Definition: Questioned documents may include forged checks, contracts or other official

documents requiring signatures, or they may involve the examination of ransom notes or
notes given to a bank teller in a robbery. In short, questioned documents are any document in
which the veracity is in dispute or which is determined to have been used in a crime.
orensic experts examine questioned documents to verify their authenticity or to identify
evidence that may be used in successful prosecution of crime.
!he Questioned Documents section offers a variety of examinations
including:

"andwriting and "and #rinting Identification
!he comparative examination of signatures, handwriting, and hand printing is based on the
principle that after an individual has developed his or her handwriting skills and habits, a
number of factors combine that make that person$s handwriting individual to him or herself.
!he orensic Document %xaminer is trained to recogni&e and place value on the significance
of the various characteristics observed in the writing and render a finding based on their
examinations.



Indented 'riting %xamination
Indented writing or typing can occur when two or more papers are stacked or padded
together and writing or typing occurs on the top sheet that leaves impressions or indentations
on the sheet(s) below it. !he sheet immediately below the written or typed sheet usually
contains the clearest imprint* however, impressions can sometimes be deciphered on the
second and lower sheets.

orensic Document %xaminers develop indented writing on a document using an instrument
called the %lectrostatic Detection +pparatus or %,D+.


#hotocopier Identification
!he identification of a photocopy requires that the method of production be similar (class
characteristics) and that a unique pattern of defects (trash marks) be present on the platen,
drum and-or lens. .ecent color copiers also may incorporate anti/counterfeiting technology
which may be used to identify a specific machine.


Ink %xamination
Ink is analy&ed in order to see whether it is similar to or different from other inks. !his
becomes important when examining a document for the presence of alterations or
obliterations. It is rare to say that ink from written material came from a particular pen. +t
best, ink analysis shows whether the questioned ink and a suspected source could contain the
same kind of ink.


#aper %xamination
+s part of a document examination, it is often necessary to examine the paper of the
document(s) in order to help determine whether the document is genuine or to gain
investigative information.

0ther %xaminations include the detection of alterations and obliterations, identification of
counterfeit documents, reconstruction of burned or otherwise damaged documents and
typewriter and mechanical impression identification

Signatures & Forgery

Introduction
+ll of us have wondered at one time or another why it is that we are asked to sign a document
rather than simply applying an inked fingerprint to the paper as a method of identification.
'ouldn1t it be 2ust as simple to place a thumbprint on a check instead of a maker1s signature3
'ould not that foil forgeries3 !he argument that the signature is easier to read is invalid, as
many signatures have evolved until they are nothing more than symbolic representations of what
was at one time handwriting and are now unreadable.
!he answer to this riddle lies in the word 4intent.5 6y placing a signature on a document we are
implying intent on our part to agree with circumstances provided by that check, codicil,
agreement, contract, etc. 0ne could easily place the fingerprint of someone recently deceased or
unconscious upon a document if that was all that was required for authentication. !his does not
presuppose however, that the placement of an inked thumbprint next to a maker1s signature on a
check, about to be negotiated at a check cashing counter in a grocery store, would not be a help.
!he fingerprint1s universal connotation would certainly, at the very least, be a deterrent to the
individual intent upon passing a forged instrument.
!he development, and examination, of a personal signature follows almost all of the concepts
relating to handwriting. + signature may be nothing more than an extension of one1s normal
cursive handwriting, or it may have been personali&ed to such an extent that it now has few, if
any, recogni&able letter formations.
,ignatures examined by the forensic document examiner for authenticity will eventually be
categori&ed as genuine, or not genuine, if the examination leads to a definitive opinion.
5orgery5 in a strict sense is a legal term and it1s use as a conclusion should probably be
avoided by the questioned document examiner. 0ften a signature in of itself may be valid, but
the manner in which it has been acquired or affixed to the document, or the sequence of events
involved in its use are fraudulent. !he product of a rubber stamp or autopen is certainly not a
genuine signature but is most frequently used in a previously authori&ed capacity. 'hile these
signatures are not genuine, they are undeniably not forgeries. !erms such as 4orgery5 and
4raud5 are perhaps best used by the legal community. "aving said that, the reader may find
that these terms are occasionally used in a descriptive manner throughout this text.
6y definition, a genuine signature is the personal mark of an individual, written by that
individual. It normally serves to indicate his or her acceptance of some set of circumstances, or
to be the symbol associated with such an agreement. 7eeping this definition in mind, we can
discuss those other 4signatures5 that are not genuine.

Indicators of Forgery
8eneral indications of non/genuineness may include the following:

Blunt starts and stops
!he forger places the pen point in contact with the paper, and then starts writing. 'hen he is
finished with the name or some portion thereof, he stops the pen and lifts it from the surface.
!his may cause an emphasi&ed blunt start or ending where the pen was placed in contact with
the surface. +t times this contact is held so long that if the pen contains a fluid ink it will wet
the paper and migrate outward from the contact point.
!here may be unnecessary and extraneous marks caused by pen starts and stops. !he writer
may decide after putting his pen in contact with the paper, that it is in the wrong spot, picks it up
and moves it to a position considered more correct. 9ormally a signature1s starts and stops are
much more dynamic. !he pen is moving hori&ontally before it contacts the paper and is lifted at
the end while still in flight. !his leaves a tapered appearance at the beginnings and endings of
names or letters. !here are, of course, exceptions to this.

Pen lifts and hesitation
!his is occasioned when the pen stops at an unusual point in the writing* perhaps where a radical
change in direction is about to take place or a new letter formation is about to be started. !his
may take on the appearance of a small gap in the written line where one is not expected, or an
overlapping of two ink lines where there should be only one continuous line.

Tremor
6ecause the creation of most forms of non/genuine signatures are little more than drawings, the
pen is moving so slowly that small, sometimes microscopic changes in direction take place in
what should be a fluid/looking line. !he resultant line is not smooth, but reflects the 4shaking5
pen.

Speed and pressure
+gain, because the pen is moving slowly rather than with the dynamic movement associated
with most genuine writings, the ink line remains constant in thickness, resulting from the same
constant pressure exerted on a slowly moving pen. !here will be little, if any, tapering of
internal lines.

Patching
Infrequently, but at one time or another, most of us have made an error while writing our own
signature. ,ome individuals may leave the signature alone, caring little about the mistake or
imperfection, while others will simply 4fix5 the signature by correcting the offending portion.
!his may be done in order to make the signature more readable, or because a defect in the pen or
paper has affected what we perceive to be our 4normal5 signature, or for some other reason that
may even be subconscious. !hese 4fixes5 are usually patent, with no attempt made on the part
of the writer to mask or otherwise hide the correction.
!hese signature corrections are quite different than the patching that is frequently found in non/
genuine signatures. 0n these occasions, the writer is not attempting to make the signature more
readable, but to make its appearance passable. "e is fixing an obvious defect that he perceives as
detectable, and might uncover his fraudulent product and foil his scheme. !hese usually take the
form of a correction to a flaw in the writing line rather than in the form of a letter. %xtensions to
entry or terminal strokes, or to lower descending portions of letters, along with corrections to
embellishments, are typical of non/genuine patching.

!here are times when some of these same forgery indicators will be displayed in genuine
signatures. +ged or infirmed writers will frequently display similar patterns. !he mere presence
of these indicators does not mean that the signature under scrutiny is non/genuine, but should
contribute to the overall determination as to genuineness. +lternately, the signature devoid of
these indications may not be assumed to be genuine. !he signature of an elderly individual may,
for instance, be expected to contain tremor and hesitation. If, however, the questioned signature
appears to be written in a fluid manner and-or on a higher skill level than what is expected, the
red warning flag should be waving. !his occurrence may itself be indicative of non/
genuineness. 0ften, a forger, because of an inherent high skill level in his writing, may produce
a product that contains fewer indications of forgery than a counterpart with a lower skill/level.


Non-Genuine Signatures Handwritten
9on/genuine handwritten signatures may be generally categori&ed into one of four possibilities.
'hile a determination of forgery may be possible, it is not always possible to assign the
signature to one of these categories. It may, however, be prudent for the document examiner to
do so when possible as the demonstration of non/genuineness may be much more effective.

Normal Hand Forgery
During the creation of this class of non/genuine signature, the writer simply writes someone
else1s name. !here is no attempt made to duplicate or make the forgery look like a genuine
signature. +ny resemblance to the genuine signature is coincidental. :sually, the perpetrator of
this signature does not have a model signature at hand and-or the skill level or forethought to
attempt an emulation. If he does not attempt to impart disguise to the writing, the resultant
product will display characteristics of the forger1s own handwriting. +rmed with adequate
standards of both the individual whose name is being used and exemplars of the suspect, the
document examination may be definitive to the point that not only is the signature declared not
genuine, but the forger is also identified.

Simulation
!he simulated signature, or 4free hand forgery5 as it is sometime known, is the usual bill of fare
for the questioned document examiner. !his forgery is constructed by using a genuine signature
as a model. !he forger generates an artistic reproduction of this model. Depending on his skill
and amount of practice, the simulation may be quite good and bear remarkable pictorial
similarity to the genuine signature.
;any simulations created with a model at hand will contain at least some of the general
indicators of forgery, such as tremor, hesitation, pen lifts, blunt starts and stops, patching, and
static pressure. !hey will have a slow 4drawn5 appearance. !he practiced simulation is most
often a higher quality creation in that the model signature has been memori&ed and some of the
movements used to produce it have become semi/automatic. !his simulation can be written with
a more natural fluid manner. !here can be tapered starts and stops, changes in pen pressure, and
much less tremor in the moving line. ,peed lends fluidity to writing. !he more rapidly the pen
moves while creating the genuine writing or signature, the more difficult the genuine writing is
to imitate. .apidly formed movements are scrutini&ed more closely than slower counterparts.
+ slowly written signature is not only easier for the forger to duplicate with some fashionable
degree of pictorial similarity, the product will also display less indications of non/genuineness
than the forgery of a rapid and fluidly executed signature. !he writer of a simulation must, of
necessity, pay more attention to the form of a letter than the speed of his pen.
6oth practiced and non/practiced simulations will still have notable shortcomings. !he forger
naturally puts his greatest effort into those parts of the name that he expects to fall under the
greatest scrutiny. +lthough letter forms (especially the more prominent, large or beginning
letters) may almost duplicate the genuine letters, proportions and height ratios will seldom be
correct. Internal portions of the names (smaller, less prominent letters and pen movements) will
usually display the greatest divergence from the correct form and movements found in the
genuine signature.
'hile the simulated signature will readily fail the test for genuineness when examined by a
competent forensic document examiner, the forger is rarely, if ever, associated with the forgery.
During the creation of a simulated forgery, the author attempts to duplicate the writing style of
another individual. 6y doing this, the forger leaves behind little, if any, of his own distinctive
writing style. 6y doing an emulation of someone else1s signature, he also produces one of the
best of all possible disguises of his own handwriting. Infrequently, some of the forger1s own
individual characteristics may appear in the disputed writing. !he limited quantity of these
characteristics which appear on those occasions is such that identification of the author almost
never occurs.
0n some occasions, a 4practice sheet5 will be recovered by the investigator. "erein lies the best
opportunity for the document examiner to link the suspect to the simulation. If there was an eye
witness to the sub2ect writing on the practice sheet, or if it was found in his close possession, it
may be used as a standard. (!his is, of course, dependant ultimately upon court acceptance over
what will undoubtedly be rigorous ob2ections). If there are a sufficient number of significant
differences between the questioned signature and the genuine signatures, and these same
differences appear in the practiced simulations, there may be a basis to associate the forgery to
the forger within some degree of probability. +n absolute identification, nonetheless, even under
these circumstances is infrequent.
<losely related to this form of identification process is that of determining the number of
different forgers from a quantity of simulations. 0n occasion there will be two or more forgers
attempting to reproduce the same signature. It may be possible to group or associate simulations
of the same name by the combinations of defects within the forgeries. 6y associating and
grouping the similar defects (when compared to the genuine signature) it may be possible to
conclude and illustrate that there are indeed, two or more different forgers.

Tracing
!raced forgeries are generally created by one of three methods: 4transmitted light,5 4carbon
intermediate,5 or 4pressure indented image.5 'hile tracings may not normally present much of
a challenge to the document examiner trying to determine genuineness, the ability to identify the
perpetrator is totally precluded. !racing another1s signature, or for that matter another1s
handwriting, is the paramount form of disguise.
!otal agreement between the model and the questioned signature dictate that the questioned
signature was a product of tracing. 9o two signatures or handwritings, even from the same
person are ever totally duplicated. =ust as certainly, total agreement between two, three or more
questioned signatures is adequate demonstrative proof of tracing. 0f course, the document
examiner faced with total agreement between a number of signatures must take care that the
model signature (genuine signature) is not one of the signatures in question.
!he model signature, if recovered, may of itself contain evidence of its use in producing a
tracing. + second ink line or indentation impressed into the genuine signature by stylus or pen
or other pointed implement is usually indicative of a pressure or carbon tracing. +gain, caution
must be exercised if a second ink line is present in a genuine signature. !he immediate
assumption by the uninitiated examiner that this signature is itself a carbon/type tracing can be a
source of error.
0n occasion, signatures that were executed while the writing paper was on a rough surface
(matte finish) contain the illusion of tremor created by simulation or tracing. <lose examination
will reveal that this tremor is much too abundant and evenly spaced. !here will be little, if any,
variation in the tremor and the peaks and valleys of the rough surface will be embossed into the
written line.

Transmitted Light Tracing
!he transmitted light tracing is the simplest of the tracings to produce and the one most often
encountered. !he paper that is to receive the spurious signature is placed over a document
bearing the genuine signature. !hese documents are then aligned so as to put the genuine
signature directly under the selected location for the forgery. !hese two papers are then held up
to a window or other light source, and the transmitted signature image is traced on the receiving
document.
!he indicators of a transmitted light tracing are similar to that of a simulation and the two are
difficult to tell apart (unless the model for the tracing is located). "eight ratios and proportions
in the transmitted light tracing are generally right on the money, however. !hese two features
are frequently incorrect in the simulation.

Carbon-Medium Tracing
+t times, a carbon/medium tracing is the method of choice, especially if the document to receive
the tracing is too heavy a weight, such as cardboard, to allow for a good light transmitted image.
9ormally, the area to receive the signature is covered with a piece of carbon paper which in turn
has the model signature placed upon it and aligned with the area that is to receive the image.
!he model signature is then traced over with a pen or other pointed implement. !his procedure
will impart a carbon image of the signature on the receiving document. !his image is then
overwritten with a pen. 0ften this pen will be a broad/tipped instrument such as a felt/tip or
fountain pen. !his wider ink line serves to hide the carbon image better than a ballpoint pen.
,ome 4paperhangers5 employ a light carbon tracing, difficult to see even at a short distance, as
an endorsement on stolen checks. !hese checks are then cashed at the financial institution or
check/cashing service where the real endorsee has an account. !he passer then 4endorses5 the
check, writing over the traced lines in front of the cashier or teller, thereby lending credence to
the drama. +gain this is most often accomplished with a broad/tipped pen.
Quite frequently, the 4ghost5 line of the carbon impression is not in register with the inked
overwriting and a double line is readily apparent. 0ften microscopic observation and-or infrared
viewing or imaging techniques will reveal the carbon centerline. 0ccasionally, the questioned
document examiner is rewarded with the recovery of the used carbon paper. !ransparencies of
the model signature (if recovered), the impression in the carbon paper and the tracing, when
aligned on an overhead pro2ector make for an effective court demonstration.
9ow and then, the examiner will come across a derivation of this style of tracing that does not
use carbon paper. :sing a soft/lead pencil, the reverse side of the paper containing the model
signature can be shaded with the pencil1s graphite point. !his soft graphite will then be
transferred to the receiving document in much the same manner as if carbon paper was utili&ed.
!he mere existence of a ghost line may not guarantee that the signature in question is a tracing,
however. 0n rare occasions another force may be at work. ,ome older style photocopying
machines rely on a pre/sensiti&ed paper coated with &inc oxide. If this paper bears an original
ballpoint signature, there may be a ghost image, or what appears to be a guideline consistently
on either the right side or less frequently, on the left side or the original ink. !his ghost image
(also referred to as sister lines), will be precisely the same distance from the corresponding
original ink line throughout the writing. It may not be continuous, but appear only in
con2unction with specific letters. !his illusion of tracing is generated by the abrasion of the
pen1s metal ballpoint socket by the harder material of the paper1s &inc oxide coating. !his will
occur in pens that have fairly broad ball housings, rather than steeply angled sockets. !he
material of the socket must be made of a sufficiently soft metal to allow for the abrasion to
occur. .ight/handed writers would tend to have the ghost image to the right of the letter
formations, while left/handed individuals will likely produce the ghost image on the left side.
6ecause of the almost non/existent use of this sensiti&ed paper in modern day machine copying
processes, most document examiners will likely never encounter this problem. "owever, on
occasion a similar phenomenon can be found when 9<. (9ational <ash .egister > no carbon
required) paper is employed.

ressure Indented Tracing
,imilar to a carbon paper tracing, the indented line tracing is produced in essentially the same
manner, but does not employ any intermediate reproduction medium. "eavier pressure is used
when tracing over the model signature. !his pressure leaves an indented 4signature5 on the
receiving document. !his is then covered over with a broad/tipped pen, although ballpoint is
found on occasion. +lmost invariably, the writer misses portions of the indented line. !his error
may be easily observed using glancing (oblique) light. 0ther general indications of non/
genuineness are similar to those found in simulated forgeries. In both the carbon/medium and
indented line tracing, the forger is faced with an paradoxical situation. If he overwrites the
model image with enough speed to make the forgery fluid and natural appearing, he will
undoubtedly miss the model line in several areas that will then be readily discernable. If, on the
other hand, he pays particular attention to covering the model image, the resultant line quality
deteriorates into the slow/moving, hesitation/filled byproduct of forgery.

Transferred Forgery
0n rare occasions, an innovative form of spurious signature may be encountered that can best be
equated with a tracing, but in actuality differs from the conventional concepts of tracing because
of its method of production.
;ost traditional ballpoint pen inks employ an ethylene glycol medium as the base ingredient to
carry dyes, extenders, plastici&ers, and other ink components. + signature made by employing a
pen using this ink may be 4transferred5 to another document by using ordinary waxed paper or
free&er paper. 6y placing this form of medium over a genuine signature and rubbing the top of
the paper vigorously, the wax that is in con2unction with the signature will melt and
subsequently absorb some of the ethylene glycol/based ink line. !his paper now containing a
mirror image of the genuine signature is placed over another document that is to receive the
forgery. !he waxed paper is again rubbed briskly, melting the wax and ink composite. !his
process will result in a forgery that does not conform to, nor contain, the normal observable
conditions that are associated with simulated or traced signatures. !his is because, in essence,
this signature was created by the signature holder1s hand rather than the forger1s. Indications of
this process will be in the form of wax left behind that covers and surrounds the signature line.
!he signature itself will have a discernibly faded appearance and the edge of the ink line when
viewed under low magnification will have a mottled look rather than sharp appearance.

Auto-forgery
!he signature that does not satisfy the requirements for genuineness must necessarily be non/
genuine. !o use an old clich?, anything in between is similar to being slightly pregnant. It
matters not how the conception (or in this case, deception) took place.
0ccasionally, an individual will sign a document with the specific intention of denying the
signature at a later time. ,ome people may think of this as a safeguard when they are confronted
with the necessity of signing something they are not sure about, but demands immediate
attention. 0thers start out with larceny in their hearts.
!hese signatures, commonly referred to as auto/forgeries, will usually be found on promissory
notes, contracts, <onstitutional .ights forms, confessions, closed/account checks, etc.
Initial observations of an auto/forgery often appear similar to what might be expected in a
simulated forgery. urther inspection will almost always reveal remarkable internal similarities
to the genuine signature. 'hy does this happen3 !he auto/forger, not knowing the perceptual
abilities of someone that might examine the signature, incorporates gross changes to the larger,
initial, or prominent letters. "is usual response when confronted with a signature that he is
denying is 4I never make that letter(s) that way.5 Indeed he doesn1t, but neither would a real
forger.
!his attention by the writer to changing prominent features usually does not carry over to the
small and seemingly less significant letter formations that are found within the interior of the
disputed signature. :nder close scrutiny, the details present in these less prominent portions of
the signature will bear undeniable similarities to that in the genuine signatures. 0nce the writer
has accomplished what in substance is a disguise in the letter formations of highest visibility, he
will fall back into his normal habitual handwriting or signature style until such time as he
perceives the need for another letter formation alteration.
In essence then, while the forger creating a simulation does his best to make the prominent focal
points of the signature look like the corresponding features in a genuine signature, the auto/
forger goes out of his way to make them appear different. ,imilarly, the forger misses, or does
not pay as much attention to the interior subtleties of a signature, while the auto/forger, because
he is a creature of habit, produces these smaller intricate details correctly. #iece by piece, the
simulation and auto/forgery are almost diametrical opposites. 'hen an auto/forgery may be at
hand, the questioned document examiner must remember the old adage that if something 4looks
that bad, it may be that good.5
'ith an auto/forgery, the legal authenticity of the signature may be quite different than that of
the forensic authenticity. !he auto/forgery may at once be legally authentic (especially if
witnessed), forensically non/genuine and ethically (if not 2udicially) contemptuous.

Non-Genuine Signatures Mechanica!
;echanical signatures most often are those produced without the direct aid of the human hand.
,ignatures produced by auto/pens or writing machines, rubber stamps, and offset printing are
examples of mechanical signatures. !hese imitation signatures differ from other non/genuine
signatures in that they may be legally genuine when their use has been authori&ed by the
signature holder. !hese are prime examples of forensically non/genuine but legally authentic
signatures.
"owever, when mechanical signatures are used in non/authori&ed capacities, they are quite
simply forgeries. .ubber stamp signatures used by a secretary to sign company checks for the
boss look the same as those produced by a burglar who stole the rubber stamp.

"#ero$% Forgery (generic for the process, not the company)