1.

Human beings are information processors and that mental processes guide behavior
Psychologists think that information that comes into the mind from the sensory
system
The information is processed in the mind through pre-stored information in the
memory
And that leads to a form of behavior
Person's mindset is important in predicting his or her behavior
People who have fied ideas are stereotypes ! and are more prone to discriminate
People's memories are not as infallible "incapable of failure or error# because of
reconstructive nature of memory
People don$t store eact copies of eperiences! only storing an outline that is filled by
recalled information
People often have false memories! when individuals cant decide between what they
have eperienced and what they've heard after the event
%rain is able to fabricate illusions that are so realistic! and we tend to believe that its
true.
Humans perception is the cognitive process that interprets and organi&es information
with our senses to produce meaningful eperiences of the world
'ontet! fre(uency! or recency influences the way people interpret events or
ob)ects
*hat people think is ob)ective eperienced
+. The mind can be studied scientifically
%y developing theories and using scientific research methods
,perimental tasks do not always resemble what people did in their daily lives
'ognitive may not be isolated from our everyday eperience
,amples of using scientific research methods
P,T! scanning method to measure important functions in the brain. ,.g.
glucose consumption! blood flow. -t may also detect diseases like brain tumors
./-! scanning method to provide 0-1 picture of brain structures. -t detects
changes in the use of oygen! and when the brain is active! it uses more oygen.
This could be used to see what areas of the brain are active when they are
performing cognitive tasks "reading! problem solving#
'ognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors
%artlett defines schema as a mental representation of knowledge
He looked at how cultural schemas may affect people's memory
Humans may remember things according to what makes sense to them
.emory has lots of distortions
,plain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis
may be demonstrated in research
Human beings are information processors and that mental processes guide behavior
People who have fied ideas are stereotypes ! and are more prone to discriminate
Research Study: Dweck and Blackwell 2007
Aim: whether intelligence is affected through student's mind sets
Method2 Half a group of students being taught that intelligence can be
increased through more eercises. Another half of students attended a neutral
session on memory
Results: students that were trained to adopt a growth mindset about
intelligence were more motivated - improvement in math results. The other
students had no improvement in math results
Conclusion: telling students that intelligence can be developed has incredible
impact on their motivate to education and learning
The mind can be studied scientifically
3sing scanning methods to have a insight of brain activity
P,T scans2 measure important function in the brain "glucose consumption and blood
flow#
-t may detect tumors or memory disorders from Al&heimer's disease
They can look for signs of the Al&heimer's disease before patients detect it
Lisa Mosconi
Aim: looking at metabolism rates of people! and its relationship to
al&heimer's disease
Method: longitudinal study! following 40 normal and healthy patients! 5-+6
years! then at the end of they study! they had a P,T scan "measure important
functions of the brain#
Results: individuals showing early signs of metabolism in the hippocampus
were associated with later development of Al&hemier's disease
Conclusion: relationship between metabolism rates and Al&hemier's disease
results need to be replicated! however its useful to use P,T scans to screen for
Al&hemier's for people who don't have any symptoms )ust yet
Case Studies: Clie !earin" # $M
Aim: 7ooking at the brain through ./- scans to see how their particular
disease 8 problem has in relation to the brain's activity
Method: ./- scans
Results: 'live wearing showed damage to hippocampus! and some of the
frontal regions! and H. showed damage in the hippocampus! amygdala! and
places close to the hippocampus
Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail! therefore more research
studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will
now have of the brain of these patients
'ognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors
Research Study: Bartlett% &he !ar o' the (host )*+2
Aim: to investigate whether memory is reconstructive! and whether schemas
influence the participants recalling stories
,irst Method: Serial reproduction: one person reproduces the original
story 9The war of the ghosts "based on a :ative American legend#9 then the
second person reproduces the first reproduction! and so on... And so on until there
are ; or < reproductions of the same story. "like the process of gossips and
rumors#
Another Method: without telling the participants the aim of the story! they
were told to read the story twice. Then after 14 minutes! the participants had to
reproduce the story from memory. Then whenever they had the opportunity to!
they were to go into %artlett's memory to recall the story
Results:
=tory became shorter "after ;8< reproductions! it went from 0+5
words to 1>?#
=tory had orderly content! because people interpret the story as a
whole when listening and retelling
=tory contained details which share past eperiences and cultural
background to participants
Conclusion: it was difficult for western cultures to reproduce due to
unfamiliar style and content.
People reconstruct past by trying to fit into eisting schemas! as
people try to find a familiar pattern in their own eperiences
=tory more complicated @ more distortions and mistakes
.emory is an imaginative reconstructive of eperience according to
%artlett
Research Study: Rosen-wei" and Bennett )*72
Aim: to investigate whether environment "social# had an effect on the rat's
development of neurons in the cerebal corte
Method: placing half of the group of rats in a stimulating and enriched
environment with interesting toys to play with! and placing another half of the
group into a deprived environment with no toys. The rats spent 0?-;? days in the
environment
Results: rats in the stimulating environment had increase thickness in corte!
and their frontal lobe " associated with thinking! planning and decision making#
was heavier
Conclusion: high levels of stimulation and numerous learning opportunities
at the appropriate times lead to an increase in density of neural connections
1iscuss how and why particular research methods are used by
cognitive researchers
.ntroduction
/ange of (ualitative and (uantitative methods used to test and construct theories
relating to principles of '7AA
Aim to have in-depth knowledge on mental processes that guide behavior
/ara"raph )0 La1 studies
The only research method showing cause and effect
Artificial
=ingle eperiment lacks ecological validity
'annot be generali&ed outside the study conditions
Ather studies investigating same topic with same method @ similar findings
:ot a ma)or issue of lacking ecol. Balidity if it fits larger body of research
,thical! as the procedures taken place must follow the codes of the APA! %P=
Lo'tus and /almer
Aim: 'hanging the verb in the (uestion to see effects on speed estimate
Method: the participants were shown a clip of a car crash! then they were to
guess the speed estimate when the cars 9smashed 8 collided 8 bumped 8 hit 8
contacted 9
Result: speed estimates varied! gentle words had slower speed estimates
Conclusion: interpretation of the results 2 different use of verbs activates
different schemas in memory! and that hearing the word 9smash9 may allow the
participant to think of the event as more severe compared to 9contacted9
-ndependent Bariable2 change in word
1ependent Bariable2 'hange in speed estimates
'ontrol Bariable2 clip shown
'ause - change in word! leading to effect - change in speed estimate
/ara"raph 20 Brain scannin"
P,T! f./-! 'AT
7ooking at the brain and how it works when mental processing takes place
Artificial environment
Act under demand characteristics
3seful! looking at brain activity! how the brain activity works
,thical findings on abnormalities in the brain - must have consent beforehand
,pensive! and needs an epert
1oesn't harm the sub)ect
However its not easy to find out levels of neurotransmitters in the brain! therefore
researchers are open to interpretation of the brain scans
=ome say that the colors may eaggerate brain activity! and it would allow
researchers to interpret it differently
1etect blood flow! produce maps showing which parts of the brain is involved in
particular mental processes
Lisa Mosconi
Aim: looking at metabolism rates of people! and its relationship to
al&heimer's disease
Method: longitudinal study! following 40 normal and healthy patients! 5-+6
years! then at the end of they study! they had a P,T scan "measure important
functions of the brain#
Results: individuals showing early signs of metabolism in the hippocampus
were associated with later development of Al&hemier's disease
Conclusion: relationship between metabolism rates and Al&hemier's disease
results need to be replicated! however its useful to use P,T scans to screen for
Al&hemier's for people who don't have any symptoms )ust yet

/ara"raph +0 ,ield e2periments
:atural environments to see the way that people react to situations
/esearchers still manipulate variables
,cological validity
'annot control all variables
!ri"ht et al
Aim: looking at whether memory is influenced by own race bias
Method: approaching individuals with a black 8 white confederate at
different times in a mall in 'ape town! = Africa! and %ristol! and was asked
(uestions like 9ecuse me do you have the timeC9 then they had to select faces
from photo line up with confederates in different clothes
Result: higher chance of someone getting it right with same race! and they
were also more confident for own race "using likert scale#! so there is correlation
between high confidence and selecting someone of own race
/ara"raph 30 Case studies
/ich source of data
-nsight to uni(ue phenomena 8 individuals behavior
-nclude descriptions of personal eperiences! feelings! thoughts! blood testings! i(
scores! survey data! interviews!
7imited aspect on behavior
1etailed research
&rian"ulation: using multiple methods of investigation to eplore the same
phenomenon
'ombination of methods allows researcher to adopt different perspectives to look at
the case study! so that its more than cognitive level of analysis
Highlights etraordinary behavior! stimulating new research
-mpossible to replicate findings of a case study! as its uni(ue cases
/eliability of the data is low "since it cant be replicated#
:ot possible to generali&e results of a uni(ue case to the general population
-ndividual is not a representative
Aim: 7ooking at 'live *earing's brain! a patient with anterograde"failure to
store memories after a trauma# and retrograde amnesia "failure to store memories
before a trauma! trauma that disrupts consolidation of memory#
Method: ./- scan
Results: 'live wearing showed damage to hippocampus! and some of the
frontal regions!
Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail! therefore more research
studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will
now have of the brain of these patients.
Conclusion
.any researchers can now speciali&e into certain parts of the brain during their
research
-t has benefited many people
1ifferent methods must be used to have clearer insight
.ust be ethical
1iscuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the
cognitive level of analysis
.ntroduction:
-mportance of ethics on human behavior
,nsure psych is well respect discipline! as psych is very important in finding
new cures for different abnormalities
,thical conduct
Treating animals and people well
3nnecessary suffering is unacceptable
.ay be risks to participants life
-f misused! genetic information can be stigmati&ing! affecting one's ability to find a
)ob
Dollow %P=8APA code of conduct and key aspects to learn more about
Human's mental processing
Human brain scientifically
-nfluences on behavior from socio and culture
/ara"raph )0 La1oratory research
1oesn't harm the sub)ect during
.ust follow standardi&ed codes because it re(uires humans
%ritish psychological society %P=! American psychological association APA!
Hong Eong psychological society HEP= F- authorities for psychology in each
country
Lo'tus and /almer investigation on the use of different use of verbs
activating different schemas in memory
All the participants must follow the main sets of guidelines "below#
.ain sets of guidelines are
-nformed consent! so they must agree and be informed about the study
Anly =light deception used! so that the participants wont be affected by what
the researcher wants them to do.
However deception must be eplained to patients at the end
1ebriefing! true aims and purpose must be revealed to participants! all
deceptions must be revealed and )ustified! and participants must have no stress
after eperiment
*ithdrawal! participants should be told that they can leave whenever! and
whether they want to withdraw their results too
'onfidentiality! information must be confidential
=tandardi&ed instructions! all participants treated e(ually
Protection from physical or mental harm
/ara"raph 20 Animal Studies
Animals have rights of protection and privacy much below levels granted to humans
Procedures not permitted on humans can be applied on animals
e.g. lesioning and ablation of the brain
,thical guidelines still eist in animal use during psychological research
Avoid 8 minimi&e stress and suffering of all animals
consider possible alternative ways to perform animal research
As economical as possible in the number of animals used
Although it helped researchers believe that the hypothalamus was a brake on eating! it
is unethical
Potential harm to the animal cannot be determined
1amage cannot be reversed
Pain towards animals
They were consuming food at unhealthy! dangerous rates
/ats were sacrificed..
.any animal research do not result in further understanding
Animals lives wasted
%enefits should not be generali&ed! since further understanding is not always
gained
=ome see it as a sacrifice for the betterment of others
=ome see it as human's selfishness to gain knowledge at the price of others!
inhumane! cruel and dehumani&ing
-t does have its advantages! many cosmetics company are still open because of
success in testing upon animals! as they are easy to increase in numbers too
Anly use when there is no alternative choice and the finding would balance the loss
4andel
Aim: memory research on rats to see which area of the brain is involved in
memory
Method: teaching animals to run through a ma&e! then because a memory is
formed! Eandel would cut away brain tissue to find out which areas of the brain is
involved in the task
Results: rats constantly had their brain leisoned till they couldn$t perform the
task
/ara"raph +: Sensitiity
Agreement before hand
/egards to incidental detection of brain abnormalities! whether the sub)ect
will be told or not
-nvestigations on ,*T! flashbulb memory must be dealt with sensitively
Brown and 4ulik
Aim2 supporting the flashbulb memory! that people have detailed memories
of highly emotional events
.ethod2 asking people to recall events
This must be dealt with carefully! as it$s a sensitive topic
3nethical to study and use someone
'* had consent by his wife! so that$s acceptable
H. had his name unknown till he died
These studies has benefited us because we can know which areas of
the brain are affected when people have abnormalities
Therapy is a useful approach to cognitive problems
Therapists have powerful role
Apen to abuse
Handling therapeutic relationships and data from research sensitively
'ognitive research in causes G effects of stress
'areful handling with stressful patients
Conclusion:
,thics is important aspect in psychological research
.aintain respect for discipline and the rights of sub)ects being tested
,thical codes must be followed to maintain good practice
3seful researches done on cognitive may benefit many people! especially from case
studies
,valuate schema theory with reference to research studies
.ntroduction
=chema2 mental representation of knowledge
'ognitive structure "mental frame# representing a person's knowledge about
ob)ects 8 people or situation
Assist recall
Huides our behavior
,perience and knowledge
=chemas open the 9topdown9 way to help us interpret the 9bottomup9
infromation reaching our sense
7ike a short cut to interpret information
=chema theory2 what we already know will influence the outcome of information
processing
:ew information is processed in the light of eisting schema
=chema will affect cognitive processing
/ara"raph ) 5Ar"uments a"ainst schema theory6
/epresenting general knowledge rather than definitions
:ot clear how schemas are ac(uired in the first place
:ot clear how they influence schema theory
'ohen "1550# points out that 9the whole idea of a schema is too vague to be useful'
and
argues that schema theory provides no eplanation of how schemas work
*e only know that it eists as its coined as a term! but how it really works is
unknown
1ifficult to define schema! as there's no true findings of schema in the brain
/ara"raph 2
People reconstruct past by trying to fit into eisting schemas
%artlett considers memory as an imaginative reconstruction of eperience
Bartlett 5)*+26
Aim: to investigate how schema! specifically cultural schema! can influence
memory
.ethod2 Approached random participants! and brought them to a lab. Then
they were told a comple and unusual story called IThe *ar of the Hhosts'. He
asked them to recall it si or seven times over various retention intervals.
Results: /ecalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making
it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective.
'anoe was often substituted by boat
=tory became shorter
=tory remained coherent "people interpreting as a whole#
Anderson and Pichert " 15<>#.
Aim: how schema affects people's memory skills
Method: Participants read a story from the perspective of either a burglar or
potential home buyer. After they had recalled as much as they could of the story
from the perspective they had been given! they shifted to the alternative
perspective and recalled the story again.
Results: An the second recall participants recalled more information that was
important only to the second perspective or schema than they had done on the first
recall.
Lo'tus and /almer
Aim: 'hanging the verb in the (uestion to see effects on speed estimate
Method: the participants were shown a clip of a car crash! then they were to
guess the speed estimate when the cars 9smashed 8 collided 8 bumped 8 hit 8
contacted 9
Result: speed estimates varied! gentle words had slower speed estimates
Conclusion: interpretation of the results 2 different use of verbs activates
different schemas in memory! and that hearing the word 9smash9 may allow the
participant to think of the event as more severe compared to 9contacted9
variable control
allowed researchers to establish a cause-and-effect relationship how schemas
affect
memory processes.
/ara"raph +
ecological validity of the *ar of the Hhosts lab study
his use of a native American folk tale may have been comple to complicate one's
memory
wasn$t a very well controlled study.
%artlett did not give very specific instructions to his participants
some distortions observed by %artlett may have been due to conscious guessing rather
than schema-influenced memory.
(auld and Stephen 5 )*776 found that the instructions stressing the need for accurate
recall minimi&es almost half the errors usually obtained.
Performing research on memory in lab does not reflect how and what people
remember in real life
8uille and Cutshall: interviewing people who witnessed real robbery! and found that
misleading (uestions did not distort one's memory
*ording had no effect on recall
Those who were most distressed had the most accurate memory
Conclusion:
enough research to suggest schemas do affect memory processes knowledge
both in a positive and negative sense.
=implify reality!
help us to make sense of current eperiences.
=chemas are useful concepts in helping us understand how we organi&e our
knowledge.
,valuate two models or theories of one cognitive process with
reference to research studies
.ntroduction
/econstructive memory and multi storage .37T- =TA/, .A1,7 -= -T = :A.,
.odels are attempts to describe comple behavior J =TAT, THAT TH,K
-:B,=T-HAT, HA* .,.A/K *A/E= J %, =P,'-D-' A%A3T TH,
'AH:-T-B, P/A',==
'onstantly changed and developed based on research findings
.ay clarify how a memory might work! but it can never be more than a model
,vidence brings support to ideas of the model! nothing is proven
/ara"raph )
%y Atkinson and =hriffin - .=.
.emory is divided into 0 stores
=ensory! =T.! 7T.
=ensory .emory
-nformation would eist for a brief period of time
3nless information is needed! it is easily lost
=hort Term .emory
Attended information passed on from sensory memory
=tores information for brief periods of time
Temporary storage for incoming information
7imited duration and capacity
7asting slightly longer than sensory
7ong Term .emory
Bast (uantity of information
=tored for long periods of time
-nformation is diverse! wide ranging!
Personal memories! general knowledge! and beliefs of the world
(lan-er and Cunit-
Aim: investigation on memory models *H-'H A:,C .=.
Method: reading out a list of random words to a group of participants
Results: beginning and end words reclled best
Conclusion: early words move from 7T.! and later information stored in
the =T.! therefore different models eist
,valuation points2
Too simplistic
7T. and =T. are way more comple ,BA73AT, 7-.-TAT-A:= A:1
=T/,:HTH= AD 7A% /,=,A/'H H,/,
/ara"raph 2
7T. is more comple than it is described in .=.
Case Studies: Clie !earin"
Aim: 7ooking at 'live *earing's brain! a patient with anterograde"failure to
store memories after a trauma# and retrograde amnesia "failure to store memories
before a trauma! trauma that disrupts consolidation of memory#
Method: ./- scan
Results: 'live wearing showed damage to hippocampus! and some of the
frontal regions!
7T. is more comple as it divides off to
eplicit memory - hippocampus
Dact based memories "semantic and episodic#
implicit memory - amygdala
.emories that are not consciously aware of "procedural and emotional#
he had damage to hippocampus and frontal regions of the brain
That$s why he still had affection for his wife! and could not form new
memories HAA1 *A/E H,/,
/ara"raph +
/econstructive .emory .A1,7
People's memory are not that incapable of failure
People do not store eact copies of their eperiences
Autline of information when it is recalled
People may have false memories
%rain can fabricate illusion so realistically we believe its true
=chema influence people's memory
.emory is reconstructive with schema's influencing recall
Bartlett 5)*+26
Aim: to investigate how schema! specifically cultural schema! can influence
memory
.ethod2 Approached random participants! and brought them to a lab. Then
they were told a comple and unusual story called IThe *ar of the Hhosts'. He
asked them to recall it si or seven times over various retention intervals.
Results: /ecalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making
it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective.
'anoe was often substituted by boat
=tory became shorter
=tory remained coherent "people interpreting as a whole#
People reconstruct the past by fitting into eisting schemas
People try to find a familiar pattern in eperiences
.emory is an imaginative reconstruction of eperience
/ara"raph 3
/epresenting general knowledge rather than definitions
:ot clear how schemas are ac(uired in the first place
:ot clear how they influence schema theory
'ohen "1550# points out that 9the whole idea of a schema is too vague to be useful'
and
argues that schema theory provides no eplanation of how schemas work
*e only know that it eists as its coined as a term! but how it really works is
unknown
1ifficult to define schema! as there's no true findings of schema in the brain HAA1
Conclusion
1ifferent models as to how our memory works
Always remember that it can only remain as a model
.odels are useful attempts at discovering the comple cognitive process of memory
,plain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process
%rain research provides information of the biological foundations of memory to have
a deeper insight into the nature of memory
The way that the brain works would affect memory
learning is a formation of memory! that is growing new connections or strengthening
eisting connections between neurons to form neural networks
To find out which parts of the brain are involved in memory! rats run through a ma&e!
and the memory is formed. Then the researchers would cut away brain tissue! and the
animal must run through the ma&e again. This procedure - leisoning - repeats until the
animal can no longer perform the task.
This proves that long-term memory systems have different stores.
%rain damage can affect one type of memory! but leaving the others
7ong term memory is separated into2 eplicit"declarative# memory and implicit "non-
declarative memory#
,plicit memory2 fact based information that can be consciously retrieved
Hippocampus is important in the formation of eplicit memories
-mplicit memory2 memories that we are not consciously aware of
Amygdala is important in storing emotional memories! because emotions are
used to evaluate eperience
,plicit memory branches into2
semantic memory "memory of facts - *HAT#
.emory for general knowledge
and episodic memory "memory of events - *H,:#
Personal eperience of events
-mplicit memory branches into2
procedural memory "memory of how to do things - HA*#
:on conscious memory for skills habits and actions
and emotional memories "memory of how emotional states- HA*#
7edou2 'ertain memories have emotional significance
This is why emotional events are remembered better
People suffering from post traumatic stress disorder have problems
forgetting! because emotional memories are difficult to get rid of
*hen the prefrontal corte is damaged! emotional memory is hard to eliminate! and is
hard to control emotional outbursts
Back"round o' Clie wearin"
,pisodic memory and semantic memory are lost
Amnesia2 caused by brain in)ury or infection
'ontracted with herpes! but it changed from a cold sore to attaching
the brain
'annot transfer new information into long term memory
=till play the piano and conduct music! that he knew before the illness - skills
of implicit memory
Proves that the brain has a distributed memory system! because implicit
memory is linked to a brain structure other than the hippocampus
=till had emotional memory! as he shows affection for his wife
Case Studies: Clie !earin"
Aim: 7ooking at 'live *earing's brain! a patient with anterograde"failure to
store memories after a trauma# and retrograde amnesia "failure to store memories
before a trauma! trauma that disrupts consolidation of memory#
Method: ./- scan
Results: 'live wearing showed damage to hippocampus! and some of the
frontal regions!
Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail! therefore more research
studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will
now have of the brain of these patients.
researchers have a better chance of testing areas of the brain related
to which areas of memory and skill learning
Back"round o' $enry Molaison
After his operation! he could recall information from earlier life
He cannot form new memories
=uffer mainly from retrograde amnesia
Have a normal conversation! but cannot recogni&e people who visit him
regularly
who had brain in)ury at 5! leading to epileptic sei&ures. 1octors removed
tissue from temporal lobe and the hippocampus
the areas affected by the operation was permanent! including the
hippocampus and amygdala and areas close to the hippocampus
Case Studies: $enry Molaison 1y Corkin 2002
Aim: whether H. could still perform skills from his procedural memory
Method: Hiven a picture an outline of a star inside a star! he was told to
draw the star between the two stars by looking at the mirror! he does this several
times
Results: he could not remember doing the task after he's completed them! but
after he a few tries! he comments that it was getting easier
Conclusion: damage in the hippocampus and amygdala had no effect on
procedural memory! as he could still improve his motor skills
1iscuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive
process
.ntroduction
=ocio cultural factors2 the way that we think is affected by social "humans in the
society# and culture matters "beliefs that people have#
'ognitive Process2 the way that we think
The etent to which digital tools affect the cognitive process of learning
1igital tools are2 computer gaming! use of internet! and social networking
-n the +1st century! it seems that digital tools shape society
%ut the (uestion is! does it shape the people in the society and the
way that humans think and learnC
/ara"raph )
:icholas 'arr raises the (uestion2 whether technologies can reshape usC
:euroscience suggests that habitual practice can change neuronal structures
=o would technology do the sameC
Kes! there is a positive effect on learning
Lames Hee's argument2 positive impact of using digital tools in a classroom
Paul Howard Lones2 games for children to boost motivation to help learning
Hames would motivate children
.otivation is great interest in education
demonstrable learning achievement.
Kes! but there's a negative effect on learning
:icholas 'arr - people are being too reliant
Hoogle is making us stupid
Absessive use of internet may lead to depression
-nternet weakens ability to concentrate and contemplate
/ara"raph 2 (amin" &heory
Lames Hee2
1evelop skills "problem solving! innovation# through games
1igital tools in classroom
-mpact on education
%elieves that life is full of tasks and assessments
-n games! its fun
-n reality! it$s a burden
People like to get constant feedback in games
=ome argue that writing is no longer used
Hee argues that blogs! fan fiction sites are huge potentials for
students to write
'onstantly given feedback tooM
However its risky to apply technology to all schools - hand written tests still eist
Paul Howard Lones2
-ntense engagement with computer games shows how under one
environment! all children are capable of intense levels of engagement
1evelop to learn and achieve better through games
Aim: investigating whether there is a change in brain activity when humans
are engaging in games
Method: putting brains under ./- scanners during gaming process
Results: increase brain activity when2 handling rewards in games! or when
the computer makes a mistake! and controlling cognitive response
Conclusion: we are hardwire to learn about other$s mistakes
9aluation: lab study
we can then use games and challenges to trigger brain activity
,valuation2
.ay introduce gambling to children
.ay lead to addiction towards computer for children
,ducational games are fun! but not if it leads to gambling
,valuation of Haming methods2
Too much reward! that$s not a real representation of the world
However humans are adapting to challenges through practices in
games in classrooms! therefore their environment that they live in may be
more natural and en)oyable
Durther research is re(uired to see if there are long term effects if children are
involved in long term eposure to learning games
/ara"raph +
-nternet has positive effects towards education
:ames (ee:
Alder people who have used internet searches have been able to change brain
activity patterns and enhance brain functioning what about
&eena Moody:
Aim: *hether internet searching has enabled people to enhance cognition
Method: Hroup of participants aged 44-<>! they had to perform f./- scan
whilst doing internet searches "prior the eperiment! they have little eperience on
computers#. They were told to go away for 16 days! using 1 hour of internet
searching and reading information a day! then to perform an f./- scan again
Results: first scan2 language! memory! visual! reading areas light up. =econd
scan2 all those stated! as well as the area of working memory and decision making
=hows that brain eercise through searching and reading off the internet can enhance
cognition
However this was done on older people! so it cannot be generali&ed with young
people
Their degree of knowledge of internet may be affected through the results
-t was a laboratory study! people may act under demand characteristics
/ara"raph 3
'hanging and developing lifestyles because of social networking
Having a second life gaming will influence people's lifestyle
=ocial networking to learn more about others
Christine DeCoursey: recommends people to use second life as a tool for virtual
travel
Helps broadening the mind
,ncourages people that use the tool to select different gender and aged
avatars so that we can learn to empathi&e for others
,valuation points2
People may become addicted! leading to mental problems
People may become too reliant on their second life! making it hard to
live in their reality life
.ay lead to depression
Nuestion of over-usage
=ocial network may help eplore interpersonal communication! pre)udice! and
empathy
Conclusion
1igital era is epanding and increasing usage has definitely effected on how we think
and process things in our mind
The brain is constantly adapting
As we rapidly transfer into a digital culture! we need to figure out its effects towards
cognition
,valuate the etent to which a cognitive process is reliable
.ntroduction
'ognitive process2 memory
.any different models supporting memory
/econstructive memory! with schemas affecting the way that we recall things
in our memory
Dactors affecting memory
,motion
/ecency
/emember that memory may not be too reliable as humans have false memories
%rain may fabricate illusions so realistic we believe its true
Humans remember outline filled with information when recalle! therefore it
may only be a short memory outline
/ara"raph )0 Bartlett
Bartlett 5)*+26
Aim: to investigate how schema! specifically cultural schema! can influence
memory
.ethod2 Approached random participants! and brought them to a lab. Then
they were told a comple and unusual story called IThe *ar of the Hhosts'. He
asked them to recall it si or seven times over various retention
intervals. ,mphasise that * of Hs was a story of a different J native Am -ndian J
culture. *hyC He chose this story to see if schemas don t match J cultural contet
of story not familiar to ps J would they adapt memories to fit own cultural
schemaC
Results: /ecalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making
it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective.
'anoe was often substituted by boat
=tory became shorter
=tory remained coherent "people interpreting as a whole# good
.emory of something is dependent on culture
e.g. people in 3E were not used to saying canoe! so they remembered it as
boat
field eperiment J stopped and asked people as he walked around 'ambridge 3ni in
15+?s80?s
some distortions observed by %artlett may have been due to conscious guessing rather
than schema-influenced memory
People don$t store eact copies of eperiences! only storing an outline that is filled by
recalled information
People often have false memories! when individuals cant decide between what they
have eperienced and what they've heard after the event
%rain is able to fabricate illusions that are so realistic! and we tend to believe that its
true.
/ara"raph 2 0 'ultural variations "A/%#
!ri"ht et al
Aim: looking at whether memory is influenced by own race bias
Method: approaching individuals with a black 8 white confederate at
different times in a mall in 'ape town! = Africa! and %ristol! and was asked
(uestions like 9ecuse me do you have the timeC9 then they had to select faces
from photo line up with confederates in different clothes
Result: higher chance of someone getting it right with same race! and they
were also more confident for own race "using likert scale#! so there is correlation
between high confidence and selecting someone of own race
People's memory is influenced by their culture
=uggestion that ,*T is not reliable
Lo'tus and /almer
Aim: 'hanging the verb in the (uestion to see effects on speed estimate
Method: the participants were shown a clip of a car crash! then they were to
guess the speed estimate when the cars 9smashed 8 collided 8 bumped 8 hit 8
contacted 9
Result: speed estimates varied! gentle words had slower speed estimates
Conclusion: interpretation of the results 2 different use of verbs activates
different schemas in memory! and that hearing the word 9smash9 may allow the
participant to think of the event as more severe compared to 9contacted9
Peoples memory are affected by the wording of the (uestion
.emory recalling is :AT reliable
1ifferent words had an effect on the estimation of speed as well as perception of
conse(uence
e.g. smash provides participants with verbal information activating schema
for severe accident
7aboratory study - lacks ecological validity Hood
8uille and Cutshall: interviewing people who witnessed real robbery! and found that
misleading (uestions did not distort one's memory
*ording had no effect on recall
Those who were most distressed had the most accurate memory
This argues that cognitive processing is reliable to those who are most
distressed
.emory is not affected by change in (uestion
greater eco validity - eperiment than 7oftus! because it was a real
environment! compared to 7oftus that was a lab
/ara"raph +: ,lash1ul1 memory 1y Brown and 4ulik
.emory is affected by emotion
,motional! vivid and detailed memory of highly emotional events that are recorded in
the brain
People are clear of ma)or events that affects them emotionally
3se 'onway here - Experimental support for FB memory theory also exists.
Conway resignation of Margaret Thatcher. Year later 86 of ps still gi!ing
accurate accounts.
Follow up "# months after that still pretty accurate.
Dlashbulb memory is reliable because it is suggest that2
:eural mechanism triggers emotional arousal because event is unepected 8
important
,motional events better remembered
/ole of amygdale
%efore going into : G H s study J eplain that research does not always support this
theory J link sentence needed
;eisser and $arsch
Aim: investigating people's memory of accuracy of the incident where <
astronauts in space shuttle challenge were killed
Method: asking them to recall events +6 hours later! and + years later
Results: they were certain of their results! but 6?O of the participants had
distorted memories
Possible that post-event information influenced memories
-naccuracy of emotional memory is common
Conclusion
'ognitive process2 memory must be noted that it is sometimes unreliable
'ultural bias
,motional memory may be inaccurate! even though some say that emotional memory
is harder to forget
-mplications for societyC People imprisoned based on ,*T J research in this area
one of most important contributions of Psychology to law and )udicial system.
Profound changes to (uestioning techni(ues developed as a result J 'ognitive
interviewing J avoid saying too much as a (uestioner J let the person speak. 'ontetual
memory J crime reconstruction J PrelivingQ the scene of crime to generate more
accurate recall. 1eveloped out of psych research on this sub)ect.
1iscuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive
processes
.ntroduction
7ooking at the brain and how it works when mental processing takes place
3seful! looking at brain activity! how the brain activity works
,thical findings on abnormalities in the brain - must have consent beforehand
,pensive! and needs an epert
1oesn't harm the sub)ect
/esearchers are open to interpretation of the brain scans
=ome say that the colors may eaggerate brain activity! and it would allow
researchers to interpret it differently
1etect blood flow! produce maps showing which parts of the brain is involved in
particular mental processes
/ara"raph )0 /9&
Lisa Mosconi
Aim: looking at metabolism rates of people! and its relationship to
al&heimer's disease
Method: longitudinal study! following 40 normal and healthy patients! 5-+6
years! then at the end of they study! they had a P,T scan "measure important
functions of the brain#
Results: individuals showing early signs of metabolism in the hippocampus
were associated with later development of Al&hemier's disease
Conclusion: relationship between metabolism rates and Al&hemier's disease
results need to be replicated! however its useful to use P,T scans to screen for
Al&hemier's for people who don't have any symptoms )ust yet
P,T scan of hippocampus that it will be possible to see the first signs of Al&heimer$s
disease long before it has spread to the cerebral corte! which damages cognitive
function and impairs the memory
Hippocampus- area used for fact based memory
/ara"raph 20 MR.
3seful for memory research
Case Studies: Clie !earin"
Aim: 7ooking at 'live *earing's brain! a patient with anterograde"failure to
store memories after a trauma# and retrograde amnesia "failure to store memories
before a trauma! trauma that disrupts consolidation of memory#
Method: ./- scan
Results: 'live wearing showed damage to hippocampus! and some of the
frontal regions!
Conclusion: the mind can be looked at in detail! therefore more research
studies may be performed based on the clear insight images that scientists will
now have of the brain of these patients.
researchers have a better chance of testing areas of the brain related
to which areas of memory and skill learning
./- scans showed the areas that doctors have removed to cure his epilepsy
Teaches us how different parts of the memory are responsible for what
Proves eplicit and implicit memory
As long as there was consent! you're allowed to look at one's brain through scan
'* had wife's agreement to study his brain
However some say its unethical to use a patient as a study
/ara"raph +0 'MR.
&eena Moody:
Aim: *hether internet searching has enabled people to enhance cognition
Method: Hroup of participants aged 44-<>! they had to perform f./- scan
whilst doing internet searches "prior the eperiment! they have little eperience on
computers#. They were told to go away for 16 days! using 1 hour of internet
searching and reading information a day! then to perform an f./- scan again
Results: first scan2 language! memory! visual! reading areas light up. =econd
scan2 all those stated! as well as the area of working memory and decision making
=hows that brain eercise through searching and reading off the internet can enhance
cognition
However this was done on older people! so it cannot be generali&ed with young
people
Their degree of knowledge of internet may be affected through the results
Artificial environment
Act under demand characteristics
Conclusion
=canning methods has helped researchers be more focused in their research
:ow we can identify symptoms of diseases! e.g. Al&heimer's disease! which affect's
ones memory skill if they have that disease
However its epensive! and at times the results are open to interpretation