on, cxhibiLing Lhc homog-
cnous pancls o windows so cmblcmaLic o boLh Lhc modcrn skyscrapcr and
Lhc convcnLional comics grid. Tcsc rcgimcnLcd pancls, howcvcr, arc brokcn
up by an inscL pancl, a circlc which aL oLhcr momcnLs in Lhc slidcshow is a
wrccking ball and a kind o pccpholc inLo childhood. Tis circular inscL ca-
Lurcs, rsL, rubblc, Lhcn a piccc o sLair sLringcr, and, nally, a hardhaL aLop
a Lablc. Tcsc imagcs arc rcpcaLcd rom an carlicr momcnL in Lhc slidcshow
abouL Richard Nickcls dcaLh. Tc inscL circlc, Lhcn, inLcrrupLs Lhc modcrn
buildings homogcnous sLrucLurc and scrvcs as a spacc or mcmory and rc-
mcmbrancc, whilc also playing wiLh Lhc convcnLional comics grid. HaunLcd
by Lhc ncw building, Samuclson looks orward Lo Lhc day whcn iL Loo will bc
dcmolishcd Lo makc way or somcLhing dicrcnL.
I Mics van dcr Rohcs archiLccLurc is impcrsonal, Lhcn Sullivans buildings
arc rcmarkablc bccausc o Lhcir abiliLy Lo producc cclings o warmLh and
inLimacy. Tc ornamcnLaLion o Sullivans buildings is ccnLral Lo Samuclsons
cclings abouL Lhcm. ArchiLccLural criLic Mark Wiglcy argucs LhaL Sullivans
noLion o organic orm rclics on Lhc inLcrLwining o ornamcnL and sLrucLurc:
Sullivans call or a rcmoval o ornamcnL is noL a call or Lhc cradicaLion o or-
namcnL. On Lhc conLrary, iL is an aLLcmpL Lo raLionalizc Lhc building prcciscly
Lo bcLLcr cloLhc iL wiLh ornamcnLaLion LhaL is morc appropriaLc and morc
carcully produccd [. . .] dcspiLc Lhc ashion Lo considcr ornamcnL as somc-
Lhing LhaL can bc ciLhcr addcd or rcmovcd rom a building, ornamcnL can
ncvcr bc simply scparaLcd rom Lhc sLrucLurc iL cloLhcs.
6
OrnamcnL, Lhcn, is
noL an addiLivc Lo Sullivans buildings buL an inLcgral parL o Lhc archiLccLurc.
Lost Pu|dngs mourns Lhc loss o Lhcsc LoLal sLrucLurcs, dcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL
Lhcrc arc a numbcr o Sullivan buildings LhaL havc bccn prcscrvcd in Chicago.
Tc ruinaLion o Sullivans buildings, Lhough, providcs an occasion or a morc
inLcnsc apprcciaLion o ornamcnL noL in and o iLscl buL as a synccdochc
or Lhcsc largcr ycL losL sLrucLurcs. Nickcls phoLographs and Warcs drawings
documcnL Lhc crosion o Lhc connccLion bcLwccn ornamcnL and sLrucLurc,
and Lhcy dcmand LhaL Lhc vicwcr imaginc Lhc wholc rom Lhc ragmcnL. Onc
o Warcs largc building imagcs dcpicLs Lhc dcmoliLion o Sullivans RoLh-
schild Building (scc g. 8.). In LhaL imagc, wc scc a cranc lowcring a casL-iron
pancl. DccoraLivc ragmcnLs such as Lhis arc picLurcd LhroughouL Lhc slidc-
show, Lhcy arc kcy Lo Sullivans acsLhcLic and arc oLcn Lhc only surviving
arLiacLs o Sullivans buildings. Tcsc ragmcnLs cmanaLc Lhc largcr archi-
LccLural orms Lo which Lhcy oncc bclongcd, and Lhc slidcshowa usion o
Warcs largc, projccLcd imagcs and Classs inLcrprcLaLion o Samuclsons acs-
Fig. 8.1. A crane lowers a
cast-iron panel from the
ruins of Louis Sullivans
Rothschild Building in Lost
Buildings. Lost Buildings,
produced and performed
by Ira Glass, Tim Samu-
elson, and Chris Ware,
DVD, This American Life,
WBEZ Chicago, 2004.
1 1 8 DANI E L WOR DE N
LhcLic inLo a sympaLhcLic, whimsical, and admirablc worldvicwasks Lhc au-
dicncc Lo imaginc Lhc builL cnvironmcnL as hisLorical and Lhc ruin as a wholc.
Tcsc Lwo proccsscs rcly on onc anoLhcr. Trough imagining hisLory lcss as
a caLalog o arLiacLs or rclics buL as a livcd cxpcricncc, a rich social abric,
onc rcconsLiLuLcs ruins as LoLal objccLs. Tis rcvival o Lhc ruin as a wholc
objccL is lcss a proccss o acsLhcLic isolaLion Lhan conLcxLualizaLion. Tc ruin
is rcndcrcd wholc by imagining iL in rclaLion Lo and amidsL hisLorical lic. Iikc
Lhc impossiblc archival mission o Bcnjamins Angcl o HisLory, Lhough, wc
can ncvcr ully rcconsLiLuLc Lhc wholc rom Lhc ruin. Lost Pu|dngs cmbraccs
a ncccssarily incomplcLc ycL ncvcr-cnding dcsirc Lo cxpcricncc Lhc pasL rom
Lhc unsLablc vanLagc poinL o Lhc prcscnL.
In Paris, CapiLal o Lhc NincLccnLh CcnLury, Bcnjamin rcmarks LhaL onc
o Lhc ways in which wc imaginc possiblc uLurcs is Lhrough rccognizing Lhc
incviLablc ruinaLion o Lhc prcscnL. His bclovcd Parisian Arcadcs, hc wriLcs,
allow us Lo bcgin Lo rccognizc Lhc monumcnLs o Lhc bourgcoisic as ruins
cvcn bcorc Lhcy havc crumblcd.
,
Tc nal slidc o Lost Pu|dngs dcpicLs Lhc
sLark, sLccl and glass occ building on Lhc siLc o Sullivans Chicago SLock
Fxchangc in ruins, wiLh a wrccking ball in Lhc midsL o iLs brokcn middlc. In
LhaL wrccking balls black inLcrior, Warc wriLcs Tc Fnd, gcsLuring Lo Lhc
incviLablc ruinaLion o Lhc prcscnL. Tinking o Lhcsc modcrn buildings as
also in ruins poinLs Lo Lhc ways in which Lhc qualiLics o our own livcs, our
livcd cxpcricnccswhich or Warc arc saLuraLcd wiLh mclancholy, unulllcd
longing, and isolaLionarc Lhcmsclvcs consLrucLcd and hisLorical. Onc o
Lhc problcms prcscnLcd by our conLcmporary momcnL is, as Frcdric 1amcson
rcmarks, onc o rcprcscnLaLion, also onc o rcprcscnLabiliLy: wc know LhaL
wc arc caughL wiLhin Lhcsc morc complcx global ncLworks, bccausc wc palpa-
bly sucr Lhc prolongaLions o corporaLc spacc cvcrywhcrc in our daily livcs.
YcL wc havc no way o Lhinking abouL Lhcm, o modcling Lhcm, howcvcr ab-
sLracLly, in our minds cyc.
8
WhaL Chris Warcs work on and abouL archiLcc-
Lurc shows us is LhaL Lhis modcling o Lhc prcscnL can only occur in rclaLion
Lo Lhc pasL. By imagining Lhc pasL and asking us Lo cxpcricncc iL in our daily
livcs, Warcs work conLains a uLopian wish LhaL imagcs and hisLory can cnrich
cvcryday lic. Chris Warcs work documcnLs Lhc mclancholy rcalizaLion LhaL
ruin is incviLablc, ycL nds in Lhosc ruins a rcncwcd possibiliLy or acsLhcLic
cxpcricncc.
Notes
1. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 18 (Chicago: The ACME Novelty Library, 2007), 23, 25.
All further references to this text will be indicated in parentheses.
2. Lost Buildings, prod. and perf. Ira Glass, Tim Samuelson, and Chris Ware. DVD and book. WBEZ
Chicago, 2004.
3. I saw Lost Buildings performed live as part of This American Lifes Lost in America tour in
Boston, May 2003. According to the DVD booklet, the slideshow was originally commissioned by
UCLA Lives spoken word series at Royce Hall in Los Angeles and was performed at a handful of
venues in 2003 and 2004. The Lost Buildings DVD was published by This American Life, the Chicago
Public Radio show hosted by Ira Glass, and it is available through This American Lifes Web site: http://
www.thisamericanlife.org. Ira Glass and Chris Ware have more recently collaborated on animated
segments for the This American Life television program on Showtime.
4. Chris Ware, Introduction, Lost Buildings, n.p.
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND L O S T B U I L D I NG S 1 1 9
5. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Datebook (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2003), 190.
6. Brad Prager, Modernism and the Contemporary Graphic Novel: Chris Ware and the Age of
Mechanical Reproduction, International Journal of Comic Art 5.1 (2003): 21112.
7. Douglas Wolk, Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean (Cambridge, MA:
Da Capo, 2007), 347, 351. For an analysis of Wares ambivalence about his place in the art world, see
Katherine Roeders essay in this volume.
8. Walter Benjamin, Theses on the Philosophy of History, in Illuminations: Essays and Reections,
ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969), 25758.
9. Douglas Crimp, On the Museums Ruins, October 13 (1980): 56.
10. Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, in his Illuminations,
22022.
11. Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 4453.
12. Gene Kannenberg Jr., The Comics of Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strate-
gies, in The Language of Comics: Word and Image, ed. Robin Varnum and Christina Gibbons (Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2001), 178.
13. Jared Gardner, Archives, Collectors, and the New Media Work of Comics, Modern Fiction
Studies 52 (2006): 803.
14. T. J. Clark, Modernism, Postmodernism, and Steam, October 100 (2002): 173.
15. For the end of history thesis, see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man
(New York: Avon, 1992).
16. Nathalie op de Beeck, Found Objects (Jem Cohen, Ben Katchor, Walter Benjamin), Modern
Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 827.
17. For a further analysis of the narrators disability in Building Stories, see Margaret Fink Ber-
mans essay in this volume.
18. Thomas Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares Jimmy
Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 885.
19. Unless otherwise noted, all quotations from Lost Buildings are from text on screen during the
slideshow or its accompanying audio track. The Lost Buildings DVD contains both a Quicktime version
of the slideshow, which more accurately reects the size of the screen during live performances, and
a movie version tailored to t a television screen.
20. Hillary Chute, Comics as Literature? Reading Graphic Narrative, PMLA 123 (2008): 459.
21. Lost Buildings.
22. Darsie Alexander, Slideshow, in Slideshow: Projected Images in Contemporary Art, ed. Darsie
Alexander (University Park: Baltimore Museum of Art/Pennsylvania State University Press, 2005),
27.
23. The way that Ware uses the screen in Lost Buildings seems analogous to Thierry Groensteens
concept of arthology, which describes the relations in comics between each individual panel and
the works structure as a whole. See Thierry Groensteen, The System of Comics, trans. Bart Beaty and
Nick Nguyen (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007), 10358.
24. Lost Buildings DVD Commentary.
25. Ibid.
26. Art Spiegelman, An Afterword, in his Breakdowns: Portrait of the Artist as a Young %@&*!
(New York: Pantheon, 2008), n.p.
27. Louis Sullivan, Ornament in Architecture (1892), in Louis Sullivan: The Public Papers, ed. Rob-
ert Twombly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 84.
28. Lost Buildings.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. William Jordy, The Tall Buildings, in Louis Sullivan: The Function of Ornament, ed. Wim de Wit
(New York: Chicago Historical Society/Saint Louis Art Museum/Norton, 1986), 149.
32. Lost Buildings.
33. Chip Kidd, Please Dont Hate Him, Print 51.3 (1997): 46, 49.
34. Lost Buildings.
35. Ibid.
1 2 0 DANI E L WOR DE N
36. Mark Wigley, White Walls, Designer Dresses: The Fashioning of Modern Architecture (Cambridge,
MA: MIT, 1995), 6263.
37. Walter Benjamin, Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century, in Reections: Essays, Aphorisms,
Autobiographical Writings, ed. Peter Demetz, trans. Edmund Jephcott (New York: Schocken, 1978),
162.
38. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism; or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke Univer-
sity Press, 1991), 127.
1 2 1
Chris Wares Building Stories,
Gentrication, and the Lives of/in Houses
MATT GODBEY
In parL o Chris Warcs scrializcd comic sLrip, Building SLorics, rcadcrs
arc inLroduccd Lo a Lhrcc-sLory row housc in Chicagos HumboldL Park. Warc
rcprcscnLs Lhc building as a characLcr LhaL sLrugglcs Lo inLcrprcL Lhc moLivcs
o a woman who, ncwspapcr in hand, sLudics iL rom across Lhc sLrccL (scc
g. .). AlLhough wc canL scc Lhc woman dirccLly (only hcr Lorso and lcgs
arc rcccLcd in onc o Lhc buildings windows), and dcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL wc
donL know why shcs scruLinizing Lhc building, Lhc mcrc acL o hcr prcscncc
scnds Lhc building spiraling Lhrough a wclLcr o cmoLions. IniLially uncasy
Mind your own busincss [. . .] Co away, iL silcnLly urgcs Lhc womanLhc
building changcs iLs Lonc as iL admiL[s] Lo a rcccnL nagging ccling o va-
cancy and rcalizcs LhaL Lhc womans prcscncc can mcan only onc Lhing: iL is
ava|ab|e again. Now, ully alcrL, Lhc knowlcdgc LhaL onc o iLs aparLmcnLs
is indccd vacanL and LhaL Lhc woman musL bc considcring rcnLing iL cnlivcns
Lhc building and iL Lrics iLs bcsL Lo woo hcr by sLaggcr[ing] orward rom Lhc
shadow o a passing cloud and sLand[ing] up sLraighL in Lhc sunlighL. In Lhc
cnd, Lhough, Lhc woman walks on, sccmingly rcjccLing Lhc building, and iL
sink[s . . .] back inLo iLs morosc scl-rcccLion [. . .] spcnd[ing] Lhc rcsL o Lhc
day wiLh curLains drawn, noL cvcn boLhcring Lo look up.
Cullcd rom an ongoing scrics which Warc has publishcd inLcrmiLLcnLly
sincc :oo:, Building SLorics ncarly scvcn-monLh run in Lhc New York Tmes
Magazne rccounLs a day (ScpLcmbcr :, :ooo, spccically) in Lhc lic o Lhc
building and iLs our inhabiLanLs: Lhc young, singlc woman rom Lhc opcn-
ing pancl, who cvcnLually docs rcnL Lhc vacanL room, an unhappy couplc on
Lhc oor bclow, and an cldcrly landlady. AlLhough much o Building SLorics
ocuscs on Lhc livcs o Lhcsc inhabiLanLs, Warcs pcrsonicaLion o Lhc build-
ing suggcsLs LhaL hc is jusL as inLcrcsLcd in iLs lic as hc is Lhc acLions o his
characLcrs. Indccd, parLs : and , which caLurc a ncarly idcnLical imagc o Lhc
building and arc wholly dcvoLcd Lo iLs inLcrior monologuc and Lo csLablish-
ing iLs hisLory in Lhc ncighborhood, ccmcnL Lhc buildings characLcrizaLion as
an omniscicnL prcscncc whosc sLory ramcs and guidcs rcadcrs Lhrough Lhc
sLrip.
As Lhc inaugural insLallmcnL o Lhc New York Tmes Magaznes Funny
Pagcs, Building SLorics providcd Warc wiLh whaL is almosL ccrLainly his
largcsL cxposurc Lo a mainsLrcam rcading audicncc Lo daLc. Civcn Lhis cxpo-
surc, and givcn Lhc high-prolc naLurc o Lhc sLrips sclccLion as Lhc rsL o
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S , GE NT R I F I CAT I ON, L I V E S OF / I N HOUS E S 1 2 3
Lhc magazincs ongoing scrics o graphic cLion, Warcs raLhcr idiosyncraLic
dccision Lo ocus on Lhc lic o a building sccms curious aL bcsL. FurLhcr, iL
bcgs Lhc qucsLion why hc would orcground Lhc buildings sLory ovcr Lhc livcs
o Lhc various characLcrs LhaL also inhabiL Lhc sLrip. To undcrsLand why Warc
gocs Lo such lcngLhs Lo bring Lo lic a characLcr as sccmingly mundanc and
sLaLic as a Lhrcc-sLory aparLmcnL building, iL is ncccssary Lo considcr Warcs
kccn inLcrcsL in Lhc cxpcricnLial powcr o archiLccLural spacc and Lhc build-
ings placc in Lhc conLcxL o ongoing dcbaLcs abouL Chicagos gcnLricaLion.
A proccss by which an inux o aucnL, mosLly whiLc homcowncrs and
rcnLcrs movc inLo an cconomically dcprcsscd arca, gcnLricaLion is Lhc rcsulL
o a dcprcsscd housing markcL causcd by posLwar whiLc ighL, Lhc growLh o
Lhc suburbs, and inncr-ciLy disinvcsLmcnL.

Sincc Lhc laLc 6os, as ncw rcsi-

dcnLs bcgan Lo rcalizc LhaL urban living providcd Lhcm wiLh Lhc opporLuniLy
or aordablc housing, Lhcy havc Lransormcd disLricLs by dcmolishing or
complcLcly rcnovaLing dccaying inncr-ciLy ncighborhoods. HisLoric buildings
play a complcx rolc in Lhis proccss as Lhcy havc bccomc Lhc primary vchiclc
by which gcnLricaLion Lakcs placc as wcll as a ocal poinL or criLics and pro-
LcsLcrs who scc Lhc mainLcnancc o unrcnovaLcd housing sLock as inLcgral Lo
rcsisLing a proccss LhaL LhrcaLcns Lo rcdcnc Amcrican ciLics along cvcr morc
rigid cconomic lincs.
Warcs aLLcnLion Lo Lhc inncr lic o Lhc row housc can bc rcad as a LribuLc
Lo aging buildings whosc prcscncc in U.S. ciLics is rapidly diminishing. Morc-
ovcr, Warc sccks Lo inculcaLc in his rcadcrs an apprcciaLion or hisLoric build-
ings, a posiLion hc advanccs in his wriLings on archiLccLurc and buildings.
TroughouL his carccr, Warc has linkcd his work as a carLoonisL Lo Lhc arL o
archiLccLurc and, in doing so, cxprcsscd a passion or siLcs LhaL arc no longcr
valucd in conLcmporary urban cconomics.
:
In Lhis conLcxL, wc can undcr-
sLand Lhc inLimaLc porLrayal o Lhc housc in Building SLorics as an impliciL
plca againsL Lhc dcmoliLion o hisLoric buildings. By humanizing sLrucLurcs
Lypically vicwcd as a liclcss asscmblagc o brick, sLccl, and wood, Warc sccms
Lo bc suggcsLing LhaL raLhcr Lhan Laking such a building or granLcd, ignor-
ing Lhc rolc iL has playcd in Lhc lic o Lhc ncighborhood, wc should insLcad
rccognizc iLs hisLory and cclcbraLc iLs rolc in Lhc urban cnvironmcnL.

Morc Lhan simply a pacan Lo hisLoric buildings, Lhough, Building SLorics

manicsLs Warcs bclic LhaL closc aLLcnLion Lo Lhc accLivc and inLangiblc
aspccLs o buildings, Lhc psychic and cmoLional livcs Lhcy conLain, ocrs a
corrccLivc Lo LwcnLy-rsL-ccnLury Amcrican ciLics and Lhc consLanL push or
progrcss aL any cosL. Spccically, Warc praiscs hisLoric buildings rom Lhc laLc
nincLccnLh and carly LwcnLicLh ccnLurics or Lhcir bcauLiul ornamcnLaLion
and Lhc loving aLLcnLion Lo dcLail LhaL wcnL inLo Lhcir dcsign and consLruc-
Lion. Pcrhaps nowhcrc is Warcs passion or hisLoric buildings morc cvidcnL
Lhan in his dcvoLion Lo Lhc buildings o Iouis Sullivan. An carly mcnLor Lo
Frank Iloyd WrighL, and considcrcd by many Lo bc Lhc aLhcr o modcrnism
and modcrn archiLccLurc, Sullivan dcsigncd buildings adorncd wiLh ornaLc,
inLricaLc aadcs LhaL havc long inspircd Warc.

WriLing in Lhc inLroducLion Lo

Lost Pu|dngs, a DVD produccd by Ts Amercan Lje LhaL documcnLs corLs
Lo prcscrvc Sullivans surviving buildings in Chicago, Warc says hc sharcs an
arLisLic scnsibiliLy wiLh Sullivan and parLicularly apprcciaLcs his usc o or-
namcnLaLion Lo cxprcss Lhc public naLurc o archiLccLurc. Iauding Sullivans
Fig. 9.1. Wares text in this
scene both humanizes the
building and comments
on the action taking place
around it. Chris Ware,
Building Stories: Part 1,
New York Times Magazine,
September 18, 2005, 41.
1 2 4 MAT T GODB E Y
buildings as imporLanL works o arL, Warc argucs LhaL Lhcsc buildings, morc
Lhan mosL placcs in which pcoplc livc and work, sccmcd Lo bc rozcn lic
Lhc vcry orcc and shapc o idcas, will, and lovc iLscl. Warc conLinucs by
noLing LhaL Sullivans ornamcnL, somcLimcs wrongly dismisscd as sccond-
ary Lo Lhc sLrucLurc, was always incxLricably imporLanL Lo cvcry building hc
dcsigncd, growing ouL o Lhc undamcnLal idca and shapc o cach commis-
sion, and, in his own words, idcally admiLLing Lo Lhc rcaliLy and paLhos o
mans ollics.

By conLrasL, hc nds conLcmporary archiLccLurc Lo bc ghasLly

and anLiscpLic, arguing LhaL modcrn buildings [. . .] mock pcoplc. Tcy donL
clcvaLc Lhcm or inspirc LhcmLhcy jusL conLain Lhcm, and suggcsLs LhaL
Sullivans scnsibiliLy is sorcly misscd in conLcmporary urban landscapcs.
6
Warcs connccLion Lo Lhc livcs o hisLoric buildings undcrscorcs and bcgins
Lo cxplain Lhc sLrips ocus. TroughouL iLs scvcn-monLh run, Warc crcaLcs a
ully dcvclopcd characLcr wiLh a long, rich hisLory in Lhc ncighborhood. In
parL , or insLancc, a scrics o imagcs indicaLcs Lhc buildings agc. Tus, in
Lhis opcning pancl, Lhrcc small inscLs on Lhc righL sidc, dcpicLing imagcs o
Lhc building wiLh dicrcnL vchiclcs in ronLa horsc and carriagc, a Modcl
T Ford, and a conLcmporary carcvokc Lhc buildings ycars o scrvicc Lo
rcsidcnLs in Lhc ncighborhood. ParL : urLhcr cmphasizcs Lhis scrvicc whcn
iL highlighLs Lhc acL LhaL Lhc classicd ad uscd Lo advcrLisc vacanL rooms
was composcd morc Lhan hal a ccnLury ago and prcscrvcd unalLcrcd (mi-
nus minor moncLary updaLcs) on a limp, wcll-Lhumbcd indcx card [. . . and]
has shar[cd] spacc wiLh dccadcs o war, rcccssion and various prcsidcnLial
adminisLraLions. ParL , in Lurn, brings Lhc buildings hisLory up Lo daLc by
noLing LhaL Lhc aorcmcnLioncd woman has, in acL, rcnLcd Lhc vacanL aparL-
mcnL, joining Lhc gcncraLions o rcnLcrs who havc soughL shclLcr in iLs walls,
and dcpicLing a schcmaLic o Lhc building LhaL rccounLs in cxacLing dcLail cv-
cryLhing iL has wiLncsscd LhroughouL iLs lic. By cschcwing a convcnLionally
lincar narraLivc and combining Lhc pasL, prcscnL, and uLurc in a singlc ramc,
Warc rcprcscnLs Lhc lic o Lhc building as a cohcrcnL wholc, humanizing an
oLhcrwisc inscnLicnL objccL and imbuing iL wiLh accLivc valuc.
,
Warcs usc o comics and o comics convcnLions Lo pcrsoniy and ampliy
Lhc lic o an aging aparLmcnL building can bc rcad as a criLiquc o gcnLri-
caLion and Lhc cnLirc sysLcm o conLcmporary urban rcncwal LhaL sLrips
such siLcs o Lhcir arLisLic and hisLorical valuc.
8
Building SLorics condcmns
Lhc crasurc o much o Lhc physical and culLural hisLory o U.S. ciLics in Lhc
namc o progrcss, rcconsidcring buildings sLaLus as morc Lhan mcrc com-
modiLics in a ncolibcral urban cconomy LhaL is incrcasingly dcncd by Lhc
LcncLs o privaLizaLion and cconomic homogcnizaLion.

Whcn Warc human-

izcs Lhc building, cmphasizing iLs scrvicc Lo Lhc ncighborhood, hc minimizcs
Lhc acLor LhaL mosL dcncs Lhc livcs o buildings in conLcmporary U.S. ciL-
ics: Lhcir sLaLus as commodiLics in Lhc urban rcal-csLaLc markcL. Tis rcvcrsal
cmphasizcs Lhc row houscs human characLcrisLics and asks us Lo scc iL noL
as an objccL buL as a pcrson wiLh a hisLory, and Lo rclaLc Lo iL on a lcvcl LhaL
Lransccnds Lypical objccL rclaLions. Warc Lhus ocrs a ncw pcrspccLivc on Lhc
dwcllings whcrc wc livc and, morc imporLanLly, shows Lhcir imporLancc in
prcscrving Lhc social and public lic o our ciLics. Morc spccically, Building
SLorics sccms Lo suggcsL LhaL old buildings such as Lhc onc whosc lic hc
documcnLs occupy a spccial placc in urban cconomics, scrving as rcposiLorics
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S , GE NT R I F I CAT I ON, L I V E S OF / I N HOUS E S 1 2 5
o Lhc promisc o ciLics Lo aLLracL and housc populaLions oLcn marginalizcd
by Lhc mainsLrcam, majoriLy culLurc.
Tc implicaLions o Lhis sLancc arc madc clcar whcn wc considcr LhaL Lhc
buildings locaLion in Lhc rapidly gcnLriying ncighborhood o HumboldL Park
posiLions iL as a bulwark againsL Lhis proccss and, by cxLcnsion, Lhc cconomic
homogcnizaLion o public lic. According Lo criminal jusLicc procssor 1c
Fcrrcll, as gcnLricrs movc inLo inncr-ciLy ncighborhoods Lhcy, along wiLh
local govcrnmcnLs and dcvclopcrs, crcaLc ncw culLural spaccs [LhaL] rcdcsign
ciLy lic along ncw lincs o spaLial cxclusion, and [. . .] organizc ncw orms
o conLrol againsL Lhosc dccmcd orcign Lo Lhcsc spaccs.
o
Fcrrcll suggcsLs
LhaL gcnLricaLion crcaLcs cxclusivc, aucnL ncighborhoods and communi-
Lics Lhrough a varicLy o privaLc orccs (ncighborhood boards, hisLoric prcs-
crvaLions sLaLuLcs, corporaLions, cLc). As a rcsulL, inncr-ciLy ncighborhoods
arc no longcr dcncd by Lhcir abiliLy Lo scrvc basic nccds, such as shclLcr,
ood, and communiLy, buL raLhcr Lhcy bccomc urban growLh machincs LhaL
arc dcsigncd Lo providc proLablc rcLurns on Lhc invcsLmcnLs o Lhc homc-
owncrs, busincsscs, rcalLors, and privaLc dcvclopcrs who invcsL hcavily in an
arcas rcdcvclopmcnL.

Warc ovcrLly addrcsscs Lhc issuc o gcnLricaLion in parL :6 whcn Tom,

an Arican Amcrican characLcr, who only appcars oncc in Lhc sLrip, sarcas-
Lically Lhanks Lhc young whiLc woman rom Lhc opcning pancl or making
HumboldL Park sac or NorLh Sidcrs. Toms commcnL alludcs Lo Lhc inux
o wcalLhy, Lypically whiLc rcsidcnLs Lo Chicagos hisLorically black SouLh Sidc
ncighborhoods. Morcovcr, his rcmark rccrs Lo Lhc acL LhaL gcnLricaLion
LargcLs sccLions o Lhc ciLy LhaL havc bccn codcd as black or IaLino and poor,
rcndcring Lhcm suddcnly valuablc [. . . and] pcrvcrscly proLablc.
:
Hum-
boldL Park, whcrc Building SLorics is scL, is an insLrucLivc cxamplc o Lhis
proccss. In posLwar Chicago, Lhc ncighborhood bcgan Lo aLLracL largcr num-
bcrs o PucrLo Rican amilics who, Lhough marginalizcd wiLhin Lhc ciLy as
a wholc, managcd Lo culLivaLc a sLrong scnsc o communiLy builL around
a proud PucrLo Rican idcnLiLy.

Sincc Lhc mid os, howcvcr, iL has bccn

Lransormcd by middlc-class homcowncrs and Lhc consLrucLion o luxury
aparLmcnLs and upscalc dcvclopmcnLs.

Cradually, young, whiLc, middlc- Lo

uppcr-middlc-class homcowncrs and amilics havc movcd inLo Lhc arca, rais-
ing propcrLy valucs and displacing many PucrLo Rican amilics. As a rcsulL o
Lhcsc changcs, a riL has ormcd bcLwccn Lhc PucrLo Rican communiLy and
Lhc ncw rcsidcnLs. During Lhc carly os, amilics sLarLcd hcaring rumors
rom ncighbors LhaL dcvclopcrs wcrc Laking an inLcrcsL in Lhc arca bccausc
o iLs proximiLy Lo Chicagos downLown, and Lo major modcs o LransporLa-
Lion.

Today, HumboldL Park has cmcrgcd as onc o Lhc mosL conLcsLcd siLcs
in Chicago and Lhc Lcnsion bcLwccn working-class PucrLo Ricans and aucnL
gcnLricrs cxcmplics currcnL dcbaLcs abouL gcnLricaLion.
6
Whcn Warc locaLcs his building in HumboldL Park, hc impliciLly asks rcad-
crs Lo considcr why hc placcs a Lhinking and ccling building in Lhc midsL
o a rapidly gcnLriying Chicago ncighborhood. IniLially, his dccision sccms
Lo suggcsL LhaL Lhc sLrip is inLcndcd Lo cvokc Lhc issucs acing rcsidcnLs o
gcnLricd ncighborhoods. Tus, whcn Lhc young woman commcnLs in parL :,
LhaL shc didnL likc how Tom was all in [hcr] acc abouL LhaL gcnLricaLion
sLu, Lhc sLrip raiscs racc and class Lcnsions inhcrcnL in a gcnLriying ncigh-
1 2 6 MAT T GODB E Y
borhood. And ycL, by dccrring rccrcnccs Lo gcnLricaLion unLil laLc in Lhc
sLrip, Warc appcars loaLh Lo ocr an cxpliciL opinion on Lhc issucs o racc and
class aLLcndanL in discussions o Lhc proccss.
,
InsLcad, Lhc comic providcs a
morc nuanccd rcading LhaL docs noL indicL Lhc gcnLricaLion o a spccic siLc,
HumboldL Park, buL spcaks Lo a conccrn or urban landscapcs and abouL whaL
our LrcaLmcnL o hisLoric buildings signals or Lhc uLurc o U.S. ciLics.
CcnLricaLion is jusL Lhc laLcsL manicsLaLion o a pcnchanL or dcsLroy-
ing Lhc old in Amcrican ciLics.
8
As urban planncrs and poliLicians havc pro-
moLcd a cyclc o dcsLrucLion and rcbuilding as sccond naLurcscl-cvidcnL,
unqucsLionablc, and incviLablcLhcy havc conLinually ignorcd Lhc inhcrcnL
valuc o buildings LhaL sccmingly havc liLLlc Lo no pracLical or cconomic usc.

Tis mcnLaliLy has conLribuLcd Lo Lhc ongoing commodicaLion and privaLi-
zaLion o public spaccs and has givcn risc Lo a culLurc LhaL ails Lo rccognizc
Lhc imporLancc o placc, cmphasizing insLcad Lhc ncxus o producLion and
nancc capiLal aL Lhc cxpcnsc o qucsLions o social rcproducLion.
:o
Incrcas-
ingly, ciLics arc dcncd by Lhc Lcnsion bcLwccn Lhc noLion o placc vcrsus
undicrcnLiaLcd, dcvclopablc spacc.
:
Urban gcographcrs 1amcs Iogan and
Harvcy MoloLch dcscribc Lhis samc Lcnsion as Lhc spliL bcLwccn usc valuc
and cxchangc valuc in urban spacc. In Lhc ormcr, a parLicular siLc, whcLhcr
a ncighborhood or, in Lhis casc, a building, is valucd bccausc iL saLis[ics] cs-
scnLial nccds o lic and providcs a psychological and cmoLional ulllmcnL,
in oLhcr words, spacc bccomcs placc whcn Lhcrc is a human connccLion
Lo a sLrucLurc, whcLhcr iL is a housc or an aparLmcnL.
::
Spacc, by conLrasL,
is simply a commodiLy whosc valuc rcsidcs in Lhc amounL o capiLal, whcLhcr
nancial or culLural, a dcvclopcr, an individual, or cvcn an cnLirc ciLy can gcL
or iL.
:
Tc diculLy o such a sysLcm is LhaL cxchangc valuc is by dcniLion con-
LingcnL and LransicnL. In urban rcal csLaLc, Lhis mcans LhaL whaL is valuablc
and dcsircd Loday will bc sccmingly usclcss and unwanLcd Lomorrow, and, as
a rcsulL o spaccs consLanLly bcing rcdcncd and rcconLcxLualizcd, Lhc pasL
musL bc ignorcd and clidcd in ordcr Lo crcaLc condiLions ncccssary or Lhc
rcdcvclopmcnL o a ccrLain siLc. Tis clision is dccmcd ncccssary bccausc con-
Lcmporary ciLics rcly on succcss in global markcLs such as Lourism Lo succccd
and arc invcsL[cd . . .] in sclling Lhcir placcs [. . .] Lhrough a narraLivc o suc-
ccss givcn LhaL a ncgaLivc imagc may cncounLcr grcaLcr diculL in aLLracL-
ing Lhc lcvcls o invcsLmcnL rcquircd Lo rcvisc Lhc compcLiLivc posiLion o
Lhcir cconomics.
:
Morcovcr, such a markcLing campaign succccds only Lo
Lhc cxLcnL LhaL iL can disLancc iLscl rom Lhc immcdiaLc pasL, whcLhcr LhaL
pasL is codicd as a working-class slum, Arican Amcrican ghcLLo, or, as in Lhc
casc o HumboldL Park, PucrLo Rican cnclavc.
:
Tc rcprcscnLaLion o HumboldL Park in Building SLorics impliciLly chal-
lcngcs Lhc rhcLoric o poliLicians and dcvclopcrs who promoLc gcnLricaLion
as a naLurally occurring symbol o a brighL uLurc or U.S. ciLics. Tc sLrip
rcsisLs a sysLcm o rcncwal LhaL valucs buildings or Lhcir powcr Lo gcncraLc
proL and promoLcs a pcrspccLivc LhaL rccognizcs Lhcir social uncLion in an
urban cconomy. Whcn Warc wriLcs in IosL Buildings LhaL hc is hcarLcncd
Lo scc a culLural Lurn Loward prcscrving buildings LhaL sccmingly havc liLLlc
Lo no cxchangc valuc, hc is in csscncc valuing placc ovcr spacc. Building SLo-
rics cnacLs a similar rcvcrsal as cxcmplicd by Lhc pcrspccLivc prcscnLcd in
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S , GE NT R I F I CAT I ON, L I V E S OF / I N HOUS E S 1 2 7
parL s schcmaLic dcpicLion o Lhc building. As wc lcarn in parL :, rcnL or Lhc
buildings aparLmcnLs has long bccn uLLcrly ouL o Louch wiLh local housing
priccs. Whilc Lhis mcans LhaL Lhc building has noL maximizcd proLs or Lhc
cldcrly landlady who livcs in Lhc rsL-oor aparLmcnL, iL has madc iL pos-
siblc or a pcrpcLual paradc o bargain-sccking applicanLs Lo nd aordablc
housing in Lhc ncighborhood. ParL diagrams how Lhc building links all Lhrcc
cras simulLancously, Lhanks Lo Lhc acL LhaL iLs low rcnL makcs iL as acccssiblc
Lo individuals who cannoL aord highcr priccs (scc g. .:).
Iaying barc Lhc social lic o Lhc building, Warc dccrics Lhc physical and
psychological dcsLrucLion o urban spaccs causcd by gcnLricaLion. Tis
sLancc is pcrhaps mosL cvidcnL in Lhc mclancholic Lonc LhaL pcrvadcs Lhc
sLrip and LhaL conLribuLcs Lo Lhc rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc building as a characLcr
whosc aLc is unccrLain. DcspiLc bcing ully occupicd, Lhc building is wisLul
or carlicr Limcs, worricd LhaL iLs low rcnL and old-ashioncd aadc is ouL o
Louch wiLh changcs in Lhc ncighborhood. Warcs mcssagc is madc cvcn morc
cxpliciL aL Lhc cnd o Lhc sLrip wiLh Lhc buildings growing awarcncss LhaL
iLs Limc is limiLcd. ParL : shows Lhc buildings incrcasing anxicLy abouL Lhc
hcalLh o iLs landlady as iL cars shc mighL dic soon and bcgins Lo pondcr iLs
uLurc: Hcrcs whcrc my conccrns bcgin. Now, Lhc long-burning lamp o my
long-ycarning landlady sccms Lo ray, alLcr, and zzlc [. . .] So Lhcn, whaL`
Tc LhoughL o such uLLcr vacancy lls mc wiLh drcad unlikc any oLhcr.
:6

Whilc Lhc building cars LhaL Lhc dcaLh o Lhc landlady porLcnds an unccrLain
uLurc, rcadcrs know iL has rcal rcason Lo bc worricdLhc landlady is all LhaL
sLands bcLwccn iL and a rcal csLaLc spcculaLor or ncw owncr who would rcno-
vaLc iL, Lhus driving up priccs, or, worsc sLill, dcmolish iL.
IL is hcrc LhaL Lhc sLrip mosL clcarly cmcrgcs as a sLaLcmcnL on ciLy lic
and urban planning, spccically, iL orms a powcrul argumcnL againsL cur-
rcnL Lrcnds in urban rcdcvclopmcnL and acLs as a call Lo rcdrcss Lhc damagcs
causcd by Lhc rcdcvclopmcnL o Amcrican ciLics. Tis rcading is bolsLcrcd
whcn Lhc sLrip is rcad alongsidc Lhc work o 1anc 1acobs and hcr 6 LrcaLisc
on how Lo x Lhc naLions ciLics, Te Leath and Lje oj Creat Amercan Ctes.
1acobs dcmands LhaL ciLy planncrs and poliLicians prcscrvc aging sLrucLurcs,
wriLing LhaL ciLics nccd old buildings so badly iL is probably impossiblc or
vigorous sLrccLs and disLricLs Lo grow wiLhouL Lhcm [. . .] NoL muscum-piccc
old buildings, noL old buildings in an cxccllcnL sLaLc o rchabiliLaLion [. . . buL]
a good loL o plain, ordinary, low-valuc buildings, including somc rundown
old buildings.
:,
1acobss praisc or old buildings mirrors Lhc scnLimcnLs
cvokcd by Building SLorics morc Lhan LhirLy ycars laLcr, namcly, shc rccog-
nizcs LhaL dcmolishing or rchabiliLaLing old homcs in ordcr Lo maximizc Lhcir
cconomic valuc scnds a discouraging mcssagc abouL Lhc valucs and bclics o
Lhc poliLicians and dcvclopcrs who arc rcshaping U.S. ciLics.
1acobs asscrLs LhaL Lhc boLLom linc has managcd Lo Lakc prcccdcnL ovcr
all oLhcr conccrns in ciLy-planning dccisions. Pricc Lags, shc wriLcs, arc as-
Lcncd on Lhc populaLion and cach sorLcd-ouL chunk o priccd-Laggcd popu-
lacc livcs in growing suspicion and Lcnsion againsL Lhc surrounding ciLy.
:8

Tc Lcnsion 1acobs dcscribcs is, according Lo culLural criLic Icwis Hydc, a
uncLion o Lhc commodicaLion o placcs and an all-consuming dcsirc Lo aL-
Lain maLcrial wcalLh. Rcal wcalLh, hc wriLcs, Lhc inLangiblc kind produccd
by giLs and works o arL, ccascs Lo movc rccly whcn all Lhings arc counLcd
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S , GE NT R I F I CAT I ON, L I V E S OF / I N HOUS E S 1 2 9
and priccd. IL may accumulaLc in grcaL hcaps, buL cwcr and cwcr pcoplc
can aord Lo cnjoy iL.
:
Similarly, 1acobs cars LhaL ciLics bccomc sLagnanL
whcn Lhcy ccasc Lo bc ablc Lo aciliLaLc Lhc producLion or consumpLion o
Lhc kind o wcalLh Hydc dcscribcs. Timc and again shc rcLurns Lo Lhc idca
LhaL Lhc ciLy is a rcugc or Lhosc pcoplc or whom idcas and imaginaLion,
noL proL and sLaLisLics, maLLcr.
o
Tus, 1acobs ycarns or LradiLional urban
ncighborhoods LhaL havc scrvcd as havcns or populaLions marginalizcd by
mainsLrcam Amcrican culLurc and LhaL, incrcasingly, havc bccn losL as homcs
and Lhc surrounding arcas arc bcing rcdcncd as purc commodiLics.

Tc commodicaLion o homcs has inLcnsicd as urban living has comc Lo

rcprcscnL a popular licsLylc dccision as wcll as a sound invcsLmcnL or au-
cnL rcsidcnLs anxious or aordablc housing LhaL providcs acccss Lo incrcas-
ingly Lrcndy ncighborhoods.
:
Tc lasL cpisodc o Building SLorics suggcsLs
Lhc hiddcn dangcrs o Lhis proccss. AlLhough Lhc pcnulLimaLc sccnc, parL
:, closcs wiLh Lhc building mcrcly araid o whaL Lhc dcaLh o iLs landlady
signics, Lhc cpiloguc, which Lakcs placc vc ycars laLcr, suggcsLs LhaL Lhcsc
cars arc rcalizcd. In Lhis cpisodc, Lhc young woman and hcr daughLcr havc
rcLurncd Lo Lhc ncighborhood whcrc shc oncc livcd (scc plaLc ). NoLing Lhc
prcscncc o a SLarbucks and o a ncw bouLiquc cloLhing sLorc LiLlcd, LLingly,
Nichc, shc rcalizcs how much Lhc ncighborhood has changcd. Indccd, Lhc
landscapc has Lhc look and ccl o a corporaLc spacc LhaL is dcsigncd Lo mccL
Lhc consumpLion nccds o an aucnL ncw populaLion raLhcr Lhan Lhc day-Lo-
day nccds o Lhc poor, working-class rcsidcnLs and, in Lhis casc, PucrLo Ricans
who havc long callcd iL homc.

Building SLorics has comc ull circlc, buL Lhc inLcrvcning vc ycars havc
rcdcncd whaL Lhc building symbolizcs Lo Lhc woman and, by cxLcnsion, Lo
Lhc ncighborhood aL largc. Unlikc bcorc, whcn Lhc buildings chcap rcnL con-
noLcd Lhc possibiliLy o a ncw lic, now Lhc woman sLarcs aL a building LhaL
is no longcr owncd by Lhc original landlady and caLurcs a For RcnL sign,
apparcnLly Lhc sLrucLurc has bccn rcnovaLcd rcccnLly and a sign ncxL door
indicaLcs iL will soon bc bordcrcd by luxury condominiums. As Lhcsc imagcs
suggcsL, Tom was righLLhc ncighborhood is now sac or NorLh Sidcrs: boLh
Lhc SLarbucks and Lhc bouLiquc, whilc mcanL Lo mccL Lhc consumcr nccds o
a ncw class o rcsidcnLs, also indicaLc LhaL Lhc ncighborhood has bccn suiL-
ably gcnLricd. ComorLcd by whaL havc comc Lo bc common symbols o a
gcnLricd ncighborhood, ncw and poLcnLial rcsidcnLs can rcsL assurcd LhaL
Lhc siLcs hisLory as a working-class, cLhnically hcLcrogcncous ncighborhood
has bccn crascd in avor o a ncw idcnLiLy as an upscalc cnclavc.
Morc Lcllingly, Lhc building has bccn silcnccd. Conc is Lhc characLcr wc
cncounLcrcd LhroughouL Lhc sLrip and in iLs placc is a building whosc prcs-
cncc in Lhc ncighborhood appcars Lcnuous aL bcsL and whosc links Lo Lhc
ncighborhoods pasL havc vanishcd. Tc implicaLions o Lhis silcncing arc, ac-
cording Lo 1acobs, immcnsc: ciLics arc no longcr ablc Lo mccL Lhc nccds o an
cconomically divcrsc populaLion by providing an opporLuniLy or a bcLLcr, or
dicrcnL, lic Lhan Lhc onc Lhcy prcviously lcd. Hundrcds o ordinary cn-
Lcrpriscs, shc wriLcs, ncccssary Lo Lhc sacLy and public lic o sLrccLs and
ncighborhoods, and apprcciaLcd or Lhcir convcnicncc and pcrsonal qualiLy,
can makc ouL succcssully in old buildings, buL arc incxorably slain by Lhc
high ovcrhcad o ncw consLrucLion.

Nor is 1acobs alonc in sounding a dcaLh

Fig. 9.2. Part 3s schematic
connects the past to the
present and evokes the
buildings integral role in
the lives of its inhabitants.
Chris Ware, Building
Stories: Part 3, New York
Times Magazine, October
2, 2005, 39.
1 3 0 MAT T GODB E Y
kncll or Lhc LradiLional ciLy. CounLlcss criLics and obscrvcrs havc mourncd
Lhc loss o public lic in urban landscapcs. WriLing in Lhc laLc ,os, Phillip
Arics noLcd LhaL in posL-indusLrial Amcrican ciLics, whaL is Lruly rcmarkablc
is LhaL Lhc social inLcrcoursc which uscd Lo bc Lhc ciLys main uncLion has
now cnLircly vanishcd.

ImpliciL in Lhcsc argumcnLs is a scnLimcnL cchocd

by Warcs dcpicLion o Lhc buildings loving scrvicc Lo Lhc ncighborhood: an
unmisLakablc scnsc o loss and o conccrn or whaL gcnLricaLion has visiLcd
on Lhc cxpcricncc o cvcryday lic or pcoplc in Amcricas ciLics and Lhrough-
ouL Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs.
Warcs vision o Lhc ciLy rcsisLs Lhc prcvailing vicw LhaL capiLalism and
Lhc capiLalisL cLhos arc Lhc bcsL and only opLion or progrcss. InsLcad, his
building ocrs a vision o urban lic whcrc Lhc possibiliLy cxisLs or siLcs and
buildings dcncd noL by Lhc conLinucd hypcr-commodicaLion o spaccs and
buildings buL raLhcr by Lhcir cmoLional, subjccLivc prcscncc and Lhcir abiliLy
Lo housc populaLions marginalizcd and pcriphcralizcd wiLhin Lhc currcnL sys-
Lcm. Warcs sLrip, alLhough iL caLurcs a building LhaL cvcnLually succumbs Lo
gcnLricaLion, impliciLly criLicizcs whaL Michacl Sorkin has Lcrmcd Lhc dc-
parLicularizing o Lhc conLcmporary ciLy.
6
Arguing LhaL urban landscapcs
Loday arc dominaLcd by Lhc sprcad o globalizcd capiLal, clccLronic mcans o
producLion, and uniorm mass culLurc Sorkin wriLcs LhaL in conLrasL Lo Lhc
undisciplincd dicrcnLiaLion o LradiLional ciLics [. . . L]hc ncw ciLy rcplaccs
Lhc anomaly and dclighL o such placcs wiLh a univcrsal parLicular, a gcncric
urbanism inccLcd only by appliquc.
,
As a living and brcaLhing link Lo Lhc
hisLory o Lhc ncighborhood whcrc iL is locaLcd, a sLrucLurc LhaL pcrsonics
Lhc pcrsonaliLy and uniquc idcnLiLy o LhaL spacc, Warcs building rcsisLs Lhc
gcncric urbanism Sorkin cars and Lhc cconomic homogcnizaLion gcnLri-
caLion cnLails. Buildings SLorics rccognizcs LhaL buildings conLain Lhc back
and orLh oscillaLions o Limc and mcmory, pasL and prcscnL and, in doing
so, providc us wiLh hopc or Lhc uLurc o U.S. ciLics.
8
Cuarding againsL gcn-
LricaLion, Lhc mainLcnancc and prcscrvaLion o hisLoric buildings can orc-
sLall Lhc LransiLion Lo a gcncrically corporaLc landscapc o bouLiqucs and cor-
poraLc chainswhaL Sorkin calls Lhc rcpcLiLivc minimum LhaL now dcncs
mosL inncr-ciLy ncighborhoods. Dcprivcd o oldcr buildings, HumboldL Park
and ncighborhoods likc iL risk rcducing ciLics likc Chicago Lo an anonymous
cvcry-ciLy, in which urban landscapcs arc dcvoid o Lhc cxhilaraLing public lic
LhaL has dcncd ciLy living or gcncraLions.
Notes
1. Chris Hamnett, The Blind Men and the Elephant: The Explanation of Gentrication, Transac-
tions of the Institute of British Geographers 16 (1991): 17389. Hamnett provides a thorough denition
of gentrication as well as an overview of the critical literature and debates surrounding it.
2. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Date Book (Amsterdam: Oog and Blik, 2003), 190. Here, Ware
includes Goethes dictum, architecture is frozen music, and argues that it is the aesthetic key to
the development of cartoons as an art form (190).
3. Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 96. In an interview with
Raeburn, Ware suggested that Building Stories is the work that is closest to him and to the way he
thinks.
4. Hugh Morrison titled his 1935 biography of Sullivan, the rst major biography of the architect,
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S , GE NT R I F I CAT I ON, L I V E S OF / I N HOUS E S 1 3 1
Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture. Hugh Morrison, Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architec-
ture (New York: Norton, 1998).
5. Lost Buildings, prod. and perf. Ira Glass, Tim Samuelson, and Chris Ware. DVD and book. WBEZ
Chicago, 2004.
6. Chris Ware, You Are Here, in Marc Trujillo: You Are Here, Hackett-Freedman.com, 2006,
http://www.hackettfreedman.com/templates/catalogueEssayPopup.jsp?id=1144 (accessed July 7,
2008); Beth Nissen, An Interview with Chris Ware, CNN.com, October 3, 2000, http://edition.cnn
.com/2000/books/news/10/03/chris.ware.qanda/ (accessed June 25, 2008).
7. Chip Kidd, Please Dont Hate Him, Print 51.3 (1997): 4249.
8. Hillary Chute, Comics as Literature? Reading Graphic Narrative, PMLA 123 (2008): 462.
Chute argues that in graphic narratives we see [. . .] a rigorous, experimental attention to form as a
mode of political intervention (426).
9. Neoliberalism is broadly dened as a system of practices that breaks with the Keynesian model
of state intervention and social welfare programs and seeks to bring all aspects of life under private,
market-driven control.
10. Jeff Ferrell, Remapping the City: Public Identity, Cultural Space, and Social Justice, Contem-
porary Justice Review 4.2 (2001): 167.
11. John R. Logan and Harvey Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley:
California University Press, 1987), 13.
12. Neil Smith, The New Urban Frontier: Gentrication and the Revanchist City (London: Routledge,
1996), 6.
13. David Wilson and Dennis Grammenos, Gentrication, Discourse, and the Body: Chicagos
Humboldt Park, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 23.2 (2005): 300.
14. Ibid., 301.
15. Marisa Alicea, Cuando nosotros viviamos . . . : Stories of Displacement and Settlement in
Puerto Rican Chicago, CENTRO Journal 13.2 (2001): 16768.
16. Rachel Rinaldo, Space of Resistance: The Puerto Rican Cultural Center and Humboldt Park,
Cultural Critique 50 (2002): 13574. Although Ware does not include the displacement of Puerto Rican
families in the strip, the disruption of Humboldts tight-knit Puerto Rican community, as documented
by Rinaldo and others, has transformed the area into a potent signier for the gentrication of Chi-
cagos urban neighborhoods.
17. This is not to suggest that Ware has completely avoided overtly commenting on the connec-
tion between urban space and race. In his ACME Novelty Library, in a parody of the advertisements
found in the back of comic books, he advertises LARGE NEGRO STORAGE BOXES that can be
purchased for $5,000,000. Designed by famous European craftsmen, he writes, these boxes are
just the thing to keep unsightly Negroes out from under foot and to make sure that your city contin-
ues to run cleanly and efciently. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders
and Saturday Afternoon Rainy Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005), 62.
18. Max Page, The Creative Destruction of Manhattan, 19001940 (Chicago: Chicago University
Press, 1999), 10.
19. Ibid., 5.
20. Smith, New Globalism, New Urbanism: Gentrication as Global Urban Strategy, Antipode
34.3 (2002): 435.
21. Page, The Creative Destruction of Manhattan, 3.
22. Logan and Molotch, Urban Fortunes, 2.
23. Ibid.
24. Gordon MacLeod, Mike Raco, and Kevin Ward, Negotiating the Contemporary City: Intro-
duction, Urban Studies 40 (2003): 1659.
25. Michael Jager, Class Denition and the Esthetics of Gentrication: Victoriana in Melbourne,
in Gentrication of the City, ed. Neil Smith and Peter Williams (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986), 83.
26. Chris Ware, Building Stories, nytimes.com, April 9, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/pack
ages/pdf/magazine/20050918funny.pdf (accessed April 20, 2006).
27. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Vintage, 1992), 187.
1 3 2 MAT T GODB E Y
28. Ibid., 4.
29. Lewis Hyde, The Gift: Imagination and the Erotic Life of Property (New York: Random House,
1983), 22.
30. Writing about the need for old buildings, for instance, Jacobs notes that the unformalized
feeders of the arts such as studios and galleries go into old buildings. Further, she writes, As for
the really new ideas of any kindno matter how ultimately protable or otherwise successful some
of them might prove to bethere is no leeway for such chancy trial, error and experimentation in
the high-overhead economy [. . .] Old ideas can sometimes use new buildings. New ideas must use old
buildings. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 188.
31. Ironically, Jacobss ideas about city life have been adopted by individuals and groups known as
New Urbanists who seek to construct versions of traditional urban neighborhoods out of inner-city
neighborhoods. According to Jacobs, such plans dont have a sense of the anatomy of [the] hearts of
cities. Further still, critics have charged New Urbanists with romanticiz[ing] her vision, bastardizing
her empirical observations of how cities work into a formula they want to impose [. . .] on cities. Bill
Steigerwald, City Views: Urban Studies Legend Jane Jacobs on Gentrication, the New Urbanism,
and Her Legacy, Reason.com, June 2001, http://www.reason.com/news/show/28053.html (accessed
February 12, 2008).
32. David Ley, Artists, Aestheticisation and the Field of Gentrication, Urban Studies 40 (2003):
2528, 2536.
33. Herbert Schiller, Culture, Inc. : The Corporate Takeover of Public Expression (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1991), 102. Schiller writes that as the condominium, boutique, [and] expensive
restaurant scene [. . .] ourish[es] in the downtowns of many American cities [ . . . t]he urban poor
are removed to the citys fringes, while the most helpless and desperate roam the streets and huddle
in darkened doorways (102).
34. Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, 188.
35. Philippe Aries, The Family and the City, Daedalus 106.2 (1977): 233.
36. Michael Sorkin, Introduction, in Variations on a Theme Park: The New American City and the End
of Public Space, ed. Michael Sorkin (New York: Noonday, 1992), viii.
37. Ibid.
38. Angela Miller, Introduction, in Strips, Toons, and Bluesies, ed. D. B. Dowd and Todd Hignite
(New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004), 6.
Reading History
Fig. 10.1. Admit One (1)
to The United States.
Chris Ware, The ACME
Novelty Library Final Report
to Shareholders and Satur-
day Afternoon Rainy Day Fun
Book (New York: Panthe-
on, 2005), frontispiece.
1 3 5
Confronting the Intersections
of Race, Immigration, and Representation
in Chris Wares Comics
JOANNA DAVIS-MCELLIGATT
Chris Warcs :oo collccLion Te ACMF Report conLains somc o Lhc mosL
orccul and clcarly arLiculaLcd criLiqucs o Amcrican culLural idcnLiLy and
naLional policy in Lhc hisLory o comics. Alongsidc his own sLrips and shorL
Lalcs, Warc incorporaLcs a dccply ironic and saLirical hodgcpodgc o Lurn-o-
Lhc-ccnLury ncwspapcr and magazinc advcrLs, os-cra caLaloguc sprcads
and prizc givcaways, in which his ACMF NovclLy Company is casL as a mcLa-
phorical sLand-in or Lhc Amcrican naLion-sLaLc, wiLh spccial cmphasis on iLs
impcrialisLic cndcavors abroad and naLivisLic policics aL homc. In Lhis vol-
umc, Warc inLcrwcavcs boLh hisLorical and conLcmporary acsLhcLics, sLylcs,
and modcs o rcprcscnLaLion in an corL Lo cxpand Lhc possibiliLics or Lhc
[comics] orm, jusL Lo gcL in a liLLlc morc scnsc o a rcal cxpcricncc.

In so do-
ing, hc cmploys boLh visual and LcxLual comics Lropcs as a mcans Lo sharply
criLicizc Lhc LrcaLmcnL and pcrccpLion o orcign naLionals who immigraLc Lo
Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs. On Lhc insidc covcr o Te ACMF Report, a spacc Lypically
rcscrvcd or ads in LradiLional comic books, onc nds an anLiquaLcd LickcL
granLing Lhc bcarcr admiLLancc Lo Lhc worlds grcaLcsL cnLcrLainmcnL acil-
iLy [. . .] AMFRICA via Lhc rcquircd porL o cnLry ccnLcr, CuanLanamo Bay,
Cuba (scc g. o.).
:

By choosing Lo prcscnL his criLiquc o LwcnLy-rsL-ccnLury Amcrican or-
cign and domcsLic policy in an carly LwcnLicLh-ccnLury idiom, Warc ocrs an
inLcrcsLing hisLorical conLrasL. Tough Lhc LickcLs visual clucs imply LhaL im-
migraLion Lo Amcrica is as casy and joyul an cxpcricncc as a Lrip Lo an amusc-
mcnL park, Lhc LickcLs LcxLual subjccL maLLcr urgcs rcadcrs Lo rc-cxaminc Lhc
myLhos o hisLorically lcnicnL Amcrican immigraLion policics in lighL o Lhc
rcccnL dcLainmcnL aL CuanLanamo Bay o numcrous pcoplcs o Arab dcsccnL
by Lhc Amcrican govcrnmcnL. Tc LickcL bcarcr is likcwisc providcd wiLh Lwo
waivcrs, onc rcquiring Lhc rclinquishmcnL o all righLs o ciLizcnship o your
incubaLion counLry, now and orcvcr and anoLhcr compclling Lhc surrcndcr
o all lcgal righLs, bclics, aliaLions, mcmbcrship in organizaLions or an
clubs, plus orcvcr and cvcr and cvcr your claim Lo whaL uscd Lo bc callcd duc
proccss.

Whilc Lhcsc waivcrs arc clcarly parodics o prcscnL-day Amcrican

orcign and domcsLic policics LhaL disrcgard Lhc righLs o illcgal alicns who
cross Lhc bordcr rom Mcxico and Lhc dcLainccs who arc bcing hcld indc-
1 3 6 J OANNA DAV I S - MCE L L I GAT T
niLcly in Cuba, Lhcy arc also rcmindcrs o Lhc hisLorical LrcaLmcnL o many
immigranLs Lo Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, who wcrc mcL wiLh scorn and dcrision upon
arrival, rcuscd propcr proLccLion undcr sLaLc and cdcral law, and dcnicd ac-
ccss Lo ciLizcnship.
Tc ollowing blurb, which is prinLcd on Lhc LickcL iLscl, makcs parLicularly
manicsL Warcs cvaluaLion o Amcrican aLLiLudcs rcgarding immigranLs:
TIRED of waiting for your backwoods homeland to secure democracy and get all of the
neat stuff that was supposed to come along with it? [. . .] Well, why not just come VISIT
the worlds richest constitutional republic and allow all the luxurious perks of a capitalist
consciousness like self-centeredness, entitlement, and a sanguine apathy towards the rest of
the planet color your every thought, action, and romantic conquest? Reallycast aside
any sense of debt to society, begin developing your own personal mythology, and get
that freedom feeling RIGHT NOW [. . .] Maybe someday youll even be accepted as a
genuine AMERICAN CITIZEN!
4
According Lo Warc, Amcricaoundcd on and orgcd ouL o racisL, naLivis-
Lic, capiLalisLic, and impcrialisLic policics and idcologics, a naLion LhaL has
bccn sLccpcd in noLions o iLs own cxccpLionalism and supcrioriLywas
ncvcr sLrucLurcd Lo supporL Lhc myLh o racial, cLhnic, and poliLical inclu-
sion. RaLhcr, hc argucs, Amcrica has always Lakcn or granLcd Lhc mcans by
which iL achicvcd iLs dcvclopmcnL, insisLcnLly disrcgardcd Lhc valuc o do-
mcsLic and inLcrnaLional immigranL OLhcrs, and conLinually romanLicizcd iLs
own ccasclcss conqucsL. All o Lhis has bccn madc possiblc by Lhc crcaLion
o numcrous individual and naLional myLhologics LhaL supporL and promul-
gaLc Lhc cLion o Lhc Amcrican drcam. Tcsc pcrsonal myLhologics, Warc
argucs, musL bc dcconsLrucLcd and rc-inLcrprcLcd in ordcr Lo comc Lo any
solvcnL comprchcnsion o Lhc pasL, prcscnL, and uLurc.
Tough Lhis work is parLicularly manicsL in Te ACMF Report, iL is also
a sLrucLuring moLi LhroughouL Warcs mosL cxLcndcd projccL, Lhc graphic
novcl 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth. Warcs novcl, which ollows
our gcncraLions o Corrigan mcn rom Lhcir carly days in 8os Ircland Lo
posLmodcrn 8os Amcrica, is a dcLailcd cxploraLion o Lhc hisLory, LrcaL-
mcnL, and cngagcmcnL o immigranLs across LwcnLicLh-ccnLury Amcrica. In
1mmy Corrgan, as in Te ACMF Report, Warc dcconsLrucLs amiliar hisLorics
o immigraLion and racc rclaLions by rsL disrupLing Lhc pcrsonal myLhol-
ogy o Lhc scamlcss passagc o Lhc non-whiLc, orcign immigranL on his way
Lo bccoming a whiLc Amcrican. Warc addiLionally brings Lo bcar Lhc rclaLion-
ship bcLwccn Arican Amcricans, who wcrc broughL Lo Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs
againsL Lhcir will and havc ncvcr bccn ully inLcgraLcd inLo Amcrican socicLy,
and Lhosc samc whiLc immigranLs. In Lhis LcxL, Warc consLrucLs an incrcd-
ibly complcx amily drama, in which racial, cLhnic, and naLional idcnLiLy arc
invcsLigaLcd in Landcm wiLh onc anoLhcr.
For Lhosc wcll vcrscd in comics hisLory, iL should comc as no surprisc LhaL
Warc chooscs Lo siLuaLc his criLiquc o Amcrica around Lhc rcprcscnLaLion
and LrcaLmcnL o immigranL OLhcrs. Comics hisLorian David Hajdu rcminds
us LhaL Richard FclLon OuLcaulLs Hogans A||ey, Lhc 8os comic sLrip caLur-
ing Lhc Ycllow Kid, now widcly rcgardcd as Lhc rsL Amcrican comics scn-
saLion,
I NT E R S E CT I ONS OF R ACE , I MMI GR AT I ON, R E P R E S E NTAT I ON 1 3 7
was set in the gutters of Manhattans Lower East Side and depicted the rowdy antics of
a gang of young scruffs. The Kid himself [. . .] was a crude but strangely endearing cari-
cature of the immigrant poorbarefoot, ugly, inarticulate, concerned only with base
pleasures, and disposed to violence. He rarely spoke, and then did so in a marginally
intelligible pidgin jumble of ethnic clichs. [. . .] His pals, much the same, were all vulgar
stereotypes: oil-smeared Italians throwing tomatoes; Negroes with gum-bubble lips,
snoozing or cowering in fear; scowling Middle Easterners in fezzes, waving scimitars
comrades in egalitarian minstrelsy.
5
Tc cvcr-cxpanding immigranL populaLions o major Amcrican ciLics immcdi-
aLcly Look Lo Lhc Ycllow Kid and oLhcr ncwspapcr comic sLrip characLcrs likc
him. Far rom bcing ocndcd by Lhc racial (and whaL onc mighL now call rac-
isL) caricaLurcs, Lhcy insLcad clL as Lhough Lhcsc comics wcrc wriLLcn abouL
Lhcir cxpcricnccs and prcscnLcd in a ormaL Lhcy could all casily comprchcnd.
Tis was largcly bccausc, as Hajdu cxplains, Lhc rsL Amcrican comic books
wcrc oLcn wriLLcn by immigranLs and childrcn o immigranLs, womcn,
1cws, ILalians, Ncgrocs, IaLinos, Asians, and myriad social ouLcasLs, who un-
dcrsLood Lhcir audicnccs wcll and kncw how Lo cnLcrLain Lhcm.
6
Indccd, onc
o Chris Warcs comic orbcars, Ccorgc Hcrriman, Lhc invcnLor o Krazy Kat,
was a colorcd Crcolc rom Ncw Orlcans who allowcd oLhcrs Lo misLakc him
or Crcck.
,
Chcap and rcadily acccssiblc comics ocrcd minoriLics an cscapc
rom Lhc rigors and rcaliLy o Lhcir livcs. Comic sLrips and comic books, Lhcn,
havc always bccn aLLuncd Lo Lhc cxpcricnccs o immigranL OLhcrs and, by cx-
Lcnsion, o non-whiLc OLhcrs who similarly ound Lhcmsclvcs ouLsidc o Lhc
Amcrican culLural and social mainsLrcam. Civcn LhaL Lhc rsL major Amcri-
can comic sLrip characLcr, Lhc Ycllow Kid, and Lhc rsL Amcrican supcrhcro,
Supcrman, wcrc boLh consLrucLcd as immigranLs, Lhcrc is no doubL LhaL Lhc
comics languagc was noL mcrcly conccrncd wiLh Lhc cxpcricnccs o immi-
granLs, buL was likcwisc aLLuncd Lo Lhcir pcrccpLion and rcprcscnLaLion.
8
Howcvcr, modcrn rcadcrs cannoL cscapc Lhc acL LhaL dcspiLc carlicr c-
orLs Lo rcndcr Lhc immigranL cxpcricncc in a way LhaL immigranLs Lhcm-
sclvcs could rccognizc and apprcciaLc, Lhc imagcs comics arLisLs cmploycd
wcrc oLcn racisL and conLaincd crass sLcrcoLypcs. According Lo Warcs
Longuc-in-chcck hisLory o arL, Lhis is bccausc comic arL has iLs sLrongcsL
rooLs [. . .] not in Lhc Acadcmic LradiLion, buL in an arcanc sysLcm o Lh
ccnLury physognomy and raca| carcature|

ArL Spicgclman, in an cssay rc-

garding racial rcprcscnLaLion and Lhc comics orm, cchocs Warcs scnLimcnL:
CarLoon languagc is mosLly limiLcd Lo dcploying a handul o rccognizablc
visual symbols and clichcs. IL makcs usc o Lhc discrcdiLcd pscudo-scicnLic
principlcs o physiognomy Lo porLray characLcr Lhrough a cw physical aL-
LribuLcs and acial cxprcssions. IL Lakcs skill Lo usc such clichcs in ways LhaL
cxpand or subvcrL Lhis impovcrishcd vocabulary.
o
Spicgclman and Warc boLh look back Lo Rodolphc Topcr, rcgardcd by
many as Lhc rsL comics arLisL, who in his LracL Fssay on Physognomy cxplains
Lhc arL o dcciphcring or divining Lhc moral and inLcllccLual makcup o an
individual bascd upon a carcul sLudy o Lhcir acial caLurcs.

Whilc Topcr
cxprcsscs a dcgrcc o anxicLy abouL cmploying Lhc pracLicc o physiognomy
Lo dcLcrminc a pcrsons acLual moral or inLcllccLual capabiliLics in any sorL o
rcal-world conLcxL, hc is noncLhclcss an advocaLc o Lhc scicncc as iL pcr-
1 3 8 J OANNA DAV I S - MCE L L I GAT T
Lains Lo Lhc cxcrcisc o wriLing succcssul comics. According Lo Topcr, Lhc
comic arLisL musL rsL asccrLain Lhc mcaning o ccrLain acial caLurcs (or
cxamplc, cycs, cars, noscs, or lips), csLablish which prccisc combinaLion o
caLurcs corrcsponds Lo which spccic characLcrs, pcrsonaliLy, or Lypc, and
subscqucnLly dcLcrminc in advancc whaL prccisc conclusions rcadcrs will
rcach upon cxamining Lhosc cycs or cars or lips on a characLcrs acc. Topcrs
languagc is dcpcndcnL upon Lhc arLisLs rcndcring a caricaLurc so succcssully
LhaL Lhc mcaning o Lhc imagc is xcd wiLhin Lhc conLcxL o Lhc comic iL-
scl and in Lhc world ouLsidc o Lhc comic. Topcrs languagc, iL sccms, only
works whcn iL has cccLivcly prcycd upon and rcalizcd Lhc rcadcrs insLinc-
Lual judgmcnLs and inviLcd him Lo comc Lo an immcdiaLc assumpLion abouL
Lhc Lypc o characLcr hc is cncounLcring.
DcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL Topcrs comics languagc has provcn indispcnsablc
or his own work, Warc noncLhclcss acknowlcdgcs LhaL Lhc avor o cari-
caLurc LhaL Topcr rcgularly cmploysjuLLing chin and squarish, bulbous,
proLruding nosc [. . .] ccls somcwhaL ouLmodcd Loday. Iikc Lhc clongaLcd s
in cighLccnLh-ccnLury documcnLs LhaL rcads as an j Lo modcrn cycs, Topcrs
archaic sLylc poLcnLially Lrips up Lhc possibiliLy or cmpaLhy wiLh his charac-
Lcrs.
:
Tis is bccausc, as Warc acknowlcdgcs, Lhc arLisL and rcadcr arc sub-
jccL Lo vcry spccic sociocconomic, racial, culLural, and hisLorical conLcxLs
which scrvc Lo ovcrdcLcrminc Lhcir cngagcmcnL wiLh Lhc imagcs. As a rcsulL,
Lhc ways in which comics arLisLs crcaLc and comics rcadcrs inLcrprcL Lhc im-
agcs havc cvcryLhing Lo do wiLh Lhcir own parLicular idcologics, idcnLiLics,
and hisLorics, which may or may noL bc in closc alignmcnL wiLh cach oLhcr.
Civcn LhaL Lhc principlcs o comics arL arc dcpcndcnL upon boLh clichc and
physiognomic logic, iL can bc diculL or Lhc comics arLisL Lo nd a way o
accuraLcly rcprcscnLing racial dicrcncc whilc sLill working wiLh and around
Lhc impovcrishcd vocabulary o Lhc comics languagc.
Warc dcscribcs, in Lhc ollowing passagc, jusL how diculL Lhis proccss can
bc or arLisLs:
When I was in college at the University of Texas at Austin in 1989, I was doing a strip
for the student newspaper. At the bottom of the strip, I drew two characters (try-
ing to do a sort of emblematic Mutt and Jeff thing) where I wouldnt show anything
but their faces oating in space. Entirely unconsciously, I designed these characters as
people or non-animals with black heads and big white mouths, like Mickey Mouse
without ears. Before I knew it, the Black Student Alliance was writing these nasty let-
ters to the student newspaper demanding big apologies, as well as demanding that my
strip be pulled from the paper. They were going to seek me out and set my house on
re, that kind of thing. Suddenly, I realized that I actually had done these horrible racist
caricatures, and that I wasnt even aware of it. I felt terrible, and when I examined it,
I realized a great part of the visual rush of comics is at least partially, if not almost
entirely, founded in racist caricature. If you look at many early comic strips, theyre
endemically ethnic. Abie the Agent is obviously a Jewish caricature. Happy Hooligan
is an Irish caricature. And black caricatures obviously go back to the minstrel days and
earlier. Even Mickey Mouse . . . what is he doing with white gloves? Gee, I wonder
where that comes from. The simplication of the face comes out of an effort to distill
a particular identity down to a few simple features, and that includes racial identity. Its
creepy when you think about it.
13
I NT E R S E CT I ONS OF R ACE , I MMI GR AT I ON, R E P R E S E NTAT I ON 1 3 9
As Lhc abovc anccdoLc cvidcnccs, Lhc imagcs uscd in comics arc unavoidably
loadcd wiLh a culLural mcaning LhaL is ncvcr sLaLic or xcd, buL raLhcr dcpcn-
dcnL upon pcrsonal, hisLorical, and narraLological conLcxL. As Warc lcarncd,
Lhc succcss o Lhc comics orm in Lhc laLLcr hal o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury
dcpcnds upon Lhc arLisLs abiliLy Lo disLill a parLicular idcnLiLyincluding
racial idcnLiLyin a simplc way wiLhouL pandcring Lo or indulging in racial
misrcprcscnLaLion and racisL caricaLurc. BuL givcn LhaL Lhc mosL basic com-
poncnLs o Lhc comics languagc arc sLccpcd in physiognomic logic, iL bccomcs
incrcdibly diculL Lo scparaLc LhaL which is cmblcmaLic in Lhc comics rom
LhaL which is racisL. Fvcn Lhough iL was noL Warcs inLcnLion Lo producc hor-
riblc racisL caricaLurcs, hc unLhinkingly had, and Lhis, hc discovcrcd, had cv-
cryLhing Lo do wiLh Lhc uncasy slippagc bcLwccn Lhc languagc o comics and
Lhc long hisLory o racial rcprcscnLaLion boLh wiLhin and ouLsidc Lhc comics
world. Tc job o Lhc comics arLisL, Warc suggcsLs, is Lo cnablc Lhc rcadcr Lo
noL only insLanLancously comprchcnd Lhc mcaning o Lhc imagc iLscl, buL Lo
undcrsLand Lhc mcaning o LhaL imagc in Lhc conLcxL o boLh Lhc narraLivc
and Lhc rcal world. Sincc his cxpcricnccs aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Tcxas, Warc
has consisLcnLly laborcd Lo makc plain Lhc rclaLionship bcLwccn Lhc comics
orm and racial imagcry by boLh cmploying and challcnging modcs o racial
rcprcscnLaLion wiLhin conLcmporary conLcxLs and conccpLions o hisLory and
idcnLiLy. By appcaling Lo Lhc rcadcrs abiliLy Lo judgc and comc Lo conclusions
abouL OLhcrs vcry quickly, Warcs comics can alLcr Lhosc iniLial rcsponscs by
rcconLcxLualizing and rcormulaLing convcnLionally racializcd imagcs.
In 1mmy Corrgan, Warc cxpands upon Lhc physiognomic oundaLions o
Lhc comics orm by rcprcscnLing racial dicrcncc and racial caricaLurc ovcr
Lhc coursc o Lhc ccnLury as Lwo disLincL, Lhough uncomorLably rclaLcd phc-
nomcna. Tc prcscnL momcnL o Lhc comic, scL in 8os Illinois and Michi-
gan, is spliccd Lhrough wiLh myriad ashbacks, drcams, mcmorics, anLasics,
and hisLorical rccords as Lhc proLagonisL, 1immy, Lravcls Lo visiL his aLhcr,
1amcs William Corrigan, or Lhc rsL Limc in his rcccnL mcmory. Whilc Lhcrc
or a long wcckcnd, 1immy mccLs his adopLcd Arican Amcrican sisLcr Amy
who, Lhc rcadcr cvcnLually lcarns, is his sccond cousin1immy and Amy
sharc Lhc samc grcaL-grandaLhcr, William Corrigan. TroughouL Lhc coursc
o Lhc comic, Lhc prcscnL momcnL o 1immys visiL Lo his aLhcr is cxplicaLcd
in Landcm wiLh Lhc lic and Limcs o his grandaLhcr, Lhc grandson o Irish
immigranLs, as a young boy living in 8os Chicago.
Bccausc Warc is invcsLcd in addrcssing racial rcprcscnLaLion in Lhc comics
orm, hc chooscs Lo organizc his narraLivc around Lhc cxpcricnccs o Irish
immigranLs and Lhc dcsccndanLs o Arican slavcsLwo groups which havc
bccn viciously sLcrcoLypcd and caricaLurcd LhroughouL Lhc hisLory o Lwcn-
LicLh-ccnLury Amcrica. As a rcsulL, Warcs obscssivc aLLcnLion Lo hisLorical
dcLail in 1mmy Corrgan rcndcrs a ar morc complicaLcd and involvcd picLurc
o Lhc rclaLionship bcLwccn immigranLs and Arican Amcricans Lhan mosL
LradiLional hisLorics o Amcrican idcnLiLy, Irish Amcrican idcnLiLy, or Arican
Amcrican idcnLiLy would cvcr likcly cvincc. To LhaL cnd, Warcs LcxL compli-
caLcs Amcrican idcnLiLy in Lhrcc ways: by addrcssing Lhc rcal cxpcricnccs o
non-whiLc immigranLs upon Lhcir arrival Lo Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, by Lroubling
Lhc racial puriLy o immigranL amily bloodlincs, and by conaLing Lhc cx-
pcricnccs o slavcs and immigranLs in Lhc consLrucLion o Lhosc bloodlincs.
1 4 0 J OANNA DAV I S - MCE L L I GAT T
FurLhcrmorc, by cxploring Lhc ways in which slavcs, immigranLs, and Lhcir
dcsccndanLs havc bccn racially and culLurally cnmcshcd in Amcrica, Warcs
LcxL suggcsLs LhaL racc is noL only an illusion, buL a grand alsc mcmory, Lhc
producL o a collccLivc rcusal Lo cngagc wiLh or conccdc a grcaLcr human
involvcmcnL which is noL racial, buL amilial. In Lhis way, Warcs LcxL is an
cxccllcnL cxamplc o Lhc ways in which Lhc comics orm can bc cmploycd Lo
challcngc LradiLional hisLorics and Lo rccasL Lhcm in morc complicaLcd ways.
Tc amily narraLivc bcgins wiLh 1immy Corrigans grcaL-grcaL-granda-
Lhcr, a physician in a small villagc in Ircland, who, along wiLh his prcgnanL
wic, scLs sail or Ncw York in Lhc mid-8os. Oncc Lhcrc, 1immys grcaL-
grcaL-grandmoLhcr givcs birLh Lo a son, William, Lhc rsL naLivc-born Amcri-
can Corrigan.

1immys grcaL-grcaL-grandparcnLs would noL havc bccn alonc

in making Lhis voyagc, approximaLcly . million Irish immigranLs arrivcd on
Amcrican shorcs bcLwccn Lhc ycars o 86 and 8, cach cxpccLing bcLLcr
wagcs, dcccnL work, acccss Lo propcrLy, and unbridlcd culLural and rcligious
rccdom. Howcvcr, Lhc cxpcricnccs o Lhosc who camc rom Ircland, likc Lhc
Corrigans, and rom Ccrmany, ILaly, and FasLcrn Furopc wcrc madc cxcccd-
ingly diculL bccausc Lhcsc Ncw ImmigranLs, as Lhcy wcrc callcd (Lo disLin-
guish Lhcm rom Lhc prcccding wavcs o immigraLion rom WcsLcrn Furopc),
wcrc noL considcrcd Lo bc whiLc. Duc Lo accclcraLcd lcvcls o immigraLion Lo
Amcrican shorcs aL Lhc Limc o 1immys grcaL-grcaL-grandparcnLs arrival, Lhc
naLion-sLaLc had bcgun Lo cnLcr a ncw sLagc in iLs dcvclopmcnL, markcd by
rampanL naLivism and accclcraLcd racism LhaL was inuscd in, and produccd
ouL o, Lhc car LhaL Lhc prcscncc o millions o immigranLs would undamcn-
Lally and irrcvocably alLcr Lhc naLional, racial, and culLural characLcr o Lhc
Amcrican. Tc Amcrican characLcr, iL was argucd, had iLs origins and basis
in Lhc whiLc, Furopcan, Anglo-Saxon LradiLion. As a rcsulL, whiLcncss, which
had hcrcLoorc bccn conccivcd o as a vasL monoliLhic racial idcnLiLy, was rc-
sLrucLurcd, as MaLLhcw Fryc 1acobson noLcs, inLo a ragmcnLcd, hicrarchi-
cally arrangcd scrics o disLincL whiLc raccs.

I Lhc Irish immigranLs wcrc

Lo bc considcrcd Amcricans and ciLhcr conLinucd Lo havc childrcn amongsL
Lhcmsclvcs or inLcr-brccd wiLh puLaLivcly rcal whiLc Amcricans, Lhcy
would, wiLh Limc, mongrclizc Amcricanncss and dcsLroy whiLcncss.
Whilc such inLra-whiLc divisions would anncal wiLh Limc, Arican Amcri-
cans accd a much sLccpcr barricr Lo culLural assimilaLion. As onc conLcmpo-
rary scholar puL iL, whcrcas Irishmcn, Ccrmans, Frcnchmcn, cLc., comc hcrc,
scLLlc down, bccomc ciLizcns, and Lhcir ospring born and raiscd on Amcri-
can soil dicr in no apprcciablc or pcrccpLiblc manncr rom oLhcr Amcricans
[ . . . Lhc Ncgro is] as absoluLcly and spccically unlikc Lhc Amcrican as whcn
Lhc racc rsL Louchcd Lhc soil and rsL brcaLhcd Lhc air o Lhc Ncw World.
6

Unlikc, hc argucs, Lhc Aricans dark skin which rcmains a pcrmancnL sLain,
Lhc coarsc skin, big hands and ccL, Lhc broad LccLh, pug nosc cLc. o Lhc
Irish and Ccrman laborcr pass away in a gcncraLion or Lwo, rcndcring Lhcm,
or all inLcnLs and purposcs, as whiLc as Lhc Anglo-Saxon.
,
As wc scc hcrc,
in addiLion Lo Lhcir culLural, moral, and inLcllccLual incrioriLy, immigranLs
and Aricans wcrc also considcrcd Lo bc physca||y incrior Lo Anglo-Saxons,
who wcrc bcauLiul noL only bccausc Lhcy wcrc whiLc, buL bccausc o Lhcir
nc acial caLurcs and sLrong, graccul bodics. By dcgrccs, and parLicularly
in posLbcllum Amcrica, iL was argucd LhaL Lhc Irish immigranL, alrcady a Lypc
I NT E R S E CT I ONS OF R ACE , I MMI GR AT I ON, R E P R E S E NTAT I ON 1 4 1
o lowcr-ordcr whiLc man, would losc his unsccmly physical and moral char-
acLcrisLics and would appcar and bchavc morc and morc Amcrican and lcss
and lcss Irish wiLhin buL a cw gcncraLions. Tc Arican, on Lhc oLhcr hand,
whosc dark skin was inimical Lo whiLc bcauLy, would ncvcr bccomc whiLc,
no maLLcr how many gcncraLions passcd him by. As a comics arLisL, Warc is
dccply aLLuncd Lo Lhc ways in which racial rcprcscnLaLion has bccn hisLori-
cally aLLachcd Lo racisL pcrccpLions o Lhc subjccLs incrioriLy. By cxamining
Lhc ways in which Lhc Corrigans bccamc whiLc and losL Lhcir Irish and Arican
hcriLagcs, hc draws aLLcnLion Lo Lhc ways in which Amcricans havc hisLori-
cally obuscaLcd blood rclaLions by lLcring Lhcm Lhrough rigid racial idcnLi-
Lics.
Warc bcgins Lhis cxploraLion in a sccnc in which William Corrigan Lakcs
his son, 1amcs, Lo scc a 1im Crow magic-lanLcrn lm (scc plaLc ).
8
Tc rsL
Lwo imagcs show a womana pcrccL Irish caricaLurc wiLh hcr slighL pug
nosc, rcd hair, and rccklcsplacing a pic in an ovcn and scLLing iL gcnLly on
Lhc window sill. In Lhc Lhird imagc, Lhc wcll-known nincLccnLh-ccnLury min-
sLrcl 1im Crow pccks his ink-black hcad in Lhc window. His hands, donncd in
Lhc LradiLional whiLc minsLrcl glovcs, rcach or Lhc pic, his absurdly largc lips
roundcd in anLicipaLion. In Lhc ourLh and nal slidc, Lhc window has comc
down on 1im Crows hcad, and Lhc pic has slippcd ouL o his grasp, hcadcd
or Lhc oor. Tc Irishwomans acc can bc sccn in Lhc uppcr-righL-hand cor-
ncr, buL raLhcr Lhan ouLragc, shc is shown laughing loudly and maliciously.
Tc slidc scrvcs a dual uncLion in Lhis sccnc. As a hisLorical rcproducLion, iL
draws aLLcnLion Lo Lhc ways in which racisL caricaLurcs o boLh Arican and
Irish Amcricans wcrc uscd Lo amusc and LiLillaLc Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury audi-
cnccs, indccd, aLcr Lhc vicwing, William rcmarks Lo his son LhaL Lhc 1im
Crow slidc was his avoriLc and chucklcs in piLy or poor old 1im Crow (,o).
BuL Lhis slidc also providcs Lhc rcadcr wiLh a way o rcading racc in Lhc comic
iLscl. Bccausc William Corrigan and his son arc vicwing Lhc slidc in Lhc nar-
raLivc, Lhc rcadcr musL makc a disLincLion bcLwccn racisL caricaLurc and ra-
cial rcprcscnLaLion, in oLhcr words, William and 1amcs arc characLcrs who
havc bccn rcndcrcd according Lo Lhc physiognomic principlcs o Lhc comics
languagc, buL Lhcy arc noL racisL caricaLurcs. By juxLaposing Lhcsc Lwo con-
sLrucLsLhc imagcs on Lhc slidc and Williams rcacLion Lo Lhc imagcs on Lhc
slidcWarc is ablc Lo commcnL on Lhc hisLory o racial rcprcscnLaLion and
aL Lhc samc Limc work wiLhin and ouLsidc iL. WhaL is mosL signicanL abouL
Lhis sccnc, howcvcr, is LhaL William Corrigan docs noL rcgisLcr any awarcncss
LhaL Lhc Irishwoman in Lhc slidc scrvcs Lhc samc uncLion as 1im CrowLo
cxaggcraLc Lhc pcrccivcd unaLLracLivc physical characLcrisLics o Lhc Irish and
pcoplcs o Arican dcsccnL or Lhc amuscmcnL o largcly whiLc Amcrican au-
dicnccs. Bccausc William docs noL conccivc o himscl as Irish, hc ignorcs Lhc
caricaLurc o Lhc Irishwoman and insLcad placcs his ocus on Lhc imagc o 1im
Crow.
Williams rcusal Lo cngagc wiLh his own cLhno-racial parLiculariLy has a
prooundly ncgaLivc cccL on his son, 1amcs, who is undamcnLally unawarc
LhaL hc has Irish anccsLors. In onc cxLcndcd sccnc in Lhc novcl, 1amcs mccLs a
young ILalian immigranL, and whilc wc scnsc LhaL Lhc Lwo play wcll LogcLhcr,
1amcs is noncLhclcss dcspcraLcly araid LhaL anyonc should discovcr Lhcir
ricndship whilc in school. Onc day, Lhc young boy brings 1amcs a giL o
1 4 2 J OANNA DAV I S - MCE L L I GAT T
a small mcLal sculpLurc o a horsc, whilc aL homc, 1amcs shows his giL Lo
his own horsc, Lclling him: TaL wcird ILalian kid gavc iL Lo mc. I haLc him,
Lhough. [. . .] Hcs a liLLlc wop (::,). 1amcs knows LhaL Lhc boy is wcird bc-
causc hc spcaks in Lhc Lhickly acccnLcd and brokcn Fnglish o Lhc ncw immi-
granL. Bccausc 1amcs will only shun Lhc boy whcn Lhcy arc in school, iL sccms
LhaL 1amcs is araid LhaL Lhc young immigranLs dicrcncc will somchow bc-
comc his dicrcncc, LhaL his idcnLiLy will bc irrcvocably alLcrcd by associaLing
wiLh Lhis young boy. Tc ncxL day, howcvcr, Lhc young ILalian boy inviLcs
all o Lhc schoolboys ovcr Lo his housc Lo makc sculpLurcs o Lhcir own, and
1amcs, who is now araid LhaL Lhc young boy will dcspisc him bccausc o his
carlicr cronLcry, LcnLaLivcly walks Lo Lhcir homc Lo join Lhcm.
Upon arriving aL Lhcir homc, 1amcs discovcrs LhaL cvcryLhing abouL Lhis
young boy is dicrcnL. Tc pagcs, which arc rcndcrcd in a scpia Lonc, call Lo
mind Lhc Old World, and iL is obvious LhaL Lhc boys amily docs noL livc
in Amcrica in a manncr apprcciably dicrcnL Lhan Lhcy did in ILaly. Having
bccn raiscd in a homc wiLh no onc buL his aLhcr and his scrvanL, who was
in no way an acccpLcd parL o Lhc amily, 1amcs is sLunncd and ovcrwhclmcd
by Lhc husLlc and busLlc and by Lhc wclcomc inviLaLion hc rcccivcs Lo bc a
parL o Lhcir amily or Lhc cvcning. Tc boy cvcnLually brings 1amcs Lo his
aLhcrs workshop, whcrc Lhcrc arc alrcady young boys huddlcd LogcLhcr bus-
ily sculpLing. Tough Lhc cnLirc amily is drawn wiLh dark black hair and Lhick
hcavy cycbrows, Lhc boys aLhcr, wiLh his mousLachc and work apron, calls Lo
mind Pinocchios aLhcr, CcppcLLo, Linkcring in his workshop. Tis is an apL
visual and liLcrary rccrcncc, or noL only is his sLudio ull o handmadc Loys,
ornamcnLs, and rcligious iconography, buL 1amcs also powcrully rcsponds
Lo him as a aLhcr gurc. During Lhis visiL, 1amcs challcngcs his aLhcrs au-
LhoriLy or Lhc rsL Limc, or noL only is hc dcnying his will by going Lo Lhis
boys housc bcorc hcading homc, hc is also opcnly cavorLing wiLh a pcoplc
or whom his aLhcr has noLhing buL conLcmpL. 1amcs lcarns LhaL Lhc young
boys dicrcncc is noL sLrangc or Lcrriblc, as hc had always assumcd, buL a-
miliar and comorLing. As a rcsulL o his Limc wiLh Lhis amily, 1amcs is ablc
Lo humanizc Lhcm, cvcn dcsiring Lo bccomc onc o Lhcm, Lo bc convcrLcd
inLo Lhc wop hc, only a maLLcr o hours bcorc, had so violcnLly bcraLcd. Tc
boys aLhcr is wcll awarc o Lhc acL LhaL 1amcs is in dcspcraLc nccd o carc,
and hc assumcs hc is un orano, or an orphan boy (:). In somc ways, Lhis
is Lruc, comparcd Lo Lhc immigranL amily, who havc hcld asL Lo old cusLoms
and habiLs in Amcrica, 1amcss lic is asccLic, cold, and wiLhouL any scnsc o
iLscl.
AL homc LhaL nighL, 1amcs is bcaLcn and orbiddcn Lo cvcr rcLurn, buL sLill
anLasizcs abouL his sculpLurc, bclicving LhaL iL will imprcss a girl aL school,
sccurc him populariLy, and cradicaLc all o his problcms. Whcn hc rcccivcs
his piccc, howcvcr, iL is missing iLs Lwo ronL lcgs, cars and LailLhc lcad, Lhc
young boy Lclls him, did noL ll Lhc casL complcLcly. All o a suddcn, 1amcs
nds himscl aL Lhc rccciving cnd o ridiculc, as cvcryonc, including Lhc im-
migranL boy and Lhc girl hc ancics, crowds around him, poinLing ngcrs and
laughing hysLcrically. AL onc poinL, a child in Lhc crowd calls him liLLlc micky
lcprcchaun and gocs on Lo ask him, Is Lhis ycr poL o gold micky` (:8).
IL is, o coursc, dccply ironic LhaL 1amcss iniLial rcacLion Lo Lhc immigranL
child, and Lhc words hc uscd Lo dcscribc him, arc bcing visiLcd upon him in
I NT E R S E CT I ONS OF R ACE , I MMI GR AT I ON, R E P R E S E NTAT I ON 1 4 3
Lhc cnd. BuL whaL is mosL inLcrcsLing hcrc is LhaL 1amcs was cnLircly unawarc
o his own dicrcncc, o his own cLhno-racial parLiculariLy. William Corrigan,
who had cxisLcd in Lhc world o whiLc privilcgc or somc Limc, had acLivcly
workcd Lo crasc any noLion o LhaL parLiculariLy rom Lhc amily mcmory,
and, as a rcsulL, 1amcs sucrs incrcdibly or iL. As wc scc, in Lhcir corLs Lo
bccomc whiLc, Lhc Corrigans musL noL only cndurc prcjudicc, buL prcLcnd,
whcn Lhcy cncounLcr iL, LhaL iL docs noL pcrLain Lo Lhcm, in oLhcr words, Lhc
Corrigan mcn musL pass as Amcricans in ordcr Lo bc considcrcd Amcricans.
Whilc William acLivcly works Lo rcprcss Lhc mcmory o his own immigranL
pasL, hc likcwisc rcuscs Lo rccognizc his own mixcd-racc progcny. Whcn
1amcs is a young boy, William has an aair wiLh his Arican Amcrican maid,
May, and sircs a child. Hc cvcnLually dismisscs hcr, wiLhouL cvcr acknowl-
cdging Lhcir child as his own, and subscqucnLly abandons 1amcs aL Lhc 8
Worlds Columbian FxposiLion (:8o8). In Lhc sccnc immcdiaLcly ollowing
1amcss abandonmcnL, wc mccL Amy CorriganWilliam and Mays dcsccn-
danLas a young girl, inLcrvicwing 1amcs, now an old man, or a school
projccL in which shc has bccn chargcd Lo dcvisc and complcLc a amily Lrcc
(:888). Amy, wc lcarn, was adopLcd by a young woman who marricd 1im
Corrigan, Lhc aLhcr o 1immy, son o 1amcs and grandson o William. Amys
Lask is riddlcd wiLh irony, or hcr grandaLhcr, 1amcs, is also hcr grandunclc,
and hcr aLhcr, 1im, is hcr rsL cousin oncc rcmovcd. Howcvcr, bccausc no
onc rcmcmbcrs or could possibly rccall Lhc complcxiLy o Lhcir rclaLionship,
in parL bccausc Mays placc in Lhis gcncalogy is conspicuously rcuscd, and
bccausc Lhcy rcad Lhc bonds Lhcy havc orgcd as supcrcial, Lhc cmphasis is
placcd noL on Lhcir amily rclaLionship or on aLLcmpLs Lo rccovcr Lhc pasL,
buL on Lhcir racial dicrcnccs. DcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL Amy has bccn adopLcd by
1amcs Corrigan, bccausc shc is Arican Amcrican, noL only do Lhc Corrigan
mcn havc diculLy cnvisioning hcr as onc o Lhcm, Lhcy also ncvcr suspccL
LhaL shc mighL acLually bc Lhcir blood rclaLion.
Tough iL was Amy who rcqucsLcd LhaL 1im inviLc his long-losL son,
1immy, or Lhc Tanksgiving holiday, Lhcir rsL mccLing Lakcs placc in a hos-
piLal, whcrc Lhcir aLhcr has bccn Lakcn aLcr a car accidcnL. Tc nursc who
mccLs Amy suggcsLs LhaL shc waiL or 1immy Lo rcLurn rom Lhc rcsLroom,
rccrring Lo him as hcr husband (:). Bccausc Amy is Arican Amcrican,
or, raLhcr, bccausc shc looks black, Lhc nursc auLomaLically assumcs LhaL Amy
and 1immy arc noL siblings, or rclaLcd by blood, buL raLhcr assumcs LhaL any
possiblc amilial bond bcLwccn Lhcm musL bc mariLal. Whilc Amy is obvi-
ously disquicLcd by Lhc conusion as shc prcparcs Lo mccL hcr broLhcr or Lhc
rsL Limc, shc noncLhclcss siLs down and bcgins Lo anxiously imaginc his acc
(:) (scc plaLc ). In a Topcrian sLylc, Warc rcndcrs Amys racial imagining
o 1immy as a scqucncc o whiLc accs, cach onc rcprcscnLing dicrcnL mcn
posscsscd o varying pcrsonaliLics, disposiLions, and inLclligcnccs. Tough
Amy is vcry much awarc o Lhc poLcnLial or physical dicrcnccs among
whiLcs, which is why, in hcr anLicipaLion, shc cyclcs Lhrough so many dicr-
cnL Lypcs o mcn, hcr racial imaginaLion docs Lcnd Lo run in sLock Lypcs: Lhc
ovcrwcighL guy wiLh glasscs and bad hair, Lhc clcan-cuL young man, Lhc bald-
ing middlc-agcr.
IL is hcrc LhaL Lhc conLcxL o racializcd imagcs bccomcs o LanLamounL
imporLancc. Bccausc Lhc rcadcr knows whaL 1immy acLually looks likc, Amys
1 4 4 J OANNA DAV I S - MCE L L I GAT T
racial imagining is ironic, in somc cascs, and humorous in oLhcrs. As Amys
acc ramcs hcr imaginaLivc consLrucLion o 1immys whiLc malcncss, Lhc
rcadcr is aL Lhc samc Limc madc awarc o hcr dccidcdly Arican Amcrican
acial caLurcs: hcr dark brown skin, widc nosc, ull lips, and Lhick, black hair.
BuL bccausc Amy and 1immy arc rclaLcd by blood, dcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL Lhcir
racial dicrcncc masks LhaL rclaLionship, Lhc rcadcr is orccd Lo cngagc wiLh
Amys racial dicrcncc in Lcrms o Lhc hisLory o Lhc Corrigan amily, in Lcrms
o a comics languagc bound by caricaLurc, and in Lcrms o Lhc prcscnL mo-
mcnL o Lhc narraLivc iLscl. In Lhis way, Warc challcngcs Lhc rcadcr Lo bccomc
simulLancously awarc o racial dicrcncc and racial rcprcscnLaLion wiLhouL
having Lo lLcr Lhc rcadcrs awarcncss o LhaL dicrcncc and rcprcscnLaLion
Lhrough racisL logic and imagcry. ALcr Lhcir cvcning aL Lhc hospiLal, Amy
shows 1immy phoLographs o Lhcir amily. Whilc cxamining a phoLo o Lhcir
aLhcr as a young man, Amy, jokingly, rcmarks LhaL 1immy obviously [. . .]
look[s] morc likc him Lhan ! do, Lhough (:). As 1immy scruLinizcs Lhc pho-
Lograph, apparcnLly unawarc o Lhc acL LhaL Amy was calling aLLcnLion Lo hcr
racial dicrcncc in an corL Lo lighLcn Lhc mood, shc Lrics oncc again Lo draw
1immy ouL, noLing, Wcrc pracLically rclaLcd, righL` (:8). Tcrc is somc-
Lhing painully ironic in Lhis momcnL, as Amy and 1immy cxaminc Lhcir joinL
amily hisLory and as Lhcy aLLcmpL Lo comc Lo Lcrms wiLh Lhc oLhcrs cxis-
Lcncc, nciLhcr onc o Lhcm could possibly, and will ncvcr, comc Lo undcrsLand
Lhc complcxiLy o Lhcir bcing pracLically rclaLcd. Tc ncxL morning, Amy
and 1immy Lravcl back Lo Lhc hospiLal, whcrc Lhcy lcarn LhaL Lhcir aLhcr has
passcd away, lcading Amy in a momcnL o cxLraordinary gric Lo rcjccL 1immy
and ordcr him Lo lcavc.
Tis, Warc sccms Lo suggcsL aL Lhc cnd o his comic, is Lhc rcal Lragcdy,
Lhc dcvclopmcnL o Lhc Amcrican naLion-sLaLc has rcquircd noLhing lcss Lhan
Lhc absoluLc disavowal o imporLanL and oundaLional amily rclaLionships
LhaL havc bccn, and orcvcr will bc, losL Lo vicw. Racc and racial dicrcncc,
Warc suggcsLs, wcrc inLcndcd Lo dclibcraLcly conccal amily rclaLions, and
Lhc rccovcry o Lhcm is aLLainablc only Lhrough diculL acLs o imaginaLion.
Howcvcr, bccausc Lhc rcadcr is rcquircd Lo cngagc wiLh racial dicrcncc, ra-
cial rcprcscnLaLion, and amily rclaLions Lhrough Warcs blcnding o Lhc his-
Lorics o Irish immigranLs and Arican slavcs, boLh o whom sLrugglcd Lrc-
mcndously in Lhcir corLs Lo bc considcrcd Amcrican and Lo parLicipaLc as
ciLizcn-subjccLs, Lhc rcadcr is madc awarc o Lhc ways in which boLh groups
camc Lo bc idcnLicd as boLh racial and naLional subjccLs. Trough a carc-
ul rcconsidcraLion o Lhc powcrul poLcnLial o racial imagcry, Warc likcwisc
makcs room or cauLious cxploraLion o racial dicrcncc in Lhc comics orm,
cxpanding upon Topcrs original cxplicaLion o Lhc powcr o Lhc comics lan-
guagc whilc working solidly wiLhin iL. UlLimaLcly, Warcs projccL rcmains onc
o Lhc mosL vibranL and compclling Amcrican considcraLions o racc and im-
migraLion in Lhc LwcnLy-rsL ccnLury.
Notes
1. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Saturday Afternoon Rainy
Day Fun Book (New York: Pantheon, 2005); Chris Ware, qtd. in Gene Kannenberg, The Comics of
I NT E R S E CT I ONS OF R ACE , I MMI GR AT I ON, R E P R E S E NTAT I ON 1 4 5
Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strategies, in The Language of Comics: Word and Image,
ed. Robin Varnum and Christina T. Gibbons (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001), 174. To
nd the original quote, see Andrea Juno, Dangerous Drawings (New York: Juno, 1997), 93.
2. Ware, The ACME Report, i.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. David Hajdu, The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America (New
York: Farrar, 2008), 10.
6. Ibid., 25.
7. Ibid., 14.
8. Superman, born Kal-El on the planet Krypton, is rocketed to Earth by his father, Jor-El, and
subsequently adopted by a farmer and his wife. I am, in this way, reading him as an immigrant gure.
9. Ware, The ACME Report, 8.
10. Art Spiegelman, Drawing Blood: Outrageous Cartoons and the Art of Outrage, Harpers
Magazine (June 2006): 45.
11. Rodolphe Tpffer, Enter: The Comics, trans. E. Wiese (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
1965).
12. Chris Ware, Strip Mind, Bookforum (April/May 2008): 45.
13. Chris Ware, interview with Juno, Dangerous Drawings, 58.
14. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), dust
jacket. Much of the information concerning the Corrigan family history is included on an intricate fam-
ily tree located on the inside cover of the dust jacket. For an analysis of Wares use of such diagrams,
see Isaac Catess essay is this volume.
15. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of
Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 43.
16. Ibid., 44. See also J. H. Van Evrie, The Negro and Negro Slavery (New York: Van Evrie and Hor-
ton, 1987), 10328.
17. Ibid.
18. Ware, Jimmy Corrigan, 70. All further references to this text will be indicated in parentheses.
1 4 6
Public and Private Histories
in Chris Wares Jimmy Corrigan
SHAWN GILMORE
Chris Warcs graphic novcl 1mmy Corrgan. the Smartest Kd on Farth rclaLcs
Lhc sLorics o Lwo ccnLral proLagonisLs: 1immy Corrigan, lcaving Chicago Lo
mccL his aLhcr in Waukosha, Michigan, or Tanksgiving in Lhc 8os, and
1amcs Rccd Corrigan, growing up in Chicago in Lhc 8os and abandoncd aL
Lhc 8 Worlds Columbian FxposiLion. Tcsc narraLivcs alLcrnaLc Lhrough-
ouL Lhc coursc o novcl, sharing LhcmaLic, symbolic, and visual rcsonanccs
as Lhcy progrcss. Howcvcr, Lhc novcls narraLivc conLcnL is also shapcd by a
paraLcxLual ramcwork o prosc and imagcs, labclcd, rcspccLivcly, Ccncral
InsLrucLions and Corrigcnda, Lhrough which wc can bcLLcr undcrsLand
Lhc inLcrrclaLion bcLwccn novcls main ploLlincs and Lhc graphic narraLivc
sysLcm LhaL 1mmy Corrgan cmploys.

In whaL ollows, I analyzc how Lhcsc

non-narraLivc pagcs inorm Lhc novcls narraLivc sLrucLurc and claim LhaL
Lhc novcl draws a sharp disLincLion bcLwccn Lhc rcalms o public and privaLc
hisLory. Whilc Lhc characLcrs arc isolaLcd wiLhin Lhcir rcspccLivc pcrsonal
narraLivcs, a sharcd, public hisLory gocs on around Lhcm in which Lhcy arc
powcrlcss Lo inLcrvcnc. An awarcncss o Lhc scopc o Lhis public hisLory is
availablc only Lo Lhc novcls rcadcrs, who musL work Lo synLhcsizc public and
privaLc hisLory inLo a cohcsivc wholc. To undcrsLand how Lhis sysLcm works,
wc should rsL considcr Lhc signicancc o Lhc paraLcxLual maLcrial aL Lhc
novcls conclusion.
Ocrcd as a sorL o glossary, Lhc Corrigcnda providcs a scrics o dcni-
Lions or Lcrms pcrLincnL Lo Lhc novcl: crutch, nger, |one|y, peach, smp|eton,
cLc. Tcsc symbols and rcpcaLcd moLis cach caLurc a dcniLion, Lhough
Lhcsc dcniLions ironically ocr liLLlc addiLional claricaLion. InLcrspcrscd
wiLh Lhcsc symbolic Lcrms arc liLcrary oncs: metaphor, symbo|, exposton.
Metaphor is dcncd as a LighLly LLing suiL o mcLal, gcncrally Lin, which
cnLircly cncloscs Lhc wcarcr, boLh impcding rcc movcmcnL and prcvcnLing
cmoLional cxprcssion and/or social conLacL, Lhus subsLiLuLing a rccurring im-
agc rom 1immys drcam-world, Lhc Lin-man suiL, or a convcnLional liLcrary
Lcrm (back covcr). Similarly, symbo| is dcncd as somcLhing LhaL rcprcscnLs
somcLhing clsc, csp. common in bad liLcraLurc. Also, a prinLcd or wriLLcn sign
uscd Lo rcprcscnL an undcrsLood corrcsponding aspccL o cxpcricncc, gcncr-
ally rcad, and noL apprcciaLcd as an csLhcLic orm in and o iLscl. Hcrc, wc
havc a morc dirccL claim abouL how rcprcscnLaLion wiLhin Lhc novcl works,
by cquaLing symbolism wiLh Lhc graphic rcprcscnLaLion o cxpcricncc, Lhis
P UB L I C AND P R I VAT E HI S T OR I E S I N J I MMY C O R R I G A N 1 4 7
dcniLion hinLs aL Lhc acsLhcLic sysLcm Lhc novcl cmploys, cvcn i iL is un-
dcrcuL by Lhc acL LhaL symbols arc noL apprcciaLcd as [. . .] csLhcLic orm[s]
Lhcmsclvcs.
Tc rcprcscnLaLional schcma aL play bccomcs clcarcr wiLh Lhc dcniLion o
exposton: Tc main body o a work, esp. LhaL which cxplicaLcs a main Lhcmc,
or inLroduccs a undamcnLal moLi. Tis conccpLual dcniLion is paircd wiLh
a graphic rcprcscnLaLion o an acLual cxposiLion, Lhc 8 Worlds Columbian
FxposiLion, which, o coursc, orms a major hisLorical backdrop or 1amcs
Corrigans childhood narraLivc. By making Lhc FxposiLion Lhc main body o
[Lhc] work, Lhis dcniLion hclps brings Lo Lhc orc Lhc mulLiplc laycrs o sig-
nicaLion aL sLakc in Lhc novcls rcprcscnLaLionaL iLs hcarL a hisLorical scL-
Ling which cxplicaLcs a main Lhcmc, buL which musL bc prcscnLcd Lhrough
rccurring symbols in ordcr Lo rcprcscnL cxpcricncc. By skcwing Lhc usc o
commonplacc liLcrary Lcrms, Lhcsc dcniLions cxpand and clariy Lhc rcprc-
scnLaLional sLakcs o Lhc novcl, csLablishing a rolc or visual signs and hisLori-
cal signicrs and ocring a corrccL way Lo undcrsLand Lhcsc Lcrms.
:
Tc kcy
qucsLion Lhus bccomcs, whcn Lakcn LogcLhcr, whaL do boLh scLs o cndpapcrs
acLually prcscribc, and whaL arc Lhc Lcrms o LhaL prcscripLion`
I proposc LhaL wc undcrsLand Lhc novcls cndpapcrs as prcscripLivc rcad-
ing insLrucLions LhaL guidc rcadcrs Loward a synLhcLic inLcrprcLaLion LhaL in-
LcrrclaLcs Lhc novcls Lwo main narraLivcs. Tis synLhcLic apprchcnsion, avail-
ablc only Lo Lhc novcls rcadcrs (and wiLhhcld rom iLs characLcrs), ulLimaLcly
rcvcals Lhc disLincLion bcLwccn pcrsonal and public hisLorics in Lhc novcl,
highlighLing Lhc ironic disLancc bcLwccn Lhc characLcrs cxpcricnccs and Lhc
hisLorical circumsLanccs LhaL surround Lhcm. Tus, Lhough 1mmy Corrgan
has Lwo main narraLivcs, Lhcsc inLcnscly insular sLorics arc scparaLcd by Lhc
impcrsonaliLy o hisLory. Tc obvious LhcmaLic and symbolic connccLions bc-
Lwccn Lhcsc Lwo narraLivc lincs arc only apparcnL Lo Lhc novcls rcadcrs, noL
iLs proLagonisLs, as only Lhc novcls rcadcrs can braid boLh Corrigan malcs
livcs synLhcLically LogcLhcr across Lhcir hisLorical scparaLion. Tc novcls
scnsc o hisLory, cmphasizcd by Lhc iconography and hisLorical parLicular-
iLy o Chicago, Lhus bccomcs parL o Lhc ormal and rcprcscnLaLional schcma
uscd Lo prcscnL Lhc scparaLc Corrigan narraLivcs.
Tis prcscripLivc rcading mcLhod, in combinaLion wiLh Lhc sLrucLural and
rcprcscnLaLional sysLcms o Lhc novcl iLscl, rcquircs a vcrsion o comics Lhc-
ory LhaL Lakcs us bcyond a Lypical ormal cxplanaLion or how comics makc
mcaning: ScoLL McClouds oL-ciLcd noLion o c|osure. In 0nderstandng Com-
cs, McCloud cxplains LhaL comics pancls racLurc boLh Limc and spacc, ocr-
ing a jaggcd, sLaccaLo rhyLhm o unconnccLcd momcnLs. BuL closurc allows us
Lo connccL Lhcsc momcnLs and mcnLally consLrucL a conLinuous, unicd rcal-
iLy.

Howcvcr, Lhc noLion o closurc, which Lypically opcraLcs on a pancl-Lo-

pancl lcvcl, docsnL cxplain largcr-scalc graphic narraLivc sLrucLurcs, includ-
ing Lhc visual and symbolic rcpcLiLion bcLwccn Lhc main graphic narraLivcs
o 1mmy Corrgan. To accounL or Lhis lcvcl o complcxiLy, Lhc mcLa-narraLivc
cndpapcrs o 1mmy Corrgan ocr a rcading mcLhod LhaL cngagcs in a ullcr
vcrsion o comics Lhcory, onc LhaL corrcsponds Lo Ticrry CrocnsLccns no-
Lion o bradng. As BarL BcaLy and Nick Nguycn noLc, braiding rccrs Lo Lhc
way pancls (morc spccically, Lhc imagcs in Lhc pancls) can bc linkcd in scrics
(conLinuous or disconLinuous) Lhrough non-narraLivc corrcspondcnccs, bc iL
1 4 8 S HAWN GI L MOR E
iconic or oLhcr mcans.

Tcsc non-narraLivc corrcspondcnccs, which opcr-

aLc aL Lhc mcLa-narraLivc lcvcl, providc links bcLwccn Lhc individual narra-
Livcs o gcncraLions o Lhc Corrigan amily and Lhc largcr, hisLorical conLcxL.
To undcrsLand how Lhis uncLions on Lhc pagc, I will now Lurn Lo Lhc rcading
mcLhod prcscribcd by 1mmy Corrgans rsL scL o cndpapcrs, labclcd Ccn-
cral InsLrucLions. From Lhcsc prcscripLivc insLrucLions, wc will scc LhaL in
Lhis vcrsion o comics Lhcory, Lhc rcadcr occupics a privilcgcd posiLion rom
which Lo synLhcLically apprchcnd Lhc wholc o Lhc novcls mcaning.
Comic Strip Apprehension
Tc Ccncral InsLrucLions LhaL opcn Lhc novcls cndpapcrs work Lo managc
rcadcrs cxpccLaLions, providing a varicLy o paraLcxLs Lo oricnL Lhc rcadcr:
an inLroducLion, a bric hisLory o comics and Lhcir acsLhcLic uscs, Lips on
how and whcrc Lo rcad Lhc book, and so on. Tis prcscripLivc ramc dcclarcs
LhaL comics havc a spccic rolc in rcadcrs livcs, LhaL Lhcrc arc spccic skills
ncccssary Lo rcad a comic sLrip languagc, and LhaL poLcnLial rcadcrs musL
havc an apLiLudc or comics analysis. Combincd, Lhcsc insLrucLions acL as cau-
Lionary lcssons or rcadcrs who mighL noL bc suiLably cquippcd Lo susLain a
succcssul linguisLic rclaLionship wiLh Lhc picLographic LhcaLrc [LhaL Lhc rcsL
o Lhc book] ocrs (i). As Lhc (mock-scrious) arLiclc Ncw PicLorial Ianguagc
Makcs Marks adviscs, wiLh Lhc many rcccnL Lcchnological brcakLhroughs
in picLorial linguisLics [. . .] such hcrcLoorc-dormanL skills o Comic SLrip Ap-
prchcnsion (or CSA) arc bcing rcawakcncd in Lhc adulL mind, paving Lhc way
or Lhc cxplosion o morc complicaLcd liLcraLurc which almosL ccrLainly looms
wiLhin Lhc ncxL dccadc (ii). Tus, Lhcsc insLrucLions prcscnL Lhc analysis o
comics as arduous and raughL wiLh inLcrprcLivc pcril whilc simulLancously
ouLlining a cohcrcnL rcading mcLhod.
Tc ourLh sccLion o Lhc insLrucLions, LiLlcd Tcchnical FxplanaLion o
Lhc Ianguagc, Dcvcloping Skills, noLcs LhaL somc basic prcmiscs musL bc
rc-csLablishcd bcorc aLLcmpLing a Lhorough apprchcnsion o Lhc complcLc
work. Bclow arc vc LcsL qucsLions by which you should bc ablc Lo dcLcrminc
whcLhcr your undcrsLanding o Lhc comic sLrip languagc is sucicnL Lo cm-
bark. Tc rcadcr is insLrucLcd Lo consulL Lwo consccuLivc pancls, boLh dcpicL-
ing a discmbodicd hcad on Lhc ground and a mousc wiLh a hammcr (vcrsions
o Warcs rccurring characLcrs, Sparky Lhc CaL and Quimby Lhc Mousc) in or-
dcr Lo answcr a scrics o qucsLions.

Tcsc qucsLions dclibcraLcly complicaLc

Lhc simplc pancl-Lo-pancl LransiLion, dcamiliarizing Lhc puLaLivcly simplc
acL o rcading comics by sLrcssing Lhc problcms LhaL rcadcrs mighL cncounLcr
i Lhcy misundcrsLand Lhc narraLivc inormaLion and iLs implicaLions. Spcci-
cally, Lhcsc qucsLions suggcsL LhaL rcadcr mighL noL bc ablc Lo rccognizc com-
ics as a disLincL orm o rcprcscnLaLion, incr scqucnLial acLion, undcrsLand
Lcmporal succcssion, rccognizc narraLivc Limc as disLincL rom Lhc momcnL
o pcrccpLion, or corrccLly sympaLhizc wiLh Lhc sccnc. Tcsc misprisions arc,
o coursc, airly unlikcly, buL Lhc almosL absurd aLLcnLion Lo Lhcir possibiliLy
highlighLs Lhc complcxiLy o Lhc comics Lhcory Warc is abouL Lo prcscnL, a
Lhcory LhaL undcrgirds Lhc main narraLivc o 1mmy Corrgan.
Tc Tcchnical FxplanaLion rccrs Lhc rcadcr Lo Lhc diagram on Lhc ol-
lowing pagc or assisLancc i ncccssary (scc g. ,. in Isaac CaLcss cssay in
P UB L I C AND P R I VAT E HI S T OR I E S I N J I MMY C O R R I G A N 1 4 9
Lhis volumc).
6
Tough Lhis gurc may sccm nccdlcssly complcx aL rsL glancc,
iL dirccLly coordinaLcs Lhc ormal propcrLics o comics wiLh Lhcir narraLivc
and cmoLivc cccLs. Danicl Racburn has dcscribcd Lhis diagram as an almosL
algcbraic dissccLion o Lhc comics languagc [LhaL] diagrams Lhc languagcs
iconic, LhcaLrical, Lcmporal and musical propcrLics.
,
Bcyond Lhcsc rcgisLcrs,
gurc ,. also makcs a claim abouL rclaLionship bcLwccn Lhc sclccLion o nar-
raLivc maLcrial and how graphic narraLivc is (or oughL Lo bc) apprchcndcd
in iLs LoLaliLy by a rcadcr. Tc mosL promincnL porLion o Lhis gurc is Lhc
largc circlc on Lhc lcL-hand sidc, which prcscnLs a synLhcsis o Lhc Lwo sLaLic
pancls prcscnLcd in Lhc Tcchnical FxplanaLion. Tis synLhcLic pancl rccalls
McClouds noLion o c|osure: iL dcpicLs Lhc acLion a rcadcr oughL Lo incr, LhaL
Quimby Lhc Mousc did indccd bring a hammcr down on Lhc discmbodicd
hcad o Sparky, causing him pain.
ComplicaLing Lhis rclaLivcly obvious inLcrsLiLial acLion arc Lhrcc disLincL
sccLions o Lhc diagram. FirsL, on Lhc lowcr lcL, Lhcrc arc vc Licrs LhaL (rom
boLLom Lo Lop) progrcssivcly spcciy Lhc Lcmporal rangcs rom which Lhc idcal
narraLivc cvcnL is dcrivcd, cach Licr a morc local (and lcss hisLorical) rangc.
Sccond, Lhc Lop o Lhc diagram ouLlincs modcs o apprchcnsion, including
how Lhc duraLion and Limc o obscrvaLion accL Lhc rcadcrs pcrccpLion. Fi-
nally, Lhc righL-hand sidc o Lhc diagram brcaks down modcs o apprchcnd-
ing Lhc original Lwo pancls rom Lhc prcvious pagcs Tcchnical FxplanaLion.
Tis parL o Lhc diagram spccics Lhrcc inLcrrclaLcd sysLcms o undcrsLand-
ing comics: () Lhc dirccL undcrsLanding o acLion (closurc), connccLcd Lo Lhc
mind and Lhc book, (:) Lhc rccogniLion o scparaLc sLaLic comics pancls, as-
sociaLcd wiLh Lhc cyc and Lhc sLagc, and () Lhc synLhcsis o Lhcsc Lwo modcs,
Licd Lo Lhc hcarL and music. Tough complicaLcd, Lhcsc Lhrcc modcs and Lhcir
rcspccLivc symbols (mind/book, cyc/sLagc, hcarL/music) rclaLc dirccLly Lo Lhc
mulLilaycrcd narraLivc o 1mmy Corrgan.
Applying Lhc Lhrcc modcs o apprchcnsion prcscnLcd in gurc ,. Lo Lhc
main narraLivcs o 1mmy Corrgan, wc can scc LhaL Lhcrc is a rm disLinc-
Lion bcLwccn Lhc novcls pcrsonal and public hisLorics and Lhc rcadcrs un-
dcrsLanding o Lhcsc narraLivc lcvcls. On Lhc onc hand, 1immy and his grand-
aLhcr 1amcs livc wiLhin Lhcir privaLc, clL cxpcricnccs, cach consLiLuLing a
prvate hstory wiLhin which an individual lic is livcd (Lhc mind and book). On
Lhc oLhcr hand, 1immy and 1amcs Corrigan also livc wiLhin a morc objccLivc,
disLanccd pub|c hstory, which rcprcscnLs cvcnLs and Lhosc who cxpcricncc
Lhcm only as sLaLic objccLs (Lhc cyc and sLagc).
8
Finally, Lhc synLhcsis o noL
jusL Lhcsc privaLc and public hisLorics buL o Lhc LoLaliLy o Lhc narraLivcs
parLs (Lhc hcarL and music) is aLLainablc only by Lhosc ablc Lo apprchcnd cor-
rccLly, Lhosc ablc Lo undcrsLand all o Lhcsc narraLivc parLs in propcr rcla-
Lion. WiLhin Lhc novcl, Lhcn, iLs proLagonisLs, 1amcs and 1immy, arc cxcludcd
rom apprchcnding Lhc LoLaliLy o Lhc work as a wholc, conncd Lo Lhcir own
pcrsonal cxpcricncc o hisLory, a synLhcLic rcading mcLhod, championcd by
Lhc novcls cndpapcrs, is rcscrvcd only or Lhc novcls rcadcrs. To undcrsLand
Lhc novcl in iLs LoLaliLy, rcadcrs musL noL only ollow Lhc Lwo main proLago-
nisLs sLorics, buL also link LogcLhcr Lhcir symbolic and iconic rcsonanccs wiLh
an undcrsLanding o Lhc hisLorical circumsLanccs LhaL bind Lhcsc ploLs Lo-
gcLhcr.
1 5 0 S HAWN GI L MOR E
Private Experience and Public History in Jimmy Corrigan
How docs Lhis scgmcnLaLion o hisLory manicsL iLscl narraLivcly` Tc pri-
vaLc cxpcricnccs o 1amcs and 1immy Corrigan, Lhc novcls Lwo proLagonisLs,
arc kcpL scparaLc whcn Lhc narraLivc shiLs iLs hisLorical ocus. AlLhough
1immy and 1amcs mccL Lwicc in Lhc novcl, Lhcy barcly spcak (8:86, ,:,
6). Tc rcadcr knows LhaL Lhcir livcs opcraLc in Landcm: abandoncd aL a
young agc, growing up in Chicago, cvcn sharing Lhc samc sLrccL corncr as Lhc
siLc o signicanL lic cvcnLs (including Lhc living ag scL up or Lhc Colum-
bian FxposiLion dcdicaLory paradc and Lhc Supcrman LhaL 1immy sccs com-
miL suicidc). YcL in Lhcir only subsLanLivc vcrbal conLacL, 1amcs, Lhc granda-
Lhcr, rcproachcs his son (1immys aLhcr, 1amcs William) and murkily noLcs
LhaL you canL makc up or losL Limc . . . you canL makc up or losL Limc . . .
nally addrcssing 1immy, Yourc a good kid, yknow` (6). As ar as Lhc
rcadcr knows, 1immy and his grandaLhcr rcmain isolaLcd rom onc anoLhcr,
kcpL rom knowing Lhc sharcd connccLions bcLwccn Lhcir sLorics.
In acL, wc only scc 1amcs Corrigan rclaLc his childhood cxpcricnccs in
onc sccnc, whcn hc rccounLs his mcmorics Lo his sons adopLcd daughLcr,
Amy, in a bric sccLion scL in Lhc carly ,os. Amy is wriLing a amily hisLory
or a ourLh-gradc assignmcnL, and 1amcs rccalls: FighLccn hundrcd and
nincLy-Lhrcc, I do bclicvc [. . .] wcll, Lhcn Lhcy Look mc Lo Lh orphanagc, I
supposc [. . .] canL say as Lo how I rcally misscd him [his aLhcr, William],
ciLhcr [. . .] Tc jar? Oh, I donL know . . . somc kids burncd iL down, or somc-
Lhing . . . (:88). From Lhis cxchangc, wc could incr LhaL 1amcss child-
hood narraLivc has bccn rcLold during Lhis or similar convcrsaLions wiLh Amy.
Morc imporLanLly, Amy and 1immy arc rclaLcd by blood Lhrough Lhcir grcaL-
grandaLhcr, as a diagram laLc in Lhc novcl rcad in conjuncLion wiLh an car-
licr cpisodc rcvcals (:o, ,8), howcvcr, Lhis inormaLion rcmains ouL o
1immys purvicw. Tough Lhc rcadcr rcmains awarc o Lhc impacL o 1amcss
pcrsonal Lragcdy in Lhc midsL o Lhc grand hisLorical cvcnL LhaL was Lhc Co-
lumbian FxposiLion, iL bccomcs clcar LhaL 1immy will ncvcr know Lhis, as any
poLcnLial rclaLionship wiLh Amy is aborLcd by cqual parLs amily Lragcdy and
inLcrpcrsonal awkwardncss.

Tc novcl visually rcndcrs Lhis isolaLion o privaLc cxpcricncc carly on whcn

1immy imagincs his homc pickcd up by an ovcr-sizcd Supcrman and shakcn
unLil iL crashcs Lo Lhc ground, whcrc hc cvcnLually nds himscl looking or
his hypoLhcLical son, Billy (o). 1immy iniLially scarchcs or his son, mov-
ing Lhrough Licrs o pancls scL bcLwccn Lwo Lrccs, Lhc ramc o which is visu-
ally Lransormcd on Lhc ncxL pagc inLo a sLagc.
o
By Lhc cnd o Lhis scqucncc,
1immy musL smash in Lhc discmbodicd hcad o his son Lo casc his sons pain,
undcr Lhc waLchul cycs o Lhc mousc LhcaLcr-gocrs (all vcrsions o Quimby
Lhc Mousc), who arc scaLcd Lo ciLhcr sidc o Lhis spccLaclc, sLanding in as
surrogaLcs or Lhc rcadcr. Tis is a miniaLurc vcrsion how pcrsonal hisLory
opcraLcs wiLhin 1mmy Corrgan: characLcrs arc on display and arc unawarc
o bcing obscrvcd, complcLcly absorbcd by prcscnL acLion and iLs cmoLional
impacL wiLh liLLlc or no hisLorical pcrspccLivc or scnsc o conLcxL. FurLhcr,
iL also narraLivizcs Lhc proLoLypical comics pancl rom Lhc novcls Ccncral
InsLrucLions (scc g. ,.). Hcrc, 1immy and Billy rcplacc Lhc mousc and caL,
wiLh 1immy orccd Lo rccnacL Lhc smashing in o a hcad on Lhc ground, his
P UB L I C AND P R I VAT E HI S T OR I E S I N J I MMY C O R R I G A N 1 5 1
inLcnsc cmoLional sccnc on display or obscrvcrs, whosc poinL o vicw hc can-
noL acccss.
As 1amcss and 1immys narraLivcs progrcss, rcpcaLcd (or ncar-rcpcaLcd)
imagcs, locaLions, and symbols acL as LransiLions and mcLa-narraLivc links.
Somc o Lhcsc clcmcnLs arc visual or LhcmaLic, likc Lhc rcd bird on a Lrcc
branch which LransiLions rom Lhc narraLivc prcacc inLo Lhc narraLivc propcr
(). Vcrsions o Lhc samc symbol LransiLion rom Lhc BaLLlc o Shiloh in
86: Lo Lhc hospiLal on Lhc FxposiLion grounds in 8: in Chicago and, -
nally, Lo Lhc Mcdlic Clinicarc ccnLcr in Waukosha, Michigan, in Lhc 8os
(o). Similarly, snow marks Lhc bcginning and cnd o somc scgmcnLs,
and rcappcars aL Lhc conclusion o 1immys narraLivc, which conLinucs inLo
Lhc non-narraLivc Lwo-pagc sprcad aL Lhc closc o Lhc hardcovcr cdiLion o
Lhc novcl, caLuring 1immy in Lhc arms o Supcrman and Lhc accompanying
LcxL, Tc Fnd (,8o). Tc irony o Lhis comparLmcnLalizaLion comcs Lo
Lhc orc in cach proLagonisLs anLasics, or cxamplc, boLh 1amcs and 1immy
imaginc sLcaling away rom socicLy wiLh a bridc, whcrc prcsumably Lhcy can
livc ouLsidc o socicLy (:, ). In parallcl, cach imagincs a lic ouL-
sidc o hisLory iLscl, Lhc grandson rcpcaLing Lhc unulllcd anLasics o Lhc
grandaLhcr. Tcsc cxLra-narraLivc connccLions cxisL Lo hclp bridgc narraLivc
scgmcnLs buL simulLancously cmphasizc Lhc isolaLion o characLcrs wiLhin
Lhcir pcrsonal hisLoricsLhough Lhc novcl has a sharcd symbolic rcgisLcr, iL
is availablc only Lo Lhc novcls rcadcrs.
Tcsc visual and LhcmaLic rcpcLiLions arc parL o whaL Ticrry CrocnsLccn,
in Te System oj Comcs, Lcrms bradng (tressage). CrocnsLccn uscs Lhis Lcrm
Lo addrcss Lhc cxLra-narraLivc and cxLra-scqucnLial connccLions LhaL can bc
consLrucLcd wiLhin graphic narraLivcs: braiding dcploys iLscl simulLanc-
ously in Lwo dimcnsions, rcquiring Lhcm Lo collaboraLc wiLh cach oLhcr: syn-
chronically, LhaL o Lhc co-prcscncc o pancls on Lhc suracc o Lhc samc pagc,
and diachronically, LhaL o Lhc rcading, which rccognizcs in cach ncw Lcrm o
a scrics a rccollccLion o an anLcrior Lcrm LhaL ar rom cnding in conicL
[. . . rcsolvcs] in a scmanLic cnrichmcnL and a dcnsicaLion o Lhc LcxL o Lhc
comic.

Tis dcnsicaLion o rcpcaLcd visual Lcrms rcinorccs Lhcir sym-

bolic rcsonancc, which allows Lhcm Lo opcraLc simulLancously wiLhin cach
narraLivc and bcyond any simplc lincar narraLivc sLrucLurc.
:
CrocnsLccns noLion o braiding hclps spcciy Lhc inLcrrclaLion o Lcrms wc
havc sccn Lhus ar. In 1mmy Corrgan, wc can rccognizc prvate and pub|c his-
Lory as narraLivc modcs LhaL corrcspond Lo dachronc and synchronc modcs.
Diachronic privaLc hisLorics rcmain conncd Lo Lhcir narraLivc spacc, as wc
havc sccn, buL public hisLory can opcraLc synchronically, raming and ironi-
cally rcvcaling Lhc limiLaLions o individual cxpcricncc. Tc sharcd public his-
Lory o Chicago, Lhc Columbian FxposiLion, and Lhc ciLy iLscl crcaLc urLhcr
connccLions acccssiblc only Lo rcadcrs and Lhosc ablc Lo apprchcnd hisLory as
a largcr LoLaliLy.
The Irony of History in Jimmy Corrigan
As noLcd abovc, Lhc dcniLion o exposton in Lhc Corrigcnda caLurcs an
illusLraLion rom Lhc 8 Worlds Columbian FxposiLion.

Tis imagc ncarly

rcpcaLs a pancl rom an carlicr cpisodc in Lhc novcl (:6), in which young
1 5 2 S HAWN GI L MOR E
1amcs Corrigan and his rcd-haircd lovc inLcrcsL (callcd Lhc McCinLy girl by
onc o Lhc workmcn) sncak onLo Lhc airgrounds o Lhc FxposiLion on Lhc day
o his moLhcrs uncral in Lhc all o 8:. Tc vicw is rom Lhc promcnadc o
Lhc ManuacLurcs and Iibcral ArLs Building, Lhc largcsL cxhibiLion hall o iLs
day, o Lhc airs Woodcd Island and somc o Lhc CourL o Honor buildings.
FmoLionally, Lhis is Lhc pcak o 1amcs Corrigans pcrsonal narraLivc, Lhc nar-
raLion rcads Hc can scc his housc. Hc can scc jusL abouL everyones housc. In
acL iL sccms as i hc can scc Lhc wholc wor|d rom up hcrc. BuL or him Lhc
wholc world is or LhaL momcnL Lhc singlc sLrand o rcd hair which danccs
silcnLly around his nosc & cyclashcs (:6). AL Lhis momcnL, on Lop o onc
o Lhc FxposiLions bcsL vanLagc poinLs, 1amcs can or a momcnL scc bcyond
Lhc pcrsonal Lo Lhc broadcr world LhaL cncompasscs his cxpcricncc. BuL Lhis
vision is quickly orccloscd, his aLLcnLion rcLurning Lo Lhc singlc sLrand o
rcd hair righL in ronL o him. Tc juxLaposiLion bcLwccn public and privaLc
Fig. 11.1. Wares poster in
Jimmy Corrigan resembles
the original advertisement
for the souvenir book,
Chicago of To-Day. Chicago
of To-day: the Metropolis of
the West (Chicago: Acme
Publishing and Engraving
Co., 1891), title page.
P UB L I C AND P R I VAT E HI S T OR I E S I N J I MMY C O R R I G A N 1 5 3
hisLorics is mosL sLark in sccncs likc Lhcsc. Tough 1amcs Corrigans sLory
includcs markcrs o Lhc grand hisLorical cvcnLs LhaL surround him, iL is lcL Lo
Lhc rcadcr Lo rccognizc Lhc signicancc o Lhosc momcnLs and Lhus Lhc ironic
disLancc bcLwccn 1amcss minuLcly rcndcrcd pcrsonal Lragcdy and Lhc broad
hisLorical scLLings in which iL occurs.
1amcss narraLivc is pcppcrcd wiLh hisLorical dcLail, bcginning wiLh Lhc
Chicago WaLcr Towcr, onc o Lhc cw major buildings Lo survivc Lhc 8, rc,
which is immcdiaLcly ollowcd by a posLcr advcrLising Chicago o To-Day, Lhc
McLropolis o Lhc WcsL (,:). Tcsc maLcrial signicrs, and many morc in Lhc
rsL pagcs o Lhc 8os narraLivc, mark Lhc hisLorical spcciciLy o Lhc nar-
raLivc. Tc posLcr, Chicago o To-Day, or cxamplc, is slighLly alLcrcd rom
advcrLiscmcnLs or, and Lhc LiLlc pagc o, a Chicago souvcnir book produccd
in 8, which was dcsigncd Lo promoLc Lhc ciLy or Lhc upcoming FxposiLion
(scc g. .). Tis posLcr and Lhc public signagc LhaL surrounds iL collccLivcly
poinL Lo Lhc widcr social, culLural, and cconomic world o Chicago and Lhc na-
Lion iLscl, whosc largcsL symbol was Lhc 8 Columbian FxposiLion. BuL or
much o 1amcss narraLivc, onc o Lhc kcy symbols o Lhc agc, Lhc Columbian
FxposiLion, which is liLcrally blocks away rom whcrc hc livcs, has liLLlc dirccL
cccL on him.

Tc culLural symbolism o Lhc Worlds Columbian FxposiLion cannoL bc un-

dcrsLaLcd. Dcsigncd Lo surpass Pariss 88 FxposiLion Univcrscllc, aL which
Lhc Ficl Towcr was onc o Lhc main aLLracLions, Lhc Columbian FxposiLion
was so namcd or Lhc our-hundrcdLh annivcrsary o Columbuss voyagc and
Lo cclcbraLc (or aL lcasL dcclarc) Lhc culLural powcr o Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs, as a
wholc, and Chicago, spccically. As Amcrican sLudics scholar Alan TrachLcn-
bcrg obscrvcs, Lhc FxposiLion sccmcd Lhc ruiLion o a naLion, a culLurc, a
wholc socicLy: Lhc cclcsLial ciLy o man scL upon a hill or all Lhc world Lo bc-
hold [. . . iL] sccmcd Lhc Lriumph o Amcrica iLscl, Lhc old rcpublican idcal.

Morcovcr, as Arnold Icwis sLaLcs, Lhc FxposiLion occurrcd aL a spccial mo-
mcnL in Amcrican hisLory, simulLancously a culminaLion o scLLlcmcnL and
Lhc bcginning o a ncw sLagc o naLional culLurc.
6
In many ways burdcncd by
iLs own ovcrL symbolism, Lhc FxposiLion was also a monumcnLal undcrLak-
ing, occupying much o Lhc aLLcnLion o Chicagoans or Lhc bcLLcr parL o Lhc
carly 8os and aLLracLing millions o naLional and inLcrnaLional LourisLs.
Whcn 1amcs and his aLhcr ormally visiL Lhc FxposiLion, wc arc prc-
scnLcd wiLh Lhc mosL susLaincd glimpsc o Lhc cxpcricncc o Lhc FxposiLion
as public hisLory. For a cw bric pagcs, 1amcss pcrsonal and public hisLo-
rics align as hc and his aLhcr Lakc a Lour o Lhc Crand Plaza, including Lhc
majcsLic vicw o Lhc CourL o Honor, CcnLral Basin, and Iakc Michigan in
Lhc disLancc (:,), Lhc AdminisLraLion Building and Lhc Columbian FounLain
sculpLurc group (:,), and Lhc AgriculLurc (:,) and Machincry Buildings on
which Lhc sLaLuary rom carlicr in Lhc narraLivc (86) is mounLcd (:,6). Tcy
bricy visiL Lhc oLhcr disLincL parL o Lhc FxposiLion, Lhc Midway Plaisancc,
which caLurcd a numbcr o cLhnic and culLural sccncs (quiLc sLcrcoLypically)
rom around Lhc world (:,,) and small sidc aLLracLions, likc Fadwcard Muy-
bridgcs Zoopraxographical Hall (:,8).
,
In Lhc Zoopraxographical Hall, aLhcr
and son scc Muybridgcs mosL amous phoLographic scqucnccLhc gallop-
ing horscprojccLcd by a dcvicc callcd a zoogyroscopc or zoopraxiscopc, a
cross bcLwccn a LradiLional opLical Loy (likc Lhc phcnakisLoscopc) and a magic
1 5 4 S HAWN GI L MOR E
Fig. 11.2. Main elevator,
Manufactures and Liberal
Arts Building. James W.
Shepp, Shepps Worlds Fair
Photographed (Chicago:
Globe Bible Publishing Co.,
1893), 45.
Fig. 11.3. Living ag display
and vice-presidential re-
viewing stand for Worlds
Columbian Exposition
dedicatory parade, Octo-
ber 20, 1892. J. F. Martin,
Martins Worlds Fair Album-
Atlas and Family Souvenir
(Chicago: C. Ropp & Sons,
1892), 118.
P UB L I C AND P R I VAT E HI S T OR I E S I N J I MMY C O R R I G A N 1 5 5
lanLcrn.
8
Hcrc, 1amcs wiLncsscs a kcy innovaLion, scqucnccd phoLography,
a prccursor Lo lm, which is graphically displaycd (or Lhc rcadcrs bcncL) in
scqucnccd comic pancls. Prcviously, hc had vicwcd a scqucncc o imagcs o
Lhc CrcaL Chicago Firc o 8, using a magic lanLcrn, a popular lighL-box uscd
Lo projccL imagcs (6,), buL Lhis hisLoric ncxL sLcp in Lhc projccLion o im-
agcs passcs by ncarly unrcmarkcd in 1amcss rccollccLion o cvcnLs.
UlLimaLcly, 1amcs and his aLhcr cnd Lhcir visiL aL Lhc ManuacLurcs and
Iibcral ArLs Building, billcd aL Lhc Limc as Lhc largcsL building in Lhc world
onc o Lhc cw picccs o public knowlcdgc LhaL 1amcss narraLion noLcs (:,).
Tc ManuacLurcs Building was onc o Lhc ccnLcrpicccs o Lhc FxposiLion and
includcd Lhc largcsL amounL o cxhibiL spacc, scrving as Lhc siLc o Lhc Fxpo-
siLions dcdicaLion on OcLobcr ::, 8:, and allowing hundrcds o Lhousands
o pcoplc Lo sLand insidc bcorc Lhc cxhibiLs wcrc insLallcd. Tcy asccnd Lhc
massivc clcvaLor Lo Lhc rooLop pavilion, which parallcls Lhc Lrip 1amcs madc
wiLh Lhc rcd-haircd girl monLhs bcorc (scc g. .:). Tis clcvaLor, Lhc rsL
LhaL mosL o Lhc FxposiLions visiLors had cvcr cncounLcrcd, highlighLs Lhc
dispariLy o scalcs bcLwccn Lhc FxposiLion and iLs comparaLivcly diminuLivc
visiLors.

Visually, Lhc narraLivc docs Lhc samc, rcndcring Lhc ull hcighL o
Lhc ManuacLurcs building (ovcr Lwo hundrcd ccL) in iLs LoLaliLy, lcaving
1amcs and his aLhcr as mcrc spccks (:,8o). 1amcs is, o coursc, abandoncd
hcrc, imaginaLivcly rcndcrcd in onc pancl as a small child bcing Losscd rom
Lhc pavilion (:8o).
:o
AL Lhis momcnL, aL Lhc summiL o Lhc largcsL building in
Lhc world, aL Lhc climax o onc o Lhc mosL signicanL culLural sccncs o iLs
agc and a kcy momcnL o hisLory wriL largc, 1amcss limiLcd cmoLional cx-
pcricncc, dcvasLaLing Lhough iL musL bc, is nally only apprcciaLcd rom Lhc
rcadcrs disLanccd pcrspccLivc.
Tough Lhc hisLorical pcrspccLivc isolaLcs 1amcs aL Lhc cnd o his narraLivc,
iL also links LogcLhcr synchronically a numbcr o passagcs rom boLh 1amcss
and 1immys sLorics, cach ccnLcrcd on Lhc samc Chicago sLrccL corncr. A cw
monLhs bcorc bcing abandoncd, siLuaLcd bcLwccn his Lwo main Lrips Lo Lhc
FxposiLion ground, 1amcs dirccLly parLicipaLcs in hisLory iLscl whcn hc is
choscn Lo bc parL o Lhc living ag compriscd o schoolchildrcn drcsscd in
rcd, whiLc, and bluc or Lhc dcdicaLory paradc on OcLobcr :o, 8: (::).
:

In Lhc novcl, Lhis cvcnL is rcndcrcd minuLcly across a cw sccncs, highlighL-
ing Lhc cccLs iL has on young 1amcs: bcing choscn Lo parLicipaLc, waLching
childrcn scparaLc Lhcmsclvcs by Lhc color o Lhcir garmcnLs (Lhus brcaking a
momcnL o supposcd uniLy inLo acLions), waiLing or Lhc paradc iLscl, and
nally rcLurning homc Lo a disappoinLcd aLhcr (::o). Tc dcdicaLion pa-
radc, noL acLually prcscnLcd on Lhc pagc, was in acL onc o Lhc largcsL cvcnLs
prior Lo Lhc FxposiLion, caLuring somc cighLy Lhousand marchcrs and vc
hundrcd Lhousand spccLaLors and ccnLcrcd on Lhc living ags and Lhc adja-
ccnL plaLorm or digniLarics, including Lhcn-Vicc PrcsidcnL Icvi MorLon (scc
g. .).
::
Howcvcr, aL Lhis momcnL, Lhc novcl and 1amcss individual pcr-
spccLivc limiL Lhc scopc o whaL can bc sccn, and Lhc broad, hisLorical impacL
o Lhc momcnL is wiLhhcld visually and subsLanLivcly.
Tc samc sLrccL corncr parLicipaLcs in Lhc mosL dirccL visual rcpcLiLion in
Lhc novcl, as Lhc corncr on which Lhc living ag is scL rccurs LhroughouL boLh
narraLivcs, visually lcaprogging iLs way Lhrough hisLory. Tis singlc locaLion
scrvcs Lhc mosL narraLivc duLy LhroughouL, changing archiLccLurally as Limc
1 5 6 S HAWN GI L MOR E
progrcsscs: in 8,, bcorc and aLcr Lhc CrcaL Firc (), in 8: and
(,,, ::::), and in Lhc 8os (6, ,,6). Tcsc archiLccLural shiLs
rcccL Lhc maLcrial changcs in Chicagos archiLccLurc rom 1amcs Corrigans
Lo 1immys Limc, acLing as a rcgisLcr o acLual hisLorical and culLural shiLs.
HisLorically, Lhc PosL Occ corncr againsL which Lhc living ag is scL in 8:
was cvcnLually rcplaccd in Lhc 6os and ,os by Lhc Chicago Fcdcral CcnLcr,
dcsigncd by Iudwig Mics van dcr Rohc (Lhrcc buildings complcLcd in 6,
,, and ,), which orm Lhc backdrop o boLh 1amcss and 1immys cxpc-
ricnccs.
:
Tis orm o modcrn archiLccLurc, inspircd by Mics van dcr Rohc,
dominaLcs 1immys Chicago landscapc, including Lhc archiLccLurc ouLsidc
1immys occ window, which wc scc mosL promincnLly carly and laLc in Lhc
novcl.
Visual rcpcLiLion ulLimaLcly uncLions as a mcLhod o bringing moLis Lo-
gcLhcr Lo uniLc Lhc novcl as a wholc. In onc o Lhc novcls rsL sccncs, 1immy
wiLncsscs a man drcsscd in a Supcrman cosLumc jump rom a roo Lo his
dcaLh (,). Vcrsions o Lhc Supcrman gurc rccur Lhrough 1immys sLory:
his moLhcrs onc-nighL sLand (), Lhc jumpcr ouLsidc his occ, and Lhc ma-
lcvolcnL Supcrman in his anLasy lic (o). In Lhc novcls nal scqucncc,
1immy looks ouL his occ window aL Lhc impcrsonal occ buildings across
Lhc sLrccL, now parLly obscurcd by snow, and bcgins Lo imaginc himscl in Lhc
posiLion o Lhc suicidal Supcrman (,,6). A ncw coworkcr caLchcs 1immys
aLLcnLion and draws him back inLo pcrsonal cxpcricncc. Tc nal, Lwo-pagc
sprcad o Lhc narraLivc caLurcs 1immy hcld in Lhc arms o a ying Supcr-
man, now convcrLcd inLo a savior, againsL a cld o snow. In a rarc momcnL
o hopc, 1immys appropriaLcd biL o sharcd public symbolism, Supcrman,
carrics him away rom Lhc narraLivcs rcpcLiLion o pcrsonal ailurc and disap-
poinLmcnL. AL Lhc novcls conclusion, 1immy sLill rcmains unawarc o how hc
is connccLcd Lo his grandaLhcrs narraLivc, and Lo Amy Corrigan, bccausc his
pcrspccLivc is limiLcd by iLs inward ocus. Tis, Lhcn, is Lhc undamcnLal irony
o hisLory in 1mmy Corrgan: only Lhc novcls rcadcrs can crcaLc a synLhcLic
narraLivc LhaL brings LogcLhcr pcrsonal and public hisLorics, braidcd visually
and LhcmaLically LogcLhcr inLo a comprchcnsivc hisLorical vision.
Notes
1. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000). This is true
of the hardcover edition; the paperback edition (2003) prints these pages before a two-page narrative
vignette set in 2002, which depicts Amy working in a hospital. All further references to this text are
indicated in parentheses.
2. For some observations on non-narrative material in Jimmy Corrigan, see Thomas A. Bredehoft,
Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid
on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 86990, especially 87984.
3. Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink, 1993),
67.
4. Thierry Groensteen, The System of Comics, trans. Bart Beaty and Nick Nguyen (Jackson: Uni-
versity Press of Mississippi, 2007), ix.
5. Versions of this iconographyQuimby standing over, preparing to destroy, or trying to hide
a disembodied headrecur throughout Wares Quimby the Mouse comics. For examples, see
Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003), 4652, 54, 5759, 62, 66.
6. This diagram originally appeared in Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 6 (Seattle: Fan-
P UB L I C AND P R I VAT E HI S T OR I E S I N J I MMY C O R R I G A N 1 5 7
tagraphics, 1995). It is one of a number of schematic diagrams Ware has produced for his works,
including the fold-out dust jacket for the hardcover edition of Jimmy Corrigan. See also the mural Ware
created for Dave Eggerss 826 Valencia writing center, reproduced on the back cover of the collected
edition of Quimby the Mouse and in Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2004), 8687. See Isaac Catess essay in this volume for a reading of these diagrams.
7. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 25.
8. Joseph Witek addresses comics unique ability to display history: sequential art does what
prose inherently cannot do; it supplies a visual and immediate image of cause [. . .] followed by ef-
fect, from which he argues that visual juxtaposition (the sequencing of panels and manner in which
visual art can display its narrative connections) offers a unique and perhaps privileged approach to
the presentation of history. Joseph Witek, Comic Books as History: The Narrative Art of Jack Jackson, Art
Spiegelman, and Harvey Pekar (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1989), 26.
9. Jimmy and Amy are, in fact, distant blood relations, another piece of information reserved for
the reader, as revealed in a non-narrative sequence (36061).
10. Compare to the two-page Summary of our story thus far (8889), where a similar tree
represents the male Corrigan family tree.
11. Groensteen, The System of Comics, 147.
12. Martha Kuhlman applies the notion of tressage to her reading of Art Speigelmans In the Shadow
of No Towers. See Martha Kuhlman, The Traumatic Temporality of Art Spiegelmans In the Shadow of
No Towers, Journal of Popular Culture 40.5 (2007): 84966, 855.
13. Ware meticulously researched the details of the Exposition, as he recounts to Daniel Raeburn,
I was leading up to the Worlds Columbian Exposition for dozens and dozens of pages. Years, actually.
I have stacks of books and Ive been collecting photographs, posters, reading up on it to decide what
to put in and what to leave out. Chris Ware, qtd. in Daniel Raeburn, The Smartest Cartoonist on
Earth, The Imp 3 (1999): 9.
14. The Expositions southwest corner was bounded by Stony Island Avenue and Sixty-Seventh
Street. The Corrigan home is located at Wharton and Sixty-Sixth (though Wharton seems to be a
ctitious street). From a tree in the yard, James can see over the Exhibition fence to the Terminal
Station and administration buildings, which is consistent with a home on Sixty-Sixth Street (146).
15. Alan Trachtenberg, The Incorporation of America: Culture and Society in the Gilded Age (New
York: Hill and Wang, 1982), 230.
16. Arnold Lewis, An Early Encounter with Tomorrow: Europeans, Chicagos Loop, and the Worlds
Columbian Exposition (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 184.
17. The carnival atmosphere of the Midway Plaisance conrmed by contrast the dignity of the
[Court of Honors] center. And, of course, the center represented America through its exhibitions,
the outlying exotic Midway stood for the rest of the world in subordinate relation. Trachtenberg,
The Incorporation of America, 213. For more on the relationship between the Midway and the rest of
the Exposition, see Julie K. Brown, Contesting Images: Photography and the Worlds Columbian Exposition
(Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), especially 1036.
18. Stanley Appelbaum, The Chicago Worlds Fair of 1893: A Photographic Record (New York: Dover,
1980), 102. See also Brown, Contesting Images, 104.
19. The disparity in scales has been noted by a number of scholars: the sheer size of the buildings
complicated the relationship between exterior art and interior function. The public was dazzled by
spectacular facades while exhibitors struggled with huge interiors of varying effectiveness. Lewis,
An Early Encounter with Tomorrow, 180. Further, a sense of evanescence surrounded the Exposition,
due to its eeting nature; see Neil Harris, Memory and the White City, in Grand Illusions: Chicagos
Worlds Fair of 1893, ed. Neil Harris, Wim de Wit, James Gilbert, and Robert W. Rydell (Chicago:
Chicago Historical Society, 1993), 332.
20. This is visually foreshadowed by a brief scene of a worker falling from the Electricity Building
(14445).
21. There were two ags, inset on the corners of Chicagos Post Ofce, which faced Adams
Street: the northeastern ag faced Dearborn Street, the northwestern ag faced Clark Street. The
ag presented in the novel features many fewer children than the actual historical one.
1 5 8 S HAWN GI L MOR E
22. The Parade: All Chicago Through the StreetsSights along the Line of March, Chicago Daily
Tribune, October 21, 1892, 1, 6.
23. Ware also treats the impact of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in a video project, Lost Buildings
(2004), produced in collaboration Ira Glass and Tim Samuelson for the show This American Life. The
twenty-two-minute documentary recounts Tim Samuelsons story of meeting Mies van der Rohe
while the Chicago Federal Center was being built. See also Werner Blaser, ed., Mies van der Rohe:
Federal Center Chicago (Basel: Birkhuser, 2004). For an analysis of Wares use of architecture in his
work, see Daniel Wordens essay in this volume.
1 5 9
Autobiography with Two Heads:
Quimby the Mouse
BENJAMIN WIDISS
Onc o Lhc ccnLral LcncLs o auLobiography criLicism is whaL Philippc Icjcunc
Lcrms Lhc auLobiographical pacL, Lhc conLracL o idcnLiLy LhaL is scalcd by
Lhc [auLhors] propcr namc, cnsuring LhaL auLhor and narraLor arc onc and
Lhc samc.

AnoLhcr posiLion, howcvcr, insisLs LhaL Lhc narraLor him- or hcr-

scl is incviLably sundcrcd, LhaL Lhcrc is an insurmounLablc gap bcLwccn Lhc
narraLing I who Lclls Lhc auLobiographical narraLivc and Lhc narraLcd I
who is iLs subjccL.
:
Tcsc arc noL muLually cxclusivc claimsLhc rsL makcs a
quasi-juridical promisc, Lhc grcaLcsL orcc o which is cxLraLcxLual, a promisc
LhaL holds in spiLc o Lhc inLcrnal inLcrprcLivc complicaLions inLroduccd by
Lhc sccondbuL Lhcy do LogcLhcr allow or somc inLriguing qucsLions. Could
an auLhor who clL Lhc gul bcLwccn carlicr narraLcd cxpcricncc and Lhc prcs-
cnL momcnL o narraLion parLicularly poignanLly, or cxamplc, nd a way Lo
makc usc o Lhc pacL as a suLuring dcvicc` Would Lhc cccLs o such a dcvicc
bc limiLcd Lo Lhc social lic o Lhc LcxL, or would Lhcy pcrvadc iLs inLcrior` I
Lhc laLLcr, whaL sorLs o rhcLorical or rcprcscnLaLional sLraLcgics mighL Lhcy
givc risc Lo, and whaL sLcps mighL Lhc auLhor Lakc in an aLLcmpL Lo ccmcnL
Lhcir hold`
Tc original rcadcrs o Lhc maLcrial amasscd in Qumby the Mouse (:oo)
mighL havc bccn quiLc surpriscd Lo lcarn LhaL iL would onc day occasion such
qucsLions. Absurd, surrcal, rcpcLiLivc, and disjoinLcd, somcLimcs sacricing
narraLivc almosL cnLircly in avor o inLcnsc scruLiny o a singlc momcnL or
mood, mosL o Lhc sLripsas rsL publishcd in Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Tcxas aL
AusLins sLudcnL ncwspapcr, Lhc La|y Texan, in o and makc no cx-
pliciL auLobiographical claims whaLsocvcr. And as collccLcd in volumcs : and
o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary (), Lhcy rcmain largcly cllipLical and clusivc,
i gaining somc modicum o Lransparcncy Lhrough Lhc proccss o aggrcga-
Lion.

BuL Lhc rcprinLcd, rcnovaLcd, [and] rcdcsigncd asscmblagc LhaL Warc

rclcascd as a singlc, cxpandcd volumc in :oo is, morc or lcss liLcrally, a dicr-
cnL sLory.

Tc crucial dicrcncc ariscs rom Lhc scvcral-Lhousand-word cssay

wiLh which Warc inLroduccs Lhc book. Whilc Warc only ccLingly discusscs
Lhc comics LhaL ollow, hc cxpounds aL somc lcngLh on his siLuaLion as hc
crcaLcd Lhcm and grows ycL morc cxpansivc in rclaLing blissul mcmorics o
his boyhood a dccadc carlicr and his LhwarLcd aLLcmpLs Lo rcconsLiLuLc Lhcm
as a grown man a dccadc laLcr, aL Lhc Limc o Lhc books publicaLion. Tcsc
auLobiographical condcnccs corroboraLc, as wcll, Lhosc procrcd in a hand-
1 6 0 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
ul o prcviously uncollccLcd mulLi-pagc sLrips Warc adds in Lhc ccnLcr o Lhc
volumc. Tus rcposiLioncd, Lhis collccLion o whaL Warc grudgingly dccms his
carlicsL publishablc work yiclds an accounL o pcrsonal as wcll as sLylisLic
origins (). BuL considcrablc Lcnsion cmcrgcs bcLwccn Lhc childhood Warc
is dcspcraLc Lo rccapLurc and Lhc apprcnLicc comics hc is almosL as cagcr Lo
disavow, Lhc ormcr cxpcricncc obliqucly bound up in Lhc laLLcr arLwork. Tc
spccic gcnius o Lhc volumc lics in Warcs managcmcnL o Lhcsc inLcrcalaLcd
pcrsonal hisLorics, his savvy applicaLion o ormal sLraLcgics dcvclopcd in his
comics Lo Lhc book as a wholc. Tc rcsulL amplics noL only Lhc auLobiograph-
ical conLcnL o Lhc work, buL also Lhc poLcnLial o auLobiography iLscl.
Reading the Strips: Themes and Variations
Warcs ascinaLion wiLh modcs o rcprcscnLing (and complicaLing) Lcmporal
progrcss is wcll known, a logical ouLgrowLh o his highly scl-conscious and
LhcorcLical approach Lo Lhc comics mcdium. Tomas BrcdchoLs discussion
o Lhis accL o Warcs undcrLaking in 1mmy Corrgan rcads Lhc novcl as rc-
pcaLcdly dcmonsLraLing Lhc ways in which Lhc archiLccLurc o Lhc comics
pagc may bc cxploiLcd Lo challcngc our habiL o undcrsLanding Lhc narraLivc
linc as pcrvasivcly lincar and scqucnccd in Limc. In a book dccply prcoc-
cupicd wiLh Lhc passing o Limc, hc wriLcs, Warc boLh cmploys ambiguous
layouLs LhaL allow a singlc group o pancls Lo bc rcad simulLancously in morc
Lhan onc lincar scqucncc and ocrs Lhc rcadcr various cuL-ouL modcls LhaL
cvcn i consLrucLcd only in Lhc imaginaLion, hinL aL Lhc possibiliLy o alLcring
or cvcn halLing Lhc ow o narraLivc Limc-scqucncc Lhrough our inLuiLivc
scnsc LhaL Lhrcc-dimcnsional objccLs cndurc across Lhc sLraLa o Limc.

Qumby, Loo, cvidcnccs Warcs Lcmporal conccrns in a Lhoroughgoing Lra-

cking in aging, nosLalgia, and loss. Individual sLrips alrcady makc usc o
Lhc rcprcscnLaLional sLraLcgics BrcdchoL dcscribcs: an carly mcdiLaLion on
mcmory counLcrpoiscs Lhrcc sLraighLorward vigncLLcs o six pancls cach
simplc, looscly slapsLick inLcracLions running lcL Lo righL and Lop Lo boLLom,
as pcr convcnLionLo a ar morc convoluLcd scL o cxcurscs on iLincranL ob-
jccLs and ugiLivc associaLions mcasuring Limcs passagc (o) (scc g. :.).
Indccd, Lhc sLrips ovcrall dcsign is considcrably dcnscr Lhan LhaL o a simi-
larly Lhcmcd pagc BrcdchoL dccms cmblcmaLic in 1mmy Corrgan.
6
Asidc
rom Lhc slapsLick inscLs, cach lincaLion rcquircs Lhc rcadcr Lo dcLcrminc
ancw i Lhc conjuncLions linking a scrics o pancls arc Lhosc o movcmcnL
Lhrough Limc or spacc, shiLs in pcrspccLivc or scalc, or conLiguiLics o mcnLal
or physical associaLion. Tcmporal progrcss occurs in Lhrcc and probably our
dirccLions and somcLimcs is indcLcrminaLc (c.g., Lhc horizonLal row aL Lhc
boLLom o Lhc pagc). A parLicularly plcasing counLcrinLuiLivc layouL dicLaLcs
LhaL Lhc rcadcr ollow Lhc scrics o Lhin vcrLical pancls up Lhc righL-hand sidc
o Lhc sLrip in ordcr Lo imaginaLivcly dcsccnd Lhc sLaircasc dcpicLcd along Lhc
way. RaLhcr Lhan poinLing in any singlc dirccLion, Lhc sLrip curls inLo and ouL
o iLscl aL mulLiplc poinLs, cvcn as iL also boLh cncouragcs Lhc cyc upwards
Lhrough iLs baLLcry o arrows poinLing Loward Lhc Lop o Lhc pagc and simul-
Lancously drags Lhc cyc down Lo Lhc inky subsLraLum LhaL rcvcals all Lhc rcsL
as midnighL rcccLion.
Warc organizcs Lhc sLrip, Lhcn, Lo cncouragc Lravcrsals in mulLiplc dircc-
Fig. 12.1. Arrows and ed-
dies. Chris Ware, Quimby
the Mouse (Seattle: Fanta-
graphics, 2003), 11.
1 6 2 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
Lions. I iLs ovcrarching conccrn is Lhc passagc o Limc, and wiLh iL Lhc onscL
o agc and railLy, Lhc cxpcricncc o rcading sLands poiscd Lo undcrminc LhaL
incxorablc progrcss. ForcsLalling, rcvcrsing, cvcn cddying wiLhin a pockcL o
Lhc pasL all sccm aL lcasL as casy as scLLling inLo Lhc prcscnL momcnL. Scvcral
ncarby comics sporL similar layouLs, indccd, Lhc rsL hal o Lhc book is domi-
naLcd by Lhis Lwo-hcadcd Quimby (somcLimcs inLroduccd as Quimbics Lhc
Mousc) sLruggling wiLh agc and loss. Whilc Lhc Lwo hcads appcar Lo havc bc-
gun lic as Lwins, onc rcpcaLcdly Lircs, sickcns, rockcLs Lo old agc, or cxplodcs,
rchcarsing Lhc momcnL o iLs dcmisc again and again, cvcn Lhough cach piccc
aLLcnuaLcs LhaL LrajccLory Lhrough Lhc vibranL display o oLhcr Limcs.
Finally, Lhc sccond hcad disappcars or good, and Lhc books laLLcr hal
largcly dcLails a singlc-hcadcd Quimbys dysuncLional rclaLionship wiLh
Sparky Lhc CaL, a bodilcss clinc whom Quimby spcnds mosL o his Limc
Lrying Lo rid himscl o. Howcvcr, aLcr kicking and hiLLing iL, misplacing
iL, burying iL, barLcring iL, shing wiLh iL, scnding iL ouL Lo sca, and oLhcr
abuscs, Quimby usually ranLically Lrics Lo rccovcr iL and rcsLorc iLs hcalLh.
Quimbys cmoLional rcvcrsals lcavc him scurrying Lo undo Lhc cccLs o his
acLions, buL Sparkys unagging rcsilicncc ulLimaLcly qucsLions Quimbys
agcncy morc dccply. Tis implicaLion is cxplorcd mosL cogcnLly in I HATF
YOU, a laLc sLrip LhaL dcpicLs Sparky surviving scvcral poinL-blank gunshoLs
unalLcrcd, insLcad popping up in Quimbys paLh again and again () (scc g.
:.:). WiLh cach rcappcarancc, Lhc sLrips boisLcrous dcclaraLions o clariLy
and closurc arc urLhcr undcrmincd. Tc I Quimby scLs up and aparL rom
Sparky in painL-Lhc-Lown rcd aL Lhc Lop o Lhc pagc bccomcs, by Lhc Lhird
rung rom Lhc boLLom, his own body Lrappcd in a rchcarsal o Lhc ailcd ro-
mancc hc is aLLcmpLing Lo quiL. Hc alls or Sparky again, inLo Lhc whiLc
spacc o Lhc backwards F, launching Lhc impliciL word cll, and sLaggcrs ouL
o Lhc sLrip, physically and cmoLionally ovcrcomc. Quimbys dcbiliLaLion is
urLhcr undcrlincd in Lhc way Lhc sLrip shunLs him back and orLh incrcas-
ingly obviously and bruLally, implying a aLalism wholly aL odds wiLh Lhc alsc
scnsc o rccdom hc cnjoys aL Lhc sLarL.
Tis kind o LrajccLoryhusLling Quimby, and Lhc rcadcrs cyc, along a
convoluLcd buL unidirccLional paLhis cvcn morc characLcrisLic o Lhc sccond
hal o Lhc book Lhan Lhc circuiLous, burrowing iLincrary is o Lhc rsL.
,
BuL
whilc a sLraighLorward Lravcrsal o Lhc wholc shcphcrds Lhc rcadcr Loward
Lhc laLLcr narraLivc modc and also rcproduccs iL, wriL largc, Warc cxploiLs Lhc
poLcnLial o Lhc book as a volumc, boLh in Lhc scnsc o a cohcrcnL liLcrary
Lomc and as a liLcral quanLiLy or mass [. . . o] maLLcr occupying spacc Lo
cxplorc alLcrnaLivcs.
8
Mcasuring Lhis accomplishmcnL adcquaLcly, howcvcr,
rcquircs a ullcr dcscripLion o iLs componcnL parLs. Ovcr and againsL Lhc dis-
crcLc and rciLcraLivc naLurc o iLs individual sLrips, iL is possiblc Lo consLruc
a minimal narraLivc, in which Lhc sccond Quimby hcad hovcrs aL Lhc cdgc
o dcaLh or somc Limc and Lhcn disappcars, lcaving bchind a solo Quimby
who subscqucnLly Lakcs up wiLh Sparky (pcrhaps in compcnsaLory ashion)
bcorc rcpcaLcdly Lrying Lo diLch hcr as wcll. Warc conrms Lhis ovcrarch-
ing scqucncc in Lhc inLroducLion, indicaLing LhaL Lhc rsL scL o comics was
drawn in Tcxas in Lhc laLLcr parL o o as his bclovcd grandmoLhcr dicd, Lhc
sccond ovcr Lhc ollowing six monLhs as hc cnvisioncd and Lhcn cmbarkcd
Fig. 12.2. Switchbacks
pushing constantly for-
ward. Chris Ware, Quimby
the Mouse (Seattle: Fanta-
graphics, 2003), 59.
1 6 4 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
on Lhc movc Lo Chicago, lcaving bchind [. . .] a rclaLionship which [hc] had
complcLcly ruincd Lhrough sclsh, cgoccnLric bchavior (). Tc rcvclaLion o
auLobiographical conLcnL lying bchind Lhc work is cnLircly ncw Lo Lhis cdi-
Lion. Warc providcs no such conLcxLualizing in Lhc carlicr ACMF publicaLions,
nor docs ciLhcr o Lhcm (or Lhc inLcrvcning issuc) includc Lhc scrics o sus-
Laincd rsL-pcrson monologucs on Lhc subjccL o Warcs rclaLionships wiLh
his moLhcr and grandparcnLs LhaL providc Lhc bulk o Lhc LcxL in Lhc picccs aL
Lhc books ccnLcr (:8, ).

The Mature Style, and Its Stakes

Warc Lhus sccms aL pains, a dozcn ycars aLcr Lhc acL, Lo gloss Lhc pcrsonal
sLakcs o comics LhaL mighL oLhcrwisc rcad simply as ormal cxpcrimcnLs and
LhcmaLic cxploraLions. Tc inLroducLion and Lhc addcd sLrips makc iL clcar
LhaL Warc adorcd his grandmoLhcr and dclighLcd in hcr company as a youLh.
Tis in Lurn csLablishcsalLhough Warc ncvcr says as muchLhaL Lhc sc-
ncsccnL sccond Quimby hcad rcprcscnLs Warcs grandmoLhcr: a noLional
Lwin unLil hcr agc suddcnly imposcd iLscl. Fqually, whilc Lhc inLroducLion
dispcnscs wiLh Warcs losL girlricnd in a scnLcncc, shc is obviously Lhc modcl
or Sparky. Tc poinL is noL LhaL Warc s Quimby, who rcmains a surrcalizcd
mousc, buL LhaL inLcrprcLivc purchasc and cohcrcncc arc boLh augmcnLcd by
rccognizing Lhcir closc aliaLion.
WiLh Lhcsc condcnccs, noL jusL Lhc inLroducLion buL Lhc book as a wholc
bccomcs a orm o auLobiography. PurisLs mighL disagrcc, poinLing ouL Lhc
cLionalizaLions and displaccmcnLs on almosL cvcry pagc. BuL cvcn Philippc
Icjcunc, who bcgins his discussion o Lhc auLobiographical pacL wiLh an cx-
Lrcmcly rcsLricLivc dcniLion o Lhc gcnrc as Lhc rcLrospccLivc prosc narra-
Livc o an individual lic in which Lhc narraLor and Lhc principlc characLcr
arc idcnLicaldisallowing mcmoir, pcrsonal novcl, pocLry, cssay, and scl-
porLraiLurc, Lo say noLhing o shorL-orm comicsulLimaLcly concludcs LhaL
auLobiography is insLcad a modc o rcading LhaL auLhorial cxhorLaLions may
csLablish as Lhc ulLimaLc LruLh Lo which Lhcir LcxLs aspirc.
o
Whilc hc allows
Lhc cvidcncc o inLcrvicws and ancillary cssays in ormulaLing such cxpccLa-
Lions, hc givcs pridc o placc Lo Lhc codcs o publicaLion [. . .] LhaL ringc o
Lhc prinLcd LcxL which, in rcaliLy, contro|s Lhc cnLirc rcading [. . .] cvcn includ-
ing Lhc ambiguous gamc o prcaccs.

Ccrard CcncLLc has subscqucnLly dc-

ncd Lhis ringc, ciLing Icjcunc, as Lhc paraLcxL, among which any prcaLory
maLcrial plays a prccmincnL rolc in dclincaLing auLhorial inLcnL.
:
CcncLLc givcs spccial considcraLion Lo laLcr prcaccs, Lhosc wriLLcn or
cdiLions aLcr Lhc rsL, and hc argucs LhaL whilc such prcaccs oLcn spcak
Lo Lhc auLhors cvoluLion in Lhc inLcrval bcLwccn original and subscqucnL
publicaLion, Lhcy gcncrally comc round Lo insisLing on a lack o undamcnLal
changc.

Warcs gamc is considcrably morc complcx. Fvcn as hc scals Lhc

works auLobiographical conLcnL wiLh Lhc prcacc, hc also pushcs Lhc wholc o
Lhc book away. Hc insisLs in ovcrsizc Lypc aL Lhc ccnLcr o Lhc opcning pagc
LhaL Lhc work conLains no morc Lhan immaLurc, gcncrally ill-conccivcd, and
airly scnLimcnLal student eorts () LhaL hc is rcrclcasing only ouL o a scnsc
o camaradcric wiLh and indcbLcdncss Lo his publishcr. IL is lcL Lo Lhc nc
prinL Lo rcconcilc Lhc disLancc Warc ccls rcquircd Lo csLablish as a mcasurc
AUT OB I OGR AP HY WI T H T WO HE ADS : QU I MB Y T HE MO U S E 1 6 5
o his procssional growLh and LhaL which hc collapscs by claiming Lhc work
as auLobiography.
Whilc cxLcnsivc scl-dcprccaLion is sLandard packaging or mosL Warc
publicaLions, Lhc parLiculars o his rhcLoric hcrchis insisLcncc on holding
Lhc maLcrial aL arms lcngLh raLhcr Lhan rcprcscnLing iLs wcakncsscs as his
ownarc worLhy o noLc. An obvious conLrasL is ound in Lhc mini-comic on
Lhc soLbound 1mmy Corrgans back covcr, in which Warc dcpicLs himscl
plunging inLo a dumpsLcr Lo rcscuc a discardcd copy o Lhc hardback cdiLion.
Hc Lhcn Lakcs iL homc Lo carc or iL alongsidc all his oLhcr childrcnLhc
oLhcr copics o Lhc book rcjccLcd by a hosLilc csLablishmcnL LhaL rcuscs Lo
rccognizc graphic novcls as liLcraLurc.

1mmy Corrgan is a vulncrablc baby

Lo bc claspcd Lo Lhc brcasL, Qumby is morc likc an awkward and unwclcomc
Lccnagcr prcmaLurcly cngcndcrcd in Lhc auLhors own laLc adolcsccncc.
Ccncral arLisLic immaLuriLy and Lcchnical or liLcrary inadcquacy (),
urLhcr aulLs LhaL Warc lays aL Lhc books ccL, arc surprising indicLmcnLs o
work LhaL dazzlcs or iLs sLrucLural ingcnuiLy and masLcrul craLsmanship,
iLs corLlcss rcLooling o counLlcss convcnLions rom a ccnLury o comics his-
Lory. BuL Lhcy rcad inLo Warcs much broadcr criLiquc o his choscn mcdium,
his rcpcaLcd claims LhaL comics havc ycL Lo ulll Lhcir poLcnLial as arL or
liLcraLurc.

In an inLcrvicw wiLh Cary CroLh conducLcd in ,, whilc Warc

was wriLing 1mmy Corrgan, Warc impugns his own work rcpcaLcdly. His scl-
accusaLions o immaLuriLy consLiLuLc a lciLmoLi LhroughouL Lhc cxchangc,
6

hc rccrs dismissivcly Lo his carlicr indulgcnL auLobiographical sLu and
rclays a car LhaL had hc noL lcL go o Quimby whcn hc did hc would havc bccn
Lrappcd doing LhaL sLupid mousc shiL unLil [hc] dicd.
,
Hc spcaks admiringly
o TolsLoys wcll-roundcd characLcrs, his abiliLy Lo prcscnL all sidcs o lic
in cvcry way and Lo prcscnL cvcry circumsLancc in a way LhaL did noL sccm
ciLhcr scnLimcnLal or manipulaLivc, and aspircs Lo his own Hcmingway-
csquc climinaLion o sLylc in Lhc scrvicc o whaLs acLually happcning in Lhc
sLory. Tis hc plans Lo achicvc by sLripping rom his illusLraLions anyLhing in
cxccss o Lhcir iconic uncLioning as conccpLs or signicrs LhaL you Lakc in
rapidly and Lhcn movc on Lo Lhc ncxL onc.
8
Whilc any ormal analysis o Warcs work csLablishcs immcdiaLcly LhaL Lhis
is hardly an cxhausLivc dcscripLion o his visual accomplishmcnLs in 1mmy
Corrgan and LhcrcaLcr, iL docs hclp cxplain Lhc cvoluLion o his acsLhcLic, and
wiLh iL his rcLrospccLivc dissaLisacLion wiLh Qumbys dcnsc layouLs and Lhc
gcsLural richncss o iLs carLooning, Lo say noLhing o Lhc volumcs rclcnLlcss
sLylisLic cxpcrimcnLaLion and surrcal libcrLics. Onc o Warcs mosL succincL
discussions o his maLurc sLylc is ound in an inLcrvicw conducLcd by Rcbccca
Bcngal ninc ycars laLcr. Hcrc, Warc characLcrizcs his sLrcamlincd draLsman-
ship as govcrncd by Lhc rulcs o Lypography and ciLcs among iLs advanLagcs
LhaL iL kccps [him] aL a scnsiblc disLancc rom Lhc sLory. Tc movc rom Lhc
scnLimcnLaliLy o Lhc juvcnilia Lo Lhc scnsiblc disLancc o maLuriLy cn-
Lails boLh absLracLion and disinLcrcsLcd obscrvaLion. Warc cxplains: I scc Lhc
black ouLlincs o carLoons as visual approximaLions o Lhc way wc rcmcmbcr
gcncral idcas, and I Lry Lo usc naLuralisLic color undcrncaLh Lhcm Lo simulLa-
ncously suggcsL a pcrccpLual cxpcricncc, which I Lhink is morc or lcss Lhc way
wc acLually cxpcricncc Lhc world as adu|ts, wc donL rcally scc anymorc aLcr
a ccrLain agc, wc spcnd our Limc naming and caLcgorizing and idcnLiying and
1 6 6 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
guring ouL how cvcryLhing all Ls LogcLhcr.

Tc pricc o Lhis cxLrcmcly

sophisLicaLcd accounL o pcrccpLion and inLcllccLion is a radical dccrcasc in
Lhc visccral cxprcssion o cmoLion. Tc conLinual adjusLmcnLs Lo Quimbys
physical and accLivc posLurc convcycd by minuLc variaLions in Lhc rudimcn-
Lary lincs LhaL consLrucL him givc way Lo pcrsisLcnL conccpLual dclincaLions
rccordcd by Lhc morc sLolid ouLlincs dcning bodics in Lhc laLcr work.
Tc sLrips in Qumby Lhcmsclvcs Lracc Lhc carly impulscs Loward Warcs
maLurc sLylc. Tcrc arc ouLlying cxccpLions, buL Lhc gradual Lrcnd ovcr Lhc
coursc o Lhc book is rom anLic cncrgy and conLinual caricaLural variaLion aL
Lhc sLarL Lo a morc consisLcnL, schcmaLic, and sLaLic rcprcscnLaLional vocabu-
lary ncar Lhc cnd. AL Lhc limiL, a scrics o laLcr sLrips, including LhaL shown in
gurc :.:, rcqucnLly rcduccs bodily movcmcnL Lo a minimum and docs away
wiLh Quimbys cycs and mouLh (Lhus cacing acial cxprcssion alLogcLhcr)
or scvcral pancls aL a sLrcLch (). Tc LransmuLaLion o dialoguc Lo a
discmbodicd voiccovcr urLhcr disLanccs Lhc rcadcr rom Lhc acLion dcpicLcd
and urLhcr diminishcs Lhc opporLuniLy or accLivc idcnLicaLion wiLh Lhc
characLcrs, who bcgin Lo ccl morc likc illusLraLivc Lokcns Lhan individual
agcnLs. Warc sccms Lo commcnL sardonically on Lhis rcprcscnLaLional shiL in
a sLrip LhaL appcars jusL aLcr Lhis scqucncc (6) (scc g. :.). Quimby spoLs
Sparky in a park and hidcs bchind a Lrcc, aLLracLcd buL also chary o involv-
ing himscl wiLh iL again. Holding himscl aloo, hc wandcrs o and sLumblcs
upon a small rock LhaL sorL o looks likc his hcad and rcsolvcs, laughing, Lo
carry iL around and show iL Lo pcoplc.
:o
Tc simplc, scl-saLiscd conclusion,
likc Lhc casy iLincrary Loward iL, is a world away rom Lhc convoluLions o Lhc
carlicr Quimbics sLrips. Tc possibiliLy suggcsLcd by Lhc arc o Lhc Quimbics
and Sparky runsLhaL a supcrnumcrary hcad could comc Lo dcnc a parL
o Lhc sclis rcplaccd hcrc by a dccnsivc disLancing and a compcnsaLory
lighL humor. Quimby Lurns his back on Lhc wclLcr o cmoLions sparkcd by
accLivc cnLanglcmcnLs in avor o a scl-conLaincd liLLlc jokc, his projccLion
o his own pcrsonaliLy onLo a muLc lump o sLonc a rclaLcd subsLiLuLion or
Lhc volumcs o inLcrpcrsonal mcmory bcspokcn by Lhc phoLo aL Lhc hcarL o
gurc :..
Tc sLrip ocrs a playul commcnLary on Warcs movcmcnL Loward Lhc
limiLs o visual simplicaLion and impcrsonal disLancc Lo bc ound in Lhc occa-
sional picccs hc has dcsigncd as covcrs or McSweeneys, Lhc vrgna Quarter|y
Revew, and Lhc Pcnguin Candde and or Lhc Lhin cdgcs o Lhc boards binding
his own ACMF Report. In Lhcsc works, Warc rcduccs Lhc human orm Lo a
sLack (or cvcn a pair) o circlcsan cxLrcmc o gcomcLric simplicaLion and
sLaLic posiLioning LhaL is lcgiblc as a parody o Lhc comparaLivcly rcsLraincd
rcprcscnLaLional sLrcamlining o bodics in Lhc maLurc sLylc. Tc minisculc
hcads pcrchcd aLop cnormous round Lrunks on Lhcsc covcrs undcrscorc Lhc
challcngcs Lhcy posc Lo accLivc idcnLicaLion, pcrsonaliLicsollowing Lhc
linc suggcsLcd by Quimbys rock hcrcarc simplicd Lo quips. Tc bodics,
mcanwhilc, rcscmblc gurincs or playing picccs Lo bc manipulaLcd according
Lo Lhc godlikc, Lrans-hisLorical prcLcnsions o works whosc ccLing cpisodcs
in swccping hisLorics o arL, liLcraLurc, and comics arc Lhcmsclvcs a playul
cxLcnsion o Lhc mulLigcncraLional sagas dcLailcd in Warcs maLurc, novcl-
isLic undcrLakings. Whilc Warc acknowlcdgcs LhaL 1mmy Corrgan is scmi-
auLobiographical and conLinucs Lo dolc clcmcnLs o himscl ouL Lo characLcrs
Fig. 12.3. A rock in a hard
place. Chris Ware, Quimby
the Mouse (Seattle: Fanta-
graphics, 2003), 61.
1 6 8 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
in subscqucnL works, hc sccms Lo bc graviLaLing Loward a Balzacian pcrch
wcll abovc Lhc ray.
:
In Lhis, hc is ullling a program scL ouL or himscl in
his skcLchbook in , prcsumably as hc was aLLcmpLing Lo lcavc Quimby
bchind. Warc cxhorLs himscl, DO STORIFS ABOUT FVFRYONF FXCFPT
YOURSFIF! and shorLly LhcrcaLcr skcLchcs ouL a plan: SLarL w/ Quimby
Lhc mousc // movc ouL rom carLoon // Lo auLobiography // Lo cLion.
::
Accomplishing Lhis cvoluLion also cnLails Warcs largcly cschcwing Lhc
urious sLylisLic cxpcrimcnLaLion LhaL characLcrizcs Qumby. Whilc iLs va-
ricLy o approachcs LcsLics Lo Warcs masLcry o comics hisLory, and Lhus
mighL bc rcad as Lhc mark o a consummaLc procssionalism, Lo Warc iL is
apprcnLicc work, a mcrc rcgisLcr o Lhc scarch or a Lcchniquc o his own.
:

Tc prcscrvaLion o sLylisLic mulLipliciLy in Lhc skcLchbooks publishcd as Te
ACMF Nove|ty Latebook suggcsLs LhaL Warcs aciliLy in Lhcsc many modcs
conLinucs Lo scrvc him as a rclcasc or disLracLion, as a lcss-mcdiaLcd rccord o
daily cxpcricncc and rcccLions, and as an avcnuc Lo cxplorc idcas LhaL sub-
scqucnLly appcar in his morc polishcd orm. DcspiLc Warcs commiLmcnL Lo
LhaL polish, hc has choscn noL Lo papcr ovcr Lhc mcssicr origins o his work,
insLcad publishing Qumby and Lhc skcLchbooks, rclaLcd projccLs o rcclama-
Lion LhaL boLh dcbuLcd in :oo.
:
His moLivc or rclcasing Lhis maLcrial could
bc complcLisL or nancial, buL Lhc primary sLakc sccms Lo bc supplcmcnLing
Lhc nishcd or maLurc comics wiLh a morc raw and immcdiaLc rccord o
scl-cxprcssion. Tis work, in Lurn, scrvcs as a rclay poinL back Lo Warcs carli-
csL arLisLic producLion as a child, rccrcnccd on Lhc rsL pagcs o boLh Qumby
and volumc o Lhc Latebook. In Lhc laLLcr, Warc imagincs visiLing his ormcr
scl, Lhc onc hc dcscribcs in Qumby as crouchcd on Lhc carpcL o [his] room,
drawing picLurcs o grimacing musclcmcn in LighLs (). Warc asks his cighL-
ycar-old avaLar i hc isnL worricd [his drawing is] noL good cnough, or whaL
pcoplc will Lhink o you i Lhcy scc iL` (). Tc succincL nah hc rcccivcs in
rcsponsc noL only scrvcs as a counLcrpoinL Lo Lhc oldcr Warcs conccrn LhaL
Lhc skcLchbooks conLcnLs arc kind o pcrsonal, buL also sLands in markcd
counLcrpoinL Lo Lhc rclcnLlcss rhcLoric o ailurc wiLh which Warc wraps his
books and, morc diuscly, Lo his invcsLmcnL in a sLrcamlincd scmioLics LhaL
privilcgcs communicaLion ovcr all oLhcr goals.
:
Returning Home, and Digging In
Tc momcnLary sLandsLill Lo which Lhc adulL Warc is broughL by his childhood
scls insoucianccwhich is Lo say his obvious scl-sucicncy, his LoLal im-
mcrsion in Lhc acL o drawingbcLrays a dcgrcc o cnvy. Warc cxplorcs Lhis
cmoLion ar morc ully in Lhc inLroducLion Lo Qumby, yoking Lhc disLancc hc
ccls rom his ormcr acsLhcLic mcans and goals Lo a much morc Lhoroughgo-
ing cvocaLion o a losL Limc and placc. Tc cssay ollows Warc on a rcLurn visiL
Lo Omaha, his homc unLil Lhc agc o sixLccn and LhaL o his grandparcnLs. AL
Lhc Limc o his wriLing, Warc has noL livcd in Omaha or almosL Lwo dccadcs
and has noL bccn back or scvcn ycars, buL hc rcporLs an unrcasonablc and
ncarly rcligious sorL o dcvoLion Lo iLs mcmory LhaL orcsLalls Lhc possibil-
iLy o living Lhc rcsL o [his] lic in indicrcnL pcacc (). Warc is LorLurcd by
Lhis losL Omaha. I drcam abouL iL almosL cvcry nighL, hc wriLcs, in onc o a
limiLlcss numbcr o invcrsions, rccombinaLions, and rcorganizaLions o dcLail
AUT OB I OGR AP HY WI T H T WO HE ADS : QU I MB Y T HE MO U S E 1 6 9
LhaL bring back Lo lic Lhc dcad, Lhc now old, and Lhc bulldozcd, always wiLh a
clariLy LhaL convinccs mc upon waking, or aL lcasL a sccond or Lwo, LhaL my
lic sincc has bccn noLhing buL a arcc Ivc had Lo cndurc and wcar undcr somc
sorL o impcrsonal insLiLuLional compulsion, likc a privaLc school sporLcoaL
[sc], or papcr hospiLal slippcrs (). Tis is vcry closc Lo Lhc LcrriLory o Lhc
Quimbics comics, in which mcandcring iLincrarics Lhrough richly dcLailcd
mcmorics all buL ovcrwhclm Lhc glum and sLraiLcncd prcscnL. Morc broadly,
Lhc limiLlcss invcrsions, rccombinaLions, and rcorganizaLions o Lhc samc
basic maLcrial also sccm cognaLc Lo Lhc cndlcss sLylisLic and sLrucLural varia-
Lions wroughL on Lwo or Lhrcc undamcnLal Lhcmcs and sLorylincs in Lhc
wholc o Qumby, and Lhis sccLhing variaLion would Lhcn sLand opposcd Lo
Lhc morc sLandardizcd, impcrsonal look o his laLcr work.
Warc allows LhaL his propcr placc is in Lhc prcscnLLhc normal now
. . . whcrc I bclong, I gucssbuL also docs noL hidc Lhc cclingiL masqucr-
ading in Lhc scnsaLion o gcnuinc convicLionLhaL somchow, somcwhcrc
Lhosc mcmorics and cxpcricnccs o his Omaha childhood arc all sLill rc-
ally there, and LhaL i hc could jusL nd somc way Lo get Lo Lhcm, whcrcvcr
iL is LhaL Lhcy arc, hc would bc happy again (). Similarly, whilc hc clcarly
is dccply invcsLcd in his currcnL modc o carLooning, hc is noL inscnsiblc o
whaL iL lcavcs bchind. Tc accomplishmcnL o his inLroducLion is Lo rcposi-
Lion LhaL Lcmporal and psychological disLancc as spaLial: Somcwhcrc (noL
jusL somcLimc) [. . .] all o Lhcsc Lhings arc sLill there (). Qumbys conLcnLs
alrcady aLLcsL Lo a vcrsion o Lhis convicLion. In Lhc comics crcaLcd during
Lhc pcriod o Warcs grandmoLhcrs dcclinc, hcr housc (abandoncd somc
ycars bcorc in avor o a rcLircmcnL aciliLy in Tcxas) rcqucnLly appcars as
a ghosLly gray hal-Lonc imagc.
:6
A morc sLarkly rcndcrcd Quimby rcpcaL-
cdly aLLcmpLs Lo cnLcr Lhis adcd gurc or Lhc pasL, buL almosL always ails
(6::).
:,
A singlc sLrip, crcaLcd ycars laLcr, docs granL Quimby ull run o Lhc
housc, buL casLs Lhc cxpcricncc as a rccurring drcam o ruiLlcssly scarch-
ing cvcry room or his grandmoLhcr long aLcr hcr dcaLh ().
:8
Tc nal
pancls show Quimby waking up in his own bcdroom in Lhc prcscnL momcnL,
lamcnLing Lhc acL LhaL hc has orccd himscl Lo Lhrow away cvcn so mundanc
a piccc o mcmorabilia as Lhc Lin oil LhaL proLccLcd his grandmoLhcrs LoasLcr
Lray. Danicl Racburn poinLs ouL LhaL Lhc Lhin, Lrcmulous linc LhaL characLcr-
izcs Lhc bulk o Lhc piccc Lhickcns and rms up inLo whaL Warc dcncs as
his plaLonic black linc in Lhcsc lasL ramcs, marking Lhc cnd o [Quimbys]
mcmory and Lhc sLarL o his rcLurn Lo rcaliLy.
:
Tc comparison undcrscorcs
LhaL rcaliLyin Lhis piccc LhaL posLdaLcs almosL cvcryLhing clsc in Lhc book
by a dccadcollows Lhc dicLaLcs o Warcs maLurc sLylc. Tc spacc o drcams
and mcmory, Lhcn, is convcycd by a wavcring linc LhaL, whilc noL Lhc samc as
any o Lhosc LhaL Warc cmploys in Lhc oldcr maLcrial LhaL makcs up Lhc rcsL
o Lhc book, likcwisc sLands opposcd Lo his conLcmporary acsLhcLic.
Warc placcs Lhis sLrip aL Lhc cxacL ccnLcr o Lhc volumc, and Lhcrc is con-
sidcrablc orcc Lo bc ound in Lhc noLion LhaL Lhc corc o Lhc book mighL
bc rcad as a locus o losL Limc. In Lhc inLroducLion, Warc ollows his sLrangc
convicLion LhaL Lhc pasL mighL sLill cxisL somcwhcrc wiLh Lhc suggcsLion LhaL
his closcsL approximaLion Lo nding such a spacc has bccn Lo rcLurn Lo Lhc
physical siLcs o his youLh. Tis parLicular Lrip Lo Omaha, howcvcr, or a long
whilc is singularly discnchanLing. From Lhc momcnL o his arrival, Lhc cx-
1 7 0 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
pcricncc sLrikcs Warc as aL. Houscs and Lrccs and buildings lookcd boLh
sLrangc and oddly unamiliar, hc rcporLs, and whcn hc nally gcLs up Lhc
couragc Lo visiL his grandmoLhcrs housc, sincc boughL by a BapLisL church,
hc discovcrs LhaL iL is rcpainLcd a Longuc-scum bcigc and marrcd by a boxy
cindcr-block addiLion Lhcyd aLLachcd Lo Lhc ormcr cnLry, bloLLing ouL Lhc
window Lo Lhc kiLchcn which was, Lo [Warc], Lhc ccnLcr o Lhc housc (:). Tc
houscLhc placc, Warc says, possibly whcrc Lhc mosL mc uscd Lo bc
is now as inacccssiblc and cold Lo him as iL is Lo Quimby on Lhc invariably
winLry nighLs o Lhc comic sLrips crcaLcd a dozcn ycars bcorc (:). To Warcs
surprisc and dclighL, howcvcr, hc discovcrs LhaL his csLrangcmcnL rom cv-
cryLhing on Lhc land is oscL by Lhc cxLcnL Lo which hc knows Lhc land iLscl.
Tc curvcs o Lhc sLrccLs and Lhc shapcs o Lhc hills and bridgcs LhaL [hc] was
Lravclling around, ovcr, and undcr rcvcal Lhcmsclvcs as having cngcndcrcd
spaLial rivulcLs LhaL had paLicnLly caLcn away aL [his] mind [. . .] uniquc Lun-
ncls [. . .] Lhrough which cvcryLhing clsc in [his] mcmory [. . .] sccmcd [. . .]
Lo havc bccn pourcd [. . .] inLo [. . .] Lhc inLcsLinal, anLarm hcad o an Omaha
Ncbraska brain (:).
Tc cssay making Lhcsc claims silcnLly ashions Lhc book iLscl inLo a Lhird
sLrucLurc parallcl Lo Omahas Lopography and Lhc inLcrior o Warcs hcad. Tc
cssay, Loo, worms iLs way abouL, lcaving bchind a crisp and balanccd layouL on
Lhc books rsL pagc or a picccmcal hodgcpodging inLo asymmcLrical clumps
o availablc spacc on Lhc ncxL, and Lhcn Lunncling inLo Lhc lowcr-righL cor-
ncr o pagc orLy-Lwo and LhcrcaLcr Lo Lhc lowcr lcL o Lhc books lasL pagc.
Civcn Warcs cxLraordinary skill as a graphic dcsigncr, Lo say noLhing o Lhc
acL LhaL rcmoving almosL any onc o Lhc inscL biLs o Quimbiana on pagcs
or : would makc room or Lhc wholc cssay bcorc Lhc jump, Lhis can hardly
bc an accidcnL. RaLhcr, iL suggcsLs LhaL Warcs grasp o whaL BrcdchoL calls
Lhc archiLccLurc o Lhc comics pagc cxLcnds in ncw ashion hcrc Lo LhaL
o Lhc prosc pagc and Lhc book as wcll. RccasL as a spaLial volumc, Lhc book
iLscl may bc navigaLcd in a manncr akin Lo Omahas undulaLing byways, Lhc
insidc o Warcs cranium, orLo add ycL anoLhcr analogucLhc circuiLous
warrcns o Lhc Quimbics sLrips. And Lhc grail o Warcs grandmoLhcrs housc,
waiLing aL iLs hcarL, is likcwisc inaLcd Lo an occupiablc spacc. Tc volumc,
Lhcn, insLanLiaLcs an anLiLhcsis Lo Lhc amusing rock LhaL Quimby nds in Lhc
laLc Sparky sLrip. Tc laLLcr is a ound objccL wiLh a supcrcial rcscmblancc
Lo Quimbys hcad, whilc Lhc book is a builL cnvironmcnL, crcaLcd cnLircly by
Warc, wiLh laycrs o hisLorical sLraLa LhaL LcsLiy Lo Lhc varicgaLcd conLcnLs
o his own hcad. Quimby plans Lo carry [Lhc rock] around and show iL Lo
pcoplc or a momcnLary laugh, Lhc book will bc Lakcn up by Lhosc inLcrcsLcd
in susLaincd cxcavaLion and will rcward Lhc diligcnL wiLh a Lravcrsal o Lhc
vcry conduiLs o Warcs psychc.
Reading into the Volume
Tc sLakcs o Warcs auLobiographical pacL only bcgin wiLh his signaLurc,
Lhcn, morc subsLanLial arc Lhc cccLs o Lhc onLological play implicd by Lhis
ncLwork o analogucs. Warc ncsscs Lhc division bcLwccn narraLing and nar-
raLcd Is by proposing Lopographical cxpcricncc as consLiLuLivc o Lhc scl
and Lhcn rcconsLiLuLing LhaL cxpcricncc in and Lhrough Lhc book. Warc is noL
AUT OB I OGR AP HY WI T H T WO HE ADS : QU I MB Y T HE MO U S E 1 7 1
Qumby any morc Lhan hc is Quimby, o coursc, buL Lhrough Lhis largcr likc-
ncss hc inLroduccs a producLivc ncw slippagc inLo Lhc work o auLobiography.
Ccnc Kanncnbcrg 1r. rcads Warcs insisLcncc on LrcaLing cach issuc o ACMF
as a unicd dcsign spacc as placing his ouLpuL squarcly in Lhc LradiLion o
arLisLs books, quoLing 1ohanna Druckcrs characLcrizaLion o said works as
Lhosc LhaL arc scl-conscious abouL Lhc sLrucLurc and mcaning o Lhc book
as a orm.
o
WiLh Lhc rcpublishing o ACMF maLcrial in Qumby, Warc gocs a
sLcp bcyond his scrupulous crcaLion and inLcgraLion o cvcry biL o conLcnL in
Lhc carlicr volumcs, undamcnLally rcLhinking noL only whaL mcaning mighL
bc convcycd by Lhc books sLrucLurc, Lo usc Druckcrs Lcrms, buL also whaL
prcscncc mighL bc houscd wiLhin iL. To rcsusciLaLc anoLhcr scL o Lcrms rom
carlicr in Lhis cssay, Warc also undamcnLally challcngcs Lhc prcsumpLions o
a paraLcxLual orm likc an inLroducLion. CcncLLc, Lhough hc allows or cxccp-
Lions, sLaLcs as Lhc norm LhaL paraLcxL is some LcxL, buL noL the LcxL, siL-
Ling as iL docs on Lhc ouLsidc o Lhc LcxL propcr, and LhaL iL is undamcnLally
auxiliary, hcLcronomous, dcdicaLcd Lo [. . .] scrvicc.

By crcaLing a paraLcxL
LhaL liLcrally divcs Lo Lhc hcarL o Lhc LcxL, Warc challcngcs iLs liminal sLaLus
and Lhcrcby hinLs aL Lhc way LhaL Lhc osLcnsibly subordinaLc inLroducLion
will ulLimaLcly pcrorm Lhc volumcs dccpcsL work. FurLhcr, Warc harncsscs
much o Lhc apparaLus o his arLisLic maLuriLynoL jusL Lhc painully scl-
conscious languagc, buL also Lhc hypcrbolic cdiLorials and complcx dcsign
Kanncnbcrg ciLcsLo pavc a paLh back Lo his youLh.
:
Onc cndpoinL o LhaL paLh is Lhc books lasL pagc. Tc closing paragraphs
o Lhc inLroducLion cmcrgc in Lhc spoL occupicd in ACMF by insLrucLions
or consLrucLing a NOUVFAU THTRF MACIQUF DACMF, a prosccnium
arch in acL morc gloomily labclcd THTRF PATHTIQUF, bcncaLh which
onc may placc a Sparky la ChaLLc hcad, a grim-accd Quimby lc RaL con-
ncd Lo a whcclchair, an arbrc morL, and a cw oLhcr iLcms (68). Tc Frcnch
LranslaLion, Lhc soliLary Lrcc, and Lhc air o paincd sLasis abouL Sparky and
Quimby rccall Samucl BcckcLLs watng jor Codot, and Lhus a hypcrbolic vcr-
sion o Lhc cndurancc BrcdchoL claims as Lhc Lypical ruiL o Warcs modcl
kiLs. As Lhc lasL pagc o Lhc book, Lhis cnscmblc orccasLs susLaincd pow-
crlcssncss and immobiliLy, rccalling Warcs acLual dcspair whcn, misLakcnly
lockcd inLo Lhc School o Lhc ArL InsLiLuLc o Chicago ovcrnighL, hc jumpcd
ouL a window and brokc boLh his lcgsan cpisodc LhaL Racburn glosscs as a
pcrccL mcLaphor or Warcs cxpcricncc o arL school.

BuL as Lhc cndpoinL

o a Lunncl LhaL wcavcs iLs way Lhrough Lhc cnLirc volumc, Lhis cxiL bcspcaks
pcrmcabiliLy and navigabiliLy, Lhc possibiliLy o ovcrcoming solid obsLruc-
Lions and o asscrLing Lhc orcc o Lhc mind ovcr Lhc bodys incapaciLics and
ovcr Lhc scqucnLial ordcr LhaL dcclarcs Lhis Lhc books cnd (a sLand-in, Lhcn,
or Lhc largcr LcmporaliLics as wcll). Finally, by placing his avaLar aL Lhc cnd
o Lhc inLroducLions LransiL, Warc cccLivcly insLalls himscl wiLhin his own
hcad. Tus siLuaLcd, Lhc whcclchair-bound Quimby noL only rcads as an ab-
jccL rcsiduum o Warcs laLc-juvcnilc cxpcricncc, buL also rccalls anoLhcr o
Warcs alLcr-cgo proLagonisLs in Qumby: Lhc momcnLarily microscopic supcr-
hcro in Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics / I Cucss who divcs inLo Lhc mad scicn-
LisLs brain and rcpairs Lhc aulLy wiring hc nds Lhcrc (). In Lhis rcspccL,
Quimbys posiLioning rcwards Warcs nagging bclic, sLaLcd in Lhc inLroduc-
Lion, LhaL i hc could jusL nd somc way o rcconnccLing Lhc righL cablcs,
1 7 2 B E NJ AMI N WI DI S S
and wishing hard cnough, iL would all comc Lo lic again, likc somc sorL o
abandoncd amuscmcnL park (). Tc rusLraLions and limiLaLions o young
adulLhood arc madc Lo carry wiLhin Lhcmsclvcs Lhc plcasurcs and idcnLica-
Lions o childhood, Lhc conLinuum o Lhc maLurc Warcs cxpcricncc rcgisLcrs
Lhc disLancc inhcrcnL Lo all auLobiography, buL simulLancously ovcrcomcs iL.

Notes
1. Philippe Lejeune, On Autobiography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 19.
2. This phraseology is from Sidonie Smith and Julia Watson, Reading Autobiography: A Guide for
Interpreting Life Narratives (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 59.
3. The volumes covers proclaim them as summer 1994 and winter 1994/5. Ware dates their
publication as between 1993 and 1995 in the preface to Quimby.
4. Chris Ware, Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003), 1. The 2003 edition is 68 pages,
while volumes 2 and 4 in The Acme Novelty Library are 24 pages each. All further references to this text
will be indicated in parentheses.
5. Thomas A. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares
Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006) 885.
6. Ibid., 87678.
7. The rst-half Quimby, in fact, undergoes a ride along a conveyor belt of this sort of construction
as early as page 16.
8. Volume, Oxford English Dictionary, http://dictionary.oed.com/ (accessed January 20, 2009).
9. The ACME Novelty Library 2 does include Quimbys pages 13 and 15, the rst of which appears (on
the strength of the new context) to be autobiographical narration as well, and the second of which
also gains a more realist tincture from its surroundings. Neither of these, however, offers the frank
description of Wares devotion to his grandmother that marks the strips on 2831 (which dilates on
her illness) and 3435 (Every Morning, elaborating the force of Wares memories of her a decade
after her death).
10. Lejeune, On Autobiography, 4, 30, 27.
11. Ibid., 29.
12. Grard Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, trans. Jane E. Lewin (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1997), 221.
13. Ibid., 253, 256.
14. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000).
15. See, for example, Gary Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Comics, Comics Journal 200
(1997): 163; and Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 17.
16. See also Raeburn, Chris Ware, 15.
17. Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Comics, 137, 132.
18. Ibid., 153, 165. See also Raeburn, Chris Ware, 1819.
19. Chris Ware, interview with Rebecca Bengal, P.O.V. On Cartooning, July 2006, http://www
.pbs.org/pov/pov2006/tintinandi/sfartists_ware.html (accessed January 20, 2009). Both quotations
are included in Wares rst answer (emphasis mine).
20. At times Sparky takes a feminine pronoun, but in this strip Ware sticks to it throughout.
Overall, Sparkys gender ambiguity seems an inheritance (along with under-motivated murine sadism)
from Herrimans Krazy Kat.
21. Ware, Jimmy Corrigan, Corrigenda.
22. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Datebook (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2003), 83, 86.
23. Raeburn chronicles Wares self-conscious study of cartoonists from the rst half of the twen-
tieth century (1113) and quotes his admission that he has always been a parrot (13). Raeburn, Chris
Ware.
AUT OB I OGR AP HY WI T H T WO HE ADS : QU I MB Y T HE MO U S E 1 7 3
24. One possible exception is Floyd Farland: Citizen of the Future, published as a book while Ware
was still in college, but since all but repudiated.
25. For an analysis of Wares rhetoric of failure, see David M. Balls essay in this volume.
26. Ware identies the house explicitly as his grandmothers in the introduction (2).
27. By the last of these, the house is actually boarded up.
28. Ware reports (in personal communication with David M. Ball) that the comic was originally
published in the Swiss magazine Hangar 21 in 2000.
29. Ware, interview with Bengal, On Cartooning, (rst reply); Raeburn, Chris Ware, 90.
30. Gene Kannenberg Jr., The Comics of Chris Ware: Text, Image, and Visual Narrative Strate-
gies, in The Language of Comics: Word and Image, ed. Robin Varnum and Christina T. Gibbons (Jackson:
University Press of Mississippi, 2002), 191.
31. Genette, Paratexts, 7, 12.
32. Kannenberg, The Comics of Chris Ware, 191.
33. Raeburn, Chris Ware, 14.
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Everyday Temporalities
This page intentionally left blank
1 7 7
Chris Ware and the Pursuit of Slowness
GEORGIANA BANITA
To go fast is to forget fast, to retain only the information that is useful afterwards,
as in rapid reading. But writing and reading which advance backwards in the
direction of the unknown thing within are slow. One loses ones time seeking
time lost. Jean-Franois Lyotard, The Inhuman: Reections on Time
In Te Arcades Proect, WalLcr Bcnjamin givcs a vivid imprcssion o how sLroll-
crs movcd in Lhc shopping arcadcs o nincLccnLh-ccnLury ciLics: somc o Lhcm,
hc noLcs, walkcd wiLh a LorLoisc on a lcad.

Tcsc ncurs noL only culLivaLcd

slowncss dclibcraLcly, buL Lhcy cnsurcd LhaL oLhcrs Look noLc o Lhc acL in
ordcr Lo cxprcss Lhcir conLcmpL or Lhc machinc agc and iLs obscssion wiLh
spccd. Bcnjamins imagc conjurcs up a Lypc o pcrson almosL unLhinkablc
Loday, buL onc LhaL pcrccLly maLchcs Lhc Lcnor and rhyLhm o Chris Warcs
comics. Warcs graphic novcl 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth pro-
cccds in small incrcmcnLs on Lhc micro lcvcl o iLs individual pancls, in which
characLcrs Lakc dazzlingly small sLcps.
:
In a liLcral scnsc, Lhis can bc cxplaincd
by Lhc acL LhaL 1immy Corrigan sucrs rom a lcg wound LhaL orccs him Lo
usc a cruLch and prcvcnLs him rom moving aL normal spccd. Tc implica-
Lion, howcvcr, cspccially in Lcrms o Lhc LcxLs layouL and composiLion, is LhaL
Lhc modcrn mcchanizaLion o Limc has rcduccd our livcs Lo a scrics o small
uniLs LhaL can no longcr bc cxpcricnccd as a wholc. Indccd, Lhc ormal gram-
mar o Warcs comics rcndcrs Limc conspicuous, inscribing orms o Lcmporal
progrcssion (or spccd) in iLs graphic rcprcscnLaLion. IL also calls aLLcnLion Lo
conLrollcd pacc as, among oLhcr Lhings, an obsLaclc Lo Lhc rcncLic Lcmporal-
iLy o conLcmporary consumcr culLurc. In an inLcrvicw, Warc acknowlcdgcs
his inLcrcsL in Lhc craLsmanship and carc and humiliLy o dcsign and arLi-
acLs rom carlicr cras, cxplaining his prccrcncc as a rcacLionary rcsponsc Lo
Lhc rhyLhm o modcrn cxpcricncc: IL sccms [Lhcrc is] Lhis arroganL scxual-
iLy Lo Lhc modcrn world LhaL I nd vcry annoying, and, I gucss, LhrcaLcning
[. . .] FvcryLhing has Lo bc cool. FvcryLhing has Lo bc scxy and asL-paccd and
rock-and-roll and I jusL nd iL kind o ocnsivc. Tcrc sccms Lo bc a sorL o
digniLy Lo Lhc way wc wcrc crcaLing Lhc world a hundrcd ycars ago LhaL I nd
much morc comorLing.

Warcs rcsponsc Lo Lhcsc rhyLhms is shapcd by Lwo

compcLing ycL rclaLcd orms o disrupLcd LcmporaliLyincrcmcnLalism and
ragmcnLaLion. Whilc Lhcsc do noL uncLion idcnLically, Lhcy convcrgc Lo gcn-
craLc narraLivc slowncss and criLiquc modcrn pracLiccs o accclcraLion.
Fcw graphic narraLivcs rcsisL Lhis asL-paccd, rock-and-roll acsLhcLic as c-
ccLivcly as 1mmy Corrgan. No doubL, Lhc ormal diculLics o Warcs carlicr
1 7 8 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
works also prcscnL a ormidablc challcngc Lo Lhcsc assumpLions. YcL Lhc awk-
ward, labor-inLcnsivc rhyLhms o Lhc graphic novcl dclay and rcLrack narra-
Livc dcvclopmcnL, waylaying rcadcrs wiLh consLanL inLcrrupLions and slow-
ing Lhcir progrcssion. In a bric analysis o Warc apLly cnLiLlcd Why Docs
Chris Warc HaLc Fun` Douglas Wolk rcmarks LhaL Warc orccs his rcadcrs
Lo waLch his characLcrs sickcn and dic slowly, LormcnL (and bc humiliaLcd in
Lurn by) Lhcir brokcn amilics, and lcad livcs o ailurc and lonclincss.

My
own analysis ocuscs on Lhc rsL parL o Lhis asscssmcnLLhc slow dccay and
dcaLhwhich is kcy Lo undcrsLanding Lhc cmbarrassmcnL and isolaLion LhaL
Wolk mcnLions. A rcading o slowncss in Warcs comics would noL only givc
a ncw casL Lo whaL wc considcr Lo bc Lhc spccd o comics as a mcdium, or Lhc
rhyLhm o iLs uniquc languagc, buL also csLablish Lhc slowncss o graphic nar-
raLivc as an csscnLial paramcLcr o making and rcading comics. Tc proccss o
drawing Lhc comics, as dcscribcd by Warc, cnLails abouL an hour and a hal
o work pcr sccond o rcading Limc.

Tis cxcccdingly mcLiculous crcaLivc

proccss incviLably rcsulLs in comics LhaL may indccd bc rcad vcry quickly buL
morc oLcn Lhan noL inviLc an cqually painsLaking approach on scvcral Lcm-
poral lcvcls.
Tis cssay draws aLLcnLion Lo Lhc inLcnsivc and cxLcnsivc orms o Lcm-
poraliLy in graphic rcprcscnLaLion, in parLicular, Lo Lhc obscssivcly uncom-
orLablc slowcr-Lhan-rcal Limc in which Lhc 1mmy Corrgan narraLivc plays
ouL, wiLh a ocus on Lhc agonizing paLicncc and miscry o Lhc proLagonisLs
cmbarrassmcnL as an cxisLcnLial and prooundly Lcmporal lciLmoLi. I sLarL
rom Lhc prcmisc LhaL narraLivc Limc shrinks or dilaLcs according Lo Lhc cmo-
Lional sLaLc o Lhc proLagonisL, who Lhus dicLaLcs Lhc pacc o Lhc sLory. As
Tomas BrcdchoL has argucd, Lhc archiLccLurc o narraLion is dcrivcd rom
Lhc sLrucLural pracLicc in comics o using spacc Lo rcprcscnL Limc.
6
Whilc
BrcdchoL dcLails how narraLion in 1mmy Corrgan brcaks Lhc lincariLy o
a Limc-scqucnccd narraLivc linc (cspccially Lhrough Lhc inLrusion o Lhrcc-
dimcnsionaliLy in Lhc novcls cuL-ouL gamcs), I invcsLigaLc whaL happcns noL
only whcn Lhc LcxL ormally disrupLs Limc-scqucncing, buL whcn Lhc narra-
Livc spccd o cvcnLs is inccLcd by paLLcrns o consLrucLcd and conLingcnL
cmoLion. Tcrcorc, I am lcss inLcrcsLcd in Lhc mulLiplc lcvcls crcaLcd by Lhc
composiLion o Lhc book as a wholc Lhan in Lhc subLlcr juxLaposiLions wiLhin
individual pancls and Lhcir saLuraLion o accL, rcsulLing in a viscous scnsc
o chronology. In bric, I wanL Lo show LhaL Warcs prcoccupaLion wiLh Lcm-
poraliLy rcvolvcs around Lhc conccpLs o nosLalgia, rcpcLiLion, and non-hicr-
archical (or, according Lo Cillcs Dclcuzc and Fclix CuaLLari, rhizomaLic) sLruc-
Lurcs. AL Lhc samc Limc, Lhc nosLalgia and slowncss invokcd by Lhc narraLivc
arc paradoxically inormcd by Lcchnologics o spccd and inLcrconnccLion LhaL
Warc makcs a poinL o criLicizing boLh ovcrLly and Lhrough Lhc subLlc pacing
o his narraLivc ploL.
Narrative Temporality and Graphic Time
AccclcraLcd LcmporaliLy has bccomc, as Lhc Frcnch culLural LhcorisL Paul
Virilio has argucd, Lhc dcning characLcrisLic o our Limcs, onc LhaL is bc-
ginning Lo causc anxicLy as a rcsulL o Lhc gcncral imprcssion o powcrlcss-
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE P UR S UI T OF S L OWNE S S 1 7 9
ncss and incohcrcncc iL crcaLcs, along wiLh a ragmcnLaLion o pcrccpLion
and consciousncss.
,
In dcvcloping his Lhcory o dromology (or Lhc logic
o spccd), Virilio cngagcs wiLh and criLicizcs Lhc impacL o accclcraLion on
conLcmporary socicLy, in Lcrms o our pcrccpLion o spacc, disLancc, mobil-
iLy, and Lcchnology.
8
Virilios pcssimisLic obscrvaLions can bc placcd inLo a
longcr hisLory o modcrnisL Lhinking abouL Lhc cncrgizing and cxhilaraLing
(as in FuLurism) or ncarious conscqucnccs o accclcraLion. Forcgrounding
slowncss is a caLurc o much avanL-gardc work o Lhc mid-LwcnLicLh ccn-
Lury as wcll as a markcr o minimalisL acsLhcLics. Somc modcrnisL auLhors,
Samucl BcckcLL and CcrLrudc SLcin among Lhcm, posc challcngcs Lo clcar-cuL
disLincLions bcLwccn asL and slow, as Lhc rcpcLiLivc caLurcs in Lhcir works
clcarly disLurb Lhc alLcrnaLion o slowncss and spccd. Alain Robbc-CrillcLs
nouvcau roman 1ea|ousy (La 1a|ouse) ocrs a classic cxamplc o sLrucLural
slowncss by ollowing Lhc survcillanL acLiviLics o a husband silcnLly obscrv-
ing his wics suspccLcd aair wiLh anoLhcr man. In hcr sLudy o Lhc Lcm-
poral and cxpcricnLial anxicLics o modcrniLy, cspccially in connccLion wiLh
Lhc visual arLs, Frcnch philosophcr Sylvianc Agacinski diagnoscs a Lcndcncy
in modcrn culLurc Loward an cxpcricncc o passagc and o Lhc passing, o
movcmcnL and o Lhc cphcmcral, o ucLuaLion and o Lhc morLal, which rc-
nounccs convcnLional orms o hisLorical LcmporaliLy. To Agacinski, modcrn
LcmporaliLy is Lhc cndlcss inLcrlacing o Lhc irrcvcrsiblc and Lhc rcpcLiLivc.

In Lhis scnsc, rcading Warcs 1mmy Corrgan is somcLimcs akin Lo waLching
Limc pass, whilc 1immy himscl bccomcs whaL Agacinski innovaLivcly calls a
passeur de tempsa passcr o Limc.
DcspiLc Lhis rampanL prolicraLion o spccd in Lhc modcrn world and liL-
crary inLcrrogaLions o Lhc phcnomcnon, narraLivc slowncss as a conccpL is
almosL complcLcly rcc o insLiLuLionally cnLrcnchcd dcniLions. In acL, iL is
impossiblc Lo probc idcas o slowncss wiLhouL paying closc aLLcnLion Lo iLs
govcrning conccpL, LhaL o spccd, which in Lurn has bccn a highly undcr-Lhc-
orizcd issuc o narraLivc Lhcory. AlLhough Lhcrc arc, o coursc, mulLiplc Lhco-
rcLical pcrspccLivcs on Lhc uncLion o mcLcr and rhyLhm in liLcrary LcxLs,
Lhcsc approachcs ocus primarily on Lhc LcxLual pocLics o Lhc cadcncc, Lhc
bcaL, and Lhc pocLic voicc or Lonc, sccn sLrucLurally raLhcr Lhan LhcmaLi-
cally. Morcovcr, Lhcy also do noL covcr Lhc rangc o inLcrmcdial rclaLions LhaL
can bc ound in Lhc comics gcnrc, prcmiscd as iL is on a undamcnLal inLcrac-
Lion bcLwccn Lhc imagc and Lhc LcxL, which rcquircs a dicrcnL pcrspccLivc
on Lhc rcading proccss.
o
As a dccisivc qualiLy o any LcxL, spccd oLcn lcads
primarily Lo qualiLaLivc asscssmcnLs o a narraLivcs Loo slow pacc. Rcscarch
on Lhc subLlcr cccLs o LcxLual spccd rcmains scarcc and hcLcrogcncous, o-
cusing noL only on sLrucLural buL also, and wiLh mixcd rcsulLs, on LhcmaLic
LcmporaliLy, i.c., a LcxLs prcoccupaLion wiLh issucs o accclcraLion and dc-
cclcraLion. Whilc KaLhryn Humc cloqucnLly claboraLcs modcs o LcxLual
and LhcmaLic accclcraLion in novcls, shc mcnLions narraLivc rcLardaLion, a
conccpL proposcd by Russian ormalisL VicLor Shklovsky, only in passing.

Shklovskys dcvicc o rcLardaLion rccrs Lo a scL o digrcssions LhaL slow
down Lhc rcadcrs pcrccpLion o a ccrLain narraLivc progrcssion, cxcmplicd
by Lhc criLic in rccrcncc Lo Iaurcncc SLcrncs Trstram Shandy.
:
Tis parLicu-
lar Lhcory orcgrounds such dccclcraLing Lcchniqucs as digrcssion, dcamil-
1 8 0 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
iarizaLion, rcpcLiLion, and narraLivc cmbcdding, also mcnLioning characLcrs
as a mcans Lo Lhis cnd, a poinL LhaL I will rcLurn Lo in my analysis o narraLivc
dclay LacLics in Warcs 1mmy Corrgan.
TcmporaliLy is also acknowlcdgcd as an csscnLial componcnL in comics, a
mcdium gcncrally dcncd as a hybrid word-and-imagc orm in which Lwo
narraLivc Lracks, onc vcrbal and onc visual, rcgisLcr LcmporaliLy spaLially.

As ArL Spicgclman noLcs, comics chorcograph and shapc Limc Lhrough Lhcir
inLcrplay o words and imagcs, alLhough liLLlc has bccn madc so ar o Lhc
poLcnLial dicrcnccs bcLwccn Lhc vclociLy o convcnLional rcading and Lhc
impcraLivc Lo boLh scc and rcad wiLhin Lhc comics gcnrc.

In Lhis parLicular
mcdium, slowncss is characLcrizcd by complcx visual and Lypographic mcans
o manipulaLing rhyLhm by dccclcraLing Lhc avcragc Lcmpo o a comics narra-
Livc. Tc laLLcr Lcnds Lo bc airly brisk, i mcrcly as a rcsulL o Lhc word-imagc
juxLaposiLion Lraining Lhc rcadcrs cyc Lo skip rom onc Lo anoLhcr aL a quick
pacc.
Warc, on Lhc oLhcr hand, has displaycd an inLcnsc prcoccupaLion wiLh Lhc
disrupLion o a convcnLional rcading pacc, and iLs aLLcndanL spaLial manics-
LaLions, in his comics. His Lcchniqucs rangc rom dividing a panoramic pagc
inLo polypLychs LhaL charL scvcral dicrcnL uniLs o Limca mcLhod Warc rsL
cncounLcrcd in Frank Kings Caso|ne A||eyLo Lcmporal ovcrlaps and mcLh-
ods o sLalling narraLivc progrcssion.

Alrcady in his carly silcnL sLrips, Warc

considcrcd Lhc implicaLions o purcly visual sLoryLclling. On Lhc onc hand,
Lhc lack o visual dcLail in Lhcsc sLrips sccms Lo allow Lhc rcadcr Lo Lravcrsc
Lhc narraLivc sLagcs wiLh considcrablc swiLncss and casc. Warc cvcn sug-
gcsLs an analogy bcLwccn his comics and carly animaLion by rccrring Lo Lwo
onc-pagc sLrips caLuring Quimby Lhc Mousc as comicLoons.
6
CommcnLing
on Lhc spccd o Warcs Qumby sLrips, oLcn subdividcd inLo crunchcd-up,
barcly visiblc slivcrs, Wolk rcmarks: I comics arc a picLographic languagc,
as Warc says, Lhcn Lhcyrc mcanL Lo bc rcad jast. DominaLcd by simplc shapcs
and dcad, xcd-widLh lincs, Warcs pagcs zoom along, slowcd down only by
Lricky diagrammaLic layouLs and occasional indigcsLiblc blocks o Liny Lypc.
,

On Lhc oLhcr hand, whaL Wolk ails Lo acknowlcdgc is LhaL Lhc morc ormal,
diagrammaLic aspccLs o Lhc pancls dcmand incrcascd aLLcnLion, Lhus pos-
ing somc problcms or ploL-drivcn rcadcrs. By rcpcaLcdly aLLcmpLing Lo visu-
ally rcvcrL Lo childhood Lhrough Lhc invocaLion o daLcd culLural paradigms,
Qumby also insLanLiaLcs a dcsirc Lo noL only rcinhabiL Lhc pasL buL rccon-
sLrucL iL rom scraps o mcmory as wcll. In iLs combinaLion o mourning and
mclancholia, Lhis mood corrcsponds Lo whaL mcdia arLisL and novclisL SvcL-
lana Boym Lcrms rcccLivc nosLalgia, which dwclls in a|ga, in longing and
loss, Lhc impcrccL proccss o rcmcmbrancc [. . .] lingcrs on ruins, Lhc paLina
o Limc and hisLory, in Lhc drcams o anoLhcr placc and anoLhcr Limc.
8
Warcs laLcr works, cspccially 1mmy Corrgan, wiLh iLs subLcxL o loncli-
ncss and morLaliLy, arc casicr Lo lingcr ovcr in a way LhaL Qumbys picLo-
graphic simpliciLy rcsisLs. For onc Lhing, Lhc graphic novcl is almosL cnLircly
unpaginaLcd, which ouLs csLablishcd convcnLions o scqucnLial narraLivc.
Sccondly, iL conLains diagrams rcLclling pcrsonal hisLorics LhaL rcplicaLc Lhc
non-lincar, opcn-cndcd, associaLivc clusLcrs o mcmory iLscl.

NarraLivc dc-
cclcraLion is also achicvcd by placing rccurrcnL imagcs and moLis on dicrcnL
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE P UR S UI T OF S L OWNE S S 1 8 1
pagcs, Lhus scnding Lhc cyc back Lo a prcvious narraLivc sLagc and prcvcnLing
cvcnLs rom spiraling ouL o Lhc carcul rcadcrs visual conLrol.
Wares Slowness: Thematic and Compositional Correspondences
Many o Chris Warcs comics show an inLcrcsL in Lhc passagc o Limc rom Lhc
pcrspccLivc o obsolcsccncc and nosLalgia, boLh in culLural and human Lcrms.
WhaL onc inLcrvicwcr has rccrrcd Lo as Warcs asLringcnL mclancholia is a
rccurrcnL Lropc LhaL spans mosL o Warcs ocuvrc as a scl-dcscribcd aLLcmpL
Lo Lcll somcLhing much morc slowly and blurrily, Lhc way rcal lic Lcnds Lo
cvolvc.
:o
Tis mclancholic sLrcak is parLicularly visiblc in 1mmy Corrgans
doublc journcy back in Limc. On onc lcvcl, 1immy aLLcmpLs Lo rccovcr his
abscnLcc aLhcr and, impliciLly, LhaL parL o his childhood LhaL was harmcd
by his abandonmcnL. On a sccond narraLivc planc, 1immys grandaLhcr rc-
counLs his own miscrablc childhood in Lhc 8os. Morcovcr, bchind 1immys
inabiliLy Lo inLcracL wiLh Lhc world lics a hypcracLivc anLasy lic LhaL Lrans-
porLs boLh characLcr and rcadcr Loward Lhc pasL, whilc undcrmining 1immys
abiliLy Lo copc wiLh mundanc siLuaLions in Lhc prcscnL. MccLing his long-losL
aLhcr rcvcals 1immys own sLaLus as an cmoLionally LruncaLcd gurc inhabiL-
ing a pasL o his own dcvising, onc LhaL hc dclighLs in rcurbishing, cvcn as hc
Lakcs imaginary swipcs aL prcscnL rcaliLics LhaL hc ncvcr darcs Lo criLicizc ouL
loud. In onc sccnc, 1immy imaginaLivcly rcvisiLs Lhc scLLing o his own con-
ccpLion and carrics ouL a vcry ocdipal rcvcngc againsL his aLhcr by bludgcon-
ing and cuLLing him wiLh a bccr sLcin. AnoLhcr shows 1immys grandaLhcr
bcing Lhrown rom Lhc obscrvaLory o Lhc largcsL building in Lhc worlda
sccnc LhaL, wc arc Lold, only nds iLs way inLo Lhc rccurrcnL and abbrcviaLcd
symbology o Lhc grandaLhcrs drcams (:,8o).
In 1mmy Corrgan, howcvcr, Limc sLops and sccms Lo spill noL only back-
wards, as Lhc sLory rcvisiLs prcvious cvcnLs, buL also sidcways, as alLcrnaLivc
narraLivcs arc incorporaLcd inLo Lhc main sLory linc. From Lhis wayward Lcm-
poral ux, mcanings cmcrgc in slow moLion and undcrcd, sluggish cmoLions
crysLallizc. ImporLanLly, Lhc csscnLially scl-dcsLrucLivc Lcnor o 1mmy Cor-
rgan is causcd noL only by 1immys pcnchanL or daydrcaming buL also by
Lhc impossibiliLy or rcusal Lo look urLhcr Lhan Lhc prcscnL. In oLhcr words,
alLhough his aLLiLudc is nosLalgic, hc also lapscs inLo dccp mclancholia, which
is lcss ocuscd on pasL joys or posscssions, insLilling a undamcnLal passiv-
iLy and rclucLancc Lo ocus on Lhc uLurc. 1immys Lragic inwardncss, Lhcn,
rcsulLs rom a scnsc o Lcmporal immobiliLy in Lcrms o boLh narraLivc and
characLcr, which is also rcplicaLcd composiLionally. Numcrous pagcs in Lhc
book dcpicL Lhc proLagonisL rom Lhc samc pcrspccLivc (oLcn rom ouLsidc
Lhc building hc inhabiLs, Lhrough a window), which can rccur ovcr as many as
ninc pancls (8). OLhcr pagcs arc organizcd around a ccnLral pancl LhaL shows
Lhc cxLcrior o Lhc spacc whcrc Lhc ploL is unolding, usually a pcaccul, un-
populaLcd imagc obscurcd by darkncss or inclcmcnL wcaLhcr (6, 8).
Such cxposiLory or LransiLional sLills oLcn crop up uncxpccLcdly, i.c., on Lhc
lcL raLhcr Lhan Lhc righL-hand sidc, so Lhcy can only bc sccn oncc Lhc pagc
has bccn Lurncd, Lhus cccLing an abrupL Lranscr inLo anoLhcr scgmcnL o
Lhc sLory (, ,).
1 8 2 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
Many o Lhcsc silcnL pancls arc almosL idcnLical, rcinorcing Lhc idca o a
pasL LhaL rccurs wiLh obscssivc pcrsisLcncc. Tc consLanL rcplay o mcmorics,
oLcn cncapsulaLcd in iconographical dcLail, cpiLomizcs Lhc conccpL o di-
crcncc Lhrough rcpcLiLion suggcsLcd by Cillcs Dclcuzc.
:
Drawing on Frcud,
Dclcuzc claims LhaL wiLh rcpcLiLion comcs noL only dicrcnccundcrsLood
wiLhin Lhc rcpcLiLivc paLLcrn in which iL is conccalcdbuL also rcmcmbrancc.
Tcsc Lwo caLurcs apLly dcscribc Lhc circular movcmcnLs in many o Warcs
narraLivcs and rcpcLiLivc (in- and ouL-zooming) pancls. OLcn Lhc narraLivc
cvcnLs sccm Lo cmcrgc rom a pool o unconscious links and mcmorics, vcry
much in kccping wiLh Dclcuzcs dcscripLion o rcpcLiLion as Lhc unconscious
o rcprcscnLaLion.
::
AddiLionally, Lhc rcpcLiLion involvcd in paLLcrns o com-
pulsivc mcmory as wcll as Lhc rccurrcncc o ccrLain clcmcnLs o visual sLylc
rccall Lhc pracLicc o collccLing, Lhc csscncc o which is an inLcrplay bcLwccn
rcpcLiLion (Lhc accumulaLion o objccLs rclaLcd Lo onc Lhcmc) and dicrcncc
(Lhcy arc noL idcnLical). Tc composiLion o Lhc pancls on Lhc pagc also mim-
ics an acL o collccLing by crcaLing an imaginary prcscnL in which Lhc narra-
Livc lcvcls communicaLc onc Lo onc raLhcr Lhan in progrcssion, all characLcrs
ollowing Lhc slow scripL o a cLivc conLcmporanciLy, in which Lhcy inLcracL
likc so many rccyclcd childhood icons.
In kccping wiLh his dicLum, borrowcd rom CocLhc, LhaL archiLccLurc is
rozcn music, Warc rcczcs his pancls in archiLccLural sLills LhaL sLall narra-
Livc progrcssion.
:
AL Lhc samc Limc, hc crcaLcs inncr spaccs o Lcmporal lay-
cring wiLhin Lhc pancl iLscl, Lhus dccpcning Lhc Lcmporal involvcmcnL wiLh
cach pancl and slowing down Lhc rcading proccss. A paradigm o Lhis Lcch-
niquc is Lhc Lcmporal ovcrlap occasioncd by 1immys daydrcams as hc and his
sLcpsisLcr Amy mccL Lhc docLor Lo discuss Lhcir aLhcrs condiLion aLcr his
car accidcnL. To 1immys consLcrnaLion, his moLhcr appcars in cighL pancls
o his inLcrior LhoughLs, Lrying Lo gain 1immys sympaLhy, whilc rccrring Lo
Amy as a co|ored girl and cxprcssing hcr disapproval (o,8). Morc gcncr-
ally, 1immys scl-absorbcd moLhcrliving in a nursing homc rom whcrc shc
inccssanLly calls hcr son aL work and aL homccan bc considcrcd a consLanL
obsLaclc Lo narraLivc progrcssion. Tis is duc noL only Lo hcr rcpcaLcd and
oLcn uncxpccLcd appcaranccs, buL cspccially Lo hcr uncLion as an cmoLional
lcash or 1immy himscl, mcrcly divcrLing aLLcnLion rom whaLcvcr iL is LhaL
hcr son is (noL) doing. AL Lhc samc Limc, by scrving as a ramc or Lhc novcl
as a wholc, shc can bc said Lo conLain Lhc narraLivc, which shc occasionally
inLcrrupLs, shadowing hcr son likc a malcvolcnL doppclgangcr.
NoL only arc 1immys Lcmporal bcarings dcsLabilizcd by Lhc cncounLcrs
wiLh his moLhcr, buL Lhc narraLivc iLscl is Lcmporally dispcrscd and scaL-
Lcrcd in a hcLcrogcncous ashion, in Lhis scnsc, iL rcscmblcs a posLmodcrn
approach Lo orm. In iLs sLrucLurc, i noL in iLs LhcmaLic conccrns, 1mmy
Corrgan rccalls Lhc dc-Lcmporalizcd simulLanciLy o Lhc rhizomc-conccpL as
arLiculaLcd by Dclcuzc and CuaLLari in A Tousand P|ateaus as wcll as by hy-
pcrLcxL as a modc o scqucnLial and parallcl dicrcnLiaLion.
:
Working rom
Dclcuzc and CuaLLari, SLuarL MoulLhrop dcscribcs Lhc rhizomaLic sLrucLurc
o discoursc as a chaoLically disLribuLcd ncLwork [. . .] raLhcr Lhan a rcgular
hicrarchy o Lrunk and branchcsnoL a dcLcrminisLic chain o bcginnings
and cnds, buL Lhc organic growLh o an absoluLc middlc.
:
In Lhis sysLcm,
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE P UR S UI T OF S L OWNE S S 1 8 3
any poinL may bc connccLcd Lo any oLhcr poinL. Warcs comics rcscmblc Lhis
modcl o connccLiviLy in Lhc allusivc orm o iLs non-lincar, boundary-lcss
narraLiviLy LhaL lacks Lcmporal niLudc and closurc. Tc mosL cxpliciL illus-
LraLions o Lhis ragmcnLcd, non-hicrarchical LcxLualiLy can bc ound in Lhc
diagrams LhaL charL characLcrs amily backgrounds and lic sLorics in minuLc
picLorial orms. Tcsc can bc rcad boLh rom lcL Lo righL and vicc vcrsa, o-
Lcn providing dirccLions in Lhc orm o arrows vcry much likc digiLal linking
icons.
:6
DcspiLc Warcs impaLicncc wiLh conLcmporary modcs o mcchanical
rcproducLion, Lhc Lcmporal and conccpLual ramcwork o digiLal mcdia has
clcarly sccpcd inLo Lhc abric and sLrucLurc o his comics.
IL is Lhus paradoxical LhaL Warcs work should bc inucnccd by Lhc vcry
Lcchnologics hc scL ouL Lo dcnouncc Lhrough his insisLcncc on Lhc dccclcra-
Lion o pcrccpLion. On Lhc onc hand, Lhc cnLirc corpus o Warcs work can
bc rcad as a criLiquc o conLcmporary capiLalisL Lcchnology LhaL dcmands an
cvcr-growing rcliancc on spccd and Lcmporal accclcraLion, on Lhc scxy acs-
LhcLics o asL-paccd rock and roll. On Lhc oLhcr hand, Warcs own Lcchnolo-
gics o drawing, by mcrc dinL o Lhcir asLidiousncss, acquirc Lhc comprchcn-
sivcncss and connccLiviLy o Lcchnological dcviccs which arc indccd csscnLial
Lo Lhc rcproducLion and disLribuLion o his work. In acL, a Wcb vcrsion o Lhc
Corrigan amily Lrcc is also availablc onlinc.
:,
WhaL scLs his work aparL rom
digiLal dcsign, howcvcr, is Lhc inLracLablc maLcrialiLy o Lhc mcdium as an ob-
jccL Lhan can bc sccn, hcld, Loycd wiLh, and nally collccLcd. WiLh 1mmy Cor-
rgan, Lhc arLisLs insisLcncc on Lhc maLcrialiLy o Lhc book as arLiacL as wcll
as Lhc oLcn circular paLhs o his narraLivcs also rcccL his criLicism o Lhc
incrcasing incrcmcnLalism and scrializaLion o Lhc arLisLic worlddcspiLc
Lhc acL LhaL many o Warcs oLhcr works arc mulLiply scrializcd. Warcs insis-
Lcncc on dccclcraLion in 1mmy Corrgan noL only dccnds Lhc rccdom o arL
rom Lcchnological LcmporaliLy, buL rcminds us o Lhc small, un-dromological
sLcps wc Lakc in our daily livcs as wcll.
In shorL, cxhilaraLion and spccd arc noL promincnL caLurcs o Chris
Warcs ouLpuL in Lhc comics mcdium. In addiLion, raLhcr Lhan paring away
unncccssary words and cmploying Lhc kind o Lclcgraphic sLylc LhaL would
allow rcadcrs Lo navigaLc casily Lhrough Lhc visuals, Warc is in Lhc habiL o
pairing Lhc imagcs wiLh an cqually sophisLicaLcd, mulLi-laycrcd LcxL, Lo Lhc
poinL o sounding vcrbosc. Hcrc is, or cxamplc, Lhc raLhcr unlikcly mono-
loguc by 1immys grandaLhcr, as hc rccalls his visiL Lo Lhc Worlds Columbian
FxposiLion in 8: Oncs mcmory, howcvcr, likcs Lo play Lricks, aLcr ycars
o cold sLoragc. Somc rccollccLions rcmain as rcsh as Lhc momcnL Lhcy wcrc
minLcd whilc oLhcrs sccm Lo crumblc inLo biLs, dusLing Lhcir ncighbours wiLh
a conLaminaLing roL o unccrLainLy (:,6). Such puzzling mcLaphors only
scrvc Lo urLhcr obuscaLc boLh Lhc mcmorics and Lhc narraLivc LhaL binds
Lhcm. To gcL spccd, Humc wriLcs, wc nccd Lo ccl LhaL wc arc missing ouL
on mcaningul LransiLions and links.
:8
Warc ocrs liLLlc in Lhc way o such
subLracLing Lcchniqucs. On Lhc conLrary, whaL hc avors is an cxccss o narra-
Livc connccLiviLy, parLicularly in Lcrms o iconography and oLhcr dcscripLivc
dcviccs and linkagcs LhaL sLabilizc cLional rcaliLy and prcvcnL rcading rom
spccding along Loo quickly.
1 8 4 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
Silent Panels in Jimmy Corrigan
1mmy Corrgans Lhcmcs, Tomas BrcdchoL wriLcs in his sLudy o archiLcc-
Lural mulLilincariLy in Warcs work, includc noL only Lhc passing o Limc and
Lhc rccurrcncc or circulariLy o cvcnLs wiLhin Lhc passagc o Limc, buL also
cndurancc and lack o changc as wcll.
:
Tcsc caLurcs oLcn LranslaLc inLo
pancls LhaL halL Lhc ow o narraLivc Limc. ALcr 1immy is hiL by a Lruck and
lics on Lhc ground, Lhc pagc ollowing Lhc accidcnL sccnc conLains scvcn pan-
cls o uncqual sizcs dcpicLing barc Lrcc branchcs, a bird LhaL appcars in Lhrcc
o Lhc pancls, a clcar skyalLcrnaLcly bluc and graya hinL o cloud, hazc,
or waLcr in Lhc boLLom pancls and noLhing clsc (scc g. .). Tc lasL pancl,
dcsigncd likc a posLcard, includcs Lhc words A chill morning in April ().
1mmy Corrgan conLains many such quicL momcnLs LhaL allow Warc Lo brcak
Lhc lincariLy o a Limc-scqucnccd narraLivc. Somc rcscmblc Lhc iconography
o sLill phoLography, oLhcrs can bc comparcd Lo prc-projccLion lm, rcgisLcr-
ing only slighL modicaLions rom onc pancl Lo Lhc ncxL and slowing down
or almosL complcLcly impairing Lhc proccss o rcading.
o
Tis shock o silcncc
lcavcs Lhc rcadcr rccling on Lhc aulL linc whcrc cvcnLs occur abrupLly, Lhus
rcproducing and pcrorming Lhc suddcn changcs LhaL Lakc placc in 1mmy
Fig. 13.1. The iconography
of slowness. Silent pan-
els provide moments of
narrative respite. Chris
Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The
Smartest Kid on Earth (New
York: Pantheon, 2000), 99.
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE P UR S UI T OF S L OWNE S S 1 8 5
Corrgans narraLivc and Lhc proLagonisLs own shock aLcr bcing sLruck by
Lhc vchiclc. Morcovcr, whilc sLaLic, Lhcsc pancls Lravcl, as iL wcrc, across Lhc
books mulLiplc sccLions, puncLuaLing Lhc narraLivc and pcrorming an inLc-
graLivc uncLion Lhrough Lhcir conspicuous rccurrcncc.
Howcvcr cccLivc on a rsL rcading, Lhc impacL o Lhcsc silcnL, rcpcLiLivc
pancls is unlikcly Lo cndurc whcn onc rcrcads. WhaL Lhc rcadcr cncounLcrcd
prior Lo Lhcsc pancls accLs Lhc way Lhc visually codcd rhyLhm cccLs arc
cxpcricnccd, and Lhc surprisc clcmcnL will adc wiLh amiliariLy. Humc also
rcmarks on how narraLivc accclcraLion and Lhc conusion iL cngcndcrs wcar
Lhin on sccond rcading: Tc spccd cccL opcraLcs bcsL during oncs rsL
rcading, buL loscs iLs abiliLy Lo boLhcr us as much on subscqucnL rcadings.
Tc poliLics o using narraLivc spccd arc Lhus rclaLivcly cphcmcral.

In gcn-
craLing narraLivc slowncss, howcvcr, Warcs slow moLion pancls in acL mask
a sccond rcading Laking placc concurrcnLly wiLh Lhc rsL. As MaLci Calincscu
has shown in his sLudy o (rc)rcading pracLiccs, whcn a rcadcr cxpcricnccs
Lhc LcxL wiLh incrcascd sLrucLural aLLcnLion, cvcn a rsL-Limc pcrusal can
havc Lhc samc cccL as a sccond rcading.
:
Tcsc pancls inLcnsiy rcadcr
parLicipaLion and ocus our aLLcnLion Lo Lhc cxLcnL LhaL Lhc pausc Lhcy inLro-
ducc allows Lhc rcadcr Lo rcvisiL whaL camc bcorc and rc-cvaluaLc hcr own
cxpccLaLions.
IL is also inLcrcsLing Lo noLc LhaL Lhc slow momcnLs, in acL, covcr only
bric pcriods o Limc wiLh pancls in succcssion aL onc-sccond inLcrvals, or
sLrcLching ovcr long minuLcs raLhcr Lhan long daysLhc duraLion rcsid-
ing in our subjccLivc pcrccpLion raLhcr Lhan in Lhc acLual numbcr o pan-
cls wc arc pcrcciving.

Onc six-pancl pagc, or insLancc, madc up o Lwo

Licrs o Lwo and our pancls, rcspccLivcly, includcs our succcssivc imagcs o
Lhc samc rcd phonc (ramcd by a window) and a drop o rain alling onLo
Lhc window sill (scc plaLc 6). Tc downward LrajccLory o Lhc raindrop is
rcndcrcd ovcr Lhrcc pancls, cach o which Lhus conLains a uniL o Limc
lcss Lhan onc sccond in lcngLh. AL oLhcr Limcs Lhc duraLion o a scqucncc
is dcLcrmincd by Warcs corLs Lo indicaLc hiddcn cmoLions by Lhc ordcr
o cxprcssions on Lhc characLcrs accs and in Lhcir awkward body lan-
guagc, which in Lurn dcrivcs rom cxLrcmcs o cmbarrassmcnL or hcsi-
LaLion.

ALcr his sLcpsisLcr Amy rcjccLs his ocr o sympaLhy on hcaring LhaL
Lhcir aLhcr has dicd, 1immy lcavcs Lhc hospiLal in slow moLion, cach pancl
marking onc sLcp hc is Laking Loward Lhc door (o). Morc Lhan a rcacLion
Lo Lhc unorLunaLc siLuaLion, 1immys lumbcring movcmcnL is Lhc cxprcs-
sion o a dccpcr dcspondcncy, whosc vcry dcpLh can only bc visualizcd by
dcsigning Lhc pancls Lo accommodaLc dcpLh o cld. RaLhcr Lhan inLcrrupL-
ing Lhc narraLivc, such scqucnccs cngcndcr a scnsc o suspcnsc, dcmanding
grcaLcr rcadcr parLicipaLion Lhrough Lhcir clusivc mood and indcLcrminaLc
ouLcomc.
Rccurrcnccs wiLhin Lhc silcnL pancls, such as Lhc small rcd or gray bird car-
rying a Lwig or owcr, siLLing on a Lrcc branch (, , , o:, :, 8), scrvc
as an clcmcnL o conLinuiLy. DcspiLc Lhcir sLillncss, Lhcy convcy impliciL mo-
Lion rom onc pancl Lo Lhc ncxL and oLcn mark radical Limc shiLs rom onc
cpisodc Lo anoLhcr. Morcovcr, Lhc homogcncous color schcmc (dark browns,
blucs, grays) noL only gaugcs Lhc grimncss o 1immys sLory, buL also providcs
inLcrnal visual conLinuiLy by linking pancls LhaL lack a ormal scnsc o sc-
1 8 6 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
qucncc. In such insLanccs, Lhc links bcLwccn succcssivc pancls arc imporLanL
as Lhcy Lriggcr Lhc rcadcrs auLomaLic rcacLion o comparing Lhc clcmcnLs
includcd on cach pagc. In oLhcr cascs Lhc dccrral o signicaLion rom onc
pancl Lo Lhc ncxL has no rolc in Lhc ormaLion o narraLivc (i.c., scqucnLial)
mcaning. Tis, howcvcr, also docs noL mcan LhaL Lhc pancls arc inLcrchangc-
ablc or could csLablish rcc and orLuiLous connccLions among Lhcmsclvcs.
RaLhcr, a blockagc occurs in whaL 1acqucs Dcrrida (a gurc mockcd by Warc
in Te ACMF Report) and subscqucnL posLsLrucLuralisLs havc Lcrmcd dj-
jerance.

To puL iL simply, Lhc Lcrm dcnoLcs Lhc posLponcmcnL o mcaning

rom onc signicr Lo Lhc ncxL along Lhc cndlcss chain o a proccss LhaL docs
noL LcrminaLc in any onc nal or csLablishcd signicaLion, buL allows mcan-
ing Lo Lakc shapc rom linkagcs and dccrrals.
6
Warcs Lcchniqucs amounL Lo whaL wc could playully call in-dicrancc,
Lo Lhc poinL whcrc onc imagc is indisLinguishablc rom Lhc ncxL and Lhc nar-
raLivc progrcssion dcrivcs rom Lhc Lwo pancls lack o dicrcncc in Lhc con-
LcxL o Lhcir spaLial alignmcnL. In oLhcr words, Warc shows LhaL narraLivc can
bc consLrucLcd noL only Lhrough an cxccss o connccLiviLy and signicaLion,
buL also by conLaining mcaning, aL Lhc risk o dcying Lhc ormal convcnLions
o Lhc mcdium iLscl. Considcr, or cxamplc, Lhc lasL Lwo pagcs bcorc Lhc
Fig. 13.2. A narratological
and emotional cul-de-sac.
The panels are almost visu-
ally identical, but their spa-
tial succession sets them
apart. Chris Ware, Jimmy
Corrigan: The Smartest Kid
on Earth (New York: Pan-
theon, 2000), 362.
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE P UR S UI T OF S L OWNE S S 1 8 7
cpiloguc, cach conLaining Lwo pancls LhaL ollow 1immys progrcss rom Lhc
Lrain sLaLion Lo his occ building (scc g. .:). FmoLionally, hc is Lravcrsing
a criLical Limc: his long-losL and Lhcn rcgaincd aLhcr is now dcad, his sLcpsis-
Lcr violcnLly pushcd him away, hc is alonc, disappoinLcd, somcwhaL bacd
by Lhc Lurn o cvcnLs, ouLsidc iL is snowing hcavily and Lhick snow is carpcL-
ing Lhc ground. Tc high risc hc is hcading Loward appcars in all our pancls.
I Lhc sccond pancl conLains slighL modicaLions comparcd Lo Lhc rsL, Lhc
dicrcncc bcLwccn Lhc Lhird and orLh pancls is so microscopic as Lo bc al-
mosL unrccognizablc (66:). AlLhough Lhc pancls conLinuc Lo bc scparaLcd
by a guLLcr, Lhc rcadcr can no longcr projccL causaliLy inLo Lhis spacing. As
sLill, cncapsulaLcd momcnLs, Lhc pancls Lhcmsclvcs comc Lo rcscmblc a sorL
o guLLcr inLcrposcd bcLwccn Lhc sLory and iLs cnding, prcparing Lhc rcadcr
or iLs cmoLional impacL. Fvcn i Lhc silcnL pancls rcvcal Lhc cxLcnL Lo which
Warc rcdcncs Lcmporal linkagcs on Lhc micro lcvcl o individual pagcs, on
Lhc macro lcvcl o Lhc novcl Lhc narraLivc dcnoucmcnL is noL suspcndcd buL
mcrcly posLponcd. Paradoxically cnough, by dccclcraLing Lhc narraLivc and
dclaying iLs rcsoluLion, Warc only incrcascs iLs incviLabiliLy.
Affective Deceleration
As I mcnLioncd carlicr, Lhc duraLion o 1mmy Corrgans Lcmporal scqucnccs
is oLcn dcLcrmincd by Lhc inLcnsiLy o a parLicular mood or ccling LhaL sub-
jccLivcly inccLs Lhc pcrccpLion o Limc. I rarcly cvcr did a comic jusL or Lhc
sakc o cxpcrimcnLaLion, Warc wriLcs. Fvcn whcn I did, I was always Lrying
Lo gcL aL somc kind o ccling.
,
NoL only docs Warc cxprcss slowncss by cn-
coding iL inLo Lhc composiLion o his comic sLrips, buL hc uscs Lhcsc narraLivc
brcaking poinLs Lo dclibcraLcly provokc rcadcr anxicLy in ordcr Lo rcvcal Lhc
undcrlying causcs or Lhis sLrcss. WhaL cmcrgcs rom boLh Lhc slowncss o
his largcr narraLivcs and LhaL o Lhcir individual pancls is a car o slowncss
which cncroachcs upon Lhc rcadcrs Lhcmsclvcs. Whilc mcLiculous slowncss
was a shorLhand or lcisurcly licsLylc in Lhc Parisian arcadcs o Lhc ninc-
LccnLh ccnLury, hcrc slowncss sccms Lo indicaLc noLhing buL Lrauma.
Tc accLivc sLrucLurc o Warcs work is closcly bound up wiLh Lhc immcdi-
aLc inLimacy bcLwccn Lhc LcxL and Lhosc who inLcracL wiLh iL, boLh in wriLing
and rcading comics, as hc wriLcs in his inLroducLion Lo McSweeneys Quarter|y
Concern , unlikc prosc wriLing, Lhc sLrangc proccss o wriLing wiLh picLurcs
cncouragcs associaLions and rccollccLions Lo accumulaLc liLcrally n jront oj
the eyes, pcoplc, placcs, and cvcnLs appcar ouL o nowhcrc. Doors opcn inLo
rooms rcmcmbcrcd rom childhood, accs orm inLo dcad rclaLivcs, and dis-
LanL lovcs appcar, almosL magically, on Lhc pagcall dcccpLivcly managcablc,
visccral, Lhc combinaLions somcLimcs cvcn rcvclaLory.
8
Tc scl-conLaincd
visions in Lhc sLill pancls discusscd abovc arc rcvclaLory in LhaL Lhcy com-
municaLc a scnsc o pcrsonal anguish or conusion. NoL only can Lhcsc ccl-
ings, prompLcd by mcmorics and nosLalgia, producc narraLivc dclay, buL Lhcy
can also bc Lhc causc o slowncss obLaincd by oLhcr mcans. NarraLivc dcccl-
craLion in gcncral can bc said Lo rcccL varicd cmoLional sLaLcs, ranging rom
car and disLrcss Lo cmbarrassmcnL and borcdom. 1immy is rcmarkablc or
his cxLrcmc scnsiLiviLy, a characLcrisLic LhaL Warc sLrcsscs and cvcn ampli-
cs by manipulaLing narraLivc progrcssion. IL can bc Lhc cmbarrassmcnL o
1 8 8 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
a parLicular prcdicamcnL, such as accidcnLally spilling Lhc conLaincr o urinc
nccdcd or a mcdical cxaminaLion in Lhc aLcrmaLh o his accidcnL, or iL can
bc Lhc nurscs inadvcrLcnL inicLion o cmbarrassmcnL (shc all Loo gladly
ovcrlooks his clumsincss, which provokcs his croLic anLasics), ciLhcr by crucl
malicc or as accLionaLc Lhcrapy. In boLh cascs Lhc slow pacc o Lhc narraLivc
is compliciL wiLh 1immys own scl-consciousncss, shyncss, and shamc.
As a rccurrcnL Lropc o carly child dcvclopmcnL LhaL osLcrs a scnsc o boLh
individualiLy and rclaLionaliLy, shamc noL only has bccomc a LhcmaLic main-
sLay o comicscmploycd Lo grcaL cccL in, among oLhcr works, McSweeneys
, cdiLcd by Chris WarcbuL also has bccn rcgardcd as a hcurisLic or, in
Danicl Wordcns words, how comics consLiLuLc Lhcmsclvcs as an arL orm
LhaL pcrpcLually caccs iLscl whcn claiming sLaLus as arL.

Many o Warcs
works can bc rcad as pcrmuLaLions on Lhc singlc Lhcmc o human alicnaLion
and shamc. FurLhcr variaLions on Lhcsc cmoLions sLcm rom whcLhcr 1immy
himscl undcrgocs Lhc accLivc cvcnL or whcLhcr Lhc rcadcrs own mind is
LargcLcd. Tc pcrspccLivc shiL rom proLagonisL Lo rcadcr is usually cnacLcd
by subsLiLuLing Lhc rsL pcrson or Lhird pcrson in Lhc visual narraLion. For
insLancc, Warc shows 1immy aLLcmpLing Lo murdcr his aLhcr wiLhouL di-
cgcLically signposLing Lhis dcviaLion rom Lhc main sLory. A mcans o sLaving
o his cmbarrassmcnL would bc Lo inciLc himscl Lo indignaLion, buL Lhis only
occurs in his imaginaLion. Far rom appcaring scnLimcnLal, 1mmy Corrgan
Lhus dcpicLs liLLlc in Lhc way o cmoLioncxpliciL visual hinLs Lo accLivc
sLaLcs arc cw and ar bcLwccnbuL gocs a long way Loward crcaLing iL. Warc
suggcsLs LhaL Lhc spccd o rcading in iLscl dcLcrmincs Lhc LcxLs accLivc
conLcnL: Tc mood o a comic sLrip did noL havc Lo comc rom Lhc drawing
or Lhc words. You goL Lhc mood noL rom looking aL Lhc sLrip, or rom rcad-
ing Lhc words, buL rom Lhc acL o rcading iL. Tc cmoLion camc rom Lhc
way Lhc sLory iLscl was sLrucLurcd.
o
In oLhcr words, accL docs noL rcsidc
in 1immys dccnsclcssncss in Lhc acc o Lhc unorLunaLc cvcnLs, buL in Lhc
narraLivc inLcnsiLy crcaLcd by Lhc prolongcd display o his rcacLions, oLcn in
imagcs LhaL do noL caLurc Lhc proLagonisL buL suggcsL Lhc cmpLincss o his
mood.
Conclusion
I suggcsLcd aL Lhc ouLscL LhaL bcyond Chris Warcs Lcndcncy Lo spaLially jux-
Laposc pasL, prcscnL, and uLurc momcnLs on a singlc pagc (or cvcn wiLhin a
singlc pancl), his highly LcxLurcd comics also cngagc in a complcx sLraLcgy
o dcLcrmining narraLivc spccd by sLrucLural and composiLional mcans. Tc
cccLs o Lhcsc Lcchniqucs arc oLcn paradoxical. Warc Loys wiLh narraLivc
cxpccLaLions o Lcmporal movcmcnL by drawing pancls LhaL givc Lhc rcadcrs
pausc and quickcn Lhcir pulsc aL Lhc samc Limc. Tc narraLor o Lhcsc mulLi-
ply Lcmporal sLrips is simulLancously immcrscd in Limc and asscmbling Limc.
Hc communicaLcs a pcrccpLion noL only o Lhc pasLncss o Lhc pasL, buL o iLs
prcscncc. Hc addrcsscs Limcs passagc wiLh an impliciL (and sLrucLural) nos-
Lalgia. In acL, 1immy Corrigans uprooLingrom his amily, social ncLworks,
and cmoLional connccLionsis so proound LhaL hc is noL cvcn awarc o iL,
Lo Lhc poinL whcrc his nosLalgia slowly morphs inLo a pcrvasivc mclancholia.
Tc slowncss o his cxisLcncc is LranslaLcd by Warc inLo narraLivc Lcchniqucs
CHR I S WAR E AND T HE P UR S UI T OF S L OWNE S S 1 8 9
o boLh conLinuiLy (mundanc objccLs LhaL anchor him down) and disconLinu-
iLy (Lhc abscnLmindcdncss o his rcvcrics). AL Lhc hcarL o 1immys lack o
cngagcmcnL wiLh Lhc world lics, howcvcr, an abiding caro Lhc cmalc co-
workcr whom hc ncvcr darcs Lo woo opcnly, o his sLcpsisLcr whom hc anLa-
sizcs abouL, o his abscnL aLhcr and ovcrbcaring moLhcrwhich Warc dcLly
LranslaLcs inLo mulLiplc dccrrals and rcpcLiLions, as his narraLivc alLcrs and
qucsLions iLs own drivc, obsLrucLing a quick purchasc on iLs mcaning. Warcs
usc o slowncss Lhus provcs Lo bc lcss an cxLcrnal approach Lo narraLivc and
morc o an inLrinsic uncLion o Lhc wriLing proccss, o mcmory, o Lhc LcxLs
own accLivc unconscious LhaL collccLs Lhc cmoLions o boLh characLcrs and
rcadcrs. Considcring his vcry limiLcd narraLivc agcncy, 1immy may noL bc,
aLcr all, a passcr o Limc, dcspiLc his opcnncss Lo Limc and iLs poLcnLiali-
Lics. Abovc all, his is a consciousncss Lhrough which Limc passcs, lcaving him
Lo inch his way ouL o cmoLional and Lcmporal capLiviLy, in a sLrugglc LhaL is
boLh hopclcss and cmpowcring.
Notes
1. Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 422.
2. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000). All further
references to this text will be indicated in parentheses.
3. Chris Ware, qtd. in Andrew Arnold, Q and A with Comicbook Master Chris Ware, TIME,
September 1, 2000, http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,53887,00.html (accessed Feb-
ruary 25, 2009).
4. Douglas Wolk, Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean (Cambridge, MA:
Da Capo Press, 2007), 347. Wolk does not elaborate theoretically on Wares use of slowness, limiting
his interpretation to the masochistic function of prolonged embarrassment and emotional frustra-
tion.
5. Keith Phipps, Interview with Chris Ware, The Onion A.V. Club, December 31, 2003, http://
www.avclub.com/articles/chris-ware,13849/ (accessed February 25, 2009).
6. Thomas A. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, Multidimensionality, and Time: Chris Wares
Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 87071.
7. Paul Virilio, The Original Accident, trans. Julie Rose (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), 4.
8. See Paul Virilio, Speed and Politics: An Essay on Dromology (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1986).
9. Sylviane Agacinski, Time Passing: Modernity and Nostalgia, trans. Jody Gladding (New York: Co-
lumbia University Press, 2003), 11, 12.
10. For a rare overview of this untapped eld see Kathryn Hume, Narrative Speed in Contem-
porary Fiction, Narrative 13 (2005): 10524; Jan Baetens and Kathryn Hume, Speed, Rhythm, Move-
ment: A Dialogue on K. Humes Article Narrative Speed, Narrative 14 (2006): 34955.
11. Hume, Narrative Speed, 106.
12. Victor Shklovsky, Sternes Tristram Shandy: Stylistic Commentary, in Russian Formalist Criti-
cism: Four Essays, intro. Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965),
2560.
13. Hillary Chute, Comics as Literature? Reading Graphic Narrative, PMLA 123 (2008): 452.
14. Art Spiegelman, Ephemera vs. the Apocalypse, Indy Magazine (autumn 2005),
http://64.23.98.142/indy/autumn_2004/spiegelman_ephemera/index.html (accessed July 13, 2008).
15. See Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 13.
16. Chris Ware, Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003), 4647.
17. Wolk, Reading Comics, 355.
18. Svetlana Boym, The Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic, 2001), 41. The opposite term is re-
1 9 0 GE ORGI ANA B ANI TA
storative nostalgia, which is bent on rebuilding the lost home and patching up memory gaps, a goal
more clearly exemplied by Jimmy Corrigans journey into the past to meet his father and reclaim a
family.
19. For a more detailed analysis of Wares treatment of memory in his comics, see Peter Sattlers
essay in this volume.
20. David Thompson, A Fraternity of Tries, Eye Magazine (spring 2002), http://www.eyemaga
zine.com/review.php?id=62&rid=88 (accessed February 25, 2009); Chris Ware cited in Aida Edemar-
iam, The Art of Melancholy, Guardian, October 31, 2005, http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2005/
oct/31/comics (accessed February 25, 2009).
21. Gilles Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, trans. Paul Patton (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1994), 5, 7, 14.
22. Ibid., 14.
23. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Date Book (Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2003), 190.
24. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, trans. Brian Massim (Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 1987).
25. Stuart Moulthrop, Rhizomes and Resistance: Hypertext and the Dreams of a New Cul-
ture, in Hyper/Text/Theory, ed. George P. Landow (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994),
300301.
26. For a detailed reading of Chris Wares use of diagrams, see Isaac Catess essay in this vol-
ume.
27. See http://www.randomhouse.com/pantheon/graphicnovels/acme.html.
28. Hume, Narrative Speed in Contemporary Fiction, 111
29. Bredehoft, Comics Architecture, 885.
30. This feature calls to mind Scott McClouds remark on the afnities between lm and the
comics medium: Before its projected, lm is just a very very very very slow comic. Scott McCloud,
Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (New York: Harper, 1993), 8.
31. Hume, Narrative Speed in Contemporary Fiction, 107.
32. Matei Calinescu, Rereading (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 51.
33. I use the term duration in the sense ascribed to it by Henri Bergson, who uses it to intro-
duce a qualitative concept of time based on subjective experience. Bergson distinguishes between
the empty time of classical physics and the experienced time of consciousness, which is neither
measurable nor divisible. See Henri Bergson, An Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. by T. E. Hulme
(New York: Macmillan, 1955). See also Jacques Samson, Une vision furtive de Jimmy Corrigan, in
Potiques de la bande dessine, ed. Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle and Jacques Samson (Paris: lHarmattan,
2007), 22133.
34. Interview with Gary Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Comics, Comics Journal 200
(1997), 154.
35. A brief strip ippantly questions current theory debates about image potency and its use as
a compensatory alternative to failing reading skills: Who said that the image has lost all power as
an aesthetic tool?. . . Was it Lacan, or Daridas (sp?) Or . . . was it that the image was more potent
since everyone is so rushed and semi-literate? Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Report (New York:
Pantheon, 2005), 8.
36. See Jacques Derrida, Diffrance, in Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1982), 327.
37. Chris Ware, qtd. in Raeburn, Chris Ware, 11.
38. Chris Ware, introduction to McSweeneys Quarterly Concern 13 (San Francisco: McSweeneys,
2004), 12.
39. Daniel Worden, The Shameful Art: McSweeneys Quarterly Concern, Comics, and the Politics
of Affect, Modern Fiction Studies 52 (2006): 894.
40. Chris Ware, qtd. in Raeburn, Chris Ware, 13.
1 9 1
Imagining an Idiosyncratic Belonging:
Representing Disability in Chris Wares
Building Stories
MARGARET FINK BERMAN
In an inLroducLion Lo his comic sLrip Building SLorics, wriLLcn or Lhc !n-
dependent, Chris Warc idcnLics iLs main characLcr as a o-ycar-old woman
who has ycL Lo nd somconc wiLh whom Lo spcnd Lhc rcsL o hcr lic.

WhaL
is conspicuously missing rom Lhis dcscripLion, Lhoughas wcll as rom Lhc
majoriLy o Lhc LcxL in Lhc comic sLrip iLsclis Lhc acL LhaL Lhc proLagonisL
is an ampuLcc: hcr lcL lcg cnds jusL bclow Lhc kncc, whcrc shc somcLimcs
wcars a prosLhcLic limb. Warcs dcscripLion Lhus sLrangcly clidcs disabiliLy as
a characLcrizaLion o Lhc proLagonisL, rclcgaLing iL Lo a dc-privilcgcd posiLion
in his accounL o Lhc narraLivc.
Visually, howcvcr, Lhc pancls o Building SLorics do anyLhing buL gloss
ovcr Lhc proLagonisLs disabiliLy. RaLhcr, Lhcy dirccL Lhc rcadcrs cycs Lo a
rank conronLaLion wiLh hcr lcgs by dcpicLing hcr in closc-up shoLs rom Lhc
kncc down on ninc occasions LhroughouL Lhc comic sLripand oLcn as Lhrcc
consccuLivc, idcnLical pancls. In Lhc opcning insLallmcnLs, which arc narraLcd
by Lhc aparLmcnL building iLscl, onc mighL casily miss Lhc black linc LhaL
signics Lhc mccLing o csh and prosLhcsis (in parL :, or insLancc, whcrc
Lhc proLagonisL sLands on a sidcwalk in ronL o Lhc building, sLaring up aL
hcr uLurc homc). BuL in parL ,, Lhc rsL insLallmcnL narraLcd rom Lhc pro-
LagonisLs poinL o vicw, Warc chorcographs a vcriLablc unvciling o hcr shorL
lcg. Having awokcn rom an croLic drcam, Lhc proLagonisL gcLs ouL o bcd
Lo usc Lhc baLhroom, an acLion prcscnLcd in Lhrcc pancls: onc in which shc
lics sLill covcrcd by hcr blankcL, onc in which hcr long lcg cmcrgcs rom Lhc
covcrs, and nally onc in which hcr shorL lcg is rcvcalcd. AlLhough Lhc LcxL
o Lhc proLagonisLs laLc-nighL musings has cvcryLhing Lo do wiLh popsiclcs
sLrangcly croLicizcd by hcr drcam world and noLhing Lo do wiLh hcr bodily
variaLion, Warc dirccLs Lhc vicwcrs aLLcnLion Lo iL uninchingly, asscrLing iLs
prcscncc in Lhc proLagonisLs cvcryday lic.
From Lhc pcrspccLivc o disabiliLy sLudics, Lhc sLrangc discrcpancy bc-
Lwccn Lhc sLriking prcscncc o Lhc proLagonisLs shorL lcg in Lhc visual rcg-
isLcr o Building SLorics and Lhc ncar abscncc o any acknowlcdgmcnL o
hcr disabiliLy in Lhc LcxLual rcgisLcr crcaLcs a pcrplcxing inLcrprcLivc siLua-
Lion. MusL bodily variaLion always signiy, onc wondcrs` MighL Lhis disabiliLy
bc mcrcly Lhcrc, and Lhus noL rcally a ruiLul objccL or inLcrprcLaLion` In
1 9 2 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
Lhis cssay, I undcrLakc a carcul analysis o Lhc acsLhcLic and Lhc narraLivc
sLrucLurc o Warcs Building SLorics in ordcr Lo arguc LhaL Lhis parLicular
rcprcscnLaLion o a womanonc who would bc normaLivcly undcrsLood as
disablcddocs maLLcr. Spccically, Lhis parLicular rcprcscnLaLion docs
valuablc LhcorcLical work by posiLing an alLcrnaLivc undcrsLanding o disabil-
iLy rooLcd in Lhc ordinary. Warcs acsLhcLic o ordinarincss is characLcrizcd
by a air or sLaging Lhc small momcnLs o Lhc mundanc, dirccLing rcadcrs
Lo noLicc dcLails likc manLclpiccc clocks, rcccLions in windows, and charac-
Lcrs dgcLs. Tis ordinarincss acsLhcLic, wiLh iLs ocus on Lhc microproccsscs
o cvcryday lic, cnablcs a narraLivc sLrucLurc composcd o cpisodcs whosc
mcanings cxisL in dynamic Lcnsion wiLh onc anoLhcr, rcsisLing a xcd pro-
nounccmcnL abouL Lhc mcaning o Lhc proLagonisLs dicrcncc.
:
TaL is, in ordcr Lo makc scnsc o Lhc largcly unarLiculaLcd visual prcscncc
o Lhc womans shorL lcg and Lo inLcrprcL Lhc momcnLs whcn iL s LcxLually
acknowlcdgcd, onc musL considcr Lhc ways in which LhaL momcnLs immcdi-
aLc mcaning is shapcd and rcshapcd by oLhcr cpisodcs in Lhc comic sLrips
composcd cnvironmcnL. OLcn, whcn disabiliLy sccms Lo bc a locus or shamc
or loss, oLhcr sccncs suggcsL alLcrnaLivc ways o knowing Lhc proLagonisLs
bodyor consLiLuLc momcnLs o cqual or grcaLcr shamc LhaL arc noL orga-
nizcd around disabiliLy aL all. Tis narraLivc sLrucLurc crcaLcs a sLory in which
bodily dicrcncc assumcs a spacc in Lhc womans lic along wiLh a numbcr o
oLhcr LraiLs buL noncLhclcss rcLains iLs uniqucncss. Tis gcsLurc o rcndcr-
ing Lhc proLagonisLs so-callcd cxLraordinary body ordinary opcns up a ncw
spacc or Lhinking abouL disabiliLy as an cxpcricncc o whaL I call dosyncratc
be|ongng.
An Alternative to Identity Politics
Imagcs o bodics arc inLcgral Lo Lhc ways in which human bcings imaginc,
know, and acL Loward onc anoLhcr, and Lhus Warcs disabiliLy rcprcscnLaLion
is hardly mcrcly Lhcrc. Mcdia LhcorisL W.1.T. MiLchcll cxplains Lhc poliLics
o such imagcs in visual culLurc, proposing LhaL Lhcy uncLion as: go-bc-
Lwccns in social LransacLions, as a rcpcrLoirc o scrccn imagcs or LcmplaLcs
LhaL sLrucLurc our cncounLcrs wiLh oLhcr human bcings [. . .] SLcrcoLypcs,
caricaLurcs, classicaLory gurcs, scarch imagcs, mappings o Lhc visiblc
body, o Lhc social spaccs in which iL appcars would consLiLuLc Lhc undamcn-
Lal claboraLions o visual culLurc on which Lhc domain o Lhc imagcand
o Lhc OLhcris consLrucLcd. As go-bcLwccns or subalLcrn cnLiLics, Lhcsc
imagcs arc Lhc lLcrs Lhrough which wc rccognizc and o coursc misrccog-
nizc oLhcr pcoplc.

TaL is Lo say, all rcprcscnLaLions o Lhc body maLLcr in

LhaL Lhcy scrvc as Lhc go-bcLwccns, or ways o knowing LhaL bcar upon Lhc
rcal and quoLidian LransacLions bcLwccn pcoplc. RcccnL work in disabiliLy
sLudics has aLLcndcd Lo Lhc ways in which disablcd bodics arc mcdiaLcd by a
conLcmporary posiLioning in mcdical and rchabiliLaLivc discoursc as wcll as
a rcccnL pasL o rcak shows, cugcnics, and insLiLuLionalizaLion.

Many o Lhc
criLiqucs launchcd againsL objccLiying rcprcscnLaLions o disabiliLy opcraLc
wiLhin Lhc cld o idcnLiLy poliLics, sincc Lhc imagc o Lhc disablcd gurc has
hisLorically bccn an opprcssivc mcdiaLion, discouraging any rccogniLion o a
pcrson wiLh a complcx and ourishing lic. Howcvcr, Lhc disabiliLy imagc
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 1 9 3
LhaL cmcrgcs rom Building SLorics rcsisLs Lhcsc normaLivc ways o sccing
by consLrucLing a much morc complcx undcrsLanding o a pcrson wiLh an
anomalous body, prcciscly in LhaL iL rcprcscnLs iLs proLagonisL in ways LhaL
challcngc xcd caLcgorics o idcnLiLy.
DisabiliLy sLudics scholars arc oLcn cxpliciL abouL Lhcir works aLLcn-
danL poliLical agcnda: pcoplc wiLh ccrLain dicrcnccs arc markcd aparL as
dicrcnL in a normaLivc sysLcm, a sysLcm LhaL RobcrL McRucr has Lcrmcd
compulsory ablc-bodicdncss.

Tis disLincLion csLablishcs a binary LhaL is

undcrsLood as onc bcLwccn ablc/disablcd, normal/abnormal, wholc/brokcn,
valuablc/worLhlcss, Lhosc idcnLicd wiLh Lhc sccond Lcrm havc accd insLi-
LuLionalizaLion, discnranchiscmcnL, and discriminaLion. Much o disabiliLy
scholarships work is inLcrcsLcd in criLiquing Lhc cpisLcmological sysLcm LhaL
produccs and pcrpcLuaLcs Lhcsc condiLions. In hcr book Fxtraordnary Pod-
es, Roscmaric Carland-Tomson advocaLcs a rcsisLancc Lo normaLivc ways o
knowing disabiliLy, looking Lo Lhc anLi-assimilaLionisL, posiLivc-idcnLiLy poli-
Lics in a numbcr o novcls by cminisL Arican Amcrican wriLcrs. I musL con-
css, shc wriLcs, LhaL my own poliLics parallcl Lhcsc black womcns aLLcmpLs
Lo rcndcr physical dicrcncc as disLincLion, uncouplcd rom modcrniLys dc-
valuaLion o Lhc aLypical [. . . My aim is] Lo criLiquc Lhc poliLics o appcarancc
LhaL govcrns our inLcrprcLaLion o physical dicrcncc, Lo suggcsL LhaL dis-
abiliLy rcquircs accommodaLion raLhcr Lhan compcnsaLion, and Lo shiL our
conccpLion o disabiliLy rom paLhology Lo idcnLiLy.
6
Similarly, McRucr advo-
caLcs Lhc poLcnLial o a criLically disablcd, or whaL hc Lcrms severe, idcnLiLy
Lo rcsisL Lhc mcrc Lolcrancc o compulsory ablc-bodicdncss.
,
Tc assump-
Lion o a scvcrc disabiliLy idcnLiLy, hc argucs, is how Lhc disabiliLy communiLy
mighL cripLhaL is, collccLivcly LransormLhc ways in which Lhc sysLcm
o compulsory ablc-bodicdncss uscs quccr/disablcd cxisLcncc Lo dcnc and
pcrpcLuaLc iLscl. Tc poliLical criLiquc launchcd by Lhcsc scholars is ccrLainly
viLal, as Lhc ways in which disabiliLy is imagincd impingcs dirccLly on Lhc
wcll-bcing o Lhosc who livc wiLh disabiliLics.
8
Tc Lrcnd Loward an idcnLiLy
poliLics ccnLcrcd on disabiliLy-as-dicrcncc, howcvcr, also has iLs dangcrs.
Icgal LhcorisL 1ancL Hallcy has Lakcn up Lhc problcm wiLh idcnLiLy poli-
Lics in hcr considcraLion o Lhc likc racc argumcnLs madc by lawycrs on bc-
hal o quccr groups or individuals. IdcnLiLy poliLics, shc noLcs, is usually
wagcd on assumpLions LhaL idcnLiLy inhcrcs in group mcmbcrs, LhaL group
mcmbcrship brings wiLh iL a uniormly sharcd rangc (or cvcn a corc) o au-
LhcnLic cxpcricncc and aLLiLudc, LhaL Lhc poliLical and lcgal inLcrcsLs o Lhc
group arc similarly cohcrcnL, and LhaL group mcmbcrs arc Lhus ablc Lo draw
on Lhcir own cxpcricnccs Lo disccrn Lhosc inLcrcsLs and Lo csLablish Lhc au-
LhoriLy Lhcy nccd Lo spcak or Lhc group.

CcrLainly, Lhcsc cohcrcnLisL as-

sumpLions run inLo Lroublc whcn onc considcrs disabiliLy as a poliLicizcd
idcnLiLy, as iL uniLcs a widc spccLrum o pcoplc rom Lhosc wiLh an acsLhcLic
disabiliLy, Lo Lhc culLurally Dca, Lo pcoplc wiLh spina bidawhosc livcd cx-
pcricnccs vary radically and whosc poliLical nccds may bc likcwisc dicrcnL
and rcdcncs Lhcm as onc kind o bcing, wiLh onc scL o dcmands.
o
IdcnLiLy
poliLics, Hallcy argucs, can bccomc morc Lhan an organizaLion LhaL aciliLaLcs
rcsisLancc Lo hcgcmony, iL Loo can inLcrpcllaLc group mcmbcrs, making Lhcm
do Lhings Lhcy would noL oLhcrwisc do, buL also [making] Lhcm become pco-
plc Lhcy would noL oLhcrwisc bc.

IdcnLiLy poliLics risks imposing a kind o

1 9 4 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
scripL on Lhc pcoplc iL would includc by dclimiLing and dcning a caLcgory
o bcing. Hallcys criLiquc Lhus raiscs imporLanL issucs abouL disabiliLy as a
caLcgory o idcnLiLy: prcdicaLing bclonging on oncs dicrcncc rcinorccs Lhc
radical oLhcrncss consLrucLcd by compulsory ablc-bodicdncss.
:
I disabiliLy as a poliLicizcd idcnLiLy is problcmaLic in ccrLain imporLanL
ways, how mighL onc conccpLualizc Lhc kind o bcing parLicular Lo Warcs
proLagonisLor ccrLainly, Lhc conguraLion o hcr lcgs shapcs boLh hcr mo-
biliLy and hcr socialiLy` Two Lcrms arc cspccially uscul hcrc: culLural LhcorisL
FlspcLh Probyns outsde be|ongng and disabiliLy sLudics disLincLion o m-
parment rom disabiliLy. Probyn suggcsLs outsde be|ongng as an alLcrnaLivc
Lo Lhc conccpLual xiLy o idcnLiLy, which obligcs onc Lo Lhink in Lcrms o
division and dcsignaLion. Bclonging, shc wriLcs, cxprcsscs a dcsirc or morc
Lhan whaL is, a ycarning Lo makc skin sLrcLch bcyond individual nccds and
wanLs, and opcraLcs noL as a subsLanLivc claim buL as a manncr o bcing [. . .
iL is] Lhc dcsirc LhaL individuals havc Lo bclong, a Lcnacious and ragilc dcsirc
LhaL is, I Lhink, incrcasingly pcrormcd in Lhc knowlcdgc o Lhc impossibiliLy
o cvcr rcally and Lruly bclonging [. . .] A dcsirc LhaL cannoL bc caLcgorizcd as
good or bad, lcL or righLin shorL a dcsirc wiLhouL a xcd poliLical ground
buL wiLh immcnsc poliLical possibiliLics.

Probyn conLinucs LhaL bclonging is always pcrormcd wiLh Lhc cxpcri-

cncc o bcing wiLhin and inbcLwccn scLs o social rclaLions and LhaL Lhink-
ing bcyond idcnLiLy Lo bclonging is a maLLcr o gcLLing aL Lhc minuLcncss
o movcmcnL LhaL occurs in Lhc cvcryday proccsscs o arLiculaLion.

Warcs
rcprcscnLaLion posiLs his proLagonisL-wiLh-a-shorL-lcg as bclonging: by jux-
Laposing Lhc proLagonisLs sLory linc wiLh Lhosc o hcr ncighbors, Warc xcs
our aLLcnLion on whaL Probyn calls Lhc broughL LogcLhcrncss and ongoing
inbcLwccnncss crcaLcd by Lhc buildings sLrucLurc and by Lhc ways Lhc build-
ings inhabiLanLs rcgisLcr onc anoLhcrs prcscncc (waLcr dripping rom Lhc
sccond-oor aparLmcnLs baLhroom cciling as a rcsulL o an ovcrowcd LoilcL
on Lhc Lhird oor, or insLancc, phonc calls, chancc mccLings in Lhc bascmcnL,
noiscs Lravcling Lhrough Lhin walls). Tcsc cvcnLs rcndcr Lhc boundarics bc-
Lwccn Lhc parallcl sLory lincs pcrmcablc, as do Lhc ccLing, awkward inLcrac-
Lions bcLwccn Lhc rcsidcnLs. According Lo Probyn, Lhc dcsirc o bclonging
oils Lhc lincs o Lhc social [. . .] IL is Lhrough and wiLh dcsirc LhaL wc gurc
rclaLions o proximiLy Lo oLhcrs and oLhcr orms o socialiLy.

WhaL Id likc Lo call dosyncratc be|ongng is a conccpLion o subjccLiviLy

LhaL conccivcs o a pcrson as a locus or Lhc cvcr-shiLing ucLuaLions o oncs
scnsc o bclonging (or noL bclonging) as iL is arLiculaLcd across social spacc
and across Lhc physical spacc o oncs minuLcncss o movcmcnL. Tis bc-
longing bccomcs idiosyncraLic in acknowlcdging Lhc livcd cxpcricncc o oncs
bodily conguraLion, somcLhing disabiliLy scholars havc Lricd Lo isolaLc rom
disabiliLy as mparment. Tis livcd cxpcricncc conLribuLcs parLicular, idio-
syncraLic arLiculaLions o oncs bclonging across social and physical spacc and
accounLs or parLicular accouLrcmcnLs (cruLchcs, showcr chairs, prosLhcscs)
and pracLiccs (a ccrLain sLylc o climbing Lhc sLairs, or insLancc). DisabiliLy
scholars havc drawn a disLincLion bcLwccn impairmcnL as Lhc physical acL
o bodily variaLion and disabiliLy as Lhc limiLaLions produccd by socicLal aL-
LiLudcs Loward, and ailurcs Lo accommodaLc, Lhc impairmcnL. Susan Squicr
criLiqucs Lhis disLincLion, cauLioning LhaL onc musL noL usc iL Lo rclcgaLc im-
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 1 9 5
pairmcnL Lo a LoLally prc-social ordcr dcvoid o social mcaning and scparaLc
rom Lhc scl.
6
Squicr asscrLs LhaL bccausc Lhcy mobilizc characLcrs gcs-
Lurcs, posLurcs, and acial cxprcssions Lo Lcll sLorics, comics arc cspccially wcll
cquippcd Lo communicaLc Lhc cmbodicd mcanings o an impairmcnL: comics
can convcy Lhc complcx social impacL o a physical or mcnLal impairmcnL, as
wcll as Lhc way Lhc body rcgisLcrs social and insLiLuLional consLrainLs.
,
In
moving bcyond disabiliLy as an idcnLiLy caLcgory orgcd ovcr and againsL a
likcwisc xcd ablc-bodicd normaLiviLy, onc mighL conccivc o Lhc parLicular
bclonging LhaL is (also) shapcd by impairmcnL-spccic spaLial pracLiccs as an
dosyncratc bclonging.
IL is Lhis kind o subjccLiviLy LhaL Warc composcs or his proLagonisL as hc
ollows Lhc micro-gcsLurcs o cach o his characLcrs. Hc porLrays Lhc woman
wiLh a shorL lcg ovcr an array o spaLial and inLcrsubjccLivc LransacLions, and
hcr shorL lcg produccs ccrLain idiosyncraLic LransacLions LhaL shapc hcr par-
Licular bclongingwhaL shc docs, how shc inLcracLs wiLh oLhcrs, whaL shc
longs or. In Building SLorics, Lhc proLagonisL livcs wiLh hcr disabiliLy noL as
a mcmbcr o a xcd caLcgory (ncvcr do wc hcar hcr scl-idcnLiy as any type
o pcrson bccausc o hcr lcg), buL as onc whosc movcmcnLs across social and
physical spacc arc somcLimcs shapcd by hcr bodys variaLion and Lhc Lcch-
nologics LhaL shc uscs. Tis rcprcscnLaLion o bodily variaLion as somcLhing
LhaL conLribuLcs Lo an idiosyncraLic bclongingraLhcr Lhan somcLhing LhaL
makcs a ccrLain kind o pcrsonis bound up wiLh Warcs ordinarincss acs-
LhcLic.
Chris Wares Aesthetic of Ordinariness and Narrative Structure
Cycling Lhrough a LwcnLy-our-hour pcriod ovcr LhirLy wcckly onc-pagc in-
sLallmcnLs, Lhc New York Tmes Magaznes run o Building SLorics ollows
Lhrcc sLory lincs: onc or cach o Lhc aparLmcnLs in a Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury
Chicago building.
8
Tc landlady, who rcsidcs on Lhc rsL oor, is an cldcrly
woman who livcs in a world o mcmory and rcgrcL, Lhc sccond oor houscs a
couplc in a dysuncLional rclaLionship, and on Lhc Lhird oor livcs Lhc main
characLcr o Lhc sLrip, a young, loncly arLisL wiLh a shorL lcg. Tc opcning
insLallmcnLs arc acsLhcLically paradigmaLic or Lhc cnLirc sLrip, wriLLcn and
drawn in Warcs characLcrisLic sLylc. Composcd in a non-lincar progrcssion o
LcxL and pancls, cach insLallmcnL is colorcd largcly in muLcd, balanccd Loncs
wiLh somc vivid splashcs, drawn wiLh clcar, prccisc lincs and blocks o un-
modulaLcd color, and rccords parLicular aLmosphcric dcLails LhaL producc an
acsLhcLic o ordinarincsscrumbs on Lhc oor, brokcn cncc slaLs, and mail-
ing Lapc on cardboard boxcs. In Warcs own words, Lhc comic sLrip aims or
an cvcr closcr rcprcscnLaLion o whaL iL ccls likc Lo bc alivc.

Warcs vcrsion o Lhc ordinary is a living momcnL-by-momcnL, dwclling

on Lhc micro-gcsLurcs LhaL narraLivcs usually clidc, iL is Lhc borcd killing o
Limc, Lhc waiLing Lo nish pccing, Lhc placing o ccL on a cocc Lablc wiLh a
plaLc balanccd on oncs lap. BuL Warcs ordinarincss o in-bcLwccn Limc has
iLs momcnLs o quicL lovclincss, Loo, his narraLivcs o noLicing rccord Lhc
changing skys colors aL Lhc window, a bumblcbcc climbing a wall, rows o
ramcd phoLographs in a hall. Ordinary lic is, or Warc, a placc whcrc pcoplc
conLinually makc corLs aL connccLion in unsuavc, inarLiculaLc, and ncrvous
1 9 6 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
ways: Lhc landlady dclivcrs a scaring riposLc on Lhc phonc aLcr hcr inLcrlocu-
Lor has hung up, Lhc proLagonisL cxprcsscs hcr cclings or a man in a way
LhaL is ovcrcagcr and dcspcraLc, and Lhc sccond-oor man LhwarLs his anLa-
sics o a plcasanL convcrsaLion wiLh his parLncr by saying, 1csus, yourc noL
going Lo wcar those panLs Loday, arc you`
:o
Warcs ordinarincss is also abouL unconccaling Lhc obvious, which philoso-
phcr SLanlcy Cavcll has argucd is no small caL, sincc Lhc cvcryday is losL in
cvcry impulsc Lo philosophy. In our aLLcmpLs Lo conccivc o, Lo noLicc, or Lo
namc Lhc ordinary, wc arc singling iL ouL and ocusing on iL, Lhus rcndcring
iL in somc scnsc cxLraordinary. In Lhcsc aLLcmpLs, wc scc Lhc ccLing naLurc
o Lhc ordinary, Lhc way in which iL musL bc laboriously unconccalcd. Cavcll
avcrs LhaL onc musL conLinually aLLcmpL Lo grasp Lhc sLu o Lhc ordinary:
Lhc world musL bc rcgaincd cvcry day, in rcpcLiLion, rcgaincd as gonc.
:

Warcs acsLhcLic Lakcs pains Lo makc prcscnL Lhc cvcryday LhaL is so obvious
iLs hiddcn, lling his pancls wiLh uzzy LoilcL scaL covcrs, wccds in cmpLy
loLs, and rcrigcraLor handlcs. Along wiLh iLs parLicular aLLcnLion Lo Lhis lcxi-
con o dcLails, Warcs acsLhcLic cxploiLs ccrLain Lcchnical aspccLs o Lhc com-
ics mcdium in ordcr Lo crcaLc an aLmosphcrc o ordinarincss.
As hc prcscnLs mundanc gcsLurcs, dialogucs wiLh pcLs, and Lasks likc Lak-
ing plasLic wrap o o sliccd applcs, Warc cnlisLs a Lcchniquc LouLcd by ScoLL
McCloud as having grcaL powcr [. . .] rclcasablc only by Lhc rcadcrs mind:
amplicaLion Lhrough simplicaLion.
::
McCloud claims LhaL comics arLisLs in-
Lcnsiy Lhc mcanings o Lhc objccLs and pcoplc Lhcy porLray whcn Lhcy draw
Lhcm morc schcmaLically. By sLripping down an imagc Lo iLs csscnLial mcan-
ing, hc wriLcs, an arLisL can ampliy LhaL mcaning in a way LhaL rcalisLic
arL canL.
:
Warcs clcan-lincd sLylc makcs cvcryday objccLs and pcoplc morc
univcrsal, such LhaL rcadcrs cngagc and idcnLiy wiLh Lhcm morc rcadily.
Warc cxplains: In ordcr Lo work visually my comics havc Lo all somcwhcrc
bcLwccn Lhc gcncral and Lhc spccic [. . . A]s wiLh any orm o wriLing, Lhc
richncss and LcxLurc o Lhc sLory comcs rom Lhc spccics, rom Lhc dcLails.
So I usc spccic dcLails, buL I Lry Lo draw Lhc dcLails in a gcncral way.
:
Warcs
acsLhcLic crcaLcs sccncs LhaL, Lhough Lhcy Lakc placc osLcnsibly somcwhcrc
on Lhc norLh sidc o Chicago, rcadcrs can idcnLiy wiLh rcadily and inhabiL
casily. SiLuaLing Lhc proLagonisLs body in Lhis visual comicscapcccrLainly,
shc is rcndcrcd in Lhc samc clcar colors and black ouLlincs, a smooLh curvc
signaling Lhc cnd o hcr shorL lcgamiliarizcs iL and rcndcrs iL ordinary. AL
Lhc samc Limc, Warcs acsLhcLic o ordinarincss rcprcscnLs Lhc idiosyncraLic
dcLails o Lhc livcd cxpcricncc o Lhis impairmcnL, along wiLh Lhosc o Lhc rcsL
o cvcryday lica cruLch in Lhc corncr, a browning banana, Lhc sLocking cap
on Lhc cnd o Lhc proLagonisLs lcg, a band-aid on hcr daLcs hand.
Warcs acsLhcLic o ordinarincss is achicvcd noL only in Lhc iconiciLy and
dcLail o his sccncs, buL also in Lhc ways in which hc organizcs and juxLa-
poscs pancls in his narraLivcs. McCloud disLinguishcs bcLwccn six kinds o
pancl-Lo-pancl LransiLions, noLing LhaL WcsLcrn comics usc uncannily simi-
lar proporLions o cach kind whcn analyzcd. WcsLcrn comics, hc obscrvcs,
cmphasizc acLion-Lo-acLion sLoryLclling, also cmploying subjccL-Lo-subjccL
and sccnc-Lo-sccnc LransiLions. WhaL disLinguishcs Warcs sLoryLclling sLylc
rom LhaL o mosL WcsLcrn comics is Lhc prcdominancc o momcnL-Lo-mo-
mcnL LransiLions, in which Lhc changc and Lhc lapsc o Limc bcLwccn pancls
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 1 9 7
is minimal. Warcs acLion-Lo-acLion LransiLions also uncLion as momcnL-Lo-
momcnL LransiLions, as hc primarily rccords micro-acLionsgcsLurcs, acial
cxprcssions, and cvcn Lhc vcry sLcps characLcrs Lakc across Lhcir rooms. For
cxamplc, in parL , a scrics o pancls dcpicL Lhc sccond-oor mans rcLurn Lo
Lhc aparLmcnL building (scc plaLc ,).
:
Warc Lakcs Lwclvc pancls Lo rcprcscnL
Lhc cvcnL o Lhc mans arrival, cxiL rom his car, and approach Lo Lhc aparL-
mcnL. Warc Lhus slows Lhc pacc o his comic sLrip such LhaL iL absorbs and
porLrays Lhc smallcr momcnLs o Lhc ordinary, which arc glosscd ovcr and al-
lowcd Lo all inLo Lhc guLLcr in mosL comics. By manipulaLing pancl-Lo-pancl
LransiLions in Lhis way, Warc crcaLcs a ccrLain rhyLhm o ordinarincss, Lhc
bcaL by bcaL cxpcricncc rcadcrs crcaLc in Lhc acL o rcading smallcr micro-
movcmcnLs. Tc proLagonisLs shorL lcg bccomcs a parL o Lhis rhyLhm o or-
dinarincss, synchcd Lo iL, prcscnLcd noL as an alicn, unknowablc cxpcricncc,
buL as parL o Lhc main characLcrs cvcryday living. Placcd in Lhis ux o or-
dinary momcnLso non-cvcnLs, o gcncralizcd dcLail, o Limc parcclcd ouL
slowlyhcr impairmcnL is broughL Lo Lhc suracc o pcrccpLion as i iL wcrc
as unrcmarkablc as any o Lhc oLhcr dcLails in Building SLorics. Warcs ordi-
narincss acsLhcLic dccply impacLs Lhc narraLivc sLrucLurc o Lhc comic sLrip,
which crcaLcs an idiosyncraLic bclonging or Lhc proLagonisL by rcprcscnLing
hcr quoLidian cxpcricncc o having a shorL lcg.
In hcr discussion o how ordinarincss is prcscnL, liLcrary LhcorisL Iau-
rcn BcrlanL argucs LhaL Lhc cvcryday unolds noL in dramaLic cvcnLs buL in
Lcmporal cnvironmcnLs, a conccpL LhaL allows or a Lcmporal dcscripLion
o spacc as a back-ormaLion rom pracLiccs.
:6
Warc narraLivcly sLrucLurcs
Lhc ordinary o his comic sLrip as a consLcllaLion o Lhcsc smallcr momcnLs,
cspccially on Lhc occasions whcn Lhc LcxLual rcgisLcr o Building SLorics
dirccLly addrcsscs Lhc proLagonisLs impairmcnL as a Lroublcsomc cxpcricncc.
Bccausc Lhcy arc locaLcd in an ordinary cnvironmcnL, Lhc cvcnLs in Building
SLorics arc whaL BcrlanL dcncs as epsodes: An cnvironmcnL is madc via
spaLial pracLiccs and can absorb how Limc ordinarily passcs, how orgcLLablc
mosL cvcnLs arc, and, ovcrall, how pcoplcs ordinary pcrscvcraLions ucLuaLc
in paLLcrns o aLLachmcnL and idcnLicaLion. In an ordinary cnvironmcnL,
mosL o whaL wc call cvcnLs arc noL o Lhc scalc o mcmorablc impacL buL
raLhcr arc epsodes, LhaL is, occasions LhaL makc cxpcricnccs whilc noL chang-
ing much o anyLhing.
:,
In Lhcsc small momcnLs o acknowlcdging Lhc pro-
LagonisLs shorL lcg as rcgrcLLablc, Warc guidcs rcadcrs Lo rcgisLcr Lhc cpi-
sodcs accompanying mixLurc o anxicLy, shamc, and loss, whilc also scLLing
Lhc cpisodc in an ovcrall ux wiLh oLhcr pracLiccs, which insisLcnLly undcrcuL
iLs accLivc Lcnor and drama.
In Lhc rsL insLallmcnL o Lhc main characLcrs LwcnLy-our-hour scl-
narraLivc, shc worrics LhaL shc will disLurb hcr ncighbors by gcLLing up aL
nighL. Tis conccrn sLcms rom Lhc acL LhaL whcn shcs moving abouL Lhc
housc aL nighL, shc uscs a cruLch. In Lhc ncxL pancl, Lhc visual inormaLion is
onomaLopocic, showing Lhc girl in hcr undcrwcar and lcaning on hcr cruLch,
a linc o whiLc TAKs Lrailing bchind hcr as shc crosscs Lhc living room. To
walk around aL nighL wiLh a cruLch, wc rcad, does mcan Lo makc noisc LhaL
could awakcn a ncighbor. Tc LcxL accompanying Lhc sccnc, howcvcr, conLrib-
uLcs inormaLion abouL spaLial pracLiccs LhaL consLrucLs a dicrcnL narraLivc.
Tcn again, Lhc proLagonisL Lhinks, I donL know whaL I was worricd abouL,
1 9 8 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
sincc I hcar Lhcm yclling aL cach oLhcr all Lhc Limc, anyway . . .
:8
Shc ocrs a
rcbuLLal Lo hcr own anxicLy abouL making poLcnLially disrupLivc noiscshcr
cruLch noiscs arc akin Lo (or lcss Lroublcsomc Lhan) Lhc noiscs rcsulLing rom
hcr ncighbors dysuncLional rclaLionship. Tus rcassurcd, shc makcs hcr Lrck
Lo Lhc baLhroom insoucianLly, as Lhc TAKs arc Lransormcd in Lhc ordinary
cnvironmcnL as unmcmorablc cpisodcs in lighL o Lhc ncighbors own noisc-
making pracLiccs.
By narraLing Lhis ordinary momcnL o wanLing Lo gcL up Lo usc Lhc rcsL-
room, scLLing up an impairmcnL-rclaLcd social rcsLricLion on such a quoLid-
ian Lask, and Lhcn inLcrposing hcr ncighbors own noisc-causing condiLions,
Warc diuscs Lhc anxicLy and scl-consciousncss o navigaLing an aparLmcnL
aL nighL wiLh a shorL lcg. Tc ordinary cnvironmcnL o Lhc Lhird and sccond
sLory o Lhc aparLmcnL building whcrc Lhc proLagonisL and hcr ncighbors livc,
rcspccLivcly, is claboraLcd by Lhc spaLial pracLiccs urnishcd via Lhc proLago-
nisLs mcmory as wcll as Lhc comic sLrips oLhcr insLallmcnLs. For insLancc,
Lhc proLagonisL cxpands hcr scl-jusLicaLion by hypoLhcsizing abouL hcr
ncighbor: Im prcLLy surc Lhc guys a drinkcr Loo . . . I hcar him coming and
going aL all hours . . . Rcadcrs know rom prcvious insLallmcnLs, howcvcr,
LhaL hc makcs noisc aL odd hours bccausc hc works as a nighL sccuriLy guard
in an cmpLy building. Warcs narraLivc consLrucLion, Lhcn, alLcrs Lhc proLago-
nisLs scl-righLcousncss Lhrough iLs rclaLion Lo oLhcr cpisodcs, and shc Lurns
ouL Lo bc raLhcr ungcncrous in hcr hypoLhcscs abouL hcr ncighbor.
:
Pcrhaps Lhc richcsL sccnc o Lhc sLrip in Lcrms o Warcs narraLivc con-
sLrucLion o mcaning or Lhc proLagonisLs shorL lcg is ound in parL ::, in
which Lhc plumbcr, Mr. Bcll, nally arrivcs Lo x Lhc Lhird oors ovcrow-
ing LoilcL. Tc proLagonisLs commcnLs aL Lhc ouLscL sLarL shaping Lhc sccncs
cnvironmcnL inLo onc o discomorL and uncasc: his sour brcaLh smcllcd likc
wcL wood, wiLh a vaguc ashy sLalcncss o cigarcLLcs, and his coaL lookcd as i
iLd spcnL Lhc summcr waddcd up on Lhc oor o his car . . . cvcry movcmcnL
hc madc sccmcd cxccssivcly loud . . . In Lhc awkward cxchangc LhaL ollows,
Lhc proLagonisL acknowlcdgcs hcr impairmcnL whcn Mr. Bcll asks hcr abouL iL
wiLhouL rcalizingLhc only Limc in Lhc sLrip LhaL hcr impairmcnL is vcrbally
arLiculaLcd. Tc momcnL is carcully composcd, dividcd in small pancls LhaL
crcaLc a morc dilaLcd scnsc o Limc, racLurcd and drawn ouL by movcmcnLs
o hcsiLaLion and rcLracLion. Mr. Bcll scLs down his buckcL and rcmarks LhaL
iL was rcsourccul o hcr Lo usc hcr cruLch Lo supporL Lhc LoilcLs Lank oaL.
Prcoccupicd wiLh his work, hc asks, SporLs injury` Tc ncxL pancl shows
Lhc main characLcr sLill holding Lhc cruLch ouL, silcnL, rozcn. In Lhc ollowing
pancl, shc gaLhcrs hcrscl, LcnLaLivcly uLLcring, uh. Whcn shc nally spcaks
in Lhc ncxL pancl, hcr cycbrows arc urrowcd in apprchcnsivc discomorL:
NoL rcally . . . I donL rcally play sporLs . . . and in Lhc ollowing pancl shc
conLinucs, knocking on hcr prosLhcLic, ILs morc o a, uh, lic injury (scc
plaLc 8).
o
Warc dcpicLs Mr. Bclls rcsponsc as a similarly jcrky sLarL-and-sLop aL-
LcmpL aL connccLion and aL smooLhing ovcr a Loo-inLimaLc inquiry. In Lhc
ncxL pancl, Lhc sccnc sLands rozcn, wiLh Mr. Bcll poiscd ovcr Lhc LoilcL and
Lhc girl sLanding in Lhc doorway. In Lwo scparaLc pancls, Mr. Bcll looks ovcr
his shouldcr, and Lhcn bcgins apologizing. Tc spccd wiLh which Lhc pro-
LagonisL immcdiaLcly cuLs him o in Lhc ncxL pancl is slighLly jarring and
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 1 9 9
ccrLainly unsuavc: Hcy, LhaLs cool . . . I acLually likc iL whcn pcoplc donL
noLicc . . . cspccially guys. Tc sccnc conLinucs in a halLing and spccding
arrhyLhmia which slowly righLs iLscl (only Lo bc upcndcd aL Lhc cnd o Lhc
insLallmcnL).

Mr. Bcll halLs, and chucklcs, and nally Lurns back Lo his work,
saying, Yourc okay. Warc cxploiLs pancl-Lo-pancl LransiLions Lo crcaLc Lhc
awkward pauscs LhaL rcinorcc Lhc hcsiLaLion signalcd by Lhc proLagonisLs
uhs and Lo convcy Mr. Bclls aLLcmpLs Lo navigaLc Lhc concssion o sorLs hc
had inadvcrLcnLly prompLcd.
:
Tc comic sLrip lingcrs on Lhis momcnL o awkwardncss and candor, buL aL
Lhc samc Limc, whcn parL :: is vicwcd as a wholc, Lhc proLagonisLs lamcnLa-
Lion o a lic injury is consisLcnLly undcrcuL. AlLhough Lhis is an accLivcly
inLcnsc momcnL, a sccnc immcdiaLcly ollowing is apparcnLly morc shamc-
ul or Lhc proLagonisL, and as such iL works Lo rcshapc Lhc cnvironmcnL o
ordinarincss LhaL produccs mcaning or Lhc proLagonisLs shorL lcg. Mr. Bcll
asks Lhc girlovcr Lhrcc pancls, wiping his orchcad, ncrvously casLing hcr
a sidcways glancc, and scraLching his acci shc had ushcd any, uh, kinda
jemnne protecton. Hcr rcsponsc is curious. TroughouL Building SLorics,
Warc pcriodically colors Lhc background o a pancl solid ycllow Lo signiy cx-
Lrcmc accL (shock, car, cLc.). In Lhis casc, Lhc proLagonisL is shown silcnL
wiLh brighL pink chccks and a solid, hoL pink background. Tis usc o color
is cspccially sLriking in Lhc midsL o composiLion LhaL is primarily bluc and
brown. Hcr chccks rcmain ushcd as shc dcnics Lhc chargc, hcr cmininc,
lcaky body is apparcnLly a grcaLcr sourcc o shamc and cmbarrassmcnL or
hcr Lhan hcr disabiliLy.
Tc nal scrics o pancls in Lhc insLallmcnL, sLrcLching in a bar along Lhc
boLLom o Lhc pagc, also undcrcuLs Lhc promincncc o Lhc lic injury sccnc
as an cxprcssion o shamc and loss. In Lhis scrics o pancls, Lhc proLagonisL
bcgins Lo ask Mr. Bcll abouL his amily aLcr hc mcnLions having prcviously
livcd in hcr aparLmcnL. In Lhc rsL pancl, Lhc girl asks, And . . . you and your
wic sLill livc [in Lhc suburbs]` Tc ncxL pancl is a shoL o Mr. Bcll conccn-
LraLing on Lhc LoilcL, and ovcr Lhc ollowing our pancls hc conrms and Lhcn
qualics, saying, we|| . . . noL my wic . . . Shc passcd a cw ycars back . . .
Undcr Lhis scqucncc arc Lhrcc succcssivc pancls LhaL ccnLcr on Lhc LoilcL bowl
and Mr. Bclls hand as Limc sLalls bcorc Lhc proLagonisL awkwardly apolo-
gizcs. AlmosL a mirror Lo Lhc lic injury sccnc, Lhc girl has inadvcrLcnLly
happcncd upon an inLcnsc, pcrsonal dcLail in Lhc proccss o making small
Lalk. Tc scqucncc is unrclcnLing in holding Lhc rcadcrs Lo Lhis uncomorL-
ablc cxchangc. Tc proLagonisL Lrics Lo rccovcr rom hcr qucsLion abouL Mr.
Bclls wic by asking abouL his daughLcr, aLcr a cw pancls clapsc, Lhc sLrip
concludcs wiLh a birds-cyc vicw o boLh o Lhcm sLanding in Lhc baLhroom,
and Mr. Bcll rcsponding, Shcs gonc, Loo. An analogy is Lhus drawn bcLwccn
Lhc proLagonisLs shorL lcg and Mr. Bclls loss o his wic and daughLcr, raLhcr
Lhan posiLing disabiliLy as an extraordinarily Lragic and dramaLic loss, iL Loo is
a circumsLancc Lo improvisc living Lhrough.
As a wholc, Lhc narraLivc sLrucLurc o Lhis insLallmcnL conLcxLualizcs Lhc
main characLcrs impairmcnLcvcn cxprcsscd in raLhcr paLhcLic Lcrms as a
lic injury in an cxchangc markcd by discomorLin a scrics o inLcracLions
LhaL carry as much or morc accLivc wcighL. Tc oLhcr cpisodcs o rcproduc-
Livc shamc and amilial loss crowd around Lhc iniLial rcndcring o impair-
2 0 0 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
mcnL, complicaLing iL as a ccrLain kind o momcnL, rcsisLing iLs puLaLivc cx-
Lraordinarincss. Tc scnsc o loss is a common cxpcricncc or Lhc girl and
Mr. Bcll, Lhc ordinarincss o Lhc cnvironmcnL in which Lhcsc inLcrpcrsonal
LransacLions Lakc placc is an ordinarincss o characLcrs cnduring LhaL lic
o which [onc] surcly is noL masLcr, as BcrlanL puLs iL.

In a similarly sLruc-
Lurcd rclaLion o samcncss bcLwccn cpisodcs, Lhc girl rcvcals hcr impairmcnL
wiLh cmbarrassmcnL, buL cmbarrassmcnL is rcpcaLcd and surpasscd wiLh
rccrcncc Lo anoLhcr LraiL, hcr cmininc dicrcncc. AddiLionally, an carlicr
insLallmcnL ocrs an ouLrighL counLcrargumcnL Lo parL ::s porLrayal o hcr
shorL lcg as a Lragcdy (cvcn i unrcmarkablc). In parL ,, whcn Lhc proLagonisL
discovcrs LhaL Lhc LoilcL has ovcrowcd, iL is hcr shorL lcg LhaL has cquippcd
hcr Lo dcal wiLh Lhc siLuaLion. Shc rcmarks LhaL shc spcnL a loL o Limc on Lhc
oor as a child and is Lhcrcorc inLimaLc wiLh Lhc spaccs o a homc LhaL arc
ncar Lhc oorincluding Lhc knobs and pipcs o a LoilcLs plumbing.

Tc
lic injury arLiculaLion o Lhc proLagonisLs impairmcnL, Lhcn, is a momcnL
whosc privilcgc is diuscd by Lhc cpisodic consLrucLion o Lhc comic sLrip as
wcll as by conLradicLing mcanings proposcd by oLhcr insLallmcnLs.
In oLhcr sccncs, Lhc proLagonisLs shorL lcg is indirccLly implicaLcd in Lhc
barrcnncss o hcr amorous lic, a barrcnncss LhaL is morc cxpliciLly aL Lhc
ccnLcr o hcr sLory. Tcsc connccLions bcLwccn impairmcnL and lonclincss
arc subLlc, buL Lhcy sccm Lo bc working wiLh Lhc grain o Lypical rcprcscnLa-
Lions o disabiliLy. Fvcn Lhough Warc rcprcscnLs Lhc main characLcr as an
Fig. 14.1. The protagonists
foreshortened pros-
thetic limb with the word
untouched posits a
connection between her
impairment and sexual un-
attractiveness, one which
is eventually complicated.
Chris Ware, Building
Stories: Part 21, New York
Times Magazine, February
12, 2006, 43.
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 2 0 1
ordinary woman, and noL as radically oLhcr, Lhcsc sccncs suggcsL LhaL Lhc
main characLcrs shorL lcg has isolaLcd hcr and prccludcd hcr rom bcing Lhc
objccL o anoLhcrs dcsirc. Tc uniquc composiLion o onc such pancl in parL
: crcaLcs a poinLcd rclaLionship (i unarLiculaLcd) bcLwccn Lhc proLagonisLs
impairmcnL and hcr singlc sLaLus. Shc is lying on hcr bcd, lingcring on a
word shcs uscd Lo dcscribc hcr diary: UnLouchcd Ycah, wcll, LhaLs ccrLainly
appropriaLc . . . Tc cnsuing LcxL claboraLcs on Lhis rucul rcmark, shc is
rccrring Lo Lhc acL LhaL shc hasnL bccn kisscd in six or scvcn ycars, Lo Lhc
poinL whcrc shc sLrugglcs Lo rcmcmbcr Lhc cxpcricncc (scc g. .). Tis
LcxL is juxLaposcd wiLh a sLriking, orcshorLcncd imagc o Lhc proLagonisL
lying on hcr bcd. Tc ooL and lcg LhaL loom largc in Lhc orcground arc hcr
prosLhcsis and hcr shorL lcg, Lhc ramc visually orcgrounds Lhcm in Landcm
wiLh hcr scl-labcl as unLouchcd.

In a laLcr insLallaLion, shc braccs hcrscl

aLcr shcs askcd a cllow arL school alumnus, Phil, up Lo hcr aparLmcnL. Shc
Lclls hcr rcadcrs, SLill, rom cxpcricncc, Id lcarncd Lo cxpccL Lhc worsL . . .
and Lhcn Lclls Phil, I know . . . You only wanL Lo bc ricnds . . . .
6
Tc rcjcc-
Lion, urLhcrmorc, was noL on Lhc basis o pcrsonaliLy, muLual inLcrcsLs, or
cmoLional inLimacy, which a ricnd mighL sLill hopc Lo cnjoy, buL raLhcr was
onc o noL bcing aLLracLcd Lo hcr |ke that. Tc rcjccLion LhaL cxpcricncc has
LaughL hcr Lo cxpccL in Lhis sccnc is a rcjccLion o hcr body as a scxually dcsir-
ablc objccL.
Hcr shorL lcg, Lhcn, is gurcd as a variaLion LhaL has dcLcrrcd mcn in Lhc
2 0 2 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
proLagonisLs pasL rom Lhinking o hcr in amorous Lcrms. Howcvcr, ovcr Lhc
cnLirc LrajccLory o Building SLorics Lhcsc insLanccs, in which Lhc proLago-
nisL anLicipaLcs rcjccLion, arc morc complicaLcd.
,
Tc proLagonisLs doubL
rcgarding Lhc dcsirabiliLy o hcr parLicular body is, in Lhc cnd, undcrmincd
by Lhc simplc acL LhaL Phil docs comc up Lo hcr aparLmcnL in parL :8 and is
ovcrcomc wiLh dcsirc, cvcn Lo Lhc poinL o orgasm.
8
BuL LhaL simplc acL
o armaLion is challcngcd sincc Phil cxpcricnccs his dcsirc as cxccssivc and
shamcul, and rcadcrs arc lcL noL knowing whcLhcr or noL hc acLually calls
hcr again. Tc aparLmcnL building, which spcaks in Lhc insLallmcnL aLcr Phil
has lcL, is somcLhing o an omnipoLcnL narraLor who is convinccd LhaL hc
wonL rcLurn.

Flscwhcrc in Lhc sLrips narraLivc composiLion, Lhis unccrLain

and unpromising cnd Lo Lhc climacLic Phil cpisodc is givcn counLcrargumcnL:
Lhc sccond oor inhabiLanLs daydrcam is a lusLy vicw o hcr posLcrior, and
Lhc cpiloguc shows Lhc proLagonisL vc ycars laLcr, driving pasL Lhc old build-
ing wiLh a baby in Low, cooing LhaL iLs Limc Lo pick up daddy.
o
In Lhc cnd, Lhc proLagonisL has ound somconc and cnjoys a lic o mo-
biliLy Lhrough Lhc ciLy aL largc. AL Lhc samc Limc, Lhough, Warc is noL com-
posing a sLraighLorward sLory whcrc Lhc woman nds LhaL shc rcally s dcsir-
ablc. Whilc Building SLorics has a happy cnding and somc happy momcnLs,
iL is noL simply a narraLivc o armaLion and growing scl-condcncc, buL
also onc o baggagc and scl-doubL. In Lhc cnd, as Lhc narraLivc wobblcs rom
shamc Lo armaLion and back, Warcs sLrucLural composiLion consLrucLs a
mulLivalcnL scL o cpisodcs in which bodily variaLion comcs Lo Lhc orcground
in a way LhaL complicaLcs any dcniLivc inLcrprcLaLions. InsLcad, cach cpi-
sodcs mcaning musL bc rcad in rclaLion Lo scvcral oLhcrshardly clcar-cuL,
hardly sLaLic.
AcsLhcLically, Chris Warcs Building SLorics rcndcrs iLs main characLcrs
shorL lcg as parL o a gcncral rcalism o Lhc builL spacc, apprchcnsiblc buL noL
cxaggcraLcd, somcLhing LhaL caLchcs Lhc gazc and, whilc noL ovcrlookcd, is
noL mclodramaLizcd ciLhcr. SLrucLurally, Loo, Warc is composing a parLicular
way o knowing bodily variaLion. Hc LcxLually cngagcs Lhc proLagonisLs shorL
lcg on a cw occasions LhroughouL Lhc comic sLrip, imbuing iL wiLh a ccrLain
mcaningloss, rcvclaLion, cLc. AL Lhc samc Limc, Warc works consciously Lo
rcgisLcr and Lhcn complicaLc Lhc mcaning o cach momcnL by puLLing cach
inLo play wiLh a numbcr o oLhcr momcnLs LhaL arc somcLimcs also cxpliciLly
abouL hcr lcg, somcLimcs abouL oLhcr pcoplc and oLhcr cxpcricnccs. Tus,
Warcs clision o Lhc proLagonisLs shorL lcg in his dcscripLion or Lhc !ndepen-
dent is noL unwarranLcd, Lhis is noL a sLrip abouL a disablcd woman. InsLcad,
Building SLorics looks rankly aL iLs Lhird-oor inhabiLanL and hcr cxpcri-
cncc in a way LhaL isnL moralizing or hypcrvigilanL, buL conscious, aLLcnding
Lo Lhc consLcllaLion o inLcracLions wiLh pcoplc and Lhc objccL world as wcll
as Lhc spaLial pracLiccs LhaL comprisc hcr parLicular, idiosyncraLic bclonging.
Warc ocrs a rcprcscnLaLion o bodily variaLion LhaL is noL Lo bc inLcrprcLcd
as a radically oLhcr condiLion buL as somcLhing LhaL givcs shapc Lo a dccply
ordinary, parLicular, and cvcr-shiLing manncr o bcing in rclaLion wiLh Lhc
world.
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 2 0 3
Notes
1. Chris Ware, Building Stories: The Introduction, The Independent Online, October 1, 2006,
http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/features/article1856445.ece (accessed August 31, 2008).
2. By mutually complicating, Im referring to how the narrative structure creates meaning for the
protagonists leg: each guring of the leg in the narrative suggests a certain knowledge of it, and what
is particularly notable is how this signications value is deeply relative (in the Saussurean sense of the
term).
3. W.J.T. Mitchell, Showing Seeing: A Critique of Visual Culture, in The Visual Culture Reader, ed.
Nicholas Mirzoeff, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2001), 96.
4. See, for example, Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies: Figuring Physical Disability
in American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Sharon Snyder and David Mitchell,
eds., The Body and Physical Difference: Discourses of Disability (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1997); as well as Sharon Snyder and David Mitchell, Cultural Locations of Disability (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 2006).
5. See Robert McRuer, Crip Theory: Cultural Signs of Queerness and Disability (New York: New York
University Press, 2006), 132.
6. Garland-Thomson, Extraordinary Bodies, 137.
7. McRuer compares this severe category to queer theorys fabulous as a category that
would reverse the able-bodied understanding of severely disabled bodies as the most marginalized,
the most excluded from a privileged and always elusive normalcy, and would instead suggest that it is
precisely those bodies that are best positioned to refuse mere toleration and call out the inadequa-
cies of compulsory able-bodiedness. McRuer, Crip Theory, 31.
8. I want to make it abundantly clear that in outlining some of the limitations of identity politics
and looking to Wares text for an alternative, I am in no way advocating that we dispense with iden-
tity politics as we navigate the contemporary social sphere and as we engage in activism on behalf
of people with disabilities. Im not suggesting that we should be ability blind in our contemporary
momentto do so would certainly be disastrous and ignorant of important political realities. I am,
however, trying to elucidate a way of imagining bodily variation in a way that breaks radically from the
originally medicalized discourse of difference.
9. Janet Halley, Like Race Arguments, in Whats Left of Theory: New Work on the Politics of Literary
Theory, ed. Judith Butler, John Guillory, and Kendall Thomas (New York: Routledge, 2000), 41.
10. Regarding aesthetic disabilities, see Veena Das and Renu Addlakhas excellent essay, Disability
and Domestic Citizenship: Voice, Gender, and the Making of the Subject, Public Culture 13.3 (2001):
51132. One might argue that the disabled at the very least share the condition of being marked
apart as a certain human kind (what Du Boiss Dusk of Dawn calls a badge in the context of African
American identity)still, certain people with invisible disabilities such as chronic fatigue syndrome
or transabled people with BIID (Body Integrity Identity Disorder), who need an impairment of some
sort (http://biid-info.org), challenge even this claim.
11. Halley, Like Race Arguments, 43.
12. Im using the word difference here in order to deploy the language commonly used in such
debates; perhaps a more appropriate way to argue this point, however, would be to warn that in-
sisting on ones variation keeps one inscribed in the systems of domination that come with identity.
Wendy Brown has made astute arguments against the substantive claims of identity, arguing that
rather than making claims based on who one is (and thus on the white bourgeois male to whom one
would like to be equivalent), it might be productive to make claims based on what one wants, thus
reconguring the subject as an effect of desire rather than a xed and sovereign identity. See Wendy
Brown, Wounded Attachments, Political Theory 21.3 (1993): 390410.
13. Elspeth Probyn, Outside Belongings (New York: Routledge, 1996), 6, 89.
14. Ibid., 13, 6.
15. Ibid., 13.
16. Bill Hughes, qtd. in Susan Squier, So Long as They Grow Out of It: Comics, the Discourse of
Developmental Normalcy, and Disability, Journal of Medical Humanities 29 (2008): 73.
17. Squier, So Long as They Grow Out of It, 74.
2 0 4 MARGAR E T F I NK B E R MAN
18. Building Stories rst ran in weekly installments of the New York Times Magazines Funny
Pages from September 2005 until April 2006. In spring 2008, Ware published The ACME Novelty
Library 18, which is a Building Stories story line, focusing on the protagonists history and thus cov-
ering a much more expansive time frame. I will be focusing mostly on the New York Times Magazine
run of Building Stories, but to a great degree, the aesthetic and narrative style is consistent across
the two editions.
19. Chris Ware, qtd. in Aida Edemariam, The Art of Melancholy, The Guardian, October 31,
2005, http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,,1605193,00.html (accessed August 31, 2008).
20. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 15, 11 a.m., New York Times Magazine, January 1, 2006,
22.
21. Stanley Cavell, The Uncanniness of the Ordinary, in In Quest of the Ordinary: Lines of Skepti-
cism and Romanticism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 172.
22. Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink,
1993), 45.
23. Ibid., 30.
24. Chris Ware, qtd. in Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004),
20.
25. In error, the New York Times Magazine labeled part 14 Part 13. I am here referring to this sec-
ond part 13, actually part 14. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 13, 9 a.m., New York Times Magazine,
December 18, 2005, 35.
26. Lauren Berlant, Slow Death (Sovereignty, Obesity, Lateral Agency), Critical Inquiry 33 (2007):
759.
27. Ibid., 760.
28. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 7, 3 a.m., New York Times Magazine, October 30, 2005,
33.
29. Ibid.
30. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 22, 5 p.m., New York Times Magazine, February 19, 2006,
43.
31. Henri Lefebvre characterizes arrhythmia as follows: Rhythms unite with one another in the
state of health, in normal (which is to say normed!) everydayness; when they are discordant, there is
suffering, a pathological state (of which arrhythmia is generally, at the same time, symptom, cause and
effect). Henri Lefebvre, Rhythmanalysis: Space, Time, and Everyday Life, trans. Stuart Elder and Gerald
Moore (New York: Continuum, 2004), 16.
32. Ware, Building Stories: Part 22, 5 p.m.
33. Lauren Berlant, The Subject of True Feeling: Pain, Privacy, and Politics, in Cultural Pluralism,
Identity Politics, and the Law, ed. Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns (Ann Arbor: University of Michi-
gan Press, 1999), 81.
34. Ware, Building Stories: Part 7, 3 a.m.
35. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 21, 4 p.m., New York Times Magazine, February 12, 2006,
43.
36. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 27, 10 p.m., New York Times Magazine, March 26, 2006,
27.
37. The overlap between this and Wares more recent The ACME Novelty Library 18 is striking. For
instance, the book opens with the protagonist nding a pair of period-stained underpants on the oor
of the laundry room (depicted in two still frames), picking it up, and putting it in the wash. One differ-
ence between the two Building Stories, however, is that in The ACME Novelty Library, the protagonist
is more aware of her sexual attractivenessshe discovers that the boy she nannies has an erection
during a tickle ght (11). Although she is not surprised, she recognizes that this is an inappropriate
interaction. Indeed, she is red because the boy desires her (14). His father says, Jeffs had this . . .
problem . . . in the past . . . he just getswell, too attached to the au pairs. At the same time, however,
Wares ACME narrative does recognize the ways in which disability is widely conceived as a sexually
unattractive trait, as evidenced by the fathers statement, Well, we just hoped that in your case, you
know, he might not . . . get so, uh . . . attached. The major difference, then, is that the protagonist
DI S AB I L I T Y I N CHR I S WAR E S B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S 2 0 5
reacts with tears and a retort that the father is an asshole; she has not internalized this association of
disability with sexual unattractiveness. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 18 (Chicago: The Acme
Novelty Library, 2007), 20.
38. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 28, New York Times Magazine. April 2, 2006, 29.
39. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 29, New York Times Magazine, April 9, 2006, 25.
40. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 25, 8 p.m., New York Times Magazine, March 12, 2006, 29;
Building Stories: Epilogue: Five years later, New York Times Magazine, April 16, 2006, 27.
2 0 6
Past Imperfect: Building Stories
and the Art of Memory
PETER R. SATTLER
What is a memory? [. . .] An image which travels through time.
Lynda Barry, What It Is
One realizes oneself only one piece at a time.
Marcel Proust, The Fugitive
Memory Drawings
Comics havc a long hisLory o bcing orgoLLcn. IL sccms only appropriaLc,
Lhcn, LhaL mcmory has cmcrgcd as a ccnLral Lropc among carLoonisLs or
discussing how Lhis mcdium works, boLh on Lhc pagc and in Lhc minds o iLs
rcadcrs and crcaLors. ScoLL McCloud, or cxamplc, has aLLribuLcd Lhc powcr
o carLooning Lo a mimcLic similariLy bcLwccn Lhc iconography o comic arL
and Lhc conLcnLs o human mcmory. CarLoons, hc proposcs, closcly rcscmblc
Lhc simplicd aLcrimagcs o Lhc world LhaL wc carry around in our hcads,
bcginning wiLh Lhc skcLchy mcmory o our own acc.

ArL Spicgclman simi-

larly asscrLs LhaL mcmorics amounL Lo carLoons [. . .] in your hcad buL has
cxLcndcd LhaL ormal aniLy Lo comics abiliLy Lo rcprcscnL Lhc Lugs o prcs-
cnL and pasL: You gcL all o Lhc mcmorics splaycd ouL, physically, as parL o
Lhc pagc. And LhaL allows you Lo corrclaLc mcmory and puL Lhcm LogcLhcr.
:

Canadian carLoonisL ScLh cndorscs Lhcsc vicws o carLooning and comics buL
has ollowcd Lhc mcmory Lrail sLill urLhcr back, Lo Lhc mind o Lhc carLoon-
isL himscl. Mcmory, ScLh claims, scrvcs noL simply as a rcposiLory o imagcs
and cvcnLs, iL is a mcnLal and cmoLional acLiviLy LhaL occurs alongsidc and in
counLcrpoinL Lo Lhc vcry proccss o crcaLing comics: Whcn Im drawing, only
hal my mind is on Lhc work. [. . .] Tc oLhcr hal is rcc Lo wandcr. Usually,
iLs o in a rcvcric, visiLing Lhc pasL, picking ovcr old hurLs, or rccalling LhaL
scnsc o bcing somcwhcrc spccic. [. . .] Tcsc rcvcrics arc cxLrcmcly impor-
LanL Lo Lhc work.

Indccd, ScLh concludcs, carLooning as a wholc mighL bcsL

bc dcscribcd as mcmory drawing.

BuL i Lhcrc is a mcmory drawing school o carLooning, Lhcn iLs dcan is

Chris Warc, who has donc as much as any arLisL Lo ormalizc Lhc noLion LhaL,
as hc puLs iL, comics is abouL mcmory.

A carLoon, Warc Lclls us, is noL an

imagc Lakcn rom lic. A carLoon is Lakcn rom mcmory. Yourc Lrying Lo dis-
Lill Lhc mcmory o an cxpcricncc, noL Lhc cxpcricncc iLscl.
6
WiLh his cmpha-
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 0 7
sis on Lhc disLillaLion o cxpcricncc, howcvcr, Warc boLh arms and movcs
bcyond Lhc broadcr uncLional insighLs o McCloud or Spicgclman, who basi-
cally call upon mcmory Lo undcrwriLc Lhc comics orm aL largc, cxplaining
why rcadcrs rcspond so powcrully Lo a|| carLoons. Warc posiLs mcmory as an
cxpcricncc in iLs own righLa orm o scnsaLion and sLaLc o consciousncss
LhaL musL bc acLivcly pursucd and rcncd by Lhc comics arLisL. And in Lhis
ormulaLion, hc also vccrs away rom many acadcmic cxploraLions o mcmory
in comics, which havc Lcndcd Lo analyzc how graphic novcls likc Maus usc Lhc
arLicialiLy o comic arL Lo cxposc Lhc arLicc o mcmory pcr sc, rcvcaling
[boLh] as cqually consLrucLcd, cqually mcdiaLcd by Lhc proccsscs o narraLion
and imaginaLion.
,
Warc, I inLcnd Lo show, is lcss inLcrcsLcd in Lhcsc cpisLc-
mological issucsin mcmorys Lransparcncy or consLrucLcdncss, iLs accuracy
or dupliciLyLhan in Lhc livcd cxpcricncc o rcmcmbcring. His ormal cx-
pcrimcnLs in comic arL, cspccially in rcccnL ycars, sLand mainly as corLs Lo
rcprcscnL and rc-crcaLc LhaL psychological and cmoLional phcnomcnon.
Warc has rcpcaLcdly indicaLcd LhaL his ccnLral goal as an arLisL is Lo sLarL
wiLh a ccling and Lhcn Lo rc-crcaLc LhaL ccling in Lhc mind o his rcadcr.
8

In Lhc prcscnL cssay, I will cxaminc Lhis gcncral acsLhcLic goal as iL is pursucd
wiLhin spccic pagcs rom Building SLoricsan ongoing graphic novcl LhaL,
according Lo Warc, rom sLarL Lo nish is abouL mcmory.

I hopc Lo dcmon-
sLraLc LhaL, in iLs pagcs, Warc noL only analyzcs mcmory as a psychological
objccL and a cLional subjccL, buL also dcvclops mcdium-spccic mcLhods or
simulaLing Lhc acLiviLy o rcmcmbcring iLscl, making LhaL acLion palpablc in
Lhc rcading proccss. Building SLorics accomplishcs Lhis caL, rsL, by anaLo-
mizing mcmory inLo iLs componcnL parLs, Lcasing narraLivc mcmorics away
rom Lhcir visual and cpisodic counLcrparLs. IL Lhcn rcasscmblcs Lhosc picccs
wiLhin Lhc consLiLuLivc mind o Lhc rcadcr, crcaLing cyclcs and scqucnccs LhaL
combinc pasL and prcscnL, ouLsidcs and insidcs, imagc and LcxL. Trough
Lhcsc Lcchniqucs, I bclicvc, Warc aLLcmpLs Lo capLurc and cncodc noLhing
lcss Lhan Lhc vcry phcnomcnology o mcmory. Spccically, I will arguc LhaL
Warc carcs lcss abouL rcprcscnLing Lhc mcmory o an cxpcricncc Lhan abouL
rcproducing mcmory as an cxpcricnccLhaL Building SLorics aLLcmpLs Lo
rcconsLiLuLc mcmory, coaxing iLs rcadcrs noL only Lo rcmcmbcr cclings, buL
also Lo jee| rcmcmbcring.
Making Memories: Paper Dolls
To somc cxLcnL, Lhc largcr componcnLs o my claimnamcly, LhaL mcmory
is ccnLral Lo Chris Warcs comics, whcrc iL is ormally anaLomizcd and rc-cn-
codcd as a cclingapply Lo Lhc vasL rangc o Lhis arLisLs work. Farly pagcs
likc Fvcry Morning show Warcs carLoon surrogaLcs cxpliciLly rcminiscing
abouL losL amily mcmbcrs and worrying abouL Lhc ading placcs Lhcy occupy
wiLhin his mind.
o
OLhcr sLrips, such as Tc Daily Obscrvcr and Trilling
AdvcnLurc SLorics / I Cucss, lay auLobiographical Lalcs aLop ncwspapcr sLrips
and supcrhcro comics, blcnding pcrsonal and culLural mcmory.

Warcs land-
mark novcl 1mmy Corrgan conLinucs Lhis Lhcmc and Lclls Lhc sLory o our
gcncraLions noL primarily as a rccord o social or biographical connccLions (I
donL undcrsLand Lhings rom a social lcvcl, Lhc auLhor insisLs, buL only in a
pcrsonal way), buL mainly as a scrics o ncsLcd rccollccLions.
:
Tc narraLivcs
2 0 8 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
ccnLral sccLion, or cxamplc, scL in and around Lhc 8 Worlds Columbian
FxposiLion, aL rsL sccms Lo bc a simplc, albciL uncxpccLcd, ashback, rclaL-
ing Lhc boyhood cxpcricnccs o 1amcs Rccd Corrigan, 1immys grandaLhcr.
As LhaL hisLorical Lalc progrcsscs, howcvcr, Lhc auLhorial voicciniLially dis-
LanL and pocLic (Lhc boy collapscs in Lcars onLo a sLrangc womans coaL)
slowly shiLs inLo Lhc rsL pcrson (aL Lhc Limc, I Lhink I undcrsLood liLLlc o
LhaL aLcrnoon), cvcnLually commcnLing dirccLly on Lhc poLcncy and vcrac-
iLy o Lhcsc ccnLury-old sccncs: Oncs mcmory, howcvcr, likcs Lo play Lricks,
aLcr ycars o cold sLoragc. Somc rccollccLions rcmain as rcsh as Lhc momcnL
Lhcy wcrc minLcd whilc oLhcrs sccm Lo crumblc inLo biLs, dusLing Lhcir ncigh-
bors wiLh a conLaminaLing roL o unccrLainLy. Did shc rcally sm|e aL mc` I saw
hcr . . . I thought I saw hcr . . . BuL why was I always wcaring Lhis nghtshrt`
I cou|dnt havc bccn drcsscd likc Lhis! I havc Lo conLinually rcmind myscl
Lo kccp such dcLails sLraighL.

Tc sourcc, Lhc Lonc, and cvcn Lhc Lcmporal

markcrs o such mcmorics arc in consLanL ux, Lhc comic shiLs back and
orLh rom a polishcd Lhird-pcrson narraLor Lo Lhc voicc o a prcpubcsccnL
boy and back again, cvcnLually rcLurning Lo Lhc rcLrospccLivc prcscnL. WiLhin
pagcs, as Lhc lcngLhy FxposiLion sLory comcs Lo a closc, Lhc cnLirc sccnc bc-
comcs cmbcddcd wiLhin a ncw prcscnL (circa ,,), which shows Lhc now
agcd 1amcs Corrigan Lclling Lhis childhood Lalc Lo Amy, his adopLcd grand-
daughLcra sccnc LhaL will, in Lurn, bccomc rcramcd as a mcmory wiLhin
Lhc 8os prcscnL o Lhc novcls main narraLivc.

Clcarly, Warcs work rc-

vcals a liclong ascinaLion wiLh mcmory, iLs vagarics, and iLs pcrsisLcncc.
Morcovcr, Lhis sLudys morc parLicular ocusLhc pursuiL o rcmcmbcring
as a je|t cxpcricnccrcsonaLcs wiLh Warcs mosL poLcnL sLaLcmcnLs abouL his
arLwork and iLs rclaLion Lo rcadcrs psychological sLaLcs. Warc, or insLancc,
has rcpcaLcdly dcscribcd his comics as cngagcd in Lhc puzzling work o cn-
coding cmoLion.

Tis is noL, hc insisLs, simply a maLLcr o Lclling sLorics o

cmoLional disLrcss: You donL wanL Lo wriLc a pocm abouL bcing dcprcsscd,
you wanL Lo wriLc a dcprcssing pocm.
6
NciLhcr is iL a maLLcr o rcprcscnL-
ing cclings sLylisLically, wiLh slashing linc work or morosc colors. Indccd,
Warcs visual sLylc is dcanLly ant-cxprcssivc, or whaL hc calls aL, harsh,
mcchanical, and banal.
,
Tis supcrcial coolncss and puriLy o dcsign, hc
insisLs, brings a mcasurc o silcncc Lo his claLLcry mcdium, allowing him
Lo puzzlc ouL a jorma| corrclaLc o Lhc ccling hc is Lrying Lo rc-crcaLc as a
rcading cxpcricncc. Warc calls his mcdium, likc music, a composiLional arL,
in LhaL yourc composing picLurcs on a pagc, and yourc composing cmoLion
inLo Lhc work, aLLcmpLing Lo isolaLc Lhc crysLallinc sLrucLurcs o ccling
sLrucLurcs LhaL will rcsonaLc in Lhc rcadcrs mind and imaginaLion as hc or
shc pcrorms Lhcm.
8
Tis conccpLion o cmoLion is aL oncc dccply human-
isL and sLrongly modcrnisL, bridging Lhc dividc bcLwccn Lhc pcrsonal and
impcrsonal. IL insisLs LhaL cclings arc morc Lhan broadly and inLuiLivcly uni-
vcrsal, Lhcy arc, givcn Lhc righL composiLion and cncoding, capablc o bcing
ormalizcd and Lranscrrcd rom psychc Lo psychc. Fcclings arc cmbodicd n
Lhc work, and anyonc wiLh Lhc abiliLy Lo rcad Lhosc noLcs can rc-crcaLc iLs
cmoLional Lunc.
Morc Lhan any o Warcs prcvious works, Building SLoricswhich docu-
mcnLs Lhc livcs o our dicrcnL rcsidcnLs o a singlc Chicago Lhrcc-aL
cxpcrimcnLs wiLh Lhc comics orm Lo isolaLc mcmorys own crysLallinc
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 0 9
sLrucLurcs. In acL, Warc has dcscribcd his approach Lo Building SLorics as
simply Lry[ing] Lo rcproducc [a] alsc mcmory on Lhc pagc Lhrough compo-
siLions LhaL approximaLc, hc says, Lhc way I acLually thnk.

And in Lcrms o
boLh orm and conLcnL, Lhc novcls mcmorics arc, quiLc liLcrally, cvcrywhcrc.
In somc passagcs, Warc crcaLcs comics ouL o onc rcsidcnLs diary cnLrics,
in oLhcrs, hc diagrammaLically Lraccs LhaL samc characLcrs LhoughLs as Lhcy
wcavc in, ouL, and around mcmorics o hcr own body. Flscwhcrc in Lhc novcl-
in-progrcss, mcmorics assumc morc physical and unconvcnLional orms.
Somc pagcs suggcsL LhaL human acLiviLy pracLically burns iLscl inLo walls
and oors, lcaving a mncmonic rccord o days long pasL, whilc oLhcr sccncs
granL Lhc aparLmcnL iLs own auLobiographical voicc, which calmly rccollccLs
Lhc buildings lic sLory. In acL, onc o Lhc novcls rsL collccLcd chapLcrs (Te
ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8) allows all Lhcsc orms o mcmory Lo comminglc,
placing Lhc cnLirc scqucncc insidc Lhc mind o Lhc Lhird-oor diarisL, who
wakcs on Lhc volumcs rsL pagcs and rcLurns Lo bcd on iLs lasL, surroundcd
by a collccLion o youngcr sclvcs, cach driLing o Lo slccp.
:o
Any onc o Lhcsc pagcs would scrvc as a noLcworLhy cxamplc o Warcs
craL, cspccially Lhc morc visually cxpcrimcnLal crcaLions, which oLcn rccon-
sLrucL Lhc ow o mcmory Lhrough circuiLously linkcd words and imagcs. BuL
iL is onc o Lhc osLcnsibly simplcsL building sLoricsa :oo sLrip cnLiLlcd
Papcr DollsLhaL lays barc Warcs ccnLral Lcchniqucs or rcprcscnLing rc-
mcmbcring (scc plaLc ).
:
AL rsL glancc, Papcr Dolls sccms Lo dcploy Lhc
mcdiums sLandard componcnLs in a sLraighLorward manncr. Two pagcs arc
dividcd inLo cighLccn idcnLical pancls, which Lcll Lhc sLory o a singlc charac-
Lcr: Lhc cldcrly landlady, who was born, livcd, and will dic in Lhc novcls cpon-
ymous building. Tc landlady appcars aL Lhc ccnLcr o cach pancl, whilc a sc-
rics o LhoughL balloons narraLc an auLobiographical sLory abouL hcr youLhul
lovc o papcr dolls. Tosc cighLccn picLurcs movc rcgularly and scqucnLially
Lhrough Lhc landladys lic, sLarLing in uLcro, procccding Lhough childhood
and adolcsccncc, and gradually moving Loward Lhc characLcrs prcscnL-day
agcwhich is Lcllingly synchronizcd wiLh Lhc nal word o Lhc sLrip: Lo-
day.
Comparcd Lo somc o Warcs morc ormally claboraLc pagcs, Papcr Dolls
rcads clcarly and wiLhouL signicanL impcdimcnL. TaL acL, howcvcr, bclics
Lhc sLrangc disjoinLcdncss o iLs parLs. Takc, or cxamplc, Lhc disuniLy o Lhc
picLurcs Lhcmsclvcs. Fach pancl conLains a Lclling snapshoL rom Lhc landla-
dys lic (an apL labcl, sccing how shc is poscd and ramcd or cach), ycL Lhosc
picLurcs bcar no morc narraLivc connccLion Lo cach oLhcr Lhan docs your avcr-
agc collccLion o phoLographs. Wc jump, wiLhouL prcparaLion or cxplanaLion,
rom hcr parcnLs bcd Lo a amily picnic, Lo a quicL ChrisLmas morning, and
Lhcn Lo hcr aLhcrs uncral. By conLrasL, Lhc LcxL o Lhc sLrip ocrs a sLory
LhaL sccms dirccL and unicd. BuL iL, Loo, has iLs disoricnLing qualiLics: Lhc
landladys papcr-doll rcvcric bcgins and cnds wiLhouL moLivaLion and slidcs
wiLhouL warning bcLwccn pasL and prcscnL conccrns. IL is Lold Lo no onc in
parLicular, or no idcnLiablc rcason or largcr narraLivc purposc.
Tc mosL signicanL disuniLics, Lhough, cmcrgc rom Lhc disjuncLion be-
tween LcxL and imagc. Tc LhoughL balloons, or insLancc, arc narraLcd rom
Lhc prcscnL-day pcrspccLivc, ycL Lhc imagcs arc dccidcdly drawn rom Lhc
pasL: an uncxpccLcd inLcrpolaLion o Lhc now inLo Lhc Lhcn. In addiLion,
2 1 0 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
Lhc comics words and imagcs procccd aL radically dicrcnL paccs and Lcm-
pos. Tc LcxL Lclls a sLory LhaL spans pcrhaps cighL ycars (Lhc lcngLh o hcr
childhood aLLachmcnL Lo dolls), Lhc picLurcs, Lhough, covcr an cnLirc licLimc,
wiLh somc pancl-Lo-pancl LransiLions skipping ahcad as many as cighL ycars
across a singlc guLLcr bcLwccn pancls. Finally, Lhc words wiLhin cach pancl
sccm only arbiLrarily (i suggcsLivcly) rclaLcd Lo Lhc picLurcs LhaL surround
Lhcm. Tc ourLh pancl, or cxamplc, dcscribcs a LraumaLic Lh birLhday,
whcn Lhc landladys parcnLs gavc hcr a gianL, cxLravaganL corpsc o a [doll],
which would opcn iLs hugc black cycs aL you whcn you saL hcr uprighL, buL
Lhc pancls imagc sccms Lo havc occurrcd somc ycars prior, and Lhc sLrip as
a wholc ncvcr shows Lhc birLhday horror. Wc rcad, in addiLion, abouL how
Lhc landlady collccLcd, carcd or, and ulLimaLcly ruincd hcr papcr dolls, buL
Warc ncvcr shows hcr cngagcd in LhaL acLiviLy ciLhcr. Indccd, Lhc only papcr
doll in sighL is Lhc carLoon woman hcrscl, cach incarnaLion o whom is drawn
wiLh a Lhick ouLlinc (idcal or clipping) and small rccLangular Labs (or casy
asscmbly).
Warc is plainly Lcasing aparL Lhc sLrands o Lhc comic orm, allowing cach
Lo rcprcscnL a discrcLc orm o mcmory and rcmcmbcring. Tc picLurcs, or
insLancc, prcscnL whaL mosL mcmory rcscarchcrs call epsodc memores, Lhosc
momcnLs and cvcnLs rom our own livcs LhaL wc can call up and visualizc.
::

Fspccially givcn Lhcir phoLo-likc qualiLicsand Lhc auLhcnLiciLy wiLh which
onc usually invcsLs such imagcsonc mighL Lhink o Lhcm as carLoon vcr-
sions o ashbulb mcmorics, which sLrongly mark cmoLionally powcrul
momcnLs in our livcs.
:
Tc landladys words, alLcrnaLcly, cmbody whaL somc
mcmory rcscarchcrs singlc ouL as narratve memory, which givcs our rccollcc-
Lions shapc and mcaning, placing Lhcm in Lhc conLcxL o a lic sLory.
:
Our
words and inLcrnal sLoryLclling makc scnsc o Lhcsc imagcs, giving Lhcm a
ccling o dirccLion and scqucncc, cvcn Lhough Lhosc proccsscs Lcnd Lo ovcr-
wriLc and ovcrdcLcrminc Lhc original scnsaLions.
:
In Lhis comic, or cxam-
plc, Lhc womans narraLivc mcmoricsLhc comics wordsdrivc us orward
Lhrough Lhc pagc, making connccLions cvcn whcrc, visually, nonc sccm Lo
cxisL, rcconsLrucLing Lhc imagcs inLo a cohcrcnL sLory o childhood anLasics
and Lhcir cvcnLual abandonmcnL.
BuL comics arc morc Lhan jusL Lhc conjuncLion o LcxL and imagc, and Warc
is aLLcmpLing Lo do morc Lhan simply dcconsLrucL a scrics o auLobiographi-
cal mcmorics. Tc Lruc arL o comics involvcs Lhc hybrid naLurc o rcading
words and picLurcs, and Warcs comic uscs Lhis hybridiLy Lo cncodc whaL I
will call experenta| memoryLhc ccling o rcmcmbcring, Lhc phcnomcnol-
ogy o mcmory iLscl. In Warcs work, cxpcricnLial mcmory is closcly Licd Lo
Lhc acL o rcading as boLh a physical and a mcnLal cvcnL. IL is linkcd, LhaL is,
Lo Lhc proccss o opLically navigaLing Lhc comics pagc as wcll as Lhc acLiv-
iLy o consolidaLing LhaL pagc in oncs mind. As a pcrormcr o Lhc comic
composiLion, Lhc rcadcr movcs among and connccLs Lhc cpisodic/visual and
narraLivc/LcxLual mcmorics, and LhaL acLiviLy o rcading crcaLcs iLs own cxpc-
ricnLial rhyLhms, iLs own scnsc o Limc, and iLs own scL o cclings.
Papcr Dolls cncodcs Lhcsc cclings noL in Lhc words or in Lhc picLurcs as
a wholc, buL wiLhin Lhc sLrips pancl-Lo-pancl scqucnccs. WiLhin Lhc ramcs
o plaLc , or insLancc, Lhc rcadcr may Lcmporarily ignorc Lhc words and Lhc
largcr visual sccncs and ocus insLcad upon Lhc isolaLcd gurcs o Lhc growing
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 1 1
landlady, considcring Lhosc gurcs as componcnLs wiLh Lhcir own discrcLc
movcmcnLas a comic wiLhin Lhc comic, so Lo spcak. Focuscd in Lhis way,
onc sccs Lhc young woman cngagcd noL in six scparaLc acLions aL six dicrcnL
Limcs, buL (also) in onc unicd gcsLurc. In Lhc rsL Licr, Lhc girl looks ovcr hcr
shouldcr, rolls onLo hcr sidc, and lowcrs hcr righL arm. In Lhc sccond Licr, hcr
lcL arm movcs slowly down hcr body, rom shouldcr Lo abdomcn and Lhcn Lo
Lhc spacc bcLwccn hcr lcgs. Tis acLion is only visiblc, howcvcr, as you movc
through Lhc scqucncc. IL has iLs own sLory, iLs own spccd, and iLs own dura-
Liona duraLion LhaL mosL closcly parallcls noL Lhc Limc o Lhc comics words
or picLurcs, buL Lhc Limc o rcmcmbcring iLscl, and abovc all Lhc Limc o Lhc
rcading. Indccd, iL is Lhc movcmcnL o readng LhaL animaLcs Lhc landladys
small body (likc a scrics o carLoon cclls), bringing iL Lo lic, jusL as Lhc acL o
rcmcmbcring rcconsLiLuLcs and connccLs our cpisodic rccollccLions inLo an
cxpcricnLial wholc.
In acL, Lhis rcading o Papcr Dolls crcaLcs many addiLional linkagcs. As
noLcd abovc, Lhc sLrips cpisodic and narraLivc mcmorics sccm unrclaLcd, ycL
Lhc acL o rcading crcaLcs connccLions bcLwccn Lhc Lwo. SomcLimcs Lhcsc cx-
pcricnLial links occur wiLhin a singlc ramc: Lhc landlady mcnLions Lhc hor-
riblc glassy-cycd doll, and Lhc accompanying imagc o hcr inanL scl looks
parLicularly doll-likc, shc dcscribcs nding papcr dolls in Lhc ncwspapcr color
supplcmcnLs, whilc hcr youngcr incarnaLion pcruscs Lhc Sunday unnics.
Morc rcqucnLly, Lhough, Lhc acL o rcading acLivaLcs our own mcmorics o
whaL was prcviously cncounLcrcd, conjuring ghosLly links Lo oLhcr parLs o Lhc
comic pagc. Tc monsLrous doll comcs back Lo mind as wc rcach Lhc ChrisL-
mas pancl, which dcpicLs Lhc rcmnanLs o anoLhcr opcncd, buL cqually invis-
iblc, prcscnL. Tc dcscripLion o Lhc doll as a gianL, cxLravaganL corpsc also
assumcs a Lcrriblc rcaliLy aL Lhc aLhcrs gravc, which Lhcn scnds our LhoughLs
back Lo Lhc parLially obscurcd imagc o his swollcn nakcd body. Tc landladys
dcscripLion o papcr dolls in Lhcir LasLcully cngravcd undcrcloLhcs springs
Lo lic Lhrcc pancls laLcr, whcn wc scc Lhc landlady sLanding in hcr own un-
dcrgarmcnLs. And sLill largcr linkagcs cmcrgc across cnLirc rows. Tc LcxL
o onc pancl, or cxamplc, dcLails Lhc dolls vulncrablc pink bodics, which
all o a suddcn [would] bc drcsscd or Lhc ball, or or horscback riding, or
or a LransaLlanLic cxcursion, or or any numbcr o marvclous Lhings I didnL
undcrsLand aL LhaL agc. Fach o Lhcsc phrascs gains ncw scqucnLial viLaliLy
as Lhc comic progrcsscs, bcginning wiLh Lhc imagc o a girl cxamining hcr
own pink papcr body, cars ushcd wiLh shamc and arousal, and conLinuing
Lhrough subscqucnL imagcs o drcssing, commuLing, and daLing. In acL, by
Lhc comics nal imagcs, Lhc wholc sLrip hums wiLh mcmorics. As Lhc now-
agcd landlady wondcrs whaLcvcr happcncd Lo hcr papcr dolls and insisLs LhaL
shc will scarch or Lhcm (buL noL Loday), Lhc cnLirc scqucncc rccollccLs iL-
sclas a liclong scrics o losL Lhings, losL pcoplc, and losL prcscnLs.
WiLh iLs visions o cpisodic, narraLivc, and cxpcricnLial mcmorycn-
counLcrcd simulLancously, buL cach congurcd wiLh iLs own Limc, Lcnsc, and
LcmpoPapcr Dolls cxcmplics Chris Warcs conccpLion o mcmory and
his comics abiliLy Lo cncodc and, Lhrough rcading, Lo mimic LhaL cxpcricncc.
IL also uscs Lhc comics mcdium Lo highlighL somc pcculiar characLcrisLics o
human mcmory iLscl. ForcmosL among Lhcsc is our Lcndcncy Lo rc-cnvision
our ormcr cxpcricnccs rom a Lhird-pcrson poinL o vicw. Wc rcqucnLly
2 1 2 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
rcmcmbcr our pasL sclvcs noL as i wc arc inhabiLing LhaL carlicr body, sccing
Lhrough Lhosc youngcr cycs, insLcad, wc oLcn scc oursclvcs as i rom Lhc
ouLsidc, rom a sLaLion wc ncvcr could havc occupicd in Lhc hisLorical pasL.
Tis odd acL abouL mcmory has long bccn noLcd, rom Frcuds 8 cssay on
Scrccn Mcmorics back aL lcasL Lo Virgil, who has Acncas mcnLally rcvisiL
Lhc baLLlcs o Troy and noLcs LhaL his hcro cvcn sccs himscl / swcpL up in
Lhc mclcc, clashing wiLh Crcck capLains.
:6
CogniLivc scicnLisLs havc callcd
such Lhird-pcrson rccollccLions observer memores, whilc Lhosc sccn rom Lhc
rsL-pcrson pcrspccLivc havc bccn labclcd e|d memores.
:,
Scholarship has
rcvcalcd LhaL wc arc rcmarkably adcpL aL waLching oursclvcs, aL slipping ouL
o our own mncmonic skins. SLudics havc cvcn ound LhaL obscrvcr mcmo-
rics arc morc amcnablc Lo narraLion, arc morc conducivc Lo inLrospccLion and
scl-undcrsLanding, and carry lcss biLing cmoLional impacL Lhan Lhcir cld
counLcrparLs.
:8
ScoLL McClouds hunch LhaL wc cach carry a simplicd, pcr-
haps cvcn carLoon-likc, vcrsion o oursclvcs sccms parLly bornc ouL by our
own rcLrospccLivc aculLics.
Warc cxploiLs Lhis paradox o mcmory and poinL o vicw. In Papcr Dolls,
or cxamplc, rcadcrs arc lcL unccrLain whcLhcr Lhcy arc sccing picLurcs rom
Lhc acLual pasL or mcrcly Lhc conLcnLs o Lhc landladys mind. Arc wc sup-
poscd Lo imaginc Lhc pancls as phoLographs o whaL rcally happcncd or as
mcnLal projccLions o cvcnLs Lhc landlady could oLcn noL havc acLually rc-
mcmbcrcd, rom vanLagc poinLs shc could ncvcr havc acLually sharcd` Is Lhc
old woman cxpcricncing hcr pasL as a narraLivc cld mcmory, which Warc
includcs in Lhc LcxL buL sLcadasLly rcuscs Lo draw` Or do Lhc sLrips picLurcs
rcproducc a radical scL o obscrvcr mcmoricsa possibiliLy LhaL puLs us in
Lhc posiLion o Lhc old lady hcrscl, sccing (minus Lhc papcr Labs) whaL shc
rccollccLivcly sccs`
Clcarly, Warc is dcvcloping a Lcchniquc LhaL blurs such disLincLions, mak-
ing Lhis rccord o rcmcmbcring onc LhaL is simulLancously insidc and ouLsidc,
subjccLivc and objccLivc. Tc pancls showing our proLagonisL bcorc hcr mir-
ror, aL Lhc vcry ccnLcr o Lhc original scqucncc, drivc homc Lhis poinL. Tc
landlady, now in hcr Lccns, assumcs hcr usual posc, Lhis Limc, howcvcr, Lhc
pancls ccnLral gurc is noL Lhc young woman hcrscl, buL hcr rcccLion. Shc
sLands bcorc hcr ull-lcngLh imagc, looking boLh aL hcrscl and inLo hcrscl,
waLching as onc hand LcnLaLivcly cxplorcs hcr body. Shc sccs hcrscl rom
an cxLcrnal poinL o vicw andi Lhc imagc is Lo bc bclicvcdas a papcr
doll. And wc rcadcrs sharc and apprcciaLc hcr LLing pcrccpLion, waLching as
hands wrap undcr a brcasL and slip bcLwccn lcgs likc Lhc all-Loo ragilc Labs
LhaL old around vulncrablc pink bodics and rcady Lhcsc womcn or a world
o unknown adulL acLiviLics. In addiLion, sincc Warc draws Lhc mirror hcad-
on, wiLhouL pcrspccLivc and pcrccLly aligncd wiLh Lhc ramc o Lhc comic
pancl, onc mighL cqually say LhaL Lhc girl sharcs Lhc rcadcrs vicw o hcr as
wcll. Shc sccs hcr carLoon sclonc in a linkcd scqucncc o rapidly maLuring
sclvcs.
For Warc, Lhcn, onc o Lhc ccnLral cclings o mcmory and o comics rc-
sidcs in Lhis mingling o inLcrioriLy and cxLcrioriLy, Lhc pcrccpLion o bcing si-
mulLancously insidc and ouLsidc oncscl. Tc comics mcdium, LhaL is, mirrors
Lhc phcnomcnology o mcmory boLh in iLs orm and in iLs uncLion. Tis is
not bccausc comics cngagc Lhc mcmory and imaginaLion morc dirccLly Lhan,
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 1 3
say, novcls. In acL, Warc disLinguishcs novcls rom comics parLly by insisLing
LhaL Lhc purcly LcxLual mcdium cvokcs oncs imaginaLion and inLcrior lic
more ully Lhan iLs graphic counLcrparL:
When you read a texta novel, like everybody would readyou basically, for all in-
tents and purposes, go blind. You quit looking at the words on the page. [. . .] You get
completely into your own imagination. And comics kind of toe the line between that
[interior reading experience and the outward experience of looking], where you still
have your eyes open and youre still looking at pictures, but youre also reading some-
what. Youre reading words and reading pictures. So theres sort of this strange thing
that can happen in comics, where your own memories and imagination can be called
up, but at the same time youre sort of having sort of a visual experience.
29
Tc rcading proccss iLscl is hcrc rcgurcd as a modc o cngagcmcnL Lhrough
mcmory, an cngagcmcnL LhaL wriLLcn LcxLs and comics sharc. Comics, how-
cvcr, cxisL on a uid cxpcricnLial boundary bcLwccn insidcs and ouLsidcs, bc-
Lwccn Lhc cxpcricncc o imagining a world and Lhc cxpcricncc o sccing iL.
Tc mcdium calls up oncs mcmorics buL docs so in a way LhaL makcs Lhosc
mcmorics visiblc, LhaL allows Lhosc mcmorics Lo bc cncounLcrcdnoL ob-
jccLivcly, buL as a maLLcr o cclingwiLhin Lhc cxLcrnal world, on Lhc pagc.
Comics sccm Lo inducc, onc mighL say, a Lypc o virLual obscrvcr mcmory,
making Lhc rcadcr ccl as i hcr inLcrior rccollccLions arc broughL Lo lic ouL
Lhcrc. Tc mcdium Lhus rcproduccs and pcrhaps cvcn draws iLs viLaliLy rom
Lhc Lwinncd pcrspccLivc LhaL many o us havc on our own mcmorics, cspc-
cially Lhosc o our youLh.
To bc surc, Lhis commingling o insidc and ouLsidc spaccs is as old as Lhc
oldcsL wriLings abouL mcmory and is rcgisLcrcd powcrully in liLcrary and
philosophical sourccs. 1orgc Iuis Borgcs, Vladimir Nabokov, 1ohn Iockc, and
AugusLinc o Hippo all noLcd Lhc proound aniLy bcLwccn auLobiographi-
cal mcmory and archiLccLural spacc, usually concciving o Lhc ormcr as a
building Lhrough which onc wandcrs. In Te Art oj Memory, Franccs YaLcs
Lraccs Lhcsc inLuiLions Lo Lhc mosL amous o all mncmonic dcviccs: Lhc an-
cicnL mcLhod o placcs and imagcs (|oc and magnes). Dcvclopcd in classical
Crcccc, Lhis mncmoLcchnic LaughL iLs pracLiLioncrs how Lo improvc Lhcir
mcmorics by crcaLing oLcn claboraLc imaginary buildings, wiLhin which Lhcy
could placc hclpul symbolic imagcs. Rcmcmbcring bccamc a maLLcr o rc-
visiLing Lhcsc spaccs in scqucncc: Wc havc Lo Lhink o Lhc ancicnL oraLor
as moving in imaginaLion Lhrough his mcmory building wh|st hc is making
his spccch, drawing rom Lhc mcmoriscd placcs Lhc imagcs hc has placcd on
Lhcm.
o
Tis arL o mcmory rcsonaLcs, almosL uncannily, wiLh Lhc arL o
comics: boLh cmcrgc as a orm o inncr wriLing, dcploying scqucnLial im-
agcs LhaL comc Lo lic as onc movcs Lhrough Lhcm.
Building Memories: Staircase
Building SLorics parLicipaLcs in Lhc LradiLion o discoursc on mcmory, boLh
as a orm o analysis and as an cxLcndcd mcLaphor. In acL, Warc occasionally
allows Lhc building Lo scrvc as a liLcral mcmory LhcaLcr or Lhc landladys
auLobiographical Lalcs.

In his Lwo-pagc sLaircasc sLrip, or cxamplc, Warc

Fig. 15.1. Memory as an
interaction of places,
pictures, and movement.
Chris Ware, untitled comic
strip [Staircase], Chicago
Reader, June 28, 2002, sec.
4: 3031.
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 1 5
prcscnLs us wiLh a sLylizcd cuLaway o his cLional cdicc, cxposing iLs Lhrcc
oors along Lhc sLairwcll (scc g. .). Fvcn Lhc panclsrccrcncing a a-
mous pagc by carLoonisL Charlcs Forbcllmimic Lhc piLch o Lhc sLcps
and Lhc lincs o Lhc handrails, organizing Lhc pagc inLo a scrics o horizon-
Lal landings and largc diagonal sLaircascs.
:
Oncc again, Lhc landlady Lclls a
sLory LhaL bcgins in childhood, wiLh oldcr LhoughLs cmcrging rom youngcr
sclvcs: Whcn I was liLLlc, a liLLlc girl Lhinks, I lovcd Lo play in Lhc sLairway. I
didnL likc going ouLsidc. And as wiLh Papcr Dolls, wc waLch as Lhc landlady
progrcssivcly agcs, rom a Loddlcr in Lhc rsL pancls Lo hcr currcnL agc in Lhc
lasL (scc g. .:).
In Lhis sLrip, howcvcr, Lhc landladys auLobiography is cxpliciLly anchorcd
Lo Lhc spacc o Lhc building, which shc rcvisiLs in and Lhrough hcr sLory, much
likc YaLcss classical rhcLoricians. Tc comic shows us LhaL on Lhcsc sLairs a
child rompcd noisily, a girl acLcd ouL imaginaLivc advcnLurcs, a young woman
shicd away rom hcr ncighbors, and an oldcr woman clcancd and clcancd. Wc
rcvisiL Lhcsc placcs wiLh Lhc landlady, scqucnLially rcLricving Lhc imagcs and
sLorics LhaL arc sLorcd Lhcrcin: Tc pcoplc who livcd hcrc gavc mc a pair o
shocs aLcr aLhcr dicd. [. . .] A amily wiLh a handsomc boy movcd in Lhcrc
laLcr. Rcconguring Lhc comic pagc as iLs own mncmoLcchnic, Warc allows
Fig. 15.2. The landlady
ages until she reaches the
present at the bottom
of the staircase. Chris
Ware, untitled comic strip
[Staircase] detail, Chi-
cago Reader, June 28, 2002,
sec 4: 3031.
2 1 6 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
psychological insidcs and physical ouLsidcs Lo mcrgc and blcnd, cvcn having
Lhc Lak Lak Lak o Lhc landladys youLhul ooLsLcps Lick o Lhc rclcnLlcss
passagc o ycars. TroughouL Lhc scqucncc, Lhough, Lhc prcscnL-day landlady
is noL on Lhc sLairs aL all. Shc rcvisiLs Lhis spacc rom Lhc conncs o hcr living
room, wiLhouL company or audicncc, murmuring LhaL Lhc building in which
shc uscd Lo play is noL a playhousc anymorc.
As wiLh Papcr Dolls, Lhc sLaircasc sLrip cmploys a loosc inLcracLion bc-
Lwccn Lhc narraLivc mcmory o Lhc LcxL and Lhc cpisodic mcmorics o Lhc
imagcs. Tis Limc, howcvcr, Lhc ormcr sclvcs sharc a singlc mcmory Lhc-
aLcr, populaLing Lhc sLaircasc likc mulLiplc phoLographic cxposurcs or rcsL-
lcss spiriLs. Tcsc pagcs also rcly hcavily upon Lhc acLiviLy o cxpcricnLial
mcmory, acLivaLcd by Lhc rcading proccss. Tc sLrip prcscnLs rcmcmbcring
as a orm o movcmcnL LhaL accompanics and cnablcs oncs auLobiographi-
cal sLoryLclling. ILs pancls compcl us Lo Lrack and rc-cnacL Lhc cxpcricnccs
o Lhc landlady, ollowing hcr across cach landing, dcsccnding cach sLaircasc,
iniLiaLing a rcading LhaL brings Lo lighL Lhc Limc-ramc o mcmory iLscl and
Lhc ccling o mcmory as moLion. In Papcr Dolls, Lhc acL o rcading crcaLcs a
singlc movcmcnL (Lhc girl rolls ovcr, shiLing hcr hands) ouL o many discrcLc
acLions (c.g., rcading, mourning, Louching). In Lhc sLaircasc sLrip, Lhc acLivc
rcadcr crcaLcs a singlc movcmcnL ouL o mulLiplc occurrcnccs o Lhc samc acL.
In Lhc sLrips ccnLral sLaircasc pancl, or cxamplc, Lhc girl slidcs rom landing
Lo landing. Tc landladys words spcak o a rcpcaLcd acLion in Lhc pasL (Id
prcLcnd I was bcing swallowcd down Lhc gullcL o somc cnormous whalc),
and Lhc picLurcs rcprisc LhaL rcpcLiLion as girls o Lhrcc dicrcnL agcs slidc
Lhcir way Lo Lhc sccond oor. AL Lhc boLLom sLair, wc rcach Lhc cnd o Lhc
slidc. Wc also cncounLcr Lhc cnd o sliding in gcncral, as Lhc young womans
dcvcloping body puLs a halL Lo hcr play: Onc day, Lhough, Lhc sLairs hurL, and
I ncvcr slid down Lhcm again. 1usL as Papcr Dolls Lclcscopcs Lccn ycars o
imagcs inLo a singlc moLion, so Lhc sLaircasc sLrip unrolls a singlc acLion ouL
across numcrous ycars.
Warcs arLisLic goal in Lhcsc sLripsLhc cncoding noL o mcmory, buL o
rcmcmbcringis morc diculL Lo mccL Lhan iL may appcar. FirsL, as many
carLoonisLs havc noLcd, comic arL is characLcrizcd by a Lhoroughgoing prcs-
cnLncss. DcspiLc Lhc apparcnL aniLy bcLwccn mcmorics and carLooning,
Warc has noLcd LhaL scqucnLial drawings always sccm Lo happcn now, wc
pcrccivc a comic sLrips acLions noL as happcning in Lhc pasL, buL as hap-
pcning Lhc vcry momcnL you pcrccivcd iL.

To bc surc, Lhis propcrLy o com-

ics rcading hclps bring Lhc pasL Lo lic, buL a sLory LhaL cxplorcs mcmory musL
gcnLly mainLain a disLincLion o Limcramcs, oLhcrwisc an acL o rcmcmbcr-
ing simply bccomcs a ashback, and Lhc sLorys narraLcd pasL bccomcs cxpc-
ricnccd simply as a ncw narraLivc prcscnL. In a similar vcin, Warc has noLcd
LhaL Lhc languagc o comics lacks whaL wc mighL call an impcrccL Lcnsc, a
way o dcpicLing ongoing or habiLual acLion in Lhc pasL: An cxamplc would
bc, Fvcry day hc would go Lo Lhc sLorc Lo buy milk. Now Lhc only way Lo
do LhaL in a scrics o picLurcs would bc Lo show a characLcr going Lo a sLorc
and buying milk ovcr and ovcr again. BuL Lhc sum LoLal o Lhosc scqucnccs
is jusL showing LhaL Lhc characLcr wcnL Lo Lhc sLorc Lo buy milk many, many
Limcs. ILs a dicrcnL sorL o ccl, and Lonc . . . noL Lhc samc Lhing.

As an
iconographic mcdium, comics cxccl aL dcpicLing gcncralizcd, cvcn sLcrcoLypi-
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 1 7
cal, imagcs, buL Lhcy cannoL casily show gcncralizcd acLions. Imagcs can rc-
crcaLc discrcLc cpisodcs rom Lhc pasL, buL Lhcy cannoL as casily show largcr
narraLivc paLLcrns across Limc. Tc immcdiacy o comics conLinually jars Lhc
pasL Lcnsc inLo Lhc mcdiums visual prcscnL.
Building SLorics conronLs Lhis problcm dirccLly, dcvising ways or Lhc
pasL and prcscnL Lo cxisL simulLancously, allowing Lhc vicwcr Lo scc Lhc pas-
sagc o Limc by mainLaining all Lcnscs aL oncc.

To Lhis cnd, boLh Papcr

Dolls and Lhc sLaircasc sLrip arc cxcrciscs in achicving an arLisLic cmbodi-
mcnL o Lhc pasL impcrccL. Tc LcxL o boLh carLoons rcpcaLcdly dcploys
Fnglish approximaLions o Lhc impcrccL (oLcn a simplc pasL wiLh Lhc appro-
priaLc advcrbs): I ncvcr likcd playing wiLh dolls, IaLcr, somcLimcs, Id lay
awakc, I was [always] vcry carcul wiLh Lhcm, Whcn I was liLLlc, I lovcd Lo
play in Lhc sLairway, I never ran. . . . I likcd Lo jusL siL. BoLh sLorics also shiL
Lcnsc as Lhc sLrip approachcs Lhc prcscnL day: I wondcr whaL moLhcr did
wiLh Lhcm all, I kccp [Lhc sLairs] ncaL and Lidy [. . .] and I donL allow amilics
wiLh childrcn. Tc imagcs, Loo, corrcspond Lo Lhc pasL impcrccL. Tc sLair-
casc sLrip accomplishcs Lhis caL, or insLancc, by bundling rcpcaLcd acLiviLics
(sliding, mopping) inLo singlc mulLi-imagc acLions. MosL imporLanLly, boLh
sLrips kccp Lhcir imagcs lodgcd in Lhc pasL by allowing Lhc landladys nincLy-
ycar-old voicc Lo cmcrgc rom Lhc minds o hcr youngcr sclvcs. WiLh Lhis
Lcchniquc, Warc allows us Lo scc Lhc hiddcn LhoughLs o a scl LhaL boLh is and
is noL Lhcrc, Lhc cldcrly woman cloakcd in an inanLs body, Lhc prcscnL LhaL
givcs Lhc pasL iLs pasLncss.
Living Memories: 1 a.m.
In his book-lcngLh mcdiLaLion on sclhood, philosophcr and cogniLivc scicn-
LisL Douglas HosLadLcr argucs LhaL idcnLiLy and scl-consciousncss arc Lhc
cccLs o a sLrangc loop insidc Lhc hcad, symbols LhaL Lurn back upon Lhcm-
sclvcs, crcaLing a complcx build-up o scl-rccrcncc: Tc dcpLh and complcx-
iLy o human mcmory is sLaggcringly rich. IiLLlc wondcr, Lhcn, LhaL whcn
a human bcing, posscsscd o such a rich armamcnLarium o conccpLs and
mcmorics wiLh which Lo work, Lurns aLLcnLion Lo iLscl, as iL incviLably musL,
iL produccs a scl-modcl LhaL is cxLraordinarily dccp and Langlcd. TaL dccp
and Langlcd scl-modcl is whaL I-ncss is all abouL.
6
HosLadLcrs insighLs
grow ouL o somc common, i paradoxical, inLuiLions. As carly as 8:, 1amcs
Mill posiLcd mcmory as a sorL o ccdback loop o idcnLiLy, in which a prcs-
cnL rcmcmbcring scl bccomcs connccLcd Lo Lhc idca a pasL scl Lhrough a
wholc scrics o Lhc sLaLcs o consciousncss inLcrvcning bcLwccn Lhc Lwo.
,

SixLy ycars laLcr, William 1amcs rc-cnvisioncd Mills chain o amiliar sclvcs
in Lcrms o accL, arguing LhaL wc rccognizc a mcmory as a mcmory noL by iLs
vivaciLy or by iLs conLcnLs, buL by a concomiLanL jee|ng o sclhood: IL musL
bc daLcd in my pasL. [. . .] IL musL havc LhaL warmLh and inLimacy which
[characLcrizc] all cxpcricnccs appropriaLcd by Lhc Lhinkcr as his own.
8

Morc rcccnLly, Danicl DcnncLL has rc-ramcd mcmory as a orm o Lalking
Lo yourscl, an acL LhaL progrcssivcly crcaLcs a cohcrcnL scnsc o scl noL as
an indcpcndcnL cgo, buL as a ccnLcr o narraLivc graviLy, or whaL Ccorgc
SanLayana sLrikingly callcd an inLcrnal rumor.

Warcs work Lakcs Lhcsc philosophical mcLaphors and makcs Lhcm lcgiblc,
2 1 8 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
porLraying boLh mcmory and rcmcmbcring as cclings o scqucnLial scl-
hood, Lhcrcby connccLing his comics Lo largcr qucsLions o idcnLiLy. Build-
ing SLorics implics LhaL idcnLiLy cmcrgcs cxacLly as mcmory cmcrgcsas a
orm o mcnLal scl-consLrucLion and cndlcss scl-rccrcncc, wiLh words and
imagcs ccding inLo cach oLhcr. Papcr Dolls cvcn mcLaphorizcs Lhc scl as a
scrics o ncsLcd or imbricaLcd gurincs, cach o whom wcars Lhc cosLumc
o an oldcr incarnaLion. Or considcr onc nal comic sLrip, cnLiLlcd a.m.,
which rsL appcarcd in Lhc New York Tmes Magazne (scc plaLc :o).
o
Tc pagc
ocuscs on an unhappily marricd couplc rom Lhc buildings sccond oor. Tc
ploL o Lhis pagc is simplc. AL :o in Lhc morning, Lhc husband lcavcs or his
gravcyard-shiL job, whilc his wic lics awakc and wondcrs whcn cxacLly Lhcir
rclaLionship changcd: Whcn did hc sLarL lcaving wiLhouL kissing mc good-
byc` Whcn did hc sLarL walking by wiLhouL Louching my hcad` Whcn did
hc sLarL grabbing mc in angcr` ForLy-six minuLcs laLcr, shc is sLill wondcring
and sLaring aL Lhc cciling, whcrc hcr LhoughLs hovcr silcnLly.
Tis shorL sLory prcscnLs a slighLly dicrcnL orm o mcmoryLhc acL
o Lrying and ailing Lo locaLc somcLhing in Lhc pasLwhich cliciLs a dicr-
cnL modc o rcprcscnLaLion. Tc wic, in Lhis casc, cannoL rccall Lhosc mo-
mcnLs LhaL would answcr hcr LcxLual qucsLions: shc cannoL rcmcmbcr Lhc
partcu|ar momcnL whcn Lhings wcnL wrong in hcr marriagc. NoncLhclcss,
hcr LhoughLs providc alLcrnaLc answcrs Lo hcr qucrics: carLoon visions o
genera|zed mcmorics and rcpcaLcd acLions. Unlikc Papcr Dolls, wc scc
Lhis womans mcmorics dirccLly, as hcr LcxLual LhoughLs morph inLo bal-
loons conLaining a scrics o silcnL visual cpisodcs, vc comic sLrips LhaL ncsL
Lhcmsclvcs wiLhin Lhc largcr pancl ramcs. Tc rsL mcmory-comic, or cx-
amplc, shows Lhc husband kissing his wic bcorc hc lcavcs. TaL cpisodic
mcmory, howcvcr, is cngcndcrcd by a narraLivc mcmory o how Lhosc kisscs
cvcnLually stopped: Whcn did hc sLarL lcaving wiLhouL kissing mc good-
byc` Tis aLcr-Lhc-acL knowlcdgc, which could noL havc bccn parL o Lhc
rcmcmbcrcd cxpcricncc iLscl, changcs Lhc Lcnor o Lhc wics mcmory: an
cmbcddcd comic abouL kissing in Lhc pasL simulLancous sLands asand pro-
grcssivcly bccomcsa sLrip abouL noL-kissing in Lhc prcscnL. Tc kisscs wiLhin
Lhis cpisodic mcmory will soon disappcar, and havc alrcady disappcarcd. Tc
wics rccollccLcd pasL bcars Lhc imprinL o Lhc rccollccLing prcscnL, and LhaL
rsL mcmory-comic cnds wiLh a pancl LhaL almosL cxacLly maLchcs Lhc rsL
pancls o Lhc a.m. sLory. Indccd, all vc o Lhis pagcs mcmory-comics
comc Lo rcccL Lhc wics prcscnL-Lcnsc sorrow: in cach sub-scqucncc, shc
cnds up alonc, boLh wiLh hcr LhoughLs and in hcr LhoughLs.

Fivc cpisodic
mcmorics, rcad in parallcl, congcal inLo a singlc impcrccL narraLivc o who
Lhis woman is and how shc goL Lhcrc. Tc pasL loops inLo Lhc prcscnL, Lhc
prcscnL ramcs our scnsc o Lhc pasL, and Lhc laycring o boLh crcaLcs Lhc
ccling o Lhc sclhood LhaL wc cxpcricncc as mcmory.
Morcovcr, Lhis sLory o rccurring LhoughLs is iLscl cncodcd in a comic LhaL
musL bc rcad rccurrcnLly. TaL is Lo say, i you wish Lo rcad Lhc rsL mcm-
ory-sLrip o kissing and noL kissing (color-codcd as bluc in Lhc original pub-
licaLion), you havc Lo ollow Lhc balloons up and Lo Lhc righL, away rom Lhc
Lhinking characLcr hcrscl. Only Lhcn, aL Lhc cnd o Lhc bluc scqucncc, can
you rcLurn Lo your holding posiLion in Lhc main narraLivc, now Lhrcc pancls
in Lhc pasL. Tc sLory soon scnds you o again, howcvcr, Lhis Limc in pursuiL
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 1 9
o a rcd mcmory-sLrip, which rcsLagcs Lhc husbands insulLs and cruclLy. Fach
sLrip has iLs own color (ycllow, grccn, violcL), iLs own discrcLc scqucncc, and
iLs own parallcl LrajccLory. And Lhcsc looping sLrips crcaLc a circuiL wiLhin Lhc
common narraLivc and Lhc composiLional ramc.
:
Wc rcadcrs musL liLcrally
ollow Lhosc cyclcs. Tc sLrip and your rcading o iL comprisc sLorics wiLhin
sLorics, comics wiLhin comics, sclvcs wiLhin sclvcsall dcsigncd Lo cncodc
and rc-crcaLc Lhc imprcssion o onc dark nighLs rcminisccncc.
Drawing Memories
Comics is abouL mcmory. Chris Warcs pronounccmcnL rcmains pcrhaps
Lhc bcsL Lool or digging inLo his graphic cLion and or cxploring how LhaL
cLion is linkcd Lo Lhc acLiviLy and cxpcricncc o rcmcmbcring. BoLh opcr-
aLc Lhrough a blcnding o imagcs and words, o spacc and Limc, o spccic
cpisodcs and gcncral narraLivcs, and o pasL and prcscnL sclvcs. And Build-
ing SLorics ocrs an imagc o sclhood largc cnough Lo accommodaLc Lhcsc
sLrucLural similariLics. In Lhis graphic novcl-in-progrcss, mcmory and idcnLiLy
do noL cxisL as uniLary objccLs, indccd, Lhc pagcs analyzcd hcrc arc Lrcmcn-
dously ovcrpopulaLcd, wiLh sclvcs olding and Lumbling and bumping inLo
onc anoLhcr. Sclhood, Lhcsc sLorics Lcll us, is Lhc cccL o such inLcracLions.
AuLobiographical idcnLiLy and auLobiographical mcmorics arc noL Lhings,
buL cclings dccply linkcd Lo Lhc cxpcricncc o scqucncc and succcssion, Lhc
acLiviLics o scl-rccrcncc and inLrospccLivc moLion. Warcs comics, aL Lhcir
bcsL, aLLcmpL Lo rcprcscnL and cvcn rc-crcaLc such cclings.
In Lhcsc pagcs, I havc Lricd Lo illuminaLc somc o Chris Warcs idcas by
juxLaposing Lhcm wiLh insighLs rom cogniLivc scicnLisLs on Lhc onc hand
and philosophcrs and LhcorisLs on Lhc oLhcr. I hopc LhaL Lhcsc similariLics arc
insLrucLivc and hclp Lhc rcadcr Lo rcgisLcr somc o Lhc ormal and narraLivc
complcxiLy o Building SLorics, cspccially in iLs rcprcscnLaLion o rcmcm-
bcring. BuL Warc is noL a ncuroscicnLisL, nor is hc a criLical LhcorisL. And
such linkagcs, howcvcr suggcsLivc, should noL obscurc Lhc arLisLs cxpliciLly
humanisL goals or Lhcsc comics and or his arL in gcncralhis insisLcncc on
Lhc ccnLraliLy o ccling and Lhc abiliLy o arL Lo cncodc ccling[s] Lhrough
basic sLrucLurcs LhaL L inLuiLivcly inLo Lhc way LhaL wc scc, and inLcrprcL,
and arc disappoinLcd by Lhc world.

As an arLisL, Warc sccms uninLcrcsLcd in

simply dismanLling whaL wc mighL call Lhc cLion o sclhood, jusL as Lhis rc-
lcnLlcss comic innovaLor claims hc is uninLcrcsLcd in ormal cxpcrimcnLaLion
or iLs own sakc.

His dcconsLrucLivc Lcchniqucs arc noL dcsigncd Lo cxposc

Lhc illusions o mcmory or idcnLiLy alonc, buL Lo cxplorc Lhc phcnomcnologi-
cal complcxiLy o Lhosc psychological sLaLcs. Trough Lhcir mcmory sLorics,
Warcs comics Lry Lo rcproducc whaL iL is rcally |ke Lo havc a sclLhaL is Lo
say, in Warcs own Lcrms, whaL iL jee|s likc Lo nhabt onc.

Building SLorics
wanLs us Lo ccl our own scnsc o sclhood, Lo rcmcmbcr Lhc cxpcricncc o
rcmcmbcring, as wc cncounLcr iL boLh on iLs pagcs and in our inLcracLions
wiLh Lhosc pagcs. TaL is Lhc mcssagc and Lhc inLcndcd cccL o Lhis graphic
novcl: Lo rcmind us o whaL iL is likc Lo build and inhabiL a sLory, Lo rcmind us
LhaL wc arc always building sLorics, and Lo rcmind us LhaL Lhc sLorics wc build
arc, onc piccc aL a Limc, us.
2 2 0 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
Notes
1. Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (New York: Harper, 1994), 3640.
2. Art Spiegelman, Comix 101, City Arts and Lectures Series, Herbst Theater, San Francisco,
October 15, 1998; Art Spiegelman, interview with Daniel Pink, Upfront and Unscripted, August 5,
2008, http://www.bookexpocast.com/wp-podcasts/UUSpiegelmanPodcast.mp3 (accessed February
25, 2009).
3. Seth, The Quiet Art of Cartooning, Walrus, September 2008, http://www.walrusmagazine
.com/articles/2008.09--the-quiet-art-of-cartooning-seth-comic-book-cartoons/ (accessed February
25, 2009).
4. Seth, interview with Sean Rogers, Q&A: Seth (Weblog entry), Four-Colour Words, Walrus,
August 21, 2008, http://www.walrusmagazine.com/blogs/2008/08/21/an-interview-with-seth-part-
one/ (accessed February 25, 2009).
5. Chris Ware, interview with Benot Peeters, Chris Ware: Un Art de la Mmoire, dir. Benot
Peeters, Comix, Arte France, January 26, 2005.
6. Chris Ware, qtd. in Jeet Heer, Little Nemo in Comicsland, Virginia Quarterly Review 82.2
(2006): 114.
7. Marianne Hirsch, Family Pictures: Maus, Mourning, and Post-Memory, Discourse 15.2 (1992
93): 9. Hirsch and the many critics who have adopted her language appreciate comics, in part, because
the medium highlights its own artice, its distance and difference from the reality it attempts to
capture. That blatant difference, Hirsch claims, enable[s] us to expose the layers of mediation and
transformation inherent in all memory, all history, all representation (interview with Martha Kuhl-
man, Indy Magazine, winter 2005, http://64.23.98.142/indy/winter_2005/kuhlman_hirsch/index.html
[accessed February 25, 2009]). Without invalidating either point of view, the difference between
Hirsch and the cartoonists above is telling. The artists, on the one hand, celebrate the directness
and immediacy of comics, insisting that the form of cartooning approximates and resonates with the
form of memory. Comics work, the cartoonists say, because they so closely correspond to the
structures of our interior world. Literary critics, on the other hand, celebrate the indirectness and
self-aware mediacy of comic artmaking comic art no more like memory than memory itself as an
objective record of the past. Comics work, many academics reply, when they disavow any absolute
resemblance to the real world, inside or out.
8. Chris Ware, interview with Daniel Siedell, Sheldon Memorial Museum of Art, University of
NebraskaLincoln, February 16, 2007.
9. Chris Ware, e-mail to the author, August 12, 2008.
10. Chris Ware, Every Morning, in Quimby the Mouse (Seattle: Fantagraphics, 2003), 3435. For
a more detailed analysis of Quimby the Mouses autobiographical narrative strategies, see Benjamin
Widisss essay in this volume.
11. Ware, Quimby, 3641. Todd Hignite notes the importance of memory to Thrilling Adventure
Stories / I Guess, the earliest of these tales: Assumptions about reading the form are short-
circuited as the acts of remembering both the physical events of ones own life and those experienced
vicariously through popular media are conated. Todd Hignite, In the Studio: Visits with Contemporary
Cartoonists (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 228.
12. Chris Ware, qtd. in Daniel Raeburn, The Smartest Cartoonist on Earth, The Imp 3 (1999):
4.
13. Chris Ware, Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth (New York: Pantheon, 2000), 219, 239,
27677.
14. Ibid., 28384, 28889.
15. Chris Ware, qtd. in Daniel Raeburn, Chris Ware (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004),
25.
16. Chris Ware, qtd. in Raeburn, Smartest Cartoonist, 19.
17. Chris Ware, interview with Daniel Siedell.
18. Chris Ware, qtd. in Neil Strauss, Creating Literature, One Comic Book at a Time; Chris
Wares Graphic Tales Mine His Own Life and Heart, New York Times, April 4, 2001, http://query
B UI L DI NG S T OR I E S AND T HE ART OF ME MORY 2 2 1
.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E05E2DC1F3FF937A35757C0A9679C8B63 (accessed February
25, 2009); crystalline structures, qtd. in Raeburn, Chris Ware, 25.
19. Chris Ware, interview with Todd Hignite, In the Studio, 231; the way I actually think, qtd. in
Raeburn, Chris Ware, 96.
20. Chris Ware, The ACME Novelty Library 18 (Chicago: The ACME Novelty Library, 2007).
21. Chris Ware, Paper Dolls, Chicago Reader, March 21, 2003, sec. 4: 3031. The strip was
reprinted in expanded form in The Paper Sculpture Book, ed. Sin Naja (New York; Cabinet, 2003),
13538. Please note that the panels in gure 15.1 have been reformatted to present a series of se-
quential images.
22. Daniel L. Schacter, Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past (New York: Basic,
1996), 17; Endel Tulving, Elements of Episodic Memory (Oxford: Clarendon, 1983).
23. Schacter, Searching for Memory, 195201.
24. See, for example, David C. Rubin and Daniel L. Greenberg, The Role of Narrative in Recol-
lection: A View from Cognitive Psychology and Neuropsychology, in Narrative and Consciousness: Lit-
erature, Psychology, and the Brain, ed. Gary D. Fireman, Ted E. McVay Jr., and Owen J. Flanagan (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2003), 5385; Paul John Eakin, Autobiography, Identity, and the Fictions of
Memory, in Memory, Brain, and Belief, ed. Daniel L. Schacter and Elaine Scarry (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2000), 290306.
25. In Stumbling on Happiness (New York: Knopf, 2006), psychologist Daniel Gilbert notes how
verbal and visual memories embody two different, often conicting, systems for encoding and re-
membering events, with the verbal often trumping and short-circuiting the visual (4042).
26. Sigmund Freud, Screen Memories, in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works
of Sigmund Freud, ed. and trans. James Strachey, vol. 3 (London: Hogarth, 1962), 30122; Virgil, The
Aeneid, trans. Robert Fagles (New York: Viking, 2006), 1.5891.590.
27. Schacter, Searching for Memory, 2122; Martin A. Conway, Autobiographical Knowledge and
Autobiographical Memories, in Remembering Our Past: Studies in Autobiographical Memory, ed. David
C. Rubin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 8890.
28. Heather K. McIsaac and Eric Eich, Vantage Point in Episodic Memory, Psychonomic Bulletin
& Review 9 (2002): 14650; Benedict Carey, This Is Your Life (and How You Tell It), New York
Times, May 22, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/22/health/psychology/22narr.html (accessed
February 25, 2009); Ethan Kross, Ozlem Ayduk, and Walter Mischel, When Asking Why Does
Not Hurt: Distinguishing Rumination from Reective Processing of Negative Emotions, Psychologi-
cal Science 16 (2005): 70915. Observer memories, which dampen the emotions, might seem to
work against an artist who hopes to have his readers feel. But such emotional distancing effects t
surprisingly well within Wares tempered, anti-expressivist approach to drawing and design. As his
crystalline structures comment makes clear, Ware is not trying to represent emotions directly but
to encode themand the feeling of recalling themonto the page.
29. Chris Ware, interview with Daniel Siedell.
30. Frances A. Yates, The Art of Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 3.
31. Chris Ware, untitled comic strip [Staircase], Chicago Reader, June 28, 2002, sec. 4: 3031;
rpt. in Paul Candler, Raw, Boiled, and Cooked: Comics on the Verge (San Francisco: Last Gasp, 2004),
6263.
32. Charles Forbell, Naughty Pete, Los Angeles Times, November 16, 1913, sec. 8: 1; rpt. in Dan
Nadel, ed., Art Out of Time: Unknown Comic Visionaries, 19001969 (New York: Abrams, 2006), 259.
Wares homage is explicitly acknowledged in the newspaper version of the staircase strip, which ap-
pends the following note: Apologies to Charles Forbell.
33. Ware, Jimmy Corrigan, inside front cover.
34. Chris Ware, interview with Gary Groth, Understanding (Chris Wares) Comics, Comics
Journal 200 (December 1997): 161. Although Ware erroneously identies this mode of expressing
habitual past actions as the subjunctive, his point remains clear.
35. For a similar formulation in ction, see Roger Shattuck, Prousts Binoculars: A Study of Memory,
Time, and Recognition in la recherche du temps perdu (New York: Random House, 1963).
36. Douglas Hofstadter, I Am a Strange Loop (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 86.
2 2 2 P E T E R R . S AT T L E R
37. James Mill, Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1829; rpt., Hildesheim, Ger.: Gerig,
1982), 33031.
38. William James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. 1 (1890; rpt., New York: Dover, 1950) 650.
39. Daniel Dennett, The Self as a Center of Narrative Gravity, Self and Consciousness: Multiple
Perspectives, ed. Frank S. Kessel, Pamela M. Cole, and Dale L. Johnson (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erl-
baum, 1992), 113; George Santayana, The Life of Reason (New York: Scribners, 1932), 40.
40. Chris Ware, Building Stories: Part 5, 1 a.m., New York Times Magazine, October 16, 2005,
31.
41. In fact, one could push these claims farther, as the rst memory-comic (When did he start
leaving without kissing me goodbye?) completely reenacts the comics present tense. That strips
third and fth balloon-panels reproduce, in miniature, the full pages own second and third pictures,
which show (respectively) the husbands departure and the wifes wide-eyed solitude. A lonely wife
thus remembers herself as a lonely wife, and the repetition seems destined to produce a third set of
recollections: the memory wifes own memories, a comic within a comic within a comic.
42. This page, with its differently colored pathways offering no clear exit, tips its hat silently to
Art Spiegelmans classic 1975 strip, Day at the Circuits reprinted in Breakdowns: Portrait of the Artist
as a Young %@&*! (New York: Pantheon, 2008), 51.
43. Chris Ware, qtd. in Raeburn, Chris Ware, 25.
44. Chris Ware, qtd. in Raeburn, Chris Ware, 11: I rarely ever did a comic just for the sake of
experimentation, says Ware. Even when I did, I was always trying to get at some kind of feeling.
45. Chris Ware, Philip Guston: A Cartoonists Appreciation, in McSweeneys Quarterly Concern
13 (New York: McSweeneys, 2004), 89.
2 2 3
Appendix:
A Guide to Chris Wares Primary Works
Chris Warcs ocuvrc prcscnLs scvcral challcngcs or scholars, sLudcnLs, and
ans alikc. Much o his work was originally publishcd in diculL-Lo-locaLc
vcnucs, oLcn lacks paginaLion, and appcars in subsLanLially dicring orms
during Lhc coursc o scrial and subscqucnL publicaLion. Warcs aLLcmpLs Lo
dcy LradiLional Laxonomics o classicaLion cxLcnd cvcn Lo his willul obus-
caLion o ISBN numbcrs and oLhcr publicaLion inormaLion, oLcn lcading Lo
his works bcing miscaLcgorizcd by librarics and archivc holdings. Tc lisL bc-
low aLLcmpLs Lo caLcgorizc in chronological ordcr Lhc major works o Warcs
cxLrcmcly prolic carccr Lo daLc.
For Lhc sakc o clariLy and consisLcncy, Lhc cssays in Lhis volumc rccr Lo
Lhc ollowing primary sourccs. PaginaLion has bccn ascribcd Lo Lhc numbcrcd
issucs o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary bcginning wiLh pagc opposiLc Lhc inLc-
rior ronL covcr o cach issuc (consisLcnL wiLh Lhc paginaLion Warc indicaLcs
in carly issucs). Rccrcnccs Lo pagc numbcrs in cdiLions o 1mmy Corrgan
arc dcrivcd rom Lhc singlc pagc numbcr givcn in Lhc novcl: pagcs :o6,, Lhc
asscmbly modcl o 1amcs Rccd Corrigans Chicago homc. For boLh Lhc hard-
covcr and papcrback cdiLions o 1mmy Corrgan, wc bcgin numbcring pagcs
wiLh Lhc rsL appcarancc o 1immys characLcr. To avoid conusion wiLh Lhc
scrializcd issucs o Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary, Warcs :oo book publicaLion
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary Fna| Report to Shareho|ders and Saturday Ajternoon
Rany Lay Fun Pook will bc rccrrcd Lo LhroughouL as Te ACMF Report.
In ordcr Lo disLinguish bcLwccn Warcs cllipscs, which appcar rcqucnLly
LhroughouL his comics, and Lhc clisions inLroduccd by Lhc auLhors in Lhis col-
lccLion, Lhc laLLcr arc indicaLcd LhroughouL in squarc brackcLs.
Serial Publications
Te La|y Texan, wcckly or daily ncwspapcr carLoon sLrip, 86, AusLin,
Tcxas.
New Cty, wcckly carLoon sLrip, :oo:, Chicago, Illinois.
Chcago Reader, wcckly carLoon sLrip, :oo::oo6, Chicago, Illinois.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary :, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 6, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
2 2 4 AP P E NDI X
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary ,, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, 6.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, ,.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, ,.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary o, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, 8.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, 8.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary :, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, .
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, :ooo.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, :oo.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 6, Chicago: Tc ACMF NovclLy Iibrary, :oo.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary ,, Chicago: Tc ACMF NovclLy Iibrary, :oo6.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8, Chicago: Tc ACMF NovclLy Iibrary, :oo,.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 8., Chicago: Tc ACMF NovclLy Iibrary, :oo,.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary , Chicago: Tc ACMF NovclLy Iibrary, :oo8.
Book Publications
1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth, Ncw York: PanLhcon, :ooo.
Qumby the Mouse, ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, :oo.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Latebook, MonLrcal: Drawn & QuarLcrly, :oo.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary Fna| Report to Shareho|ders and Saturday Ajternoon
Rany Lay Fun Pook, Ncw York: PanLhcon, :oo.
Te ACMF Nove|ty Latebook, vo|ume Two, MonLrcal: Drawn & QuarLcrly,
:oo,.
Novels-in-Progress
RusLy Brown, appcaring variously in wcckly inscrLs o Chicagos New Cty
and Chcago Reader, Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 6, ,, and , and Lhc vr-
gna Quarter|y Revew (winLcr :oo8prcscnL), among oLhcr publicaLions.
Building SLorics, appcaring variously in wcckly inscrLs o Chcago Reader,
Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary 6 and 8, and Lhc New York Tmes Magazne in
:oo:oo6, among oLhcr publicaLions.
DVD Collaboration
Lost Pu|dngs, collaboraLion wiLh Ira Class and Tim Samuclson or Tis
Amcrican Iic, :oo.
Edited and Designed Volumes
Te Ragtme Fphemera|st ( vols. Lo daLc), Chicago: Tc ACMF NovclLy Ii-
brary, 8prcscnL.
McSweeneys Quarter|y Concern , San Francisco: McSwccncys, :oo.
wa|t and Skeezx ( vols. Lo daLc), MonLrcal: Drawn & QuarLcrly, :ooprcs-
cnL.
Pest Amercan Comcs .oo,, Ncw York: HoughLon Miin, :oo,.
0n!nked. Pantng, Scu|pture, and Craphc work by Fve Contemporary Cartoon-
sts, Phocnix: Phocnix ArL Muscum, :oo,.
2 2 5
Selected Bibliography
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ding. Ncw York: Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo.
Arnold, Andrcw. Q and A wiLh Comicbook MasLcr Chris Warc, T!MF, ScpLcm-
bcr , :ooo. hLLp://www.Limc.com/Limc/naLion/arLiclc/o,8,88,,oo
.hLml (acccsscd April , :oo).
BacLcns, 1an. Ncw = Old, Old = Ncw: DigiLal and OLhcr Comics Following
ScoLL McCloud and Chris Warc. clccLronicbookrcvicw.com (winLcr
:ooo/:oo). hLLp://www.alLx.com/cbr/cbr/warc.hLm (acccsscd Fcb-
ruary :6, :oo).
Ball, David M. Comics againsL Tcmsclvcs: Chris Warcs Craphic NarraLivcs
as IiLcraLurc. In Contemporary Amercan Comcs. Creators and ther Con-
texts, cd. 1amcs Iyons and Paul Williams. 1ackson: UnivcrsiLy Prcss o
Mississippi, orLhcoming.
Barry, Iynda. what !t !s. MonLrcal: Drawn & QuarLcrly, :oo8.
BarLhcs, Roland. S/Z. Trans. Richard Millcr. Ncw York: Farrar, 88.
BcaLy, BarL. 0npopu|ar Cu|ture. Transjormng the Furopean Comc Pook n the
:,,os. ToronLo: UnivcrsiLy o ToronLo Prcss, :oo,.
Bcnjamin, WalLcr. Te Arcades Proect. Trans. Howard Filand and Kcvin
McIaughlin. Cambridgc, MA: Harvard UnivcrsiLy Prcss, .
. Te Orgn oj Cerman Tragc Lrama. Trans. 1ohn Osbornc. Ncw York:
Vcrso, :oo.
. Tcscs on Lhc Philosophy o HisLory. In !||umnatons. Fssays and
Reectons, cd. Hannah ArcndL, Lrans. Harry Zohn, :6 . Ncw York:
Schockcn, 6.
Bcrgson, Hcnri. An !ntroducton to Metaphyscs. Trans. T. F. Hulmc. Ncw York:
Macmillan, .
Blackbcard, Bill. Tc Four Color Papcr Trail: A Iook Back. !nternatona| 1our-
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Blackbcard, Bill, and MarLin Williams. Te Smthsonan Co||ecton oj Newspa-
per Comcs. Ncw York: Abrams, ,,.
Boym, SvcLlana. Te Future oj Nosta|ga. Ncw York: Basic, :oo.
BrcdchoL, Tomas A. Comics ArchiLccLurc, MulLidimcnsionaliLy, and Timc:
Chris Warcs 1mmy Corrgan. Te Smartest Kd on Farth. Modern Fcton
Studes : (:oo6): 86o.
Brown, 1ulic K. Contestng !mages. Photography and the wor|ds Co|umban Fx-
poston. Tucson: UnivcrsiLy o Arizona Prcss, .
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:oo.
2 2 6 S E L E CT E D B I B L I OGR AP HY
Carlin, 1ohn. Tc Rcal Comic Book Hcrocs. TATF Ftc. (spring :oo,): 6o
6.
Cavcll, SLanlcy. Tc Uncannincss o Lhc Ordinary. In !n Quest oj the Ord-
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(:oo:): 8.
ChuLc, Hillary. Comics as IiLcraLurc` Rcading Craphic NarraLivc. PMLA :
(:oo8): :6.
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,.
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Danicls, Ics. Superman. Te Comp|ete Hstory. San Francisco: Chroniclc, 8.
DcnncLL, Danicl. Tc Scl as a CcnLcr o NarraLivc CraviLy. In Se|j and Con-
scousness. Mu|tp|e Perspectves, cd. Frank S. Kcsscl, Pamcla M. Colc, and
Dalc I. 1ohnson, o. Hillsdalc, N1: Iawrcncc Frlbaum, :.
Dcrrida, 1acqucs. Dicrancc. In Margns oj Ph|osophy, Lrans. Alan Bass,
:,. Chicago: UnivcrsiLy o Chicago Prcss, 8:.
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Lon ArchiLccLural Prcss, :oo.
Fco, UmbcrLo. Tc MyLh o Supcrman. In Te Ro|e oj the Reader, Lrans. NaLa-
lic ChilLon, o,:. BloomingLon: Indiana UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ,.
Fdcmariam, Aida. Tc ArL o Mclancholy. Te Cuardan, OcLobcr , :oo.
hLLp://arLs.guardian.co.uk/caLurcs/sLory/o,,6o,oo.hLml (acccsscd
AugusL , :oo8).
Fggcrs, Davc. ALcr Wham! Pow! Shazam! New York Tmes Pook Revew, No-
vcmbcr :6, :ooo, o.
Fisncr, Will. Craphc Storyte||ng and vsua| Narratve. Tamarac: Poorhousc,
6.
Flkins, 1amcs. Stores oj Art. Ncw York: RouLlcdgc, :oo:.
Ficdlcr, Icslic. Tc Middlc againsL BoLh Fnds. Fncounter (AugusL ). RpL.
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Frcud, Sigmund. Scrccn Mcmorics. In Te Standard Fdton oj the Comp|ete
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o::. Iondon: HogarLh, 6:.
. Totem and Taboo. Fd. and Lrans. 1amcs SLrachcy. Ncw York: NorLon,
o.
Fromc, 1onaLhan. IdcnLicaLion in Comics. Comcs 1ourna| : (): 8:
86.
Fukuyama, Francis. Te Fnd oj Hstory and the Last Man. Ncw York: Avon,
:.
Cardncr, 1arcd. Archivcs, CollccLors, and Lhc Ncw Mcdia Work o Comics.
Modern Fcton Studes : (:oo6): ,8,8o6.
Carland-Tomson, Roscmaric. Fxtraordnary Podes. Fgurng Physca| Lsab|-
ty n Amercan Cu|ture. Ncw York: Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ,.
CcncLLc, Ccrard. Paratexts. Tresho|ds oj !nterpretaton. Trans. 1anc F. Icwin.
Cambridgc: Cambridgc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ,.
S E L E CT E D B I B L I OGR AP HY 2 2 7
Coldbcrg, Myla. Tc FxquisiLc SLrangcncss and FsLrangcmcnL o Rcncc
Frcnch and Chris Warc. In Cve Our Regards to the Atom Smashers| wrters
on Comcs, cd. Scan Howc, :o,. Ncw York: PanLhcon, :oo.
CrocnsLccn, Ticrry. 1immy Corrigan: Unc Lragcdic pour rirc. In Lhumour
graphque n de sec|e, o:. Paris: PUF, .
. La bande dessnee. une |tterature graphque. Toulousc: diLions Milan,
:oo.
. Te System oj Comcs.Trans. BarL BcaLy and Nick Nguycn. 1ackson:
UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Mississippi, :oo,.
. Systme de |a bande dessnee. Paris: PUF, .
. Un prcmicr bouqucL dc consLrainLs. OuPus (1anuary ,): 8.
Hajdu, David. Te Ten-Cent P|ague. Te Creat Comc-Pook Scare and How !t
Changed Amerca. Ncw York: Farrar, :oo8.
HaLcld, Charlcs. A|ternatve Comcs. 1ackson: UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Missis-
sippi, :oo.
. Rcvicw o Te S|ver Age oj Comc Art. !nternatona| 1ourna| oj Comc
Art 6. (:oo): o.
Hccr, 1ccL. IiLLlc Ncmo in Comicsland. vrgna Quarter|y Revew 8:.: (:oo6):
o:.
HigniLc, Tom. !n the Studo. vsts wth Contemporary Cartoonsts. Ncw Havcn:
Yalc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo6.
Hirsch, Mariannc. Family PicLurcs: Maus, Mourning, and PosL-Mcmory.
Lscourse .: (:): :.
. InLcrvicw wiLh MarLha Kuhlman. !ndy Magazne (winLcr :oo).
hLLp://6.:.8.:/indy/winLcr_:oo/kuhlman_hirsch/indcx.hLml (ac-
ccsscd Dcccmbcr :o, :oo8).
Hodgman, 1ohn. Comics Chroniclc. New York Tmes Pook Revew, 1unc ,
:oo6, 8.
Huizcnga, Kcvin. Canges . ScaLLlc: FanLagraphics, :oo6.
. Or F|se :. MonLrcal: Drawn & QuarLcrly, :oo.
Humc, KaLhryn. NarraLivc Spccd in ConLcmporary FicLion. Narratve .:
(May :oo): o:.
1amcson, Frcdric. Postmodernsm, or, the Cu|tura| Logc oj Late Capta|sm.
Durham, NC: Dukc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, .
1uno, Andrca. Chris Warc. In Langerous Lrawngs. !ntervews wth Comx and
Craphx Artsts, cd. Andrca 1uno, :. Ncw York: 1uno, ,.
Kanncnburg, Ccnc, 1r. Tc Comics o Chris Warc: TcxL, Imagc, and Visual
NarraLivc SLraLcgics. In Te Language oj Comcs. word and !mage, cd. Robin
Varnum and ChrisLina Cibbons, ,,. 1ackson: UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Mis-
sissippi, :oo.
Karasik, Paul, and David Mazzucchclli. Pau| Austers Cty oj C|ass. Ncw York:
Avon, .
Kidd, Chip. Plcasc DonL HaLc Him. Prnt . (,): :.
Klock, Cco. How to Read Superhero Comcs and why. Ncw York: ConLinuum,
:oo:.
Kuhlman, MarLha. Tc TraumaLic TcmporaliLy o ArL Spicgclmans !n the
Shadow oj No Towers. 1ourna| oj Popu|ar Cu|ture o. (:oo,): 866.
Kunzlc, David. Father oj the Comc Strp. Rodo|phe Toper. 1ackson: UnivcrsiLy
Prcss o Mississippi, :oo,.
2 2 8 S E L E CT E D B I B L I OGR AP HY
. Rodo|phe Toper. Te Comp|ete Comc Strps. 1ackson: UnivcrsiLy Prcss
o Mississippi, :oo,.
Iccbvrc, Hcnri. Rhythmana|yss. Space, Tme and Fveryday Lje. Trans. SLuarL
Fldcn and Ccrald Moorc. Ncw York: ConLinuum, :oo.
IcnL, 1ohn A. Pu|p Lemons. Madison: Farlcigh Dickinson UnivcrsiLy Prcss,
.
Icwis, Arnold. An Far|y Fncounter wth Tomorrow. Furopeans, Chcagos Loop,
and the wor|ds Co|umban Fxposton. Urbana: UnivcrsiLy o Illinois Prcss,
,.
Iogan, 1ohn R., and Harvcy MoloLch. 0rban Fortunes. Te Po|tca| Fconomy oj
P|ace. Bcrkclcy: UnivcrsiLy o Caliornia Prcss, 8,.
IyoLard, 1can Franois. Te !nhuman. Reectons on Tme. Trans. Ccorcy Bcn-
ningLon and Rachcl Bowlby. SLanord: SLanord UnivcrsiLy Prcss, .
Marconi, Roxana. Comc Abstracton. !mage Preakng, !mage Makng. Ncw York:
Muscum o Modcrn ArL, Iondon: Tamcs & Hudson, :oo,.
McCloud, ScoLL. 0nderstandng Comcs. Te !nvsb|e Art. NorLhampLon, MA:
KiLchcn Sink, .
McCraLh, Charlcs. NoL Funnics. New York Tmes Magazne, 1uly , :oo,
:+.
McRucr, RobcrL. Crp Teory. Cu|tura| Sgns oj Queerness and Lsab|ty. Ncw
York: Ncw York UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo6.
Mcnu, 1can-ChrisLophc. Ic prodigicux projcL dc Chris Warc. ,e Art. Les ca-
hers du Musee de |a bande dessnee : (,): ,.
MiLchcll, W.1.T. Showing Sccing: A CriLiquc o Visual CulLurc. In Te vsua|
Cu|ture Reader, cd. Nicholas Mirzoc, :nd cd., 86o. Ncw York: RouL-
lcdgc, :oo.
MoLLc, Warrcn, cd. and Lrans. Ou|po. A Prmer oj Potenta| Lterature. Normal,
II: Dalkcy Archivc, 8.
MoulLhrop, SLuarL. Rhizomcs and RcsisLancc: HypcrLcxL and Lhc Drcams o
a Ncw CulLurc. In Hyper/Text/Teory, cd. Ccorgc P. Iandow, oo. BalLi-
morc: 1ohns Hopkins UnivcrsiLy Prcss, .
Nadcl, Dan, cd. Art Out oj Tme. 0nknown Comc vsonares, :,oo:,,. Ncw
York: Abrams, :oo6.
Naja, Sina, cd. Te Paper Scu|pture Pook. Ncw York: CabincL, :oo.
Nisscn, BcLh. An InLcrvicw wiLh Chris Warc. CNN.com., OcLobcr , :ooo.
hLLp://archivcs.cnn.com/:ooo/books/ncws/o/o/chris.warc.qanda/in
dcx.hLml (acccsscd 1unc :, :oo8).
Op dc Bccck, NaLhalic. Found ObjccLs (1cm Cohcn, Bcn KaLchor, WalLcr
Bcnjamin). Modern Fcton Studes : (:oo6): 8o,.
Phipps, KciLh. InLcrvicw wiLh Chris Warc. Tc Onion A.V. Club, Dcccmbcr
, :oo. hLLp://www.avclub.com/arLiclcs/chris-warc,8/ (acccsscd
Fcbruary :6, :oo).
Pragcr, Brad. Modcrnism and Lhc ConLcmporary Craphic Novcl: Chris Warc
and Lhc Agc o Mcchanical RcproducLion. !nternatona| 1ourna| oj Comc
Art . (:oo): :.
Probyn, FlspcLh. Outsde Pe|ongngs. Ncw York: RouLlcdgc, 6.
Racburn, Danicl K. Chrs ware. Ncw Havcn: Yalc UnivcrsiLy Prcss, :oo.
. Tc SmarLcsL CarLoonisL on FarLh. Te !mp (): .
S E L E CT E D B I B L I OGR AP HY 2 2 9
Rindcr, Iawrcncc. whtney Penna| .oo.. Ncw York: WhiLncy Muscum o
Amcrican ArL, :oo:.
Schjcldahl, PcLcr. Do IL Yourscl: Bicnnial Follics aL Lhc WhiLncy. New Yorker,
March :, :oo:, 8.
. Words and PicLurcs: Craphic Novcls Comc o Agc, New Yorker, Oc-
Lobcr ,, :oo, 6:68.
ScLh. InLcrvicw wiLh Scan Rogcrs. Q&A: ScLh. [Wcblog cnLry.] Four-Colour
Words. wa|rus, AugusL :, :oo8. hLLp://www.walrusmagazinc.com/
blogs/:oo8/o8/:/an-inLcrvicw-wiLh-scLh-parL-onc/ (acccsscd AugusL ::,
:oo8).
. Tc QuicL ArL o CarLooning. wa|rus, ScpLcmbcr :oo8. hLLp://www.
walrusmagazinc.com/arLiclcs/:oo8.o--Lhc-quicL- arL-o-carLooning-scLh-
comic-book-carLoons/ (acccsscd AugusL 8, :oo8).
Simmonds, Posy. Cemma Povery. Ncw York: PanLhcon, .
Sorkin, Michacl. InLroducLion. In varatons on a Teme Park. Te New Amer-
can Cty and the Fnd oj Pub|c Space, cd. Michacl Sorkin, xixv. Ncw York:
Noonday, :.
Spicgclman, ArL. AbsLracL ToughL Is a Warm Puppy. New Yorker, Fcbraury.
, :ooo, 66.
. Art Spege|man. Comx, Fssays, Craphcs, 8 Scraps (From Maus to Now to
Maus to Now). Palcrmo: Scllcrio FdiLorcIa CcnLralc dcllArLc, 8.
. Preakdowns. Portrat oj the Artst as a Young ,8|. Ncw York: Pan-
Lhcon, :oo8.
. Comix o. CiLy ArLs and IccLurcs Scrics. HcrbsL TcaLcr, San Fran-
cisco, OcLobcr , 8.
. Drawing Blood: OuLragcous CarLoons and Lhc ArL o OuLragc. Harp-
ers Magazne (1unc :oo6): :.
. Fphcmcra vs. Lhc Apocalypsc. !ndy Magazne (auLumn :oo).
hLLp://6.:.8.:/indy/auLumn_:oo/spicgclman_cphcmcra/indcx
.hLml (acccsscd 1uly , :oo8).
. InLcrvicw wiLh Danicl Pink. 0pjront and 0nscrpted, AugusL , :oo8.
hLLp://www.bookcxpocasL.com/wp-podcasLs/UUSpicgclmanPodcasL.mp
(acccsscd AugusL :, :oo8).
Spicgclman, ArL, and Franoisc Mouly, cds. Ltt|e Lt. Fo|k|ore 8 Fary Ta|e Fun-
nes. Ncw York: RAW 1unior, :ooo.
. Ltt|e Lt. Strange Stores jor Strange Kds. Ncw York: RAW 1unior,
:oo.
. Read Yourse|j RAw. Ncw York: PanLhcon, 8,.
Squicr, Susan M. So Iong as Tcy Crow OuL o IL: Comics, Lhc Discoursc o
DcvclopmcnLal Normalcy, and DisabiliLy. 1ourna| oj the Medca| Human-
tes : (:oo8): ,88.
SLrauss, Ncil. CrcaLing IiLcraLurc, Onc Comic Book aL a Timc, Chris Warcs
Craphic Talcs Minc His Own Iic and HcarL. New York Tmes, April ,
:oo. hLLp://qucry.nyLimcs.com/ (acccsscd 1anuary o, :oo).
Tompson, David. A FraLcrniLy o Trics. Fye Magazne 6, (spring :oo:).
hLLp://www.cycmagazinc.com/rcvicw.php`id=6:&rid=88 (acccsscd 1uly
6, :oo).
Topcr, Rodolphc. Fnter. Te Comcs. Trans. F. Wicsc. Iincoln: UnivcrsiLy o
Ncbraska Prcss, 6.
2 3 0 S E L E CT E D B I B L I OGR AP HY
TuLc, Fdward R. Fnvsonng !njormaton. Chcshirc, CT: Craphics, o.
. Te vsua| Lsp|ay oj Quanttatve !njormaton. :nd cd. Chcshirc, CT:
Craphics, :oo.
Vcrsaci, Rocco. Ts Pook Contans Craphc Language. Comcs as Lterature. Ncw
York: ConLinuum, :oo,.
Virilio, Paul. Te Orgna| Accdent. Trans. 1ulic Rosc. Cambridgc: PoliLy,
:oo,.
Warc, Chris. Frank Kings Casolinc Allcy. In Cartoon Amerca. Comc Art n
the Lbrary oj Amerca, cd. Harry KaLz, 6:6,. Ncw York: Abrams, :oo8.
. InLcrvicw wiLh BcnoL PccLcrs. Chris Warc: Un ArL dc la Mcmoirc.
Dir. BcnoL PccLcrs. Comx. ArLc Francc, 1anuary :6, :oo.
. InLcrvicw wiLh Danicl Sicdcll. Shcldon Muscum o ArL. UnivcrsiLy o
NcbraskaIincoln, Fcbruary 6, :oo,.
. InLcrvicw wiLh Cary CroLh. UndcrsLanding (Chris Warcs) Comics.
Comcs 1ourna| :oo (Dcccmbcr ,): ,.
. Philip CusLon: A CarLoonisLs ApprcciaLion. Fd. Chris Warc. Mc-
Sweeneys Quarter|y Concern (:oo): 8.
. Richard McCuirc and Hcrc: A CraLcul ApprcciaLion. Comc Art 8
(all :oo6): ,.
. SLrip Mind. Pookjorum . (April/May :oo8): +.
. You Arc Hcrc. FxhibiLion cssay or Lhc Marc Trujillo show aL Lhc
HackcLL-Frccdman Callcry, San Francisco, 1unc :oo,. hLLp://www.acmc
novclLyarchivc.org/ (acccsscd 1uly ,, :oo8).
[A ull lisL o Chris Warcs primary LcxLs can bc ound in Lhc appcndix.]
Waugh, CoulLon. Te Comcs. Ncw York: Macmillan, ,.
WcnLhc, Michacl. Tc Rulcs o Lhc Camc. InLcrnaLional Comic ArLs FcsLival.
Iibrary o Congrcss, WashingLon, DC, OcLobcr , :oo6.
Williams, Dylan. An InLcrvicw wiLh Chris Warc. Lestroy A|| Comcs (No-
vcmbcr ): 8.
WiLck, 1oscph. Comc Pooks as Hstory. Te Narratve Art oj 1ack 1ackson, Art
Spege|man, and Harvey Pekar. 1ackson: UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Mississippi,
8.
Wolk, Douglas. Readng Comcs. How Craphc Nove|s work and what Tey Mean.
Cambridgc, MA: Da Capo, :oo,.
Wordcn, Danicl. Tc Shamcul ArL: McSweeneys Quarter|y Concern, Comics,
and Lhc PoliLics o AccL. Modern Fcton Studes : (:oo6): 8,.
ZcLLwoch, Dan. Cross Fadcr. In Kramers Frgot 6, cd. Sammy Harkham, n.p.
Oakland, CA: BucnavcnLura and Avodah Books, :oo6.
. SLorm o Lhc Hillsmcn. Kramers Frgot ,, cd. Sammy Harkham, n.p.
Oakland, CA: BucnavcnLura, :oo8.
2 3 1
Contributors
David M. Ball is AssisLanL Procssor o Fnglish aL Dickinson Collcgc. His
cssays on Amcrican liLcraLurc and culLurc havc appcarcd in FSQ. A 1ourna| oj
the Amercan Renassance, Crtca| Matrx, and Lhc orLhcoming Contemporary
Amercan Comcs. Creators and Ter Contexts (UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Mississippi).
Hc is currcnLly complcLing a book LiLlcd Falsc SLarLs: Tc RhcLoric o Failurc
and Lhc Making o Amcrican Modcrnism, 8oPrcscnL.
Georgiana Banita is a PhD candidaLc and Lcaching assisLanL aL Lhc Univcr-
siLy o ConsLancc, Ccrmany. Shc wriLcs on Lcchniqucs o visual and inLcr-
mcdial rcprcscnLaLion in liLcraLurc aLcr /, wiLh spccial cmphasis on Lhcir
cLhical implicaLions. Hcr cssays havc appcarcd in Para||ax, Peace Revew, M/
MLA and scvcral book collccLions. Shc is also a conLribuLor Lo Lhc orLhcom-
ing anLhologics Hstory oj the Amercan Pestse||er, cdiLcd by Sarah Churchwcll
and Tomay Ruys SmiLh (Palgravc), About Raymond w||ams, cdiLcd by Iaw-
rcncc Crossbcrg (RouLlcdgc), and F|m and Cenocde, cdiLcd by KrisLi Wilson
and Tomas Crowdcr (Waync SLaLc UnivcrsiLy Prcss).
Margaret Fink Berman is a PhD sLudcnL in Lhc DcparLmcnL o Fnglish aL
Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Chicago. Shc wroLc Lhc comics arLiclc or W.1.T. MiLchclls
onlinc Tcorics o Mcdia Kcywords Clossary and has givcn concrcncc prc-
scnLaLions on Chris Warcs rcprcscnLaLion o disabiliLy as wcll as on disabiliLy
and Lrauma in Al Davisons graphic novcl Te Spra| Cage.
Jacob Brogan is a docLoral candidaLc in Lhc DcparLmcnL o Fnglish aL Cor-
ncll UnivcrsiLy. His rcscarch inLcrcsLs includc ragmcnLaLion, LcmporaliLy,
and cLhics.
Isaac Cates currcnLly Lcachcs in Lhc Fnglish DcparLmcnL aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy
o VcrmonL. Hc has publishcd rcvicws o comics by Danicl Clowcs, 1ason,
and Nick BcrLozzi, and prcscnLcd papcrs on comics arLisLs as various as Rick
Ccary, Will Fisncr, and Alan Moorc. Hc also wriLcs on LwcnLicLh-ccnLury po-
cLry. WiLh Mikc WcnLhc, hc scl-publishcd a long-running scrics o minicom-
ics. His book-lcngLh sLudy o Lhc graphic novcl, Te Craphc Nove|. How Comcs
Crew 0p, is orLhcoming rom Yalc UnivcrsiLy Prcss.
Joanna Davis-McElligatt is currcnLly wriLing a disscrLaLion on racism, na-
Livism, and immigraLion in LwcnLicLh-ccnLury Amcrican liLcraLurc in Lhc Dc-
parLmcnL o Fnglish aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Iowa.
Shawn Gilmore is complcLing a disscrLaLion on graphic narraLion, scrial c-
Lion, and Lhc spaLializaLion o LwcnLicLh-ccnLury Amcrican liLcraLurc in Lhc
DcparLmcnL o Fnglish aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
2 3 2 CONT R I B UT OR S
Matt Godbey is a ull-Limc insLrucLor aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o KcnLucky, whcrc
hc Lcachcs courscs on LwcnLicLh-ccnLury and posLwar urban Amcrican liL-
craLurc. His cssay on 1onaLhan IcLhcms Te Fortress oj So|tude rcccnLly ap-
pcarcd in Arzona Quarter|y and hc is working on a book projccL LiLlcd Tc
FicLion o CcnLricaLion.
Jeet Heer is nishing a docLorial Lhcsis aL York UnivcrsiLy in ToronLo on Lhc
culLural poliLics o IiLLlc Orphan Annic. His cssays havc appcarcd in Lhc Na-
tona| Post, SlaLc.com, Lhc Poston C|obe, Lhc Lterary Revew oj Canada, vrgna
Quarter|y Revew, and Lhc Cuardan o Iondon. WiLh KcnL WorccsLcr, hc is
co-cdiLor o Argung Comcs. Lterary Masters on a Popu|ar Medum (UnivcrsiLy
Prcss o Mississippi) and A Comcs Studes Reader (UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Missis-
sippi). WiLh Chris Warc and Chris Olivcros, hc is cdiLing wa|t and Skeezx, a
scrics o volumcs rcprinLing Frank Kings Caso|ne A||ey (Drawn & QuarLcrly,
vols. Lo daLc). Hc has wriLLcn inLroducLory cssays Lo many books, including
Ccorgc Hcrrimans Krazy and !gnatz, :,,:, and Krazy and !gnatz, :,,
:,o (FanLagraphics), Clarc Briggss Oh Skn-nay (Drawn & QuarLcrly), and
Harold Crays Ltt|e Orphan Anne. vo|ume One (IDW).
Martha B. Kuhlman is AssociaLc Procssor o ComparaLivc IiLcraLurc in
Lhc DcparLmcnL o Fnglish and CulLural SLudics aL BryanL UnivcrsiLy, whcrc
shc Lcachcs courscs on Lhc graphic novcl, CcnLral Furopcan liLcraLurc, and
criLical Lhcory. In Lhc cld o comics, shc has publishcd arLiclcs in Lhc 1our-
na| oj Popu|ar Cu|ture and Furopean 1ourna| oj Comc Art and conLribuLcd Lo
Lhc orLhcoming MIA volumc Teachng the Craphc Nove|. In addiLion, shc has
publishcd arLiclcs abouL CcnLral Furopcan liLcraLurc and culLurc in journals
such as Modernsm/Modernty, Lhc Comparatst, and Studes n .oth Century
Lterature.
Katherine Roeder is a docLoral candidaLc in arL hisLory aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o
Dclawarc, whcrc shc is prcparing a disscrLaLion on Lhc inLcrsccLion o an-
Lasy, arL, and mass culLurc in Lhc work o Winsor McCay. Shc rcccnLly pub-
lishcd an cssay LiLlcd Iooking High and Iow aL Comic ArL in Lhc spring :oo8
issuc o Amercan Art.
Peter R. Sattler is AssociaLc Procssor o Amcrican IiLcraLurc aL Iakcland
Collcgc, whcrc hc crcaLcd Lhc rsL courscs dcdicaLcd Lo Lhc sLudy o comic
arL. Hc has publishcd and prcscnLcd on a varicLy o Lopics wiLhin Lhc cld o
comics scholarship, including Lhc arL o Ccorgc Hcrriman (or word 8 !mage),
comics and classroom pracLicc (or Lhc Milwaukcc ArL Muscum), and, mosL
rcccnLly, Lhc inLcrsccLion o Amcrican carLoonisLs and Lhc avanL-gardc during
Lhc os (or Lhc ModcrnisL SLudics AssociaLion). Hc is currcnLly working on
a criLical cdiLion o Lhc World War I comics o Bud Fishcr.
Marc Singer is AssisLanL Procssor o Fnglish aL Howard UnivcrsiLy. His ar-
Liclcs on conLcmporary liLcraLurc, lm, comics, and popular culLurc havc ap-
pcarcd in Post Scrpt, Crtque. Studes n Contemporary Fcton, 1NT. 1ourna| oj
Narratve Teory, Twenteth-Century Lterature, Ajrcan Amercan Revew, and
Lhc !nternatona| 1ourna| oj Comc Art.
CONT R I B UT OR S 2 3 3
Benjamin Widiss is AssisLanL Procssor o Fnglish aL PrinccLon UnivcrsiLy.
Hc is currcnLly complcLing a book cnLiLlcd Obscurc InviLaLions: Fngaging
Lhc Rcadcr o TwcnLicLh-CcnLury Amcrican IiLcraLurc and is bcginning onc
on noLions o prcscncc animaLing laLc-posLmodcrn culLurc.
Daniel Worden is AssisLanL Procssor o Fnglish aL Lhc UnivcrsiLy o Col-
orado aL Colorado Springs. His prcvious work on Lhc comics issuc o Mc-
Sweneys Quarter|y Concern, cdiLcd by Chris Warc, appcarcd in Modern Fcton
Studes, and hc is currcnLly complcLing a book manuscripL on masculiniLy in
modcrnisL Amcrican cLion.
This page intentionally left blank
2 3 5
Pagc numbcrs in bold indicaLc illusLraLions.
accLivc dccclcraLion, lS7SS
alLcrnaLivc comics, xii, 5, 29, 32, 3440, 42,
50
archiLccLurc, x, xvii, xix, 9395, l03nl3,
l07lS, l2324, l56, l70
auLobiography, xiii, xiv, xxi, 9, 2930,
S4S5, ll0, l66, l6S, l72n9, 207, 209,
2l3, 2l5l6, auLobiographical pacL,
l59, l70, cmphasis on rcalism, 2S, 33,
3940, gcnrcs o comics, 3739, Philippc
Icjcunc, l59, l64, mcmory, 2l9, Harvcy
Pckar, 32
Ayrolcs, Franois, 79, S2, S4, 85, S9n5l
BacLcns, 1an, xviii, xxiiinl0
Bakcr, Nicholson, 6, l3nl9
Barry, Iynda, 3S, 44n60, 206
BarLhcs, Roland, S6
BcaLy, BarL, 79, SSn3l, l47
Bcnjamin, WalLcr, xviii, Te Arcades Proect,
l77, archivc, ll0, Orgn oj Cerman
Tragc Lrama, l07, Paris, CapiLal o Lhc
NincLccnLh CcnLury and Tc Angcl o
HisLory, llS, Tc Work o ArL in Lhc Agc
o Mcchanical RcproducLion, l09
BcrlanL, Iaurcn, l97, 200
Blackbcard, Bill, 7S, l0, ll
Blcgvad, PcLcr, 99l00
body: in adolcsccncc, 2l6, awkward body
languagc, lS5, disabiliLy, l9293, Iacans
mirror sLagc, l9, mcmorics o, 209, 2ll
l2, mind ovcr, l7l, W. 1. T. MiLchclls
conccpL o, l92, scxualiLy, 20l2, shamc,
l99
braiding (Lrcssagc), S9n64, l47, l5l, l56. See
a|so CrocnsLccn, Ticrry
BrcdchoL, Tomas, xviii, S3, 93, l03nll,
l03nl5, lll, l60, l65, l70, l7l, l7S,
lS4
Briggs, Clarc, S
Brown, ChcsLcr, 6, ll
BruncLLi, Ivan, ii, 5, l2nl3, 39, S0
Bushmillcr, Frnic, 97
Cani, MilLon, 5, S
Cavcll, SLanlcy, l96
Chabon, Michacl, 4l
child: Billy, 1immys imaginary son, 23,
illcgiLimaLc, 25, 94, l43
childhood: childish mcdium o comics, l6,
childrcns liLcraLurc, 49, 79, and comics,
373S, anLasy, l07, gamcs, S3S4,
1amcss (1immys grandaLhcr) narraLivc
o, l47, l50, lSl, 20S, in 1mmy Corrgan,
l920, lSl, mcmory, 209, 2l0, 2l5, in
Ncbraska, xiii, nosLalgia, l09, in Qumby
the Mouse, l60, l65, l6S, l69, l7l,
l72, lS0, in RusLy Brown, 505l, Tim
Samuclson, mcmorics o, ll2l4, ll7,
shamc, lSS, supcrhcrocs, 35, in Trilling
AdvcnLurc SLorics/I Cucss, xiv, l5
ChuLc, Hillary, ll2, l3lnS
Clark, T. 1., ll0
closurc, 25, l47, l49, l62
Clowcs, Dan, xii, 5, 33, 3S, 4l, S0
collccLing, xii, xvi, lS2S3, in Building
SLorics, 2l0, 1immy Corrigans comics,
27n3l, 93, in RusLy Brown, l2, 505l,
60n20, Te Smthsonan Co||ecton oj
Newspaper Comcs, S, Warcs comics
anLhologics, 3S, Warcs hisLorical
collccLions, 4, 7, l57nl3
Comics Codc AuLhoriLy, l6, 26nS
Comcs 1ourna|, 47, 48, 4950, 53, 5S, 60nl7
Corncll, 1oscph, x, xxiin7
Crimp, Douglas, l09
DC Comics, xii, l6, 4l, 59nl0
dcaLh, lS9, o 1immys aLhcr, 94, o 1immys
paLcrnal grandmoLhcr, 93, o Richard
Nickcls, ll2, in Qumby the Mouse,
l62, o Lhc supcrhcro, l6l7, o Warcs
grandmoLhcr, l69, l72n9
Dclcuzc, Cillcs, and Fclix CuaLLari, l7S, lS2
DcnncLL, Danicl, 2l7
Dcrrida, 1acqucs, lS
Dickcns, Charlcs, 4, 56, 57
Dirks, Rudolph, 6, 47
disabiliLy sLudics, 26nll, l9l, l9295, l99,
203nS, 203nl0
Donnc, 1ohn, 45, l2nS
Duchamp, Marccl, 67, 74, 76nl0
Fco, UmbcrLo, 9, l0, l3n25, l5, l7, 20,
27n22
Fggcrs, Davc, x, xxiin5, l4, 2S, 43n52, l5Sn6
Index
2 3 6 I NDE X
FlioL, T. S., ix, 4, 5, l2nS
Flkins, 1amcs, 75, 77n29
cmbarrassmcnL, l7S, lS5, lS7SS, lS9n4,
l99200
Fmcrson, Ralph Waldo, 53, 6ln36
cvcryday lic, xxi, 5, and archiLccLurc,
l0S9, lll, ll5, llS, in comics, 32,
Lhc quoLidian, 33, 39, 40, 4l, ll4, in
skcLchbooks, 66, in urban ncighborhoods,
l30. See a|so ordinarincss
ailurc: according Lo Douglas Wolk, l7S,
in Lhc ACMF display, 60nl7, in Te
ACMF Report, 45, 5l, o comics, 20, and
disabiliLy, 2lS, in 1mmy Corrgan, l9, 23,
27n23, 67, 95, l56, liLcrary LrcaLmcnL o,
53, 565S, rhcLoric o, xvi, xix, 4547,
l6S69
car, lS7, lS9, l99
Ficdlcr, Icslic, 3637, 4l
ncur, ll0, l77
Forbcll, Charlcs, 2l5, 22ln32
FosLcr, Hal, 5, S
Frcud, Sigmund, xviii, in Lhc modcrnisL
canon, l09, and rcpcLiLion, lS2, Scrccn
Mcmorics, 2l2, Totem and Taboo, 20

Carland-Tomson, Roscmaric, l93
CcncLLc, Ccrard, 59n5, l64, l7l
gcnLricaLion, l2330
Ccrncr, 1ochcn, 79
Class, Ira, xvii, 37, l0S, ll2, ll5l7, l5Sn23
Coldbcrg, Myla, xviii
graphic novcl, ix, xii, xvi, lll2, l4, l5, l6,
404l, ll2, l65, 207
Cray, Harold, 6, S
CrocnsLccn, Ticrry, 42n3, 79, S2S3, S4, S6,
S7n9, S9n64, ll9n23, l47, l5l
CroLh, Cary, 4950, 53, l65
CusLon, Philip, x, 66, 73, 75, 77n2S
Hajdu, David, 26nS, l36, l37
Hallcy, 1ancL, l9394
HaLcld, Charlcs, 29, 33, 34, 37, 43n53
HawLhornc, NaLhanicl, 4647, 59n9
Hcrriman, Ccorgc, xii, xiiixiv, xvi, xix, 34,
56, 7, S, l0ll, l2n4, l2nl3, l3n2S, 3S,
l37, l72n20
HigniLc, Todd, ll, l2nl4, S7n2, 220nll
Hirsch, Mariannc, xxivn4l, 220n7
Hodgman, 1ohn, 37, 3S, 43n40
HosLadLcr, Douglas, 2l7
HogarLh, William, 73, 7375
Huizcnga, Kcvin, 43n40, l00, 101
HumboldL Park, l2l, l2526, l30
Humc, KaLhryn, l79, lS3, lS5, lS9nl0
idcnLiLy: in Amcrican culLurc, l35, arLisLic, 5,
o Chicago ncighborhoods, l25, l2S, and
disabiliLy, l93, aLhcr-son, 23, Douglas
HosLadLcr, 2l7, idcnLicaLion wiLh
characLcrs, l66, Iacanian pcrspccLivc
on, l920, mcmory, 2l7l9, poliLics
o, l9297, 203nS, 203nl2, racial and
cLhnic, l36, l3S42
idiosyncraLic bclonging, l92, l9495, l97,
202
immigraLion, ix, 93, l3544, l45nS
impairmcnL, lS4, l9495, l96, l97, l9S,
l9920l, 203nl0
!ndependent, Te, l9l, 202
1acobs, 1anc, l272S, l32n303l
1amcs, William, 2l7
1amcson, Frcdric, llS
1oplin, ScoLL, x, xi
Kaka, Franz, x, xviii, 4, l2nS, l09
Kanncnbcrg, Ccnc, 1r., xvii, l5, 26nl4,
76nl3, 95, l00, l7l
Karasik, Paul, l00
KaLchor, Bcn, xii, 39, S0
Kidd, Chip, ll5
King, Frank, xii, xvixvii, 39, ll, l2n4,
l2nl0, l3n24, l9
Kirby, 1ack, 5
Iacan, 1acqucs, l9, 74, l90n35
Iasch, ChrisLophcr, 40, 43n53
IAssociaLion, 79S0, 80, SSnl9, SSn22
Ic Iionnais, Franois, 79
IccroarL, Licnnc, 79, S3
Icjcunc, Philippc, l59, l64
IiLvak, 1oscph, l7
loss: and archiLccLurc, l0S, in Building
SLorics, lll, l92, l97, l99200, 202, in
comics, 40, 46, ll2, in 1mmy Corrgan,
25, in Lost Pu|dngs, ll2, ll7, and
nosLalgia, lS0, o public lic, l30, in
Qumby the Mouse, S2, l60, l62
MagriLLc, Rcnc, 676S, 73, 74
Marvcl Comics, xii, l6, 4l, 59nl0
Mazzucchclli, David, l00
McCay, Winsor, xii, 3, 5, 6, 6S
McCloud, ScoLL, xxiiinl0, closurc, l47, l49,
lm, l90n30, idcnLicaLion, 42nlS, 97,
l03n23, l96, 2l2, iconic rcprcscnLaLion,
96, juxLaposcd scqucnLial imagcs, 9l,
mcmory, 206, moLion, 96, l04n32, Limc,
36, LransiLions, l02n5, Te Treachery oj
!mages, 67
McCraLh, Charlcs, ix, xxiiinll, 404l
McCuirc, Richard, xii, S2
McRucr, RobcrL, l93, 203n7
mclancholia, S2, S4, in Building SLorics,
lll, l27, in 1mmy Corrgan, lSl, lSS,
in Lost Pu|dngs, l0S9, ll2, ll4, llS,
I NDE X 2 3 7
and masculinc modcrniLy, xviii, 43n44,
60n32, in Qumby the Mouse, lS0
Mclvillc, Hcrman, 46, 47, 5l, 53, 5S, 59n9
mcmory, 35, S3, in Building SLorics,
l30, l95, l9S, 20l, 2l3l9, cpisodic,
cxpcricnLial, and narraLivc, 2l0, 2l6,
Mariannc Hirsch and posL-mcmory,
220n7, in 1mmy Corrgan, l43, l50,
lS0, lS2S3, lS7, lS9, lS990nlS, in
Lost Pu|dngs, ll7, obscrvcr and cld
mcmorics, 2ll, in Papcr Dolls, 209l2,
phcnomcnology o mcmory, 207, in
Qumby the Mouse, l65, l66, l6S70,
l72n9, lS0, and racc, l40, rcvcric,
206, vcrbal and visual, 22ln25, Warcs
childhood, l5960, Franccs YaLcs, 2l3
Mcnu, 1can-ChrisLophc, 79, S0, S2, S4, S7n9
Mckey Mouse, 7, l3S
middlcbrow, 36, 4l
Mics Van dcr Rohc, Iudwig, ll5, ll7, l56,
l5Sn23
Mill, 1amcs, 2l7
minsLrclsy, l37, l3S, l4l
MiLchcll, W. 1. T., 32, l92
mockcry, l7, 50, 57, 66, 67, 93, l24, l4S, lS6
modcrnism, x, xviii, 39, archiLccLural, l0S,
ll5, l23, arLisLic vcrsions o, 72, 74, Lhc
canon o, l09, in comics, 36, dcniLions
o, 59nl0, T. S. FlioL, 5, cmoLion,
20S, ClcmcnL Crccnbcrg, 75, Ccorgc
Hcrriman, 3, liLcrary, 57, 60nl6, Lhc
novcl, l0, ruins, ll0, LcmporaliLy, l79
Mouly, Franoisc, x, 7S, S3
Muybridgc, Fadwcard, 6S, 76nl4, 95, 9S,
l03nl4, l04n42, l53
Nabokov, Vladimir, x, xxiin4, 5S, 2l3, Pa|e
Fre, 9, l0, 5l
Nickcl, Richard, l0S, ll2, ll7
Nochlin, Iinda, 32, 42nl2
nosLalgia: SvcLlana Boyms dcniLion o,
lS0, lS990nlS, in Building SLorics,
l09, or Hcrrimans Krazy Kat, l0, in
1mmy Corrgan, lSS, Lost Pu|dngs, ll3,
mcmorics, lS7, or ncwspapcr comics,
7S, Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury, l07, in
Qumby the Mouse, l60, LcmporaliLy, l7S,
lSl
ordinarincss, xiii, in Building SLorics, l9l,
l92, l94, l95202, 204n3l, Marccl
Duchamp, 67, in Caso|ne A||ey, 9, l2nl0,
Lhc sLrangcncss o, 6S, l27. See a|so
cvcryday lic
Oubapo, 7SS6, S7n5, S7n9, SSnl9, SSn3l,
S9n64
Oulipo, 7SS0, S2, S3, S7nS, S7n9
OuLcaulL, Richard FclLon, 6, 47, 50, l3637
Packcr, Ccorgc, 40
paraLcxL, 46, 59n6, l46, l4S, l64, l7l
parody: o advcrLising, xviixviii, l5, 53,
l3lnl7, 1udiLh BuLlcrs dcniLion o, l7,
23, o comics, 47, o commodiLics, 50,
o orcign and domcsLic policy, l35, o
liLcraLurc, 56, in Qumby the Mouse, l66,
o Lhc supcrhcro, l4
Pcrcc, Ccorgcs, 79
posLmodcrnism, 36, 70, 7l, 74, l09, ll0, lS2
Pragcr, Brad, xviii, 43n5l, l0S9
Probyn, FlspcLh, l94
Qucncau, Raymond, 79, S7nS, S7n9
racc, xiii, xiv, S5, l2526, l3lnl7, 134,
l3544, l93
Racburn, Danicl, xviiixix, xxiin7, 26nl7, 33,
34, 42n20, 66, 69, S5, 9697, l04n3l,
ll0, l30n3, l49, l57nl3, l69, l7l,
l72n23
RAw magazinc, x, xii, xiv, xvii, 5, l5, 74, 7S,
79, S4, S6, S6S7n2
Raymond, Alcx, 5, S
rcalism, xiv, in Building SLorics, 202, in
diagrams, 9l, illusLraLional sLylc in
comics, 5, S, laycrs o rcaliLy, 220n7,
Rcnc MagriLLc, 67, Iinda Nochlins
dcniLion, 42nl2, in Trilling AdvcnLurc
SLorics/I Cucss, l5, in Limc, 9, Arlcn
Schumcrs dcniLion, 42n20, vs. iconiciLy,
l96, in Warcs anLhologics, 3234, 3S4l,
in Warcs comics, 2S29
Samuclson, Tim, 9, l3n26, l0S, ll2lS,
l5Sn23
SanLayana, Ccorgc, 2l7
Schjcldahl, PcLcr, ix, 70, 77n2S
Scgar, F. C., S
scmioLics, 97, l65, l6S
ScLh, xii, xvii, 4, 5, 6, ll, l2n6, l2nl4, S0,
206
Shklovsky, VicLor, S6, l79
ShusLcr, 1oc, 3
Simmonds, Posy, 99, l04n37
slidcshow, l0S, llll5, ll7lS, ll9nl9
slowncss, S6, 96, ll4, l77S5, lS7S9,
lS9n4, l90n30, l97, l99, 20S, 2ll
Smthsonan Co||ecton oj Newspaper Comcs,
Te, 7, S, 9
Spicgclman, ArL, xxii, xiv, xix, alLcrnaLivc
comics, l4, Preakdowns, S6, 222n42, on
Frnic Bushmillcr, 97, comics hisLory, 5,
ll, l2nl3, on ChcsLcr Could, 96, iconic
drawings, 97, l03n23, Ltt|e Lt, S3,
Maus, 42nlS, mcmory, 2067, on racial
rcprcscnLaLion, l37, RAw magazinc, 7S,
LcmporaliLy, ll3, lS0, Lrauma, 59n6, ll2
Squicr, Susan, 26nll, l9495
2 3 8 I NDE X
Sullivan, Iouis, x, xvii, l0S, ll2lS, l23,
l24, l30n4
supcrhcrocs: according Lo Cco Klock, 26n4,
in Te ACMF Report, 56, DC and Marvcl,
xii, l6, 4l, UmbcrLo Fco, l3n25, 27n22,
gcnrc, 3435, 50, 59nl0, goldcn agc,
xiv, 3, 676S, S4S5, 1ohn Hodgmans
opinion o, 373S, immigranLs, l37,
in 1mmy Corrgan, l425, 27n30, 93,
l02nl0, mainsLrcam/mass markcL, 29,
5l, S0, ll0, Todd McFarlanc and Rob
Iiccld, 43n27, Alan Moorc, 40, rcalisLic
drawing sLylc, 33, 42n20, Supcrman,
l505l, l56, Trilling AdvcnLurc
SLorics/I Cucss, 34, l7l, 207
SwarLc, 1oosL, 7S, 79, S0, S6, S7n2
Tominc, Adrian, xii, S0
Topcr, Rodolphc, xii, 5, l2n9, 3S, 5S, 72,
l373S, l43, l44
Lrauma, xiii, 5l, 59n6, ll2, lS7, 2l0
Trondhcim, Icwis, 79, S7n9, S9n4S
TuLc, Fdward, 9Sl00
Virgil, 57, 2l2
Virilio, Paul, l7S79
Warc, Chris: Te ACMF Nove|ty Latebook, xvii,
66, 75, l03nl3, l0S, l6S, 224, Te ACMF
Nove|ty Latebook, vo|ume Two, xvii, 66,
75, 80, 224, Te ACMF Nove|ty Lbrary,
xiv, xv, xvi, xviixix, 34, 4546, 47, 49,
50, 66, 68, 7S, S0, S2, S3, S5, 90, 99, lll,
l3lnl7, l56n6, l59, l64, l7l, l72n4,
l72n9, 204nlS, 204n37, 209, 223, Tc
ACMF NovclLy Iibrary FrccsLanding
Cardboard Display, 50, 60nl7, S0, 81,
Te ACMF Report, xvi, 3, l2n7, 45, 5l, 52,
53, 56, 5S, 60n20, 60n22, 60n35, 65, 70,
7l, 76nl4, S0, S5, 93, l02nS, l3lnl7,
134, l35, l36, l66, lS6, l90n35, 223,
Apologics, FLc., xxiin6, 45, Building
SLorics, xiii, xvi, xix, l07ll, ll4,
l2l24, 122, l2526, l2S, 129, l30,
l30n2, l9l93, l95, l97, l99, 2001,
202, 203nl, 204nlS, 204n25, 2045n37,
207, 20Sll, 2l2, 2l3, 21415, 2l6l9,
224, La|y Texan carLoons, xiiixiv, l3S
39, l59, l62, 223, 1mmy Corrgan. Te
Smartest Kd on Farth, ix, x, xii, xiii, xiv,
xvi, xvii, xviii, 3, 4, 5, S, 9, l0, ll, l3n23,
l4, lS25, 19, 2122, 26nl7, 27nlS,
27n2l, 27n2324, 27n2S32, 33, 45, 5l,
53, 5S, 60n20, 67, 76nl4, 7S, S2, S3, S6,
S7n3, SSn22, SSn39, 90, 92, 93l00,
l02, l02nl0, l0S, l36, l3944, l45nl4,
l4653, l5556, l56nl2, l5657n6,
l57n9l0, l57nl4, l60, l65, l66, l77
S9, 184, 186, lS990nlS, 207S, 223,
224, Lost Pu|dngs, xvii, l3n26, l0Sl5,
116, ll7lS, llSn3, ll9nl9, ll9n23,
l23, l26, l5Sn23, 224, McSweeneys
Quarter|y Concern, xvi, xviii, xxiin45, l4,
2S, 2931, 33, 3435, 363S, 4042,
5S, 60n32, 66, 75, SSn35, l66, lS7, lSS,
Oncc Upon a Timc, S3, Qumby the
Mouse, xii, xiii, xiv, xvi, 3, 5, ll, 5l, 53,
5S, 60n32, S2, S3, S6, S9n54, 9l, 93, 99,
l02n6, ll0, l4S, l49, l50, l56n5, l56
57n6, l5972, 161, 163, 167, l72n3,
l72n7, l72n9, lS0, 207, 224, RusLy
Brown, xii, xiii, xvi, 4, 9, l2n7, l3n23,
505l, 53, 5S, 60n20, 666S, 68, 69, 224,
Trilling AdvcnLurc SLorics/I Cucss, xiv,
xvii, 3, l5, lS, 34, S4, S6n2, S9n54, l7l,
207, 220nll, 2007 Pest Amercan Comcs,
xvi, 2S, 3233, 3542, 43n30, 43n32,
43n46, 44n60, S0, 0nnked, 5S, 69, 224,
Tc WhiLncy PrcvaricaLor, 65, 70, 7l,
74, WriLcrs on WriLcrs, xxiin4, 47,
5455, 5657, 57, 60n32
WhiLchcad, Colson, 4l
WhiLncy Muscum o Amcrican ArL, 2002
Bicnnial, 65, 70, 77n2S
Wiglcy, Mark, ll7
Williams, Cluyas, 5, S, l2nll
Williams, MarLin, 7, l2n6
WiLck, 1oscph, 32, 34, l57nS
Wolk, Douglas, l6, 46, l09, l7S, lS0, lS9n4
Wordcn, Danicl, xviii, 37, 60n32
Worlds Columbian FxposiLion, l03nl4, l46
56, 152, 154, l57nl3l4, l57nl6l9
wriLcrly LcxL, S5S6
YaLcs, Franccs, 2l3, 2l5
ZcLLwoch, Dan, 40, 99, l04n37