Efficient and Expressive Thin-tile Vaulting using Cardboard Formwork

Lara DAVIS
Research Assistant
ETH Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland
davis@arch.ethz.ch


Matthias RIPPMANN
Research Assistant
ETH Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland
rippmann@arch.ethz.ch


Tom PAWLOFSKY
Research Assistant
ETH Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland
pawlofsky@arch.ethz.ch


Philippe BLOCK
Assistant Professor
ETH Zurich
Zurich, Switzerland
block@arch.ethz.ch





Summary
This paper presents research in the construction of freeform, thin-tile vaulting, demonstrated
through a full scale prototype and application of an expandable cardboard guidework system. This
form of complex structural design is enabled through Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) a novel
three-dimensional design tool for exploring funicular form. These free form shells present new
challenges to the tiling patterns, sequence of building and especially the structural stability and
guidework during construction. A continuous formwork system was developed using 2-D CAD-
CAM cutting and gluing processes. The combined implementation of traditional thin-tile vaulting,
TNA and the efficient cardboard formwork allows the construction of increasingly complex forms
with the same (or even improved) benchmarks of sustainability and economy radical form with
efficient construction.
Keywords: Catalan/ Thin-tile vaulting; freeform vault construction; compression-only forms; form
finding; cardboard guidework; CAD-CAM fabrication; tiling geometry; construction sequence.
1. Introduction
Thin-tile (or Catalan) vaulting, in its traditional form, is a materially efficient, sustainable
construction technique [1,2]. It employs the use of good structural form to achieve a minimal shell
thickness. A rapid-setting plaster-of-paris mortar can be used to add thin masonry units to the vault
to construct the first layer of the masonry surface in space, essentially without formwork when
proper edge conditions are provided. The bond of the plaster mortar allows masonry units to be
carried with small amounts of bending until closed-course arches or a vaulted surface is formed
carrying the load of the structure in compression. A minimal, lightweight guidework must be
employed to visually define the masonry surface for builders, so that the structural form may be
accurately constructed. Such guidework may consist of light wood constructions or masons line
drawn in space, between which the mason must loft the surface of masonry by eye. Critical
constructional logics limit the forms of vaults achievable with such systems. On account of the
geometric constraints of these minimal guidework systems, the ability of the mason to interpret the
structural surface, and the requirement for simple structural behavior to stabilize a vault during
construction, it is only possible to build relatively predefined, regular geometric shapes with this
technique.
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA), a novel design tool for exploring three-dimensional funicular
form [3,4], enables the development of fully 3-dimensional equilibrium shells. TNA gives rise to a
whole new range of complex shapes and makes possible a new type of vault: the freeform,
compression-only Catalan vault. This class of freeform, thin-tile vaulting presents new challenges
in the realization of the Catalan vaulting process.
For instance, the three-dimensional force flow in freeform shells is too complex to be simplified or
abstracted into e.g. arch action or hoop forces. Therefore, in order to sequence masonry courses in
stable sections during construction, to establish in-situ structural stability, it is necessary to have a
comprehensive formwork system to carry the load of the shell before it is completed. Additionally,
the simple geometric guides of traditional thin-tile vaulting no longer suffice to aid the builder in
the execution of such double-curved surfaces. A comprehensive surface guide must be employed to
describe the complex doubly curved masonry surface to the mason for the purpose of accurate
construction. Thus, both on the grounds of surface description and stability during construction, a
continuous formwork system is more pragmatic for these new forms possible.
While this conclusion seems to negate the inherent material and labor efficiency of thin-tile
vaulting, this research introduces a formwork system, which is capable of describing the freeform
Catalan shell, whilst still possessing the material economy of the traditional Catalan shell. The
cardboard guidework implemented in this project is fabricated with 2-D CAD-CAM cutting and
gluing processes and is assembled on site. The systems rapid fabrication, lightweight
transportation, and speed of erection and de-centering dramatically reduce the material and labour-
based costs of construction. An inexpensive and potentially reusable/recyclable material, this
lightweight cardboard guidework extends the viability of thin-tile vaulting to freeform construction.
The combined implementation of traditional thin-tile vaulting, TNA and the efficient cardboard
formwork allows the construction of increasingly complex forms with the same (or even improved)
benchmarks of economy radical form with efficient construction.
2. Method/ Approach
2.1 3D Form Finding Method
Thrust Network Analysis (TNA) is a
recently developed form finding method
especially suited for the design (and
analysis) of compression-only structures
with complex three-dimensional form
[3]. The design criteria of the prototype
vault described in this paper were
chosen in order to present new
challenges to the method by including a
diverse and complex set of boundary
conditions, which address free edge
arches, a high degree of curvature,
formwork constraints, and suitability for
possible tiling patterns. Furthermore, other specific design criteria include the following: a shallow
arch with high horizontal thrust, a steep arch with low thrust, and an arch which curves in plan; a
double-domed condition and a structural fold; a curved boundary and a point springing.
Figure 1 shows the form finding process with TNA: a) the form diagram defines the force pattern; b)
the compression-only thrust network for the chosen force pattern, in equilibrium with a given
loading; and c) its corresponding reciprocal force diagram visualizing the distribution of thrust
which result in the freeform vault.
2.2 Cardboard Formwork system
2.2.1 Description
The proposed formwork system for freeform thin-tile construction is an expandable cardboard
system, essentially composed of simple boxes. Post-consumer recycled cardboard was used, which
is a sustainable improvement upon prevalent formwork materials, since corrugated cardboard uses
between 60 and 100% recycled paper fibers, and the fibers can be used up to seven times before
they become too short for reuse. [5]

Fig. 1: The TNA form finding for freeform vault: a) the form
diagram; b) the resulting compression-only thrust network in
equilibrium with a given loading; and c) its corresponding
reciprocal force diagram.
As shown in Fig. 2, the boxes
are CNC cut and then
assembled together to form a
continuous, primary
formwork surface. The
cardboard boxes are
supported by a system of
stacked shipping palettes.
Using palettes for the first
rough approximation of the
final vault shape offers
several advantages: it reduces
the volume of cardboard to be
used; it facilitates easy access
during construction as the
palettes can be arranged in step-like configuration; and it decreases the size of the boxes, ensuring
that the unrolled cutting pattern of the boxes fit to the limited machine-size of the CNC cutting
machine.
Note that using smaller boxes also increases the resolution of the surface and therefore refines the
visual guidework for masons, allowing them to build the surface curvature more accurately with
respect to the generated compression surface.
Since large patches of the tiles may be constructed to follow the complex geometry (unlike in the
traditional method), the cardboard formwork must have the capacity to support sections of the
structure until the masonry surface can stand on its own. As the self-weight of the Catalan vault is
quite low, the cardboard framework provides sufficient support to unfinished, and hence
cantilevering shell segments.
To evaluate the stability of the
cardboard boxes used for the formwork,
the following approximation has been
used: the crushing strength of a box of
600x400x400mm, made out of 6.5mm
thick double wave corrugated board, 0.7
kg per square meter, with a ECT value
of around 6kN/m is 4.4kN [6]. Since the
cardboard selected for use is much
stronger than this (7.3mm, ECT 14
kN/m), the compression strength of the
box should be at least 5.5 kN.
Translated, this renders a formwork
capacity of at least 6 kN per square
meter. These numbers demonstrate that
the static aspects are not decisive for the
box dimension. The final dimension has
been mainly selected based upon the
constraints of palette-size, the surface
resolution in relation to the brick size,
and the ability for bricklayers to stand
inside the open boxes, i.e. the base
dimension wanted to be bigger than the
size of a workers foot.







Fig. 3: Cardboard box fabrication: a) CNC fabrication
process; b) Diagram of cardboard box assembly; c) standard
box cutting pattern; b) customized CNC cutting patterns for
freeform vault surface description.


Fig. 2: Cardboard formwork system, showing a) masonry surface, b)
cardboard boxes, c) palettes, d) de-centering tubes with cardboard
spacers, e) edge registration.
2.2.2 Box Fabrication
Figure 3 shows the design and production process for the boxes, which is established by a digital
workflow, implementing custom RhinoScripts [7] to translate the compression surface into the final
machine code needed to produce the 200 individual cardboard boxes. The steps in the scripts are for
the purpose of defining the positions of the palettes, arranging the cardboard boxes, establishing
naming and labeling, organizing the CAD document, cropping the boxes with the vault surface,
unrolling the 3D geometry of each box, identifying the curves for cutting, creasing and labeling,
identifying unexpected exceptions, monitoring the position of the 2D labeling, and querying the
user for its optimization. Ultimately, the final tool paths for a maximum of two boxes are nested on
single cardboard sheets, and the translation of the tool paths to the final machine code is completed
with a custom CAD-CAM interface.
2.3 Considerations for Thin-Tile Vaulting
2.3.1 Tiling geometry, Construction phases & In-situ structural stability
Tiling geometry must always be based upon
patterns, which confer structural stability during
construction. This means, to be stable in-situ, the
sequence and pattern of masonry must rely upon
closed-course arch action, hoop forces, or stiffness
from increased structural depth. With the typical
simplified geometries of traditional Catalan
vaulting, this is achieved by building edge arches,
cantilevering short distance from wall boundaries,
or closing in a double-curved vault surface with
hoop forces. With irregular geometries, such as
those produced by TNA for the prototype vault,
one may arguably abstract certain simple structural
behaviors and build with a pattern and sequence
conducive to in-situ stability (i.e. first building
edge arches to establish arching action, closing
in adjacent masonry surfaces, and then breaking
the pattern with a groin to begin another arch
section.)
However, to test the loading capacity of the
cardboard system to carry load in-situ, two
continuous patterns representing the topology of
the form were chosen. These patterns did not
represent the most obvious closed-course strategies
for in-situ structural stability.
As shown in Figure 4, masonry sequencing
followed the following logic: (Ref. Fig 6)
1. Masonry was first laid registering the profile of Footing 1. This section relied on high double-
curvature and the curved structural depth of the footing to establish a stiff shell without undue
bending strain; 2. Footing 2 was then begun, taking care not to extend further than necessary, since
this section of the vault is very flat and thus more predisposed to bending stresses at the footing; 3.
The edge arch and subsequently the interstitial region between Footing 1 and 2 was closed as
rapidly as possible to establish arch action; 4: Arch B and E were then built up separately in
several courses to provide stability; 5: The established coursing pattern was then continued,
spanning between Arch B and E at middle-span, to avoid asymmetrical loading of Arch B and to
leave working space for the installation of the second layer; 6: The median range was completed,
relying on arching action of Arches B and E, which established the structure in a stable state.

Fig. 4: Tile pattern and phasing diagram of a)
first tile layer and b) second tile layer.
2.3.2 Curvature and Cutting logic:
For a flat, rectilinear masonry unit to achieve a high degree of surface curvature, cutting logics must
be employed. Cutting logics are dependent upon the relation of the scale of the masonry unit to the
scale and degree of curvature of the masonry surface it describes. The most ideal cutting logic for
the high double-curvature of the prototype vault would thus be a two-cut system, employing a
combination of oblique and bevel cuts to bend a surface in space [2]. Due to time and tool
constraints, a simplified version of this system had to be used, allowing for high degrees of
curvature in one axis of the masonry unit, while relying on hinging and the compensation of the
mortar joint in the other. The degree of double curvature of this prototype is at the limit of what is
achievable by a single-cut cutting logic.
2.3.3 Shell Thickness
Traditional thin-tile vaulting often uses increased withes to establish thickness where it is
structurally necessary. For example, in a regular dome structure, more layers of tiles are used at the
base than at the crown. Note that this is easily realized, because the tiles are laid out in simple radial
coursing with an increasing number of tile layers the tiling geometry and geometry of required
structural depth coincide. However, locally increasing thickness of a freeform shell is not that
straightforward, since the tile pattern required to realize the complex geometry of the shape does
not necessarily align with the pattern of forces as it does, for example, in the dome.
In the case of the structure described in this paper, the forces require varied thickness of masonry,
(between 1 and 3 layers). The third layer is only necessary in several isolated sections, where higher
forces are concentrated. A satisfactory compromise was to surface the entire vault with two layers,
with the third layer sandwiched between the intrados and extrados only where necessary. This also
provides a safety factor for the experimental de-centering process (see 2.4). This solution allows for
a continuous shell on the intrados and extrados,
while still providing the necessary thickness where
greater thrust is accrued in the form.

2.4 De-Centering Strategy
De-centering is the process of removing the
formwork from the surface of the shell. This is a
sensitive process, because the entire formwork
should be removed equally and simultaneously to
avoid dangerous asymmetric loading cases from
below. Such asymmetrical loading would induce
bending in a compression-only structure and
potentially cause cracking and failure.
Whereas the lightweight guidework of the
traditional Catalan construction method is simple
to de-center, the relatively heavy, unitized box and
palette formwork system is relatively challenging
to lower systematically. This demanded the
development of a de-centering mechanism, which
would slowly and uniformly drop the formwork
system away from the masonry surface.
To facilitate de-centering, therefore, the entire
formwork sits on top of a series of sealed plastic
tubes containing cardboard spacers, as shown in
Figure 5. Each spacer, which consists of a folded
stack of cardboard sheets, taped together, supports
the corners of typically 4 palettes. After the vault
construction is completed, the tubes are filled with


Fig. 5: a) Plan of cardboard box/ palette
formwork assembly with de-centering spacers, b)
details of cardboard de-centering elements during
compression testing in load-bearing and
saturated/ compressed states
water, saturating the cardboard,
causing it to compress under the load
of the palettes and effectively to lower
the formwork.
The dry compressive strength of the
spacers was calculated to carry the
load of the palette/box system, the in-
situ loading of the masonry shell and
the live-loading of the masons. Tests
were conducted to insure that the robust, non-water-soluble cardboard spacers could carry this
loading in a dry state, yet which would compress under the load of the palettes in a saturated state.
The de-centering elements have a bursting strength (a standard evaluation of cardboard) of at least
1700 kPA [5].
3. Discussion
One of the greatest challenges in the construction process was controlling in-situ structural stability
with a masonry pattern based on topology. The goal of supporting the masonry unit by the
formwork system was, in effect, not achievable, because the masonry unit was too coarse to
effectively touch the formwork in all places. Therefore, it was still necessary to carefully sequence
arches to prevent cracking (see Figure 4). This
required some modification of the tiling pattern on
the first layer to insure that the load would be
efficiently transferred to the supports as quickly as
possible.
Since the construction occurred in open-air,
another obstacle arose from the fine line between
the desired load-bearing capacity and
compressibility of the cardboard de-centering
spacers. This was evident in the initial installation
of the palette assembly, in which a lower quality of
cardboard was first selected. In this case, a small
amount of condensed water on the inside of the
tubes was sufficient to compress the spacers in a
12 hour time period. For such a formwork system,
both spacers and boxes, it is absolutely necessary
to control moisture and water saturation.
The final and most significant challenge is the
experimental de-centering method, the final
analysis of which is pending one week.
4. Future work
While the traditional methods of thin-tile
construction tremendously limit the forms for vault
construction, this scale prototype construction has
demonstrated that the combined application of
Thrust Network Analysis and an expandable
cardboard formwork system suggest exciting new
possibilities for the freeform, compression-only
Catalan vault.
Future work is proposed to streamline the TNA
form finding process and several aspects of

Fig. 6: Rendering of TNA-generated form



Fig. 7: Documentation of prototype construction:
a-c) General construction sequence
constructability, perhaps identifying as design criteria such factors as the maximum achievable
curvature possible for a given masonry unit size. Also, this project has suggested a beneficial
coordination between the force diagram and clear strategies for masonry pattern, sequencing and
structural stability during construction.









Fig. 8: Documentation of finished prototype

5. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Marcel Aubert for his critical efforts in materials acquisition and
industry support; vault construction assistants Oscar Mazuera Sanmiguel, Tom Van Mele, Lindsay
Howe, Luka Piskorec, Raphael Fitz, and Lex Schaul; Dominik Werne, Thomas Jaggi and Patrick
Morf for their logistical support; and industry supporters Daniel Beeler at Rigips AG and Kay
Blechschmidt and Josef Ronner at ZZ Wancor AG.
References
[1] OCHSENDORF, J., Guastavino Vaulting: The Art of Structural Tile, New York,
Princeton Architectural Press, 2009.
[2] DAVIS, L., The 4-Dimensional Masonry Construction, MArch thesis, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA, 2010.
[3] BLOCK P., Thrust Network Analysis: Exploring Three-dimensional Equilibrium, PhD
dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA, 2009.
[4] LACHAUER L., RIPPMANN M., and BLOCK P. Form Finding to Fabrication: A digital
design process for masonry vaults, Proceedings of the International Association for Shell
and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2010, Shanghai, China.
[5] Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit,
http://www.bmu.de/abfallwirtschaft/abfallarten_abfallstroeme/altpapier/doc/3146.php,
Oktober 2010, "Kurzinfo Altpapier"
[6] Information of Rondo Ganahl AG, Rotfarbweg 5, 6820 Frastanz Austria
[7] RUTTEN D., RhinoScriptTM 101 for Rhinoceros 4.0. Retrieved on April 7, 2008 from
http://en.wiki.mcneel.com/default.aspx/McNeel/RhinoScript101.html