Arkansas Tech University

MATH 2924: Calculus II

Dr. Marcel B. Finan
4 Integration by Partial Fractions. Trigonometric
Substitutions
Method of Integration by Partial Fractions
The method of integration by partial fractions is a technique for integrating
rational functions, i.e. functions of the form
R(x) =
P(x)
Q(x)
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials.
The idea consists of writing the rational function as a sum of simpler frac-
tions called partial fractions. This can be done in the following way:
Step 1. Use long division to nd two polynomials r(x) and q(x) such that
P(x)
Q(x)
= q(x) +
r(x)
Q(x)
.
Note that if the degree of P(x) is smaller than that of Q(x) then q(x) = 0
and r(x) = P(x).
Step 2. Write Q(x) as a product of factors of the form (ax + b)
n
or (ax
2
+
bx+c)
n
where ax
2
+bx+c is irreducible, i.e. ax
2
+bx+c = 0 has no real zeros.
Step 3. Decompose
r(x)
Q(x)
into a sum of partial fractions in the following
way:
(1) For each factor of the form (ax + b)
k
write
A
1
ax + b
+
A
2
(ax + b)
2
+ +
A
k
(ax + b)
k
,
where the numbers A
1
, A
2
, , A
k
are to be determined.
(2) For each factor of the form (ax
2
+ bx + c)
k
write
B
1
x + C
1
ax
2
+ bx + c
+
B
2
x + C
2
(ax
2
+ bx + c)
2
+ +
B
k
x + C
k
(ax
2
+ bx + c)
k
,
1
where the numbers B
1
, B
2
, , B
k
and C
1
, C
2
, , C
k
are to be determined.
Step 4. Multiply both sides of
r(x)
Q(x)
by Q(x) and simplify. This leads to
an expression of the form
r(x) = a polynomial whose coecients are combinations of A
i
, B
i
, and C
i
.
Finally, we nd the constants, A
i
, B
i
, and C
i
by equating the coecients
of like powers of x on both sides of the last equation and then solving the
resulting equations for A
i
, B
i
, and C
i
.
Example 4.1
Decompose into partial fractions R(x) =
x
3
+x
2
+2
x
2
1
.
Solution.
Step 1.
x
3
+x
2
+2
x
2
1
= x + 1 +
x+3
x
2
1
.
Step 2. x
2
1 = (x 1)(x + 1).
Step 3.
x+3
(x+1)(x1)
=
A
x+1
+
B
x1
.
Step 4. Multiply both sides of the last equation by (x 1)(x + 1) to obtain
x + 3 = A(x 1) + B(x + 1).
Expand the right hand side, collect terms with the same power of x, and
identify coecients of the polynomials obtained on both sides:
x + 3 = (A + B)x + (B A).
Hence, A+B = 1 and B A = 3. Adding these two equations gives B = 2.
Thus, A = 1 and so
x
3
+ x
2
+ 2
x
2
1
= x + 1
1
x + 1
+
2
x 1
Now, after decomposing the rational function into a sum of partial fractions
all we need to do is to integrate expressions of the form
A
(ax+b)
n
or
Bx+C
(ax
2
+bx+c)
n
.
Example 4.2
Find

1
x(x3)
dx.
Solution.
We write
1
x(x 3)
=
A
x
+
B
x 3
.
2
Multiply both sides by x(x 3) and simplify to obtain
1 = A(x 3) + Bx
or
1 = (A + B)x 3A.
Now equating the coecients of like powers of x to obtain 3A = 1 and
A + B = 0. Solving for A and B we nd A =
1
3
and B =
1
3
. Thus,

1
x(x 3)
dx =
1
3

dx
x
+
1
3

dx
x 3
=
1
3
ln|x| +
1
3
ln|x 3| + C
=
1
3
ln

x 3
x

+ C
Example 4.3
Find

3x+6
x
2
+3x
dx.
Solution.
We factor the denominator and split the integrand into partial fractions:
3x + 6
x(x + 3)
=
A
x
+
B
x + 3
.
Multiplying both sides by x(x + 3) to obtain
3x + 6 = A(x + 3) + Bx
= (A + B)x + 3A
Equating the coecients of like powers of x to obtain 3A = 6 and A+B = 3.
Thus, A = 2 and B = 1. Finally,

3x + 6
x
2
+ 3x
dx = 2

dx
x
+

dx
x + 3
= 2 ln|x| + ln|x + 3| + C
Example 4.4
Find

x
2
+1
x(x+1)
2
dx.
Solution.
We factor the denominator and split the integrand into partial fractions:
x
2
+ 1
x(x + 1)
2
=
A
x
+
B
x + 1
+
C
(x + 1)
2
.
3
Multiplying both sides by x(x + 1)
2
and simplifying to obtain
x
2
+ 1 =A(x + 1)
2
+ Bx(x + 1) + Cx
=(A + B)x
2
+ (2A + B + C)x + A.
Equating coecients of like powers of x we nd A = 1, 2A+B +C = 0 and
A + B = 1. Thus, B = 0 and C = 2. Now integrating to obtain

x
2
+ 1
x(x + 1)
2
dx =

dx
x
2

dx
(x + 1)
2
= ln|x| +
2
x + 1
+ C
Example 4.5
Find

2x
2
x1
(x
2
+1)(x2)
dx.
Solution.
We rst write
2x
2
x 1
(x
2
+ 1)(x 2)
=
Ax + B
x
2
+ 1
+
C
x 2
.
Multiply both sides by (x
2
+ 1)(x 2) and simplify
2x
2
x 1 =(Ax + B)(x 2) + C(x
2
+ 1)
=(A + C)x
2
+ (2A + B)x 2B + C.
Equating coecients of like powers of x
A + C = 2, 2A + B = 1, 2B + C = 1.
From the third equation we nd C = 1 + 2B. Substituting this into the
rst equation we nd A + 2B = 3. This equation and the second one imply
A = B = 1 (using elimination method). Thus, C = 1 + 2(1) = 1.
Finally, by integrating we nd

2x
2
x 1
(x
2
+ 1)(x 2)
dx =

x + 1
x
2
+ 1
dx +

dx
x 2
=

x
x
2
+ 1
dx +

dx
x
2
+ 1
+

dx
x 2
=
1
2
ln(x
2
+ 1) + arctanx + ln|x 2| + C
4
Trigonometric Substitutions
This section deals with integrands involving terms like

x
2
a
2
,

x
2
+ a
2
,
and

a
2
x
2
.
Integrands involving

a
2
x
2
, a x a, a > 0.
For each x in the interval [a, a] there is a in the interval [

2
,

2
] such that
x = a sin (notice that 1
x
a
1 and recall the graph of sinx). Thus,
using the substitution x = a sin,

2


2
to obtain

a
2
x
2
=

a
2
(1 sin
2
)
=

a
2
cos
2
= a cos
where we have used the Pythagorean identity cos
2
+sin
2
= 1. Notice that

cos
2
= cos since cos 0 in

2


2
. It is important to point out
here that by constructing a right triangle with one of the angle being then
the hypotenuse of the triangle has length a, the opposite side has length x
and the adjacent side has length

a
2
x
2
. It follows that cos =

a
2
x
2
a
.
See Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1
Example 4.6
Find

1

4x
2
dx.
Solution.
Let x = 2 sin,

2
< <

2
. Then

4 x
2
=

4 4 sin
2
=

4 cos
2
= 2 cos .
Moreover, dx = 2 cos d. It follows that

4 x
2
dx =

2 cos
2 cos
d = + C = arcsin

x
2

+ C
5
Integrands involving

a
2
+ x
2
, a > 0.
In this case, we let x = a tan with

2
< <

2
. Such a substitution leads
to

a
2
+ x
2
=

a
2
+ a
2
tan
2
=

a
2
(1 + tan
2
) = a sec
since 1 + tan
2
= sec
2
and sec > 0 for

2
< <

2
.
Remark 4.1
Letting be the angle of a right triangle with opposite side x, adjacent side
a, and hypotenuse

a
2
+ x
2
we nd sec =

a
2
+x
2
a
. See Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
Example 4.7
Find

1

x
2
+9
dx.
Solution.
Let x = 3 tan with

2
< <

2
. Then

x
2
+ 9 =

9 + 9 tan
2
=

9(1 + tan
2
) = 3 sec .
Moreover, dx = 3 sec
2
d. Thus,

x
2
+ 9
dx =

3 sec
2

3 sec
d =

sec d = ln| sec + tan| + C.

Now, considering a triangle with acute angle , opposite side x, and adjacent
side 3 we see that sec =

9+x
2
3
and tan =
x
3
. Thus,

x
2
+ 9
dx = ln

9 + x
2
3
+
x
3

+ C
Integrands Involving

x
2
a
2
, x a or x a, a 0.
Here, we let x = a sec with 0 , =

2
so that

x
2
a
2
=

a
2
(sec
2
1) =

a
2
tan
2
= a |tan| .
6
Note that for x a we have 0 <

2
so that

x
2
a
2
= a tan whereas
for x a we have

2
< and in this case we write

x
2
a
2
= a tan.
Hence, it is important when evaluating integrands involving

x
2
a
2
to be
careful which values of x are of interest.
Example 4.8
Evaluate

1

x
2
9
dx when x > 3.
Solution.
Let x = 3 sec with 0 < <

2
. Then dx = 3 sec tand. It follows that

x
2
9
dx =

3 sec tan
3 tan
d
=

sec d = ln| sec + tan| + C

=ln|
x
3
+

x
2
9
3
| + C
Example 4.9
Find

1
x

x
2
1
dx.
Solution.
Let x = sec , 0 , =

2
. Then dx = sec tand and
x
2
1 = sec
2
1 = tan
2
.
Thus,

1
x

x
2
1
dx =

sec tan
sec | tan|
d =

d = + C = sec
1
x + C
Completing the Square in Order to Use Trigonometric Substitu-
tion
In some cases, a quadratic equation is rewritten in one the forms listed above
by using the completing the square process. We illustrate this in the next
example.
Example 4.10
Find

1

x
2
+6x+25
dx.
7
Solution.
Completing the square we nd x
2
+ 6x + 25 = (x + 3)
2
+ 16. So let x +
3 = 4 tan,

2
< <

2
. Then dx = 4 sec
2
d and

x
2
+ 6x + 25 =

16 sec
2
= 4 sec . Thus,

x
2
+ 6x + 25
dx =

4 sec
2

4 sec
d =

sec d
=ln| sec + tan| + C
=ln|

x
2
+ 6x + 25
4
+
x + 3
4
| + C
We can summarize the above substitutions in the following table
expression substitution identity

a
2
u
2
u = a sin,

2


2
1 sin
2
= cos
2

a
2
+ u
2
u = a tan,

2
< <

2
1 + tan
2
= sec
2

u
2
a
2
u = a sec , 0 , =

2
sec
2
1 = tan
2