Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Journal of Construction Engineering

Volume 2013, Article ID 834572, 11 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/834572
Review Article
Review of Nondestructive Testing Methods for Condition
Monitoring of Concrete Structures
Sanjeev Kumar Verma,
1
Sudhir Singh Bhadauria,
2
and Saleem Akhtar
1
1
Civil Engineering Department, University Institute of Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, Airport Road,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 462036, India
2
G.S. Institute of Technology and Science, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452003, India
Correspondence should be addressed to Sanjeev Kumar Verma; sanjeev.apm@gmail.com
Received 25 January 2013; Accepted 13 March 2013
Academic Editor: Anaclet Turatsinze
Copyright 2013 Sanjeev Kumar Verma et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Te deteriorationof concrete structures inthe last fewdecades calls for efective methods for conditionevaluationand maintenance.
Tis resulted in development of several nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques for monitoring civil infrastructures. NDT
methods have been used for more than three decades for monitoring concrete structures; now it has been recognized that NDT
plays an important role in the condition monitoring of existing RC structures. NDT methods are known to be better to assess and
evaluate the condition of RC structures practically. Tis paper reviewed several available NDT methods developed and used in the
last few decades.
1. Introduction
Testing and quality checkup are important at diferent stages
during the life of a structure. To properly maintain the
civil infrastructures, engineers required new methods of
inspection. Better inspection techniques are needed for dete-
riorating infrastructure (Rens et al., 1997) [1]. Te traditional
methodof evaluating the quality of concrete incivil structures
is to test specimens casted simultaneously for compressive,
fexural, and tensile strengths; these methods have several
disadvantages such as results are not predicted immediately,
concrete in specimens may difer from actual structure, and
strength properties of a concrete specimens depend on its size
and shape; therefore to overcome above limitations several
NDT methods have been developed. NDT methods depend
on the fact that certain physical and chemical properties
of concrete can be related to strength and durability of
structures. Tese methods have been used for more than
three decades for evaluating the condition of a structure; now
in the present century NDT has become more sophisticated,
as it has developed from a hammer to Impact Echo and
Impulse response (Lim and Cao, 2013) [2].
NDT has been defned as comprising methods used to
examine objects, materials, or systems without impairing
their future usefulness, that is, inspect or measure without
harm. NDT methods are now considered as powerful tools
for evaluating existing concrete structures withregardto their
strength and durability. NDT methods have been drawing
more and more attention, in the sense of reliability and
efectiveness. Te importance of being able to test in situ has
been recognized, and this trend is increasing as compared to
traditional randomsampling of concrete for material analysis
(Shaw and Xu, 1998) [3]. NDT methods may be categorized
as: penetration tests, rebound tests, pull out tests, dynamic
tests, and radioactive methods. According to McCann and
Forde (2001) [4]; fve major factors that need to be considered
in NDT survey are required depth of penetration, required
vertical and lateral resolution, contrast in physical properties
between target and its surrounding, signal to noise ratio for
the physical properties between the target and its surround-
ings, and historical information concerning the methods
used in the construction of the structure. Breysse et al. (2008)
[5] described the various aims of NDT methods such as to
detect the condition of RC structures, rank the structures
2 Journal of Construction Engineering
according to present condition, and compare the diferent
properties based on threshold values.
It is better practice that NDT engineers have the knowl-
edge and training of various NDT methods available for test-
ing a parameter, to select better technique form the available
methods according to the condition of structures. Use of
diferent methods for evaluating a single parameter increases
the confdence and also validates the results. Combining the
results of various NDT methods for assessing the quality of
structures has been required for better results; this aspect has
been discussed in the present paper.
Tis paper also presents brief literature review of the
recent NDT tests performed on concrete structures, followed
by a table describing advantages, limitations, and principle
of several NDT methods, and also present status and future
aspects of NDT methods have been discussed followed by a
table presenting various codes describing these methods.
2. Brief Literature Review
Nondestructive techniques are useful for evaluating the
condition of structure, by performing indirect assessment of
concrete properties. Tese techniques have been improved
in last few years and the best part is that NDT avoids
concrete damage for evaluation. Several researchers perform
NDT tests to evaluate the condition of concrete structures.
Methods range from very simple to technical depending on
the purpose.
Several mechanical and physical properties of concrete
structures can be used to assess the condition and capacity
of the structures. Sanayei et al. (2012) [6] performed static
truck load test on a newly constructed bridge, to capture the
response of bridge when a truck traveled across it. Amini
and Tehrani (2011) [7] designed experimentally four sets of
exposure conditions, weight and compressive strength of the
samples had been measured before and afer the freeze thaw
cycles, and the results were analyzed. Loizos and Papavasiliou
(2006) [8] performed a comprehensive monitoring and data
analysis research study by using Falling Weight defectome-
ter (FWD) for in situ evaluation of recycled pavements.
Proverbio and Venturi (2005) [9] evaluated the reliability of
rebound hammer test and UPV test on concrete of diferent
composition and strength. Rens et al. (2005) [10] explained
application of NDE methods for bridge inspection, which is
Bridge Evaluation Using NDT (BENT). Malavar et al. (2003)
[11] used pull of tests to evaluate efects of temperature,
moisture, and chloride content on CFRP adhesion. Pascale et
al. (2003) [12] carried out an experimental programinvolving
both destructive and nondestructive methods applied to
diferent concrete mixtures, with cube strength varying from
30 to 150 MPa, to defne a relation between strength and
parameters. Tests performed are pulse velocity, rebound
hammer, pull out, and probe penetration, microcoring and
combined methods. Almir and Protasio (2000) [13] used
NDT methods to determine the compressive strength of
concrete relationship between the measured mechanical or
physical properties and the strength and also presented the
validity of pull of, pin penetration, and UPVfor assessing the
concrete strength. Chenet al. (1995) [14] presented fndings of
research on fber optic bragg gratings as stress/strain sensors
for monitoring the critical sections of composite beams.
Several researchers performed diferent types of NDT
tests such as mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, and
magnetic methods to evaluate the condition by combining
the results. Rens and Kim (2007) [15] inspected a steel bridge
using several NDT methods such as visual inspection, ham-
mer sounding, Schmidt hammer, and UPV testing including
tomographic imaging; results of NDT had been used to
determine areas, to be tested with local destructive tests such
as compressive strength, chloride testing, and petrographic
testing. Magnetic concrete cover meters are widely used to
estimate the cover to steel bars. Bhadauria and Gupta (2007)
[16] presented case study of deteriorated water tanks situated
in the semitropical region of India. Parameters measured are
concrete cover, carbonation depth, chloride concentration,
compressive strength, and so forth. NDT methods used are
cover meter, Phenolphthalein indicator test, Quantab test,
Potentiometric Titration, Schists hammer test, and UPV
test. Amleh and Mirza (2004) [17] performed concrete cover
test, Half cell Potential, corrosion rate, electrical resistivity,
chloride content at steel level (%), steel bar mass loss (%),
absorption, pulse velocity, compressive strength, carbonation
depth, petrographic examination, and permeability test. Dias
and Jayanandana (2003) [18] used nondestructive techniques
of visual inspection, perusal of drawings, ultrasonic pulse
velocity measurements, cover-meter surveys, and core test-
ing for the condition assessment; parameters required for
evaluating the durability had been identifed as (1) depth of
carbonation; (2) cover to reinforcement; (3) chloride con-
tent; and (4) sulfate content. Bruhwiler and Mivelaz (1999)
[19] highlighted the fndings of two studies (i) investigated
chloride ingress under given climatic conditions and in situ
evaluation of concrete cover, (ii) used numerical models
to investigate the efects of early age cracking and also
determines preventive measures to be taken to limit the
development of cracks.
Propagation of waves or refection of diferent rays such
as X-ray, through concrete structures, can be used to detect
the deterioration level of concrete structures. Impact echo
method has been used by many researchers to evaluate the
condition of concrete. In this method a spring loaded device
is used to generate waves, and these waves are used to
detect condition of structures. Kamal and Boulfza (2011)
[20] assessed penetration of alkalis using X-ray mapping of
backscattered electron images (BEI) and crosschecked by line
and point energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) techniques.
Shiotani et al. (2009) [21] used Acoustic Emission (AE)
technique to evaluate the structural condition of a concrete
bridge. Cascante et al. (2008) [22] presented a methodology
for the ND evaluation using the multichannel analysis of
surface waves (MASW).
Zhu and Popovics (2007) [23] applied air coupled impact
echo (IE) for NDE of concrete structures; air couple sensor
is a small (6.3 mm dia.) measurement microphone located
several cms above the top surface of the concrete being eval-
uated. Results show that air-coupled sensors are efective for
IE tests. Nachiappan and Cho (2005) [24] analyzed corrosion
Journal of Construction Engineering 3
products using X-ray difraction and atomic absorption
spectroscopy to fnd mineral present in them. Gibson and
Popovics (2005) [25] proposed a new approach for NDE of
concrete structures based on guided wave theory Impact
Echo resonance in plates corresponds to the zero-group-
velocity frequency of the S1 lamb mode. Akuthota et al.
(2004) [26] presented the experimental results of using near
feld microwave NDT techniques for detecting disbond in a
specially prepared carbon fber reinforced polymer (CFRP)
reinforced mortar sample. Gassman and Tawhed (2004) [27]
presented the results of an NDE testing program performed
to assess the damage in concrete bridge by using impact echo
method. Paulson and Wit (2003) [28] described the use of
acoustic monitoring system to manage concrete structures,
by presenting two case studies. As concrete and steel both
are excellent acoustic transmitters, this technique is useful
for concrete structures. Grosse al. (2003) [29] described the
use of signal-based acoustic emission techniques in civil
engineering. Popovics et al. (1998) [30] reviewed one-sided
stress wave measurement method in concrete. Tis method
provides valuable information on the state of material, when
access to only one side surface is possible, such as for the
case of concrete pavements. Nagy (1997) [31] discusseda NDE
method for determining E (Youngs modulus) of concrete at
very early ages, by measuring dynamic response frequency on
concrete prism with Fourier Transform (FTT) analyzer.
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is another method
to locate the rebars, voids, and other defects in concrete
structures. Chen and Wimsatt (2010) [32] used 400 MHz
ground-coupled penetrating radar (GCPR) to evaluate the
subsurface conditions of roadway pavements. Yehia et al.
(2007) [33] studied the diferent NDE techniques used to
assess the condition of concrete bridge deck. Experiments
performed are infrared thermography, impact echo, and
ground penetrating radar (GPR) to detect common faws
in concrete bridge decks. Maierhofer (2003) [34] presented
the importance and limitations of ground penetrating radar
(GPR) methods. Maser (1996) [35] discussedGPRtechnology
that has been applied to the evaluation of pavements, bridge
decks, abutments, piers, and other construction facilities to
assess conditions and to evaluate damage and deterioration
that develops over time.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity is used by many researchers
for the assessment of concrete properties by using travel
time of longitudinal waves over a known distance. Sharma
and Mukherje (2011) [36] used ultrasonic guided waves for
monitoring progression of rebar corrosion in chloride and
oxide environment. Terzic and Pavlovic (2010) [37] applied
NDT methods that is Image Pro Plus (IPP) and Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity (UPV), on the corundum and bauxite-based
refractory concretes. Shah and Hirose (2010) [38] presented
an experimental investigation of the concrete applying non-
linear ultrasonic testing technique. Ervin et al. (2009) [39]
created an ultrasonic sensing network to assess reinforce-
ment deterioration. Guided ultrasonic waves had been used
to monitor reinforced mortar specimens under accelerated
uniform and localized corrosion. Stergiopoulou et al. (2008)
[40] presented a procedure for NDT of urban concrete
infrastructures using UPV measurements and applied to
concrete garages. UPV has been used as an indicator of
concrete quality. Yoshida and Irie (2006) [41] proposed a
macroscopic ultrasonic method, which allows measurement
of concrete thickness, crack width, and characteristics using
the concrete surface sonic speed. Dilek (2006) [42] discussed
the use of pulse velocity, Youngs modulus of elasticity, and
air permeability of concrete to evaluate the extent of damage
of a concrete. Abo-Quadais (2005) [43] conducted an exper-
imental study to evaluate the efects of concrete aggregate
degradation, w/c ratio, and curing time on measured UPV.
Equipment used in this study was the portable ultrasonic
ND digital indicating tester (PUNDIT). Lee et al. (2004)
[44] used UPV methods for determining setting time of
concrete especially high-performance concrete (HPC). Shah
et al. (2000) [45] described laboratory-based NDEtechniques
based on measurements of mechanical waves that propagate
in the concrete. Ultrasonic longitudinal wave (L-wave or P-
wave) signal transmission measurements have been applied
to detect the present of damage in the form of distributed
cracking in concrete. Davis et al. (1997) [46] introduced
several NDE techniques including UPV, impulse response,
parallel seismic, and cross-hole sonic logging for evaluat-
ing concrete quality of hazardous waste tanks. Rens and
Greimann (1997) [47] presented the concept and application
of using ultrasonic continuous spread-spectrum signal for
monitoring and identifcation of deteriorating infrastructure.
Te new ultrasonic NDE method called direct-sequence
spread-spectrum ultrasonic evaluation (DSSSSUE) is now
being developed.
Several NDT methods utilize electrical properties of
concrete structures to assess the condition of structures. El-
Dakhakhni et al. (2010) [48] developed a technique based on
local dielectric permittivity for detecting ungrouted cells in
concrete block masonry constructions, andthis has beenused
to design coplanar capacitance sensors with high sensitivities
to detect construction defects. Nassr and El-Dakhakhni
(2009) [49] presented in situ NDE technique using Coplanar
Capacitance Sensors (CCSs) to detect variation of material
dielectric for damage detectioninFRP-strengthenedconcrete
structures and also described several NDE techniques such as
radiography, ultrasonic testing, and infrared thermography.
Rajabipour et al. (2005) [50] discussed the interpretation of
electrical conductivity measurements in concrete to assess
water penetration. Liu et al. (2002) [51] developed a non-
destructive evaluation technique, time domain refectometry
(TDR) that is capable of determining the locationandseverity
of corrosion of embedded or encased steel rebar and cables.
Electrochemical methods are also developed and used
by many researchers to detect the deterioration level of
structures. Sangoju et al. (2011) [52] studied the corrosion
behavior of steel in cracked Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) and Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) concretes
by measuring chloride ion penetrability, sorptivity, half-cell
potential, resistivity, total charge passed, and gravimetric
weight loss. So and Millard (2007) [53] discussed a method
for rapid assessment of the corrosion rate of reinforcing
steel in concrete structures by measuring transient potential
response using galvanostatic pulse perturbation. Corrosion
rate calculated has been compared with the corrosion rate
4 Journal of Construction Engineering
obtained from linear polarization resistance (LPR) method.
Parthiban et al. (2006) [54] carried out potential surveys on
the concrete structures. Among all electrochemical methods
potential measurement is the mostly used feld technique
for detecting corrosion activity in steel. Bola and Newtson
(2005) [55] selected fve sites for feld evaluation of reinforce-
ment corrosion, permeability, chloride ion concentration,
half-cell potential, polarization resistance, and pH value.
Corrosion is evaluated by half-cell potential measurements,
polarization resistance measurements, and visual inspection
of bars. Bavarian and Reiner (2004) [56] applied electro-
chemical monitoring technique onsamples immersedin3.5%
NaCl solution, to monitor corrosion behavior. McCarter and
Vennesland (2004) [57] presented a review of sensors and
associated monitoring systems used to evaluate corrosion
activity, concrete resistivity, oxygen availability, carbonation,
and chloride ingress within a structure. Pal et al. (2002)
[58] investigated the rate and amount of corrosion of steel
in concrete. Tests performed for analyzing corrosion are
half-cell potential, potentiodynamic, accelerated electrolytic
corrosion tests, and accelerated carbonation test. Costa and
Appleton (2002) [59] described a series of case studies of dif-
ferent types of concrete structures, subjected to harsh marine
environment that deteriorated due to chloride-induced cor-
rosion. Tests performed for indepth inspection are chloride
content, electrical resistivity, and half-cell potential using
Ag/AgCl electrode. Klingofer et al. (2000) [60] developed
a nondestructive polarization technique for RC structures
called as galvanostatic pulse method. Bjegovic et al. (2000)
[61] described the electrochemical and nonelectrochemical
methods of determining corrosion rate of concrete. Carnio
(1999) [62] presented study of three electrochemical NDT
methods to investigate the status of corrosion in RC mem-
bers half-cell potential, concrete resistivity, and polarization
resistance.
Vibration-based techniques can be used to monitor the
concrete structures. Bagchi et al. (2010) [63] applied cost
efective and easy to implement, vibration-based damage
identifcation (VBDI) techniques for Structural Health Mon-
itoring of a bridge, based on changes in the dynamic charac-
teristics of a structure to determine the location and extent of
damage in the structure. Hsieh et al. (2006) [64] described
the use of vibrational monitoring in the feld of structural
analysis for detecting and locating structural damage for the
purpose of structural health monitoring. Ma et al. (2005) [65]
proposed a method of detecting, locating, and quantifying
structural damage by measuring structural vibrations. In this
study, damage has been assumed to be represented by change
in stifness. For monitoring the health condition of a civil
infrastructure before or afer seismic event, various methods
have been developed such as Lamb wave and eddy current.
Permeability or porosity of concrete structures is respon-
sible for the difusion of harmful agents in the concrete.
Deo et al. (2010) [66] evaluated volumetric porosity by
image analysis and hydraulic conductivity by a falling head
permeability cell. Durham et al. (2007) [67] examined the
causes of longitudinal cracking deterioration by performing
investigation such as site bridge inspections, determining live
load positions, testing for concrete permeability, collecting
local relative humidity data, and determining the in situ
moisture content of the beams. It is important to determine
near surface characteristics of concrete which promotes the
ingress of gases or liquids containing dissolved contaminates.
McCarter et al. (2001) [68] presented the arrangements of
Covercrete sensors for in situ monitoring of cover zone
properties. Lampacher and Blight (1998) [69] investigated
oxygen permeability and water sorption for the inservice
structures of 2030 years age. Al-qadi et al. (1997) [70]
conducted an experimental program to study the efect of
chloride contamination of Portland cement concrete (PCC)
on its complex permittivity over low radio frequency (RF)
range (0.1 40.1 MHz). Classie et al. (1997) [71] studied test
to obtain absorption and sorptivity of cover concrete and
modeled them by equation of capillary suction and perme-
ability. Tests performed are initial surface absorption test
(ISAT), Covercrete absorption test (CAT), and the sorptivity
test. Blight and Lampacher (1995) [72] described the results
of an investigation on the use of Covercrete absorption test
(CAT) as an in situ technique for assessing the near surface
permeation properties of concrete.
3. Available NDT Methods for Evaluating
RC Structures
NDTmethods for assessing the concrete structures have been
classifed by many researchers based on the governing prin-
ciple. McCann and Forde (2001) [4] described fve types of
NDT methods: sonic/ultrasonic, electromagnetic methods,
electrical methods, infra-redthermography, andradiography.
Rens et al. (1997) [1] discussed fve diferent types of NDT
techniques: acoustic emission, thermal methods, ultrasonic
methods, magnetic methods, and vibration analysis. Maier-
hofer et al. (2010) [73] discussed deterioration mechanisms of
reinforced concrete structures with standard testing methods
such as microscopic examination of concrete, determination
of chloride content. Maierhofer et al. (2010) [74] discussed
planning and implementation of NDTmethods for structural
health monitoring and reviewed several methods including
wireless monitoring, electromagnetic and acoustic waves,
magnetic fux leakage, electrical resistivity, and measuring
corrosion rate. Successful use of NDT methods required
good knowledge of principles, advantages, and limitations of
methods. Diferent NDT methods and parameter measured
by it have been presented in Table 1.
4. Various National and International Codes
Accepting NDT Methods
Several national and international codes of practice accepted
and include the NDT methods: List of tests and diferent
codes accepting the test methods are shown in Table 2.
5. Discussion
An NDT method provides indirect results which can be
related to various properties of concrete structures. In the
last few decades NDT methods have been developed form
Journal of Construction Engineering 5
T
a
b
l
e
1
:
D
i
f
e
r
e
n
t
N
D
T
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
a
n
d
p
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
.
S
.
n
o
.
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
N
D
T
m
e
t
h
o
d
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
L
i
m
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
V
i
s
u
a
l
i
n
s
p
e
c
t
i
o
n
R
a
p
i
d
,
e
c
o
n
o
m
i
c
a
l
E
x
p
e
r
t
i
s
e
i
s
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
,
s
u
p
e
r
f
c
i
a
l
,
a
n
d
d
e
p
e
n
d
s
u
p
o
n
s
k
i
l
l
o
f
v
i
e
w
e
r
B
a
s
e
d
o
n
t
h
e
v
i
s
u
a
l
d
e
f
e
c
t
s
o
n
t
h
e
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
I
m
a
g
e
P
r
o
P
l
u
s
(
I
P
P
)
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
r
a
p
i
d
,
c
h
e
a
p
e
r
S
l
o
w
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
C
o
m
p
a
r
i
n
g
c
o
l
o
r
s
o
f
d
i
f
e
r
e
n
t
o
b
j
e
c
t
s
A
c
o
u
s
t
i
c
e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
(
A
E
)
F
a
s
t
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
,
d
e
t
e
c
t
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
i
n
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s
C
o
s
t
l
y
,
d
e
f
e
c
t
s
a
l
r
e
a
d
y
p
r
e
s
e
n
t
a
r
e
n
o
t
d
e
t
e
c
t
e
d
S
u
d
d
e
n
d
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
o
f
s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s
g
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
s
e
l
a
s
t
i
c
w
a
v
e
s
I
m
p
a
c
t
e
c
h
o
A
b
l
e
t
o
d
e
t
e
c
t
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
o
f
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
a
c
c
e
s
s
i
b
l
e
f
r
o
m
o
n
e
s
i
d
e
o
n
l
y
,
q
u
i
c
k
,
a
c
c
u
r
a
t
e
,
a
n
d
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
I
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
i
s
d
i
f
c
u
l
t
,
r
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
d
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
s
w
i
t
h
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
i
n
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
,
a
n
d
a
c
c
u
r
a
c
y
d
e
p
e
n
d
s
o
n
i
m
p
a
c
t
d
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
r
e
f
e
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
m
a
g
n
e
t
i
c
w
a
v
e
s
1
I
n
f
r
a
r
e
d
t
h
e
r
m
o
g
r
a
p
h
y
E
a
s
y
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
,
s
i
m
p
l
e
,
s
a
f
e
,
n
o
r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
,
r
a
p
i
d
s
e
t
u
p
,
a
n
d
p
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
N
o
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
a
b
o
u
t
d
e
p
t
h
o
r
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
o
f
d
e
f
e
c
t
s
,
a
n
d
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
a
f
e
c
t
e
d
b
y
e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
S
u
r
f
a
c
e
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
q
u
a
l
i
t
y
,
c
r
a
c
k
s
,
d
e
f
e
c
t
s
,
a
n
d
v
o
i
d
s
O
n
e
-
s
i
d
e
d
s
i
g
n
a
l
w
a
v
e
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
U
s
e
d
t
o
d
e
t
e
c
t
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s
a
c
c
e
s
s
i
b
l
e
f
r
o
m
o
n
e
s
i
d
e
o
n
l
y
s
u
c
h
a
s
p
a
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
L
a
r
g
e
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
a
f
e
c
t
s
t
h
e
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
P
r
o
p
a
g
a
t
i
o
n
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
o
f
s
i
g
n
a
l
w
a
v
e
s
I
m
p
u
l
s
e
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
e
a
s
y
t
o
h
a
n
d
l
e
D
e
p
e
n
d
s
o
n
t
h
e
s
k
i
l
l
o
f
u
s
e
r
,
a
n
d
d
e
e
p
d
a
m
a
g
e
s
i
n
f
u
e
n
c
e
t
h
e
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
B
a
s
e
d
o
n
s
t
r
e
s
s
w
a
v
e
t
e
s
t
m
e
t
h
o
d
R
a
d
i
o
g
r
a
p
h
y
T
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
a
n
d
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
c
a
n
b
e
e
a
s
i
l
y
d
e
t
e
c
t
e
d
,
a
n
d
r
e
b
a
r
s
c
a
n
b
e
l
o
c
a
t
e
d
E
x
p
e
n
s
i
v
e
,
h
a
z
a
r
d
o
u
s
,
a
n
d
l
i
m
i
t
e
d
t
o
l
o
w
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
o
f
X
a
n
d
g
a
m
m
a
r
a
y
s
a
n
d
i
t
s
a
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n
P
e
t
r
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
c
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
P
r
o
v
i
d
e
s
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
a
b
o
u
t
a
l
k
a
l
i
-
s
i
l
i
c
a
r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
,
a
l
k
a
l
i
c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
i
o
n
r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
,
s
u
l
f
a
t
e
a
t
t
a
c
k
,
f
r
e
e
z
i
n
g
,
a
n
d
t
h
a
w
i
n
g
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
h
i
g
h
s
k
i
l
l
f
o
r
t
h
e
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
r
e
s
u
l
t
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
a
r
e
e
x
a
m
i
n
e
d
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
a
p
e
t
r
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
m
i
c
r
o
s
c
o
p
e
u
s
i
n
g
r
e
f
e
c
t
e
d
o
r
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
d
l
i
g
h
t
L
a
m
b
W
a
v
e
T
e
o
r
y
(
L
W
T
)
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
l
y
a
c
c
u
r
a
t
e
D
i
f
c
u
l
t
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
B
a
s
e
d
o
n
g
u
i
d
e
d
w
a
v
e
t
h
e
o
r
y
R
e
b
o
u
n
d
h
a
m
m
e
r
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
q
u
i
c
k
,
a
n
d
i
n
e
x
p
e
n
s
i
v
e
N
o
t
s
o
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
,
s
m
o
o
t
h
n
e
s
s
,
a
g
e
o
f
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
,
c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
m
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
c
a
n
a
f
e
c
t
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
R
e
b
o
u
n
d
o
f
p
l
u
n
g
e
r
w
h
e
n
s
t
r
u
c
k
e
d
w
i
t
h
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
s
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
p
u
l
s
e
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
U
P
V
)
Q
u
i
c
k
,
p
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
,
l
a
r
g
e
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
d
e
p
t
h
,
S
i
m
p
l
e
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
m
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
c
o
s
t
N
o
t
v
e
r
y
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
,
m
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
p
r
e
s
e
n
c
e
o
f
r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
m
e
n
t
c
a
n
a
f
e
c
t
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
w
a
v
e
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
a
n
d
i
t
s
a
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n
2
C
A
P
O
t
e
s
t
C
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
p
u
l
l
o
u
t
f
o
r
c
e
a
n
d
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
i
s
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
D
a
m
a
g
e
t
o
t
h
e
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
E
x
p
a
n
d
e
d
r
i
n
g
i
n
t
h
e
c
o
r
e
d
h
o
l
e
i
s
p
u
l
l
e
d
o
u
t
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
h
a
r
d
n
e
s
s
,
a
d
h
e
s
i
o
n
P
r
o
b
e
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
n
e
e
d
s
l
e
s
s
t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
,
a
n
d
l
o
w
m
a
i
n
t
e
n
a
n
c
e
L
e
a
v
e
a
h
o
l
e
i
n
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
,
a
n
d
c
o
a
r
s
e
a
g
g
r
e
g
a
t
e
s
a
f
e
c
t
t
h
e
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
p
r
o
b
e
i
s
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
a
n
d
r
e
l
a
t
e
d
t
o
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
m
i
c
r
o
c
o
r
i
n
g
G
o
o
d
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
t
e
s
t
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
a
n
d
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
D
e
p
e
n
d
s
o
n
t
h
e
p
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
s
E
x
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
m
i
c
r
o
c
o
r
e
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
f
r
o
m
a
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
i
s
u
s
e
d
f
o
r
a
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
P
u
l
l
o
f
t
e
s
t
F
a
s
t
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
,
e
v
a
l
u
a
t
e
a
d
h
e
s
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
t
e
n
s
i
l
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
w
h
i
c
h
c
a
n
b
e
c
o
n
v
e
r
t
e
d
t
o
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
D
a
m
a
g
e
t
o
t
h
e
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
A
d
i
s
c
i
s
b
o
n
d
e
d
t
o
t
h
e
t
e
s
t
i
n
g
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
,
a
n
d
w
h
e
n
d
i
s
c
i
s
p
u
l
l
e
d
o
f
,
f
o
r
c
e
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
i
s
u
s
e
d
t
o
o
b
t
a
i
n
p
u
l
l
o
f
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
6 Journal of Construction Engineering
T
a
b
l
e
1
:
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
.
S
.
n
o
.
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
N
D
T
m
e
t
h
o
d
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
L
i
m
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
Q
u
a
n
t
a
b
t
e
s
t
F
a
s
t
a
n
d
a
c
c
u
r
a
t
e
E
x
p
e
n
s
i
v
e
,
h
a
z
a
r
d
o
u
s
,
l
i
m
i
t
e
d
t
o
l
o
w
t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
R
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
s
i
l
v
e
r
d
i
c
h
r
o
m
a
t
e
w
i
t
h
c
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
i
o
n
p
r
o
d
u
c
e
s
w
h
i
t
e
c
o
l
u
m
n
o
n
t
h
e
s
t
r
i
p
s
3
C
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
o
m
e
t
r
i
c
t
i
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
R
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
s
s
k
i
l
l
e
d
p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l
U
s
i
n
g
a
c
i
d
o
r
w
a
t
e
r
s
o
l
u
b
l
e
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
,
t
h
e
f
n
a
l
v
o
l
u
m
e
w
i
l
l
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
c
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
R
a
p
i
d
c
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
t
e
s
t
P
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
,
s
i
m
p
l
e
,
a
n
d
q
u
i
c
k
V
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
i
n
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
b
y
t
h
e
p
r
e
s
e
n
c
e
o
f
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
o
f
u
n
k
n
o
w
n
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
i
s
c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d
w
i
t
h
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
d
i
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
o
f
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s
w
i
t
h
k
n
o
w
n
c
h
l
o
r
i
d
e
c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
G
a
l
v
a
n
o
s
t
a
t
i
c
p
u
l
s
e
m
e
t
h
o
d
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
s
h
a
l
f
-
c
e
l
l
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
a
n
d
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
s
i
m
u
l
t
a
n
e
o
u
s
l
y
U
n
s
t
a
b
i
l
i
z
e
d
r
e
a
d
i
n
g
s
B
a
s
e
d
o
n
t
h
e
p
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
r
e
b
a
r
b
y
m
e
a
n
s
o
f
s
m
a
l
l
c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
L
i
n
e
a
r
p
o
l
a
r
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
(
L
P
R
)
R
a
p
i
d
,
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
s
o
n
l
y
l
o
c
a
l
i
z
e
d
d
a
m
a
g
e
,
m
o
r
e
d
e
t
a
i
l
e
d
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
a
r
e
a
f
e
c
t
e
d
b
y
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
a
n
d
h
u
m
i
d
i
t
y
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
o
f
f
u
i
d
c
a
n
b
e
r
e
l
a
t
e
d
t
o
i
t
s
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
v
e
n
e
s
s
4
H
a
l
f
-
c
e
l
l
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
p
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
,
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
i
n
t
h
e
f
o
r
m
o
f
e
q
u
i
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
c
o
n
t
o
u
r
s
N
e
e
d
s
p
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n
,
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
,
n
o
t
v
e
r
y
a
c
c
u
r
a
t
e
,
a
n
d
t
i
m
e
c
o
n
s
u
m
i
n
g
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
o
f
r
e
b
a
r
s
i
s
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
t
o
h
a
l
f
c
e
l
l
a
n
d
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
s
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
o
f
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
r
a
t
e
,
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
o
f
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
,
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
p
r
o
g
r
e
s
s
T
i
m
e
d
o
m
a
i
n
r
e
f
e
c
t
o
m
e
t
r
y
(
T
D
R
)
M
o
r
e
r
o
b
u
s
t
,
e
a
s
y
,
l
o
c
a
t
e
s
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
i
d
e
n
t
i
f
e
s
e
x
t
e
n
t
o
f
d
a
m
a
g
e
L
e
s
s
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
B
y
a
p
p
l
y
i
n
g
a
s
e
n
s
o
r
w
i
r
e
a
l
o
n
g
s
i
d
e
o
f
t
h
e
r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
m
e
n
t
a
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
l
i
n
e
i
s
c
r
e
a
t
e
d
.
P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
d
e
f
e
c
t
s
o
f
t
h
e
r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
m
e
n
t
w
i
l
l
c
h
a
n
g
e
t
h
e
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
m
a
g
n
e
t
i
c
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
l
i
n
e
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
g
u
i
d
e
d
w
a
v
e
s
I
d
e
n
t
i
f
e
s
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
o
f
c
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n
N
o
t
v
e
r
y
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
B
a
s
e
d
o
n
p
r
o
p
a
g
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
u
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
w
a
v
e
s
X
-
R
a
y
d
i
f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
a
t
o
m
i
c
a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
S
i
m
p
l
e
a
n
d
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
h
a
z
a
r
d
o
u
s
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
o
f
X
-
r
a
y
b
e
a
m
s
r
e
d
u
c
e
s
w
h
i
l
e
p
a
s
s
i
n
g
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
a
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
5
P
h
e
n
o
l
p
h
t
h
a
l
e
i
n
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
t
e
s
t
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
q
u
i
c
k
,
a
n
d
i
n
e
x
p
e
n
s
i
v
e
I
n
a
p
p
r
o
p
r
i
a
t
e
f
o
r
d
a
r
k
a
g
g
r
e
g
a
t
e
s
,
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
a
f
e
c
t
e
d
b
y
s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
C
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
i
o
n
r
e
d
u
c
e
s
p
H
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
C
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
i
o
n
d
e
p
t
h
,
p
H
o
f
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
R
a
i
n
b
o
w
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
Q
u
i
c
k
,
d
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
i
v
e
,
a
n
d
e
a
s
y
t
o
u
s
e
a
n
d
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
s
d
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
o
f
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
u
p
t
o
r
e
b
a
r
d
e
p
t
h
C
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
i
o
n
r
e
d
u
c
e
s
p
H
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
G
r
o
u
n
d
-
c
o
u
p
l
e
d
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
n
g
r
a
d
a
r
(
G
P
R
)
L
o
w
c
o
s
t
,
p
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
,
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
C
o
m
p
l
e
x
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
,
d
i
f
c
u
l
t
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
P
r
o
p
a
g
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
r
a
d
i
o
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
(
0
.
5
t
o
2
G
H
Z
)
6
H
a
m
m
e
r
s
o
u
n
d
i
n
g
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
e
a
s
y
t
o
h
a
n
d
l
e
D
e
p
e
n
d
s
o
n
t
h
e
s
k
i
l
l
o
f
u
s
e
r
,
a
n
d
d
e
e
p
d
a
m
a
g
e
s
i
n
f
u
e
n
c
e
t
h
e
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
S
u
r
f
a
c
e
i
s
s
t
r
i
k
e
d
w
i
t
h
h
a
m
m
e
r
a
n
d
h
o
l
l
o
w
o
r
d
u
l
l
t
o
n
e
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
s
t
h
e
e
x
i
s
t
e
n
c
e
o
f
d
e
l
a
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
P
a
v
e
m
e
n
t
i
n
s
p
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
s
u
b
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
A
c
o
u
s
t
i
c
t
o
m
o
g
r
a
p
h
y
U
s
e
f
u
l
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
,
m
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
s
s
k
i
l
l
,
h
i
g
h
c
o
s
t
W
a
v
e
s
w
e
r
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
d
o
n
o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e
s
i
d
e
,
a
n
d
w
a
v
e
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
d
e
p
e
n
d
s
o
n
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
F
a
l
l
i
n
g
w
e
i
g
h
t
d
e
f
e
c
t
m
e
t
e
r
(
F
W
D
)
U
s
e
f
u
l
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
C
a
n
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
m
i
s
l
e
a
d
i
n
g
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
a
n
d
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
s
e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
f
o
r
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
L
o
a
d
i
s
p
r
o
d
u
c
e
d
b
y
d
r
o
p
p
i
n
g
a
l
a
r
g
e
w
e
i
g
h
t
t
o
d
e
t
e
c
t
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
7
C
h
a
i
n
d
r
a
g
S
i
m
p
l
e
,
p
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
T
i
m
e
c
o
n
s
u
m
i
n
g
,
t
e
d
i
o
u
s
C
h
a
i
n
i
s
d
r
a
g
g
e
d
o
v
e
r
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
f
o
r
f
a
w
d
e
t
e
c
t
i
o
n
F
l
a
w
d
e
t
e
c
t
i
o
n
i
n
s
i
d
e
d
e
c
k
s
,
d
e
l
a
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
,
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
e
x
t
e
n
t
o
f
d
a
m
a
g
e
i
n
b
r
i
d
g
e
s
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
b
a
s
e
d
d
a
m
a
g
e
i
d
e
n
t
i
f
c
a
t
i
o
n
(
V
B
D
I
)
E
a
s
y
t
o
i
m
p
l
e
m
e
n
t
,
c
o
s
t
e
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
,
e
r
r
o
r
s
i
n
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
,
a
n
d
n
o
n
u
n
i
q
u
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
s
B
a
s
e
d
o
n
c
h
a
n
g
e
s
i
n
t
h
e
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
o
f
a
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
Journal of Construction Engineering 7
T
a
b
l
e
1
:
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
.
S
.
n
o
.
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
N
D
T
m
e
t
h
o
d
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
L
i
m
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
P
r
i
n
c
i
p
l
e
S
e
i
s
m
i
c
r
e
f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
m
e
t
h
o
d
C
a
l
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
i
s
n
o
t
n
e
c
e
s
s
a
r
y
,
m
o
r
e
r
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
V
a
l
i
d
f
o
r
h
i
g
h
s
p
e
e
d
f
o
r
l
a
r
g
e
d
e
p
t
h
s
S
e
i
s
m
i
c
w
a
v
e
s
t
r
a
v
e
l
o
u
t
w
a
r
d
f
r
o
m
a
s
o
u
r
c
e
a
n
d
r
e
a
c
h
a
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r
8
E
n
t
i
r
e
d
e
p
t
h
o
f
d
a
m
a
g
e
,
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
o
f
d
a
m
a
g
e
,
i
d
e
n
t
i
f
c
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
d
e
t
e
r
i
o
r
a
t
i
n
g
i
n
f
r
a
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
l
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l
w
a
v
e
s
(
L
-
w
a
v
e
,
P
-
w
a
v
e
)
I
n
s
p
e
c
t
a
l
s
o
a
t
l
a
r
g
e
d
e
p
t
h
s
N
o
t
a
p
p
r
o
p
r
i
a
t
e
a
s
p
r
i
m
a
r
y
i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
a
t
i
o
n
m
e
t
h
o
d
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
r
e
f
e
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
u
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
w
a
v
e
s
U
l
t
r
a
s
o
n
i
c
c
o
n
t
i
n
o
u
s
s
p
r
e
a
d
s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m
s
i
g
n
a
l
I
m
p
r
o
v
e
d
s
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
i
t
y
D
i
f
c
u
l
t
i
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
a
t
i
o
n
S
i
g
n
a
l
s
a
r
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
d
b
y
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r
s
a
n
d
s
i
g
n
a
l
s
p
e
e
d
d
e
p
e
n
d
s
o
n
d
e
f
e
c
t
W
a
t
e
r
p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
t
e
s
t
P
r
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
s
k
i
l
l
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
,
t
i
m
e
c
o
n
s
u
m
i
n
g
S
e
m
i
d
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
e
t
y
p
e
t
e
s
t
A
s
s
e
s
s
e
s
t
h
e
e
a
s
e
w
i
t
h
w
h
i
c
h
w
a
t
e
r
p
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
e
s
i
n
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
9
P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,
w
a
t
e
r
a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
I
n
i
t
i
a
l
S
u
r
f
a
c
e
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
T
e
s
t
(
I
S
A
T
)
C
o
n
s
i
s
t
e
n
t
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
i
n
l
a
b
o
r
a
t
o
r
y
P
r
o
b
l
e
m
s
i
n
u
s
i
n
g
i
n
s
i
t
u
,
a
f
e
c
t
e
d
b
y
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
i
n
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
R
a
t
e
a
t
w
h
i
c
h
w
a
t
e
r
i
s
a
b
s
o
r
b
e
d
i
n
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
i
s
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
C
o
v
e
r
c
r
e
t
e
a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
t
e
s
t
(
C
A
T
)
N
o
t
i
n
f
u
e
n
c
e
d
b
y
l
o
c
a
l
s
u
r
f
a
c
e
a
t
t
a
c
k
s
S
e
n
s
i
t
i
v
e
t
o
W
/
C
r
a
t
i
o
,
c
u
r
i
n
g
t
i
m
e
a
n
d
m
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
R
a
t
e
o
f
a
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
o
f
c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
i
s
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
1
0
C
o
v
e
r
m
e
t
e
r
P
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
S
l
o
w
,
a
f
e
c
t
e
d
b
y
d
e
e
p
c
o
v
e
r
a
n
d
c
l
o
s
e
l
y
s
p
a
c
e
d
b
a
r
s
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
m
a
g
n
e
t
i
c
i
n
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
c
o
v
e
r
,
r
e
b
a
r
d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
,
l
o
c
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
m
e
n
t
R
a
d
i
o
a
c
t
i
v
e
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
S
i
m
p
l
e
H
a
z
a
r
d
o
u
s
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
e
s
i
m
a
g
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
o
f
R
C
a
n
d
s
t
e
e
l
1
3
L
o
a
d
b
e
a
r
i
n
g
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
o
f
b
r
i
d
g
e
S
t
a
t
i
c
t
r
u
c
k
l
o
a
d
t
e
s
t
R
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
D
a
n
g
e
r
o
u
s
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
o
f
s
t
r
a
i
n
s
e
n
s
o
r
s
u
n
d
e
r
t
r
u
c
k
l
o
a
d
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
s
l
o
a
d
b
e
a
r
i
n
g
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
1
4
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
c
o
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
o
f
b
r
i
c
k
m
a
s
o
n
r
y
s
i
d
e
w
a
l
l
s
M
u
l
t
i
c
h
a
n
n
e
l
A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
o
f
S
u
r
f
a
c
e
W
a
v
e
s
(
M
A
S
W
)
R
e
l
i
a
b
l
e
,
f
a
s
t
a
n
d
e
c
o
n
o
m
i
c
a
l
E
x
p
e
n
s
i
v
e
,
t
i
m
e
c
o
n
s
u
m
i
n
g
U
s
e
s
m
u
l
t
i
p
l
e
s
e
n
s
o
r
s
t
o
r
e
c
o
r
d
w
a
v
e
f
e
l
d
1
5
D
e
t
e
c
t
i
n
g
d
i
s
b
a
n
d
s
M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e
N
D
T
m
e
t
h
o
d
D
e
t
e
c
t
s
f
r
o
m
o
n
e
s
i
d
e
,
r
a
p
i
d
,
n
o
n
c
o
n
t
a
c
t
,
a
n
d
r
o
b
u
s
t
C
o
s
t
l
y
R
e
f
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
c
o
e
f
c
i
e
n
t
s
a
r
e
m
e
a
s
u
r
e
d
a
n
d
r
e
l
a
t
e
d
t
o
m
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
1
8
S
t
r
e
s
s
/
s
t
r
a
i
n
s
s
e
n
s
o
r
f
o
r
m
o
n
i
t
o
r
i
n
g
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
b
e
a
m
s
F
i
b
e
r
o
p
t
i
c
B
r
a
g
g
g
r
a
t
i
n
g
s
e
n
s
o
r
s
S
u
i
t
a
b
l
e
f
o
r
l
o
n
g
-
t
e
r
m
t
e
s
t
s
S
l
o
w
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
M
o
n
i
t
o
r
s
t
h
e
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
o
f
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s
u
b
j
e
c
t
e
d
t
o
f
u
l
l
l
o
a
d
8 Journal of Construction Engineering
Table 2: Diferent codes describing NDT methods.
S. no. Tests/parameters Codes
1 Alkali aggregate reactivity IS 2386 (Part 7): 1963
2 Petrographic examination IS 2386 (Part 8): 1963, ASTM C856-77
3 Pull out test IS 2770: 1967, ASTM C900-94, E DIN EN 12399 (July 1996), ISO/DIS 8046
4 Water soluble chlorides in concrete admixtures IS 6925: 1973
5 Ultrasonic pulse velocity
IS 13311 (Part 1): 1992, ASTM C597-97, BS 1881: Part 203: 1986, BS 4408: pt. 5,
NDIS 2416-1993
6 Rebound hammer
IS 13311 (Part 2): 1992, ASTM C805-97, BS 1881 Part 202: 1986, EDIN EN
12398
(1996), ISO/CD 8045
7 Abrasion resistance IS 9284: 1979, ASTM C779-76, ASTM C944-80
8 Permeability IS 3085: 1965
9 Testing drilled cores ASTM C 42-87
10 Infrared thermography ASTM D4788-88
11 Ground penetrating radar ASTM D6087-97
12 Density by nuclear methods ASTM D2950-91, ASTM C1040-93
13 Impact echo method ASTM C1383-98a
14 Half-cell potential ASTM C876-91
15 Penetration resistance ASTM C 803-82
16
Dynamic modulus of elasticity by
electromagnetic methods
BS 1881: Part 102:1983
17 Radiography BS 1881: Part 205: 1970, BS 4408: pt. 3, NDIS 1401-1992
18 Water absorption BS 1881: Part 122: 1983, AS 1012.21-1999
19 Electromagnetic covermeter BS 1881: Part 204: 1986, BS 4408: pt. 1
20 Concrete strength by near to surface methods BS 1881: part 207: 1992
21 Strain gauges for concrete investigation British Standard Institution, London, 1969, (83)
22 Density with gamma rays TGL 21 100/01
23
Determination of chloride and sulfate in
hardened concrete
AS 1012.20-1992
24 Visual inspection NDIS 3418-1993
25 In situ monitoring of concrete NDIS 2421-2000
26 Surface hardness method BS 4408: pt. 4
rebound hammer to new sophisticated techniques based on
propagation of waves in the concrete. With the development
in sofware technologies and battery operated small comput-
ers, NDTmethods are getting popular among researchers and
engineers for quick evaluation and interpretation of results.
In the future NDT methods can be useful for the various
purposes such as for identifying deterioration levels and
modeling the life of structures, extracting indepth informa-
tion about material properties, and developing methods for
combining the results of diferent NDT methods for better
evaluation of condition of concrete structures.
Combining several methods for assessing the structures
is now required for better assessment. Normally an NDT
engineer uses single method for evaluating a parameter, but
sometimes combining several methods for better assessment
has been required. So to use and combine diferent methods
knowledge about principle, advantages and limitations of
diferent available methods are required by engineers. Com-
bination of several methods has been required to strengthen
the results of each other. Several properties of structures can
afect the same measurement, and it is difcult to distinguish
the efect of each property on a measurement. Based on
experience and knowledge the better combination of NDT
techniques can be selected for the diagnosis of concrete
structures.
NDT methods inspect or measure without any harm to
the structure; no damage of specimens is required during
testing. It can be applied for inservice inspections, and this
is major advantage of NDT methods, and they are capable of
detecting faws and defects early. By using NDTmethods very
precise assessment of the defect extent can be evaluated, and
when combined with laboratory tests they give good results.
Also they are capable of monitoring structures continuously.
NDT results are complex and provide detailed informa-
tion for concrete tested. It has been difcult for the engineers
to understand the results of NDT, and so expertise and
experience are required for handling NDT equipments and
for the interpretation of results. Sometimes results are not
Journal of Construction Engineering 9
satisfactory, due to wrong selection of method or equipment,
so training is a must for using NDT. If assumed physical
condition of structure is diferent from real condition then
results and its interpretation are not as expected.
6. Conclusions
Various NDT methods based on diferent principles, with
their individual merits and limitations, have been discussed.
It has been recognized that NDT plays an important role
in condition assessment of existing structures, and there has
been an urgent need for developing standards for performing
NDT methods and for interpretation of NDT results.
Major advantage of NDT methods has been recognised
as their capability to test in situ. Great deal of expertise is
required for interpretation of NDT feld observations and
test results. NDT provides useful information by revealing
hidden or unknown defects, and repair or replacement of
RC structures can be planned according to NDT results.
Combination of diferent NDT methods available is a better
way to assess the structures.
References
[1] K. L. Rens, T. J. Wipf, and F. W. Klaiber, Review of nonde-
structive evaluation techniques of civil infrastructure, Journal
of Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 152
160, 1997.
[2] M. K. Lim and H. Cao, Combining multiple NDT methods
to improve testing efectiveness, Construction and Building
Materials, vol. 38, pp. 13101315, 2013.
[3] P. Shaw and A. Xu, Assessment of the deterioration of concrete
in NPP- causes, efects and investigation methods, NDT.Net,
vol. 3, no. 2, 1998.
[4] D. M. McCann and M. C. Forde, Review of NDT methods in
the assessment of concrete and masonry structures, NDT and
E International, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 7184, 2001.
[5] D. Breysse, G. Klysz, X. D erobert, C. Sirieix, and J. F. Lataste,
How to combine several non-destructive techniques for a
better assessment of concrete structures, Cement and Concrete
Research, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 783793, 2008.
[6] M. Sanayei, J. E. Phelps, J. D. Sipple, E. S. Bell, and B. R.
Brenner, Instrumentation, non destructive testing, and fnite
element model updating for bridge evaluation using strain
measurements, Journal of Bridge Engineering, vol. 17, no. 1, pp.
130138, 2012.
[7] B. Amini and S. S. Tehrani, Combined efects of saltwater
and water fow on deterioration of concrete under freeze-thaw
cycles, Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, vol. 25, no. 4, pp.
146161, 2011.
[8] A. Loizos and V. Papavasiliou, Evaluation of foamed asphalt
cold in-place pavement recycling using nondestructive tech-
niques, Journal of Transportation Engineering, vol. 132, no. 12,
pp. 970978, 2006.
[9] E. Proverbio and V. Venturi, Reliability of nondestructive
tests for on site concrete strength assessment, 10DBMC, Lyon,
France, 2005.
[10] K. L. Rens, C. L. Nogueira, and D. J. Transue, Bridge manage-
ment and nondestructive evaluation, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 316, 2005.
[11] L. J. Malavar, N. R. Joshi, andT. Novinson, Enviromental efects
on the short term bond of carbon fbre reinforced (CRPF)
composites, Journal of Composites for Construction, vol. 7, no.
1, pp. 5863, 2003.
[12] G. Pascale, A. D. Leo, and V. Bonora, Nondestructive assess-
ment of the actual compressive strength of high-strength
concrete, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 15, no.
5, pp. 452459, 2003.
[13] P. F. Almir and F. C. Protasio, Application of NDT to concrete
strength estimation, NDT.Net, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 16, 2000.
[14] B. Chen, M. H. Maher, and E. G. Nawy, Fibre optic bragg
grating sensor for nondestructive evaluation of composite
beams, Journal of Structural Engineering, vol. 120, no. 12, pp.
34563469, 1995.
[15] K. L. Rens and T. Kim, Inspection of Quebec street bridge in
Denver, Colardo: destructive and nondestru testing, Journal of
Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 215224,
2007.
[16] S. S. Bhadauria and D. M. C. Gupta, In situ performance testing
of deteriorating water tanks for durability assessment, Journal
of Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 234
239, 2007.
[17] L. Amleh and M. S. Mirza, Corrosion response of a decom-
missioned deteriorated bridge deck, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 185194, 2004.
[18] W. P. S. Dias and A. D. C. Jayanandana, Condition assessment
of a deteriorated cement works, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 188195, 2003.
[19] E. Bruhwiler and P. Mivelaz, From corrosion of existing to
durability of new concrete structures, in Proceedings of the
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering
Symposium (IABSE 99), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 1999.
[20] A. S. M. Kamal and M. Boulfza, Durability of GFRP Rebars
in simulated concrete solutions under accelerated aging condi-
tions, Journal of Composites for Construction, vol. 15, no. 4, pp.
473481, 2011.
[21] T. Shiotani, D. G. Aggelis, and O. Makishima, Global moni-
toring of large concrete structures using acoustic emission and
ultrasonic techniques: case study, Journal of Bridge Engineering,
vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 188192, 2009.
[22] G. Cascante, H. Najjaran, andP. Crespi, Novel methodology for
nondestructive evaluation of brick walls: fuzzy logic analysis of
MASWtests, Journal of Infrastructure Systems, vol. 14, no. 2, pp.
117128, 2008.
[23] J. Zhu and J. S. Popovics, Imaging concrete structures using
air-coupledimpact-echo, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, vol.
133, no. 6, pp. 628640, 2007.
[24] V. Nachiappan and E. H. Cho, Corrosion of high chromium
and conventional steels embedded in concrete, Journal of
Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 5661,
2005.
[25] A. Gibson and J. S. Popovics, Lamb wave basis for impact echo
method analysis, Ournal of Engineering Mechanics, vol. 131, no.
4, pp. 438443, 2005.
[26] B. Akuthota, D. Hughes, R. Zoughi, J. Myers, and A. Nanni,
Near-feld microwave detection of disbond in carbon fber
reinforced polymer composites used for strengthening cement-
based structures and disbond repair verifcation, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 540546, 2004.
[27] S. L. Gassman and W. F. Tawhed, Nondestructive assessment
of damage in concrete bridge decks, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 220231, 2004.
10 Journal of Construction Engineering
[28] P. O. Paulson and M. D Wit, Te use of acoustic monitoring to
manage concrete structures, in Proceedings of the International
Non-Destructive Testing in Civil Engineering Symposium (NDT-
CE 03), 2003.
[29] C. U. Grosse, H. W. Reinhardt, and F. Finck, Signal-based
acoustic emission techniques in civil engineering, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 274279, 2003.
[30] J. S. Popovics, W. Song, J. D. Achenbach, J. H. Lee, and R.
F. Andre, One-sided stress wave velocity measurement in
concrete, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, vol. 124, no. 12, pp.
13461353, 1998.
[31] A. Nagy, Determination of E-modulus of young concrete
with nondestructive method, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1520, 1997.
[32] D. H. Chen and A. Wimsatt, Inspection and condition assess-
ment using ground penetrating radar, Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol. 136, no. 1, pp. 207213,
2010.
[33] S. Yehia, O. Abudayyeh, S. Nabulsi, and I. Abdelqader, Detec-
tion of common defects in concrete bridge decks using nonde-
structive evaluation techniques, Journal of Bridge Engineering,
vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 215224, 2007.
[34] C. Maierhofer, Nondestructive evaluation of concrete infras-
tructure with ground penetrating radar, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 287297, 2003.
[35] K. R. Maser, Condition assessment of transportation infras-
tructure using ground-penetrating radar, Journal of Infrastruc-
ture Systems, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 94101, 1996.
[36] S. Sharma and A. Mukherje, Monitoring corrosion in oxide
and chloride envroments using ultrasonic guided waves, Jour-
nal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 207211,
2011.
[37] A. M. Terzic and L. M. Pavlovic, Application of results
of non destructive testing methods in the investigation of
microstructure of refractory voncretes, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, vol. 22, no. 9, pp. 853857, 2010.
[38] A. A. Shah and S. Hirose, Nonlinear ultrasonic investigation
of concrete damaged under uniaxial compression step loading,
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 22, no. 5, Article
ID 007005QMT, pp. 476483, 2010.
[39] B. L. Ervin, D. A. Kuchama, J. T. Bernhard, and H. Reis,
Monitoring corrosion of rebar embedded in mortar using
high frequency guided ultrasonic waves, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, vol. 135, no. 1, pp. 918, 2009.
[40] C. Stergiopoulou, M. S. Aggour, and R. H. McCuen, Nonde-
structive testing and evaluation of concrete parking garages,
Journal of Infrastructure Systems, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 319326,
2008.
[41] Y. Yoshida and H. Irie, NDT for concrete using the ultrasonic
method, in Proceedings of the 12th Asia Pacifc Conference
of Non Destructive Testing (A-PCNDT 06), Auckland, New
Zealand, November 2006.
[42] U. Dilek, Nondestructive and laboratory evaluation of damage
gradients in concrete structure exposed to cryogenic tempera-
tures, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 20,
no. 1, pp. 3744, 2006.
[43] S. A. Abo-Quadais, Efect of concrete mixing parameters on
propogation of ultrasonic waves, Construction and Building
Materials, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 257263, 2005.
[44] H. K. . Lee, K. M. Lee, Y. H. Kim, and D. B. Bae, Ultrasonic
in-situ monitoring of setting process of high performance
concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 631
640, 2004.
[45] S. P. Shah, J. S. Popovics, K. V. Subramaniam, and C. M. Aldea,
New directions in concrete health monitoring technology,
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, vol. 126, no. 7, pp. 754760,
2000.
[46] A. G. Davis, J. G. Evans, and B. H. Hertlein, Nondestructive
evaluation of concrete radioactive waste tanks, Journal of
Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 161167,
1997.
[47] K. L. Rens and L. F. Greimann, Ultrasonic approach for nonde-
structive testing of civil infrastructure, Journal of Performance
of Constructed Facilities, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 97104, 1997.
[48] W. W. El-Dakhakhni, A. A. Nassr, and M. T. Shedid, Detection
of ungrouted cells in concrete masonry constructions using a
dielectric variationapproach, Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
vol. 136, no. 4, Article ID 001004QEM, pp. 438446, 2010.
[49] A. A. Nassr and W. W. El-Dakhakhni, Damage detection
of FRP-strengthened concrete structures using capacitance
measurements, Journal of Composites for Construction, vol. 13,
no. 6, pp. 486497, 2009.
[50] F. Rajabipour, J. Weiss, J. D. Shane, T. O. Mason, and S. P. Shah,
Procedure to interpret electrical conductivity measurements in
cover concrete during rewetting, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 586594, 2005.
[51] W. Liu, R. G. Hunsperger, M. J. Chajes, K. J. Folliard, and E.
Kunz, Corrosion detection of steel cables using time domain
refectometry, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 14,
no. 3, pp. 217223, 2002.
[52] B. Sangoju, R. Gettu, B. H. Bharatkumar, and M. Neelamegam,
Chloride-induced corrosion of steel in cracked opc and ppc
concretes: experimental study, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, vol. 23, no. 7, pp. 10571066, 2011.
[53] H. So and S. G. Millard, Assessment of corrosion rate of
reinforcing steel in concrete using Galvanostatic pulse transient
technique, International Journal of Concrete Structures and
Materials, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 8388, 2007.
[54] T. Parthiban, R. Ravi, and G. T. Parthiban, Potential moni-
toring system for corrosion of steel in concrete, Advances in
Engineering Sofware, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 375381, 2006.
[55] M. M. B. Bola and C. M. Newtson, Field evaluation of marine
structures containing calciumnitrite, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 2835, 2005.
[56] B. Bavarian and L. Reiner, Improving durability of reinforced
concrete structures using migrating corrosion inhibators,
Corosion, Article ID 04323, 2004.
[57] W. J. McCarter and . Vennesland, Sensor systems for use
in reinforced concrete structures, Construction and Building
Materials, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 351358, 2004.
[58] S. C. Pal, A. Mukherjee, and S. R. Pathak, Corrosion behavior
of reinforcement in slag concrete, ACI Materials Journal, vol.
99, no. 6, pp. 17, 2002.
[59] A. Costa andJ. Appleton, Case studies of concrete deterioration
in a marine environmental in Portugal, Cement and Concrete
Composites, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 169179, 2002.
[60] O. Klingofer, T. Frolund, and E. Poulsen, Rebar corrosion
rate measurements for service life estimates, in Proceedings of
the ACI Fall Convention on Practical application of service life
models, Toronto, Canada, 2000.
[61] D. Bjegovic, D. Mikulic, and D. Sekulic, Non destructive
corrosion rate monitoring for reinforced concrete structures,
Journal of Construction Engineering 11
in Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Non-Destructive
Testing (WCNDT 00), pp. 1521, Rome, Italy, October 2000.
[62] N. J. Carnio, Nondestructive techniques to investigate corro-
sion status in concrete structures, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 96106, 1999.
[63] A. Bagchi, J. Humar, H. Xu, and A. S. Noman, Model-based
damage identifcation in a continuous bridge using vibration
data, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 24,
no. 2, pp. 148158, 2010.
[64] K. H. Hsieh, M. W. Halling, and P. J. Barr, Overview of
vibrational structural health monitoring with representative
case studies, Journal of Bridge Engineering, vol. 11, no. 6, Article
ID 002606QBE, pp. 707715, 2006.
[65] T. Ma, H. T. Yang, and C. Chang, Structural damage diagnosis
and assessment under seismic excitations, Journal of Engineer-
ing Mechanics, vol. 131, no. 10, pp. 10361045, 2005.
[66] O. Deo, M. Sumanasooriya, and N. Neithalath, Permeability
reduction in pervious concretes due to clogging: experiments
and modeling, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 22,
no. 7, Article ID 003007QMT, pp. 741751, 2010.
[67] S. A. Durham, E. Heymsfeld, and K. D. Tencleve, Cracking
and reinforcement corrosion in short-span precast concrete
bridges, Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, vol. 21,
no. 5, pp. 390397, 2007.
[68] W. J. McCarter, T. M. Chrisp, A. Butler, and P. A. M. Basheer,
Near-surface sensors for condition monitoring of cover-zone
concrete, Construction and Building Materials, vol. 15, no. 2-3,
pp. 115124, 2001.
[69] B. J. Lampacher and G. E. Blight, Permeability and sorption
properties of mature near-surface concrete, Journal of Materials
in Civil Engineering, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 2125, 1998.
[70] I. L. Al-Qadi, R. H. Haddad, and S. M. Riad, Detection of
chlorides in concrete using low radio frequencies, Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 2934, 1997.
[71] P. A. Classie, H. I. Elsayad, and I. G. Shaaban, Absorption
and sorptivity of cover concrete, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 105110, 1997.
[72] G. E. Blight and B. J. Lampacher, Applying covercrete absorp-
tion test to in-situ tests on structures, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 18, 1995.
[73] C. Maierhofer, H.-W. Reinhardt, and G. Dobmann, Eds., Non-
Destructive Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Structures, vol. 1
of Deterioration processes and standard test methods, Woodhead
Publishing, Oxford, UK, 2010.
[74] C. Maierhofer, H.-W. Reinhardt, and G. Dobmann, Eds., Non-
Destructive Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Structures, vol.
2 of Non-destructive testing methods, Woodhead Publishing,
Oxford, UK, 2010.