Chapitre 2

Systems of Linear Equations

2.1 Introduction
Denition (Linear Equation). A linear equation is an equation of the form
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ . . . + a
n
x
n
= b
where
a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
are known constants called coefcients,
b is a known constant,
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
are variables that are unknown.
Example 1. 6x + 3y = 2 is a linear equation (equation of a line !). But, 2xy 3z
3
= 8 is NOT a
linear equation.
Note. Variables of linear equations occur only to the rst power and do not appear as arguments
of, for example, trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.
Denition (System of Linear Equations). Asystemof linear equations (or a linear system)
is a collection of linear equations involving the same set of variables (or unknowns). A general
system of m equations in n variables x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
, often referred to as an m n system, can be
written as
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ . . . + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ . . . + a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
.
.
. =
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ . . . + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
Note. a
i j
mn
1
Example 2.
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
4
= 1
2x
3
x
4
= 4
is a 2 4 linear system.
Denition (Systems Terminology).
An m n system is said to be homogeneous if b
1
= b
2
= . . . = b
m
= 0. Otherwise, the
system is said to be non-homogenenous.
A solution of a linear system is an assignment of numbers to the variables such that all the
equations are simultaneously satised.
A solution of an m n linear system is a vectors [x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
] R
n
that satises all
m equations simultaneously.
A linear system is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution and inconsistent if it
has no solutions.
Example 3. Consider once again the system
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
4
= 1,
2x
3
x
4
= 4.
(a) Is this a homogeneous system?
(b) Determine if each of the following vectors is a solution to the system.
(a) [0, 0, 0, 1] (b) [1, 0, 1, 2]
Example 4. Consider the system
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
4
= 0,
2x
3
x
4
= 0.
(a) Is this a homogeneous system?
(b) Determine if each of the following vectors is a solution to the system.
(a) [0, 0, 0, 0] (b) [1, 0, 1, 2]
Note. [0, 0, . . . , 0] R
n
is ALWAYS a solution of a homogeneous mn linear system. Therefore,
a homogeneous linear system is ALWAYS consistent.
2
2.2 Intersections
2.2.1 Intersection of Two Lines in Two-Space
Geometrically there are three possibilities for the intersection of two lines in two-space.
Intersect at a point Coincident Parallel
Algebraically there are three possibilities for the solutions of the following systemof equa-
tions.
a
1
x + b
1
y = c
1
a
2
x + b
2
y = c
2
Unique solution
Innitely many solutions
No solution
Example 5. 1. The system of equations
x y = 1
2x + y = 4
has unique solution x =
5
3
and y =
2
3
. We can also write the solution as a point (x, y) =
(
5
3
,
2
3
) or as a vector [x, y] = [
5
3
,
2
3
].
2. The system of equations
x y = 1
x y = 1
has innitely many solutions since all values of x = t, let y = t + 1, then [t, t + 1] is a
solution for the system.
3. The system of equations
x y = 1
x y = 2
has no solution. There is no value of x and y satisfying both equations.
3
2.2.2 Intersection of Two Lines in Three-Space
Geometrically there are four possibilities for the intersection of two lines in three-space.
Intersect at a point
Coincident
Parallel
Skew (not parallel and not intersect)
Algebraically there are three possibilities for the solutions of the following systemof equa-
tions.
[x, y, z] = [x
0
, y
0
, z
0
] + s[m
1
, m
2
, m
3
]
[x, y, z] = [a
0
, b
0
, c
0
] + t[n
1
, n
2
, n
3
]
Unique solution (intersect at a point)
Innitely many solutions (coincident)
No solution (parallel or skew)
Example 6. Consider the system of equations
[x, y, z] = [7, 2, 6] + s[2, 1, 3], 1
[x, y, z] = [3, 9, 13] + t[1, 5, 5]. 2
4
2.2.3 Intersection of a Line and a Plane in Three-Space
Geometrically there are three possibilities for the intersection of a line and a plane in
three-space.
Intersect at a point Line lies on plane Parallel
Algebraically there are three possibilities for the solutions of the following systemof equa-
tions.
[x, y, z] = [x
0
, y
0
, z
0
] + t[m
1
, m
2
, m
3
]
ax + by + cz = d
Unique solution (intersect at a point)
Innitely many solutions (the line lies on the plane)
No solution (parallel)
Example 7. The system of equations
[x, y, z] = [5, 5, 2] + t[2, 5, 3] 1
9x + 13y 2z = 29 2
has a unique solution. From 1 we can write the parametric equation of the line
x = 5 + 2t
y = 5 5t
z = 2 + 3t.
Substitute the parametric equation into 2 we get 9(5 + 2t) + 13(5 5t) 2(2 + 3t) = 29.
Expand and solve for t we get t = 1. Thus [x, y, z] = [5, 5, 2] + (1)[2, 5, 3] = [3, 0, 1] is
the unique solution. The line and the plane intersect at the point (3, 0, 1).
Note : While solving, if one gets something that is always true (eg. 0 = 0), then they
intersect in the whole line (for all values of t) ; i.e. the line lies in the plane. But if ones gets
something absurd like 0 = 2, then there is no intersection (they are parallel distinct).
5
2.2.4 Intersection of Two Planes in Three-Space
Geometrically there are three possibilities for the intersection of two planes in three-space.
Intersect in a line Coincident Parallel
Algebraically there are two possibilities for the solutions of the following system of equa-
tions.
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z + d
1
= 0
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z + d
2
= 0
Innitely many solutions (intersect in a line or coincident)
No solution (parallel)
Example 8. Consider the following system of equations.
2x y + z 1 = 0 1
x + y + z 6 = 0 2
Solution : The normal vector for the plane 1 is n
1
= [2, 1, 1] and the normal vector
for the plane 2 is n
2
= [1, 1, 1]. Since n
2
is not a scalar multiple of n
1
, we know that n
2
is not parallel to n
1
. Thus the two planes must intersect in a line. We want to write the
parametric equation and the vector equation of the intersection line. Let 1 2 , we get
x 2y + 5 = 0 3 .
We introduce a parameter by letting y = t. Then by 3 we get x = 5 + 2t. By 2 we have
z = 6 x y = 6 (5 + 2t) t = 11 3t. So the parametric equation of the line is
x = 5 + 2t
y = 0 + t
z = 11 3t.
The vector equation of the line is
[x, y, z] = [5, 0, 11] + t[2, 1, 3].
6
2.2.5 Intersection of Three Planes in Three-Space
Geometrically there are eight possibilities for the intersection of two planes in three-space.
1 Intersect at a point.
2 Intersect in a line.
3 Three planes are coincident.
4 Two planes are coincident and the third plane is not parallel.
5 Three planes are parallel.
6 Two planes are coincident and the third plane is parallel to the rst two planes.
7 Two planes are parallel and the third plane is not parallel.
8 Pairs of planes intersect in lines that are parallel.
Algebraically there are three possibilities for the solutions of the following systemof equa-
tions.
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
z + d
1
= 0
a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
z + d
2
= 0
a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
z + d
3
= 0
Unique solution (1)
Innitely many solutions (2-4)
No solution (5-8)
7
Example 9. The following three planes intersect in a line. Determine the parametric equation and
the vector equation of the line.
x 5y + 2z 10 = 0 1
x + 7y 2z + 6 = 0 2
8x + 5y + z 20 = 0 3
Solution : Let 2 1 , we get
12y 4z + 16 = 0 4 .
Let (8) 1 + 3 , we get
45y 15z + 60 = 0 5 .
Let
1
4
4
1
15
5 , we get
0 = 0 0
which is true for all values of y and z.
**
1
4
4
1
15
5 =
1
4
( 2 1 )
1
15
((8) 1 + 3 ) = 0 which implies 3 =
17
4
1 +
15
4
2 .
**
We introduce a parameter by letting z = t. Then y =
4
3
+
1
3
t by 4 or 5 . By 1 , we get
x = 5y 2z +10 = 5(
4
3
+
1
3
t) 2t +10 =
10
3

1
3
t. So the parametric equation of the line is
x =
10
3

1
3
t
y =
4
3
+
1
3
t
z = 0 + t.
The vector equation of the line is
[x, y, z] = [
10
3
,
4
3
, 0] + t[
1
3
,
1
3
, 1].
8