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35J
Introduction to Aircraft
Today’s Topics
• Aircraft Performance
– Aircraft turning
– Energy analysis
– Operating envelope
– Deep dive of other performance topics for jet transport
aircraft in Lectures 6 and 7
• Aircraft longitudinal static stability
TSFC D W
empty
3600 L W
R Vf ln TO
TSFC D W
empty
W
ln TO represents aircraft weight/structures effect on range
W empty
Optimized L/D - Transport A/C
20
Losses
due to
Max (L/D)
10 shock
Concorde
waves
1 2 3
Mach No.
Ref: Shevell
Transonic Effects on Airfoil Cd, Cl
Cd
8
divergence
M<1
I. M < Mcr
8
M<1
M>1
V
8
divergence
M>1 M<1
V
8
III. M > M
drag Separated flow
8
divergence
Strategies for Mitigating Transonic Effects
• Wing sweep
– Developed by Germans. Discovered after WWII by Boeing
– Incorporated in B-52
• Area Ruling, aka “coke bottling”
– Developed by Dick Whitcomb at NASA Langley in 1954
• Kucheman in Germany and Hayes at North American contributors
– Incorporated in F-102
• Supercritical airfoils
– Developed by Dick Whitcomb at NASA Langley in 1965
• Percey at RAE had some early contributions
– Incorporated in modern military and commercial aircraft
sin P=1/ Mf
P Mf
Mn=Mfcos/ P = Mach angle,
/ the direction
disturbances
travel in
supersonic flow
• For subsonic freestreams, Mn < Mf - Lower effective “freestream”
Mach number delays onset of transonic drag rise.
• For supersonic freestreams
– Mn < 1, / > P - Subsonic leading edge
– Mn > 1, / < P - Supersonic leading edge
• Extensive analysis available, but this is gist of the concept
Wing Sweep Considerations Mf > 1
Supercritical
airfoil shape
Cp keeps upper
surface velocity
Cp, cr
from getting too
large.
Uses aft camber
x/c
to generate lift.
V
8
Gives nose
down pitching
moment.
Today’s Performance Topics
• Turning analysis
– Critical for high performance military a/c. Applicable to all.
– Horizontal, pull-up, pull-down, pull-over, vertical
– Universal M-Z turn rate chart , V-n diagram
• Energy analysis
– Critical for high performance military a/c. Applicable to all.
– Specific energy, specific excess power
– M-h diagram, min time to climb
• Operating envelope
• Back up charts for fighter aircraft
– M-Z diagram - “Doghouse” chart
– Maneuver limits and some example
– Extensive notes from Lockheed available. Ask me.
Horizontal Turn
ht path
W = L cosI, I = bank angle
Flig
But Fr = (W/g)(V2/R)
So radius of turn is
φ
L
R = V2/g(n2-1)1/2 z
Fr φ
And turn rate Z = V/R is
Z= g(n2-1)1/2 / V
R
W R
R
L
L
θ
L
R
θ W
2.5
Let TÝ Z
Vertical plane
2.0 Kθ = turn rate
Horizontal plane
turn rate Pull Over
KZ = (n+1)/(n2-1)1/2
Turn rate ratio, Kθ
1.5
Pullover from in
verted attitude
Vertical maneuver Vertical Maneuver
1.0
Pull-up from level attitude
KZ = n/(n2-1)1/2
0.5
Pull Up
0 KZ = (n-1)/(n2-1)1/2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
CL < CLmax
2nmax W
V*
Load factor n
U fCL, max S
Structural damage
possible Z
q > qmax
Stall area
Lowest
possible R
0 V
V*
CL < CLmax
Power Required
Power
PR = DV = qS(CD,0 + C2L/SARe)V PA
Excess
= qSCD,0V + qSVC2L/SARe power PR
= USCD,0V3/2 + 2n2W2/USVSARe
8
Power Available
Excess power
PA = TV and Thrust is approximately depends upon
constant with velocity, but varies velocity, altitude
linearly with density. and load factor
Altitude Effects on Excess Power
PR = (2n3W3C2D/ USC3L)1/2
So can scale between sea level “0” and
altitude “alt” assuming CD,CL const.
Valt = V0(U0/Ualt)1/2, PR,alt = PR,0(U0/Ualt)1/2
Thrust scales with density, so
PA,alt = PA,0(Ualt/U0)
Summary of Power Characteristics
• Performance topics
deal with forces and
translational motion
needed to fulfill the
aircraft mission
• Stability and control
topics deal with
moments and
rotational motion
needed for the aircraft
to remain controllable.
S&C Definitions
M
• M - pitching moment
• Longitudinal
Elevator deflection
motion/control
N
• N - rolling moment
• Directional motion/control
M
Moment coefficient: CM
q Sc
f
Rudder deflection
Aircraft Moments
CL CL
CL, max CL, max
dC αL dC αL
d d
p e= p e=
lo lo
ts ts
Lif Lif
αL=0
α αa
Lift coefficient vs geometric angle of attack, α Lift coefficient vs absolute angle of attack, αa
• Da = D + DL=0
Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability
CM,cg
CM,0 Slop
e = dC
M,c
dα g
a
αe αa
( Trimmed)
C must be positive
M,0
wC
M,cg must be negative
wD a
Implied that De is within flight range of angle of attack
for the airplane, i.e. aircraft can be trimmed
Moment Around cg
M M L (hc h c) l L
cg ac wb ac t t
wb
L
Divide by q Sc and note that C t
f L,t q S
f t
lS
C C C (h h ) t t C , or
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac cS L,t
wb
lS
C C C (h h ) V C , where V t t
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac H L ,t H cS
wb
C C C (h h ) V C
M ,cg M ,ac L wb ac H L,t
wb dCL wb
CLwb Da, wb awbDa, wb
Cl
dD
Cl, max
ª a § wH ·º
t ¨1 ¸» V a i H
CM,cg
C
M ,cg
C
M ,ac
wb
aD «( h h ) V
a «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹¼
» H t t 0
§ ·
C { ¨C ¸
M ,0 © M ,cg ¹l 0
C
M ,ac
wb
V a i H
H t t 0
CM,0 Slop
e = dC
M,c wC ª a § wH ·º
dα g M ,cg t ¨1 ¸»
a a«( h h ) V
wD «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹»
¼
αa a
αe
( Trimmed)
wC ª a § wH ·º
M ,cg t ¨1 ¸»
a«( h h ) V
wD «
¬ ac H a © wD ¹»
¼
a
• The slope of the moment curve will vary with h, the
location of cg.
• If the slope is zero, the aircraft has neutral longitudinal
static stability.
at § wH ·
• Let this location be denote by hn hac VH ¨1 ¸
a © wD ¹
wC
M ,cg
• or wD
a h h
n ahn h a u static margin
a
Aerodynamic center
cg shifts with fuel burn,
supersonic flight
configuration changes
Today’s References