1.

Electromagnetic Theory Principles

1.1 Review of vector analysis
Since electric and magnetic fields involved in radio waves are vector fields, a
mathematical way to describe them needs to be given and agreed thus the need
for vector algebra and vector analysis. A brief review is to be given here, to agree
on some naming conventions and general rules that will be used here, as well as to
emphasize on the most important aspects and operations that will be required for
transmission media analysis. For a detailed description of vector analysis and
calculus, please refer to text and reference books in mathematics and physics.
Before starting our review, the very first issue, which needs to be
contemplated, is that of naming convention. In many books, authors define the way
to write vectors in distinct ways from one author to another, which may cause
confusion in students. For this book, the following convention will be used:
Vectors are to be written using CAPITALS, and in bold.
The direction of vectors is specified using unit vectors. For the different
coordinate systems, the unit vectors that will be used are:
o Rectangular: a

, a

and a

.
o Cylindrical: a

, a

and a

.
o Spherical: a

, a

and a

.
Units will be written to the right of the vector.
An example of a vector representation using this convention is:
= 12a

+3.5a

0.47a

V/m
1.1.1 Scalar and vector fields
In general, a field (scalar or vector) is some function of that vector which connects
an arbitrary origin to a general point in space, also defined arbitrarily. It is common
to then associate a physical effect with a field, as it is the case for the speed of a
vehicle in a motorway.
Now, that field needs to be defined within a region, for which some quantity
is defined at every point in the region, thus scalar and vector fields exist there. Scalar
fields only have magnitude but not associated direction, whereas vector fields have
magnitude and direction. Both fields may change in space and in time; e.g. a scalar
field, the temperature of a satellite, changes depending on which surface is being
exposed to the Sun, as well as changes as the Sun moves around and illuminates
the faces of the satellite.
Examples of scalar fields are temperature, pressure, density, humidity;
examples of vector fields are gravity, velocity and force.
1.1.2 Vector algebra
For the study of transmission systems and the understanding of electromagnetic
theory, vector operations are required, being the most important: addition,
subtraction and multiplication. A brief review is given in this section about these
simple but extremely useful vector operations.
Addition
The addition of vectors follows the parallelogram law, which is accomplished
graphically in fact, this is the way young students are introduced to vector algebra.
Figure 1.1 shows the sum of two vectors, M and N. Vector addition follows
commutative law, and thus:
M+N = N +M (1.1)
Also, vector addition follows associative law, and hence:
M+(N+P) = (M+N) + P (1.2)




Figure 1.1 Vector addition.
For practical purposes, and for a three-dimensional case, vectors are expressed in
terms of three components (unit vectors) and then the corresponding components
are added.
Example. Obtain the addition of vectors E and F given as:
E = 3a

+2a

F = 2a

+7a

Solution. According to vector addition rules:
E + F = (3 +2)a

+(2 +0)a

+(1 +7)a

E +F = 5a

+2a

+ 6a

Subtraction
The rules for the subtraction of vectors follow easily from that for addition, since:
MN = M+(N) (1.3)

To perform vector subtraction, the sign or direction of the second vector
should be reversed, and this new vector is then added to the first one.


M
N
M
N
M+N
M+N
Multiplication
The simplest form of multiplication having vectors is when they are multiplied by
scalars only the magnitude of the vector changes, but not the direction (except
when the scalar is negative, in which case, the direction changes to be the
opposite):
times A = A (1.4)
s is the scalar and A is the vector in the above equation.
Example. A vector T = 4a

2a

is to be scaled by a factor of 5. What is the new

scaled vector V?
Solution. By applying the rules of scalar vector multiplication, the scaled vector V
is:
V = (5 4)a

+(5 (2))a

V = 20a

10a

The second type of vector multiplication involves two vectors which are multiplies
with each other. The first type of vector multiplication is the dot product, also known
as scalar product. The dot product of two vectors R and S is defined as (Figure
13):
R S = |R||S| cos

(1.5)
Where |R| and |S| are the magnitudes of vectors R and S, respectively, and

is
the angle between the two vectors, as shown in Figure 1.2. Notice that the dot
product can be given a physical interpretation as the projection of one of the
vectors in the axes of the other one. Finally, although it may be intuitively, the dot
product is commutative, and thus:
R S = S R (1.6)





Figure 1.2 Dot product.
Sometimes, to find the angle between the two vectors may not be a straightforward
operation and quite frankly, it is one that is preferably avoidable. Since the dot
product also obeys the distributive law, assume vectors R =

and S =

are given in rectangular coordinates. Thus, the dot

product R S is equivalent to the sum of nine terms, each having the dot product of
two unit vectors. According to the formal dot product definition, and knowing that
unit vectors are orthogonal to each other and their magnitude is 1:
a

= a

= a

= a

= a

= a

= 0
a

= a

= a

= 1
R
S
RS
R S
A more useful expression is derived for the dot product based on these
considerations, as follows:
R S =

(1.7)
Please recall that the dot product of two vectors always returns a scalar, and thus
no direction associated to the result should be given. A common mistake is to
Example. Given the vectors R = 4a

+3a

2a

and S = 6a

+5a

,
calculate the dot product R S.
Solution. Using the suggested new formula for dot product calculation:
R S = (4 6) +(3 5) +(2 1) = 24 +15 +2 = 7
The second type of vector multiplication is the cross product, or vector
product. Given two vectors R and S, the cross product of the two (giving a vector
as a result) is given by (Figure 1.3):
R S = |R||S| sin

(1.8)





Figure 1.3 Cross product.
The unit vector a

is normal to the plane in which both vectors lie. The

direction of R S is in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as R is turned
into S. Therefore, the cross product does not follow the commutative rule, yielding:
S R = (R S) (1.9)
As the cross product is a vector, its magnitude can be found using the same
method for finding the magnitude of any vector.
The evaluation of the cross product from its formal definition is often a tedious
and complex procedure. Therefore, in a similar way to what was done with the dot
product, the easiest form that can be remembered is by using a determinant as
follows:
R S = |
a

| (1.10)

Example. Given the vectors R = 4a

+3a

2a

and S = 6a

+5a

,
calculate the cross product R S.
Solution. By using the determinant:
RS
R
S
RS
R S = |
a

4 3 2
6 5 1
|
= a

[(3 1) (5 2)] a

[(4 1) (6 2)] +a

[(4 5) (3 6)]
R S = 7a

16a

+38a

1.1.3 Gradient
The gradient for a scalar field A, in rectangular coordinates, is given by:
=

(1.11)
For other coordinate systems, which will be used here, the expression
changes. For cylindrical coordinates, is:
=

+
1

(1.12)
Finally, for spherical coordinates, the gradient can be computed as:
=

+
1

+
1
sin

(1.13)
Please note that cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems will be
reviewed in more detail in section 1.2.
According to this, the gradient is a vector, so it has magnitude and direction.
A physical interpretation for the gradient is that it shows the maximum space rate
of change of a scalar quantity and the direction in which this maximum occurs.
Example. Calculate the gradient of the scalar field = 12
2
.
Solution. Using the expression given for rectangular coordinates in equation (1.11)
yields:
=

(12
2
)a

(12
2
)a

(12
2
)a

= (24 )a

+12
2
a

1.1.4 Curl
The curl is a vector operator that describes the rotation of a three-dimensional vector
field. At every point in the field, the curl is represented by a vector. The attributes of
this vector (length and direction) characterise the rotation at that point. The direction
of the curl is the axis of rotation, as determined by the right-hand rule, and the
magnitude of the curl is the magnitude of rotation. If the vector field represents the
flow velocity of a moving magnetic field, then the curl is the circulation density of the
field.
Mathematically, the curl of a vector field A is defined as:
A = lim

0
AL

(1.14)
The use of equation (1.14) may not be the most convenient form to calculate
the curl of a vector field. It is often easier to perform the mathematical operation
given by the cross product on the left of equation (1.14). However, it should be noted
that the calculation of the curl using this method depends on the particular coordinate
system. For rectangular coordinates, the curl is expressed as:
A = (

) a

+(

) a

+(

) a

(1.15)
In cylindrical coordinates:
A = (
1

) a

+(

) a

+
1

[
(

] a

(1.16)
For spherical coordinates:
A =
1
sin
[
(

sin)

] a

+
1

[
1
sin

] a

+
1

[
(

] a

(1.17)
The physical interpretation of the curl is that of circulation of a field,
supposing it is possible to dip a paddle (or curl meter) inside the field to which curl
is to be tested, and if the paddle spins, the field has curl, in the direction of the shaft
that holds the curl thus the result of the cross product in A.
1.1.5 Divergence
For vector calculus and in the study of vector fields, divergence is a vector operator
that measures the magnitude of a vector field's source or sink at a given point, in
terms of a signed scalar. In other words, the divergence represents the volume
density of the outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal volume around a
given point. Thus, if the divergence of the vector field in that region has a positive
value, the region is considered to be a source. Otherwise, if the divergence is
negative then the region is called a sink.
As it has been done with curl, divergence can be defined mathematically as
follows:
A = lim
0
AS

(1.18)
A more useful expression is given depending on the coordinate system. For
rectangular coordinates:
A =

(1.19)
For cylindrical coordinates:
A =
1

) +
1

(1.20)
Finally, for spherical coordinates:
A =
1

(
2

) +
1
sin

(sin

) +
1
sin

(1.21)

1.1.6 Stokes theorem
Consider the surface of
Figure 1.4, which is broken up into incremental surfaces of area . If the definition
of curl is applied to one of these incremental surfaces:
AL

= ( A)

(1.22)
The subscript N represents the right-hand normal to the surface. The
subscript on L

shows that the closed path is the perimeter of an incremental area

. In other words:
A L

= ( A) a

= ( A) S (1.23)
where a

is the unit vector in the direction of the right-hand normal to . Next, the
circulation for every comprising S is to be determined, and then sum the results.
As the closed line integral for each is being evaluated, some cancellation will
occur because every interior wall is covered once in each direction. The only
boundaries on which cancellation does not occur form the outside boundary, the
path enclosing S. Thus:
A L =
( A) S (1.24)
where L is taken only at the perimeter of S. In words, Stokes theorem can be
summarised as follows:
The sum of the closed line integrals about the perimeter of every is the same as
the closed line integral about the perimeter of because of cancellation of every
interior path.







Figure 1.4 Stokes theorem.




a

Surface
1.1.7 Divergence theorem
The divergence theorem applies to any vector field for which the appropriate partial
derivatives can be obtained. In mathematical form, it holds:
A S =
( A) (1.25)
This theorem becomes physically obvious if a volume is considered, shown
in cross section in
Figure 1.5, which is surrounded by a closed surface . Division of the volume
into a number of small compartments of differential size and consideration show that
the flux diverging from one of the cells enters or converges on the adjacent cells
unless the cell contains a portion of the outer surface. In summary, the divergence
of the flux throughout a volume leads to the same result as determining the net flux
crossing the enclosed surface.
In summary, the divergence theorem states that:
The total flux crossing the closed surface is equal to the sum of the divergence of
flux density throughout the enclosed volume.
One of the greatest benefits of using the divergence theorem is that it relates
a triple integration throughout some volume to a double integration over the surface
of that volume. This often simplifies the calculation, for example, of electric charges
using Gauss law, as will be seen later.





Figure 1.5 Divergence theorem.
1.2 Coordinate systems
The geometry for a specific physical scenario can easily be represented by the use
of appropriate reference systems, known as coordinate systems. The most popular
ones used in vector calculus and electromagnetism are: rectangular, cylindrical and
spherical. Many problems can be solved or represented with the aid of these
coordinate systems, and depending on the specific geometry of the situation, one
system may be more appropriate to use than other. A brief overview of these three
coordinate systems is given in this section.
1.2.1 Rectangular coordinates
Also known as Cartesian coordinates, this system is generally the one preferred by
students to work every problem, although in many cases, this means students have
to do much more work due to the specific symmetry which pleads for a more logical
treatment. The geometrical shape used as a basis is a rectangle hence the name
Closed surface
Volume
rectangular, as seen in Figure 1.6. The three axes, , and are orthogonal to each
other, and the unit vectors are aligned with each of the axes, a

, a

and a

.







Figure 1.6 Rectangular coordinates.
1.2.2 Cylindrical coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates can be seen as an extension in 3-D of polar coordinates,
used in two-dimensional problems. In polar coordinates, a point is located by
specifying its distance from the origin, and the angle between the line from the
point to the origin and an arbitrary radial line, taken as = 0. A three-dimensional
coordinate system is then obtained by also specifying the distance of the point from
an arbitrary = 0 reference plane which is perpendicular to the line = 0. Three
new unit vectors are defined, a

, a

and a

. Refer to Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Cylindrical coordinates.
1.2.3 Spherical coordinates
For spherical coordinates, our reference shape used is a sphere, as seen in Figure
1.8, and some parameters need to be defined. First, the distance from the origin to
any point is , where the surface =constant is the sphere.
The second coordinate is the angle between the axis and the line drawn
from the origin to the point in question. The surface = constant is a cone, and the
two surfaces, cone and sphere, are everywhere perpendicular along their



a

intersection, which is a circle of radius sin. This angle is often called elevation or
vertical angle, especially in radio communications and for antenna-related issues.







Figure 1.8 Spherical coordinates.
The third coordinate is also an angle and is exactly the same as the angle
in cylindrical coordinates. It is the angle between the axis and the projection in
the -plane of the line drawn from the origin to the point. In radio communications,
this angle is also called azimuth or horizontal, and is very relevant for antenna
specifications.



a