Chapter 1 Chem Sci Method 2up

1
Chapter 1:
Chemistry and the Scientific Method
Chemistry 6A
Fall 2013
Carl Hoeger, Ph.D.
University of California, San Diego
Chem & Sci Method MRG
1- 1
Why Study Chemistry?
Because I have to (wrong answer!)
Because I NEED to (right answer!)
Chemistry is the study of the properties of substances and how
they react with one another
Many useful products have been developed
Drugs
Study and understanding of our environment
All molecules are built from atoms (~100 basic building blocks)
Bonds form to make molecules and ions via reactions
Math behind reactions
Energy Associated with reactions
Chem & Sci Method MRG 1-2
2
Chemistry is an Empirical Science
Scientific Method
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data
Hypothesis: a possible explanation or
prediction: testable
Law: summarizes a large number of
observations but does not attempt to explain
Theory: Unifying principle that explains the
law based on exptl observations; can only be
disproven!
Experiments designed to disprove are best;
theories have limits: these limits lead to new
discoveries!
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Measurements
Qualitative: General characteristics of the material under study
Color, shape, odor, reaction tendencies
Lead is denser than Al
Quantitative: Result expressed as a number with units!
Absorbs light of 450 nm
1 cm
3
= 1 mL
Law of Conservation of Mass
(Lavoisier)
Total mass of reactants used total mass of products formed
Mass is neither gained nor lost
11.3 g/cm
3
vs. 2.70 g/cm
3
3
Measurements
Science is about making observations and measurements; how do we
convey to someone just HOW good/sure of our data we are?
All quantitative measurements are made using some sort of device (analog
or digital). Need value, units, and error.
All data collection has errors associated with it:
Determinate Errors: aka systematic errors; have a definite direction
and magnitude and have an assignable cause.
Indeterminate Errors: aka random errors or noise; errors that simply
arise from uncertainties in a measurement, sloppy techniques,
anomalous physical and environmental factors; these errors are
typically untraceable.
Determinate errors can be eliminated; Indeterminate errors can not.
Measurements (cont.)
Consider the measurement of a length of bar:
Is it 8.3, 8.32, or 8.323? Or 8.322? What are the units?
Error? Depends!
Calibration
Multiple measurements to give means and standard
deviations:
( )
; ; 100
1
i i
x x x
s
x s CV
x
N N
= = =

4
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy: closeness of measurement to the true value
Precision: closeness of individual measurements to one another
Precise but not accurate Accurate but not precise
Neither Both
Scientific Notation
When expressing an extreme large number such as the number of atoms in a
mole, or a very small number such as the mass of a single atom, scientists use
scientific notation. The basic format of scientific notation is Mx 10
n
, where M
is a real number between 1 and 10 and n is a whole number.
10
0
= 1 (note: any number to the 0 power is 1)
10
1
= 10
10
2
= 10 * 10 = 100
10
3
= 10 * 10 * 10 = 1000
10
-1
= 1 / 10 = 0.1
10
-2
= 1 / 10 / 10 = 0.01
10
-3
= 1 / 10 / 10 / 10 = 0.001
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Scientific Notation (cont)
For practical reasons it is common to express all numbers that are larger than
1000 or smaller than 0.01 in scientific notation.
When converting a number to scientific notation, move the decimal place to
the right or to the left until what remains is a number to the left of the
decimal place between 1 and 9.
Moving the decimal to the right will result in a negative power of ten, to the
left in a positive power of ten:
0.0 0 0 6 70 = 6.70 x 10
-4
Y Y Y Y Y. X X X X X
Express 0.0006700 in scientific notation: Express 3456 in scientific notation:
3 4 5 6. = 3.456 x 10
3
Units
Just as important as the value are the units associated with that
value, as they tell us about what we are measuring!
Units need to be as detailed as necessary:
12.7 lbs vs. 12.7 lbs of hamburger vs. 12.7 lbs of lean hamburger;
3 atoms vs. 3 sodium atoms vs. 3 sodium ions
SI or metric units almost exclusively in chemistry.
Fundamental units vs. Derived units:
Length: meter (m); Mass: kilogram (kg); Time: second (sec);
Temperature: Kelvin (K); Chemical amount: mole (mol)
Energy: joule (J); Pressure: atmosphere (atm); Volume: liter (L)
Units quite often begin with modifiers (power prefixes) to
relay size of quantity without having to use scientific notation:
5.32 x 10
3
J or 5.3 kJ
6
SI Units and Power Prefixes
1 L = 1000 mL = 1 dL
3
1 J = 1 kgm
2
s
2
Compound Units: density
Intensive vs. Extensive
Math Refresher
log vs. ln
1
a
n
= a
n
a
1/n
= a
n
loga
n
= nloga
log(ab) = loga + logb
log
a
b
|
\
|
.
|
= logalogb
7
Energy
SI unit is the joule (J)
Energy of a heartbeat: 0.5 J
Kinetic vs. Potential Energy
Law of Conservation of Energy
Power vs. Energy
E
Tot
= E
K
+ E
P
Significant Figures-1
Two types of numbers exist: measured and exact numbers.
Measurements or determinedvalues contain significant
figures and must convey to the reader the certainty of
your measurement. This is where significant figures
(SigFigs) comes in.
Exact values (exact numbers) have an unlimited number
of significant figures and never detract from a
measurement or its subsequent modification or use.
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Exact Values
Exact numbers can either be cardinal (counted) or defined.
Cardinal or counted values represent values that, by their very
nature or how they are obtained, are indivisible without
destroying the identity of the unit.
10 dogs or 85 cars;
123 molecules; 13 silver atoms; 2500 electrons;
2 chloride ions in 1 calcium chloride.
Defined values are those for which the value has been exactly
defined. 1in these expressions is EXACTLY 1
1 in = 2.54 cm; 1000 m = 1 km; 1 mg = 0.001 g; 1 lb = 16 oz
All metric to metric or English to English conversions
What about constants? c = 2.998 x 10
8
m/sec?
Measured Values
Determined values have SigFigs associated with them.
Reported values must convey the level of precision of the
measurement to a detached third-party (i.e. an unseen
colleague).
A measured value is comprised of digits we know for certain
plus ONE we are uncertain of (the last digit to the right)
1
2
3
1.66 mL
Consider the graduated cylinder to the left; we
know the first two digits with certainty (you can
read them directly from the markings) but the last
6is estimated. Another person might read it as a
5or a 7, hence it is uncertain.
By convention, the last digit is considered to be
variable by 1 unit (unless specified otherwise)
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Significant Numbers/Digits
When given a measurement or a determined value, what digits are
significant?
All non-zero integers always count as sig figs;
There is assumed to be a 1 difference in the last significant
digit shown;
Zeros are tricky--depends on the type:
Captive zeros: always significant;
1001 cars; 1.7007 cm
Leading zeros: never significant;
0010 screws; 0.00021 L
Trailing zeros: only significant if a decimal point is present
210. Atoms; 213.0002 mm; 0.00056700 Angstroms
NOTE: for any number expressed in scientific notation, all
digits shown are significant (except leading zeros)
Sig Figs: Calculation Considerations
Determined by the type of mathematical operation carried out
Multiplication or Division: least precise number determines sf in answer;
Addition or Subtraction: Answer can have no more decimal places than the
one with the fewest;
Logs: No more digits to right of decimal than sf in original number;
Antilogs: No more sf in answer than digits to right of decimal in original
number;
14.3 0.012
4
= 0.04 29 (1sf )
22. (14.3 0.012) 8.0221 3101 = + (1 ) dp
2
1. log1.43 10 844 66 = (3 ; : 1 ) 1.845 dp note the is not a sf =
antilog 2.86 = 10
2.86
= 1.380 10
3
= 1.4 10
3
(2 sf )
10
Rounding
A number is rounded off to the desired number of significant figures by
dropping one or more digits to the right. If you are rounding to the tens,
hundreds place or higher, you must put zeroes in the lesser places (the ones
place, for example) to indicate to what place you have rounded. Use the
following guidelines when rounding off numbers:
When the first digit dropped is less than 5, the last digit remains
unchanged.
When the first digit dropped is 5 or greater, the last digit retained is
increased by 1.
When rounding, ignore ALL digits after the first digit you are dropping
in making your decision.
Always round at the end of any set of calculations.
Round each to 3 sf: i) 3203; ii) 1.768; iii) 0.01455; iv) 24.74999
Combined Calculations
In calculations involving BOTH addition/subtraction AND
multiplication/division, significant figure considerations must
be noted before and after each calculation involving addition
or subtraction. You still round at the end. A simple rule of
thumb is as follows:
Take note of how many sig figs the multiplication and division
steps allow;
Take note of how many decimal places the addition and
subtraction steps allow;
Your answer can have no more decimal places than allowed by the
addition/subtraction but no more sig figs than allowed by the
multiplication/division. Usual way to do this is to get your answer,
set the correct number of sig figs and then lessen the number of
decimal places if necessary.
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Power Notation: pX values
It is not always easy or convenient to use scientific notation,
especially when comparing or tabulating long lists of
numbers in scientific notation; used primarily when
discussing acidity and basicity.
Use pX values; by definition:
Therefore:
pX = log X
X =10
pX
X pX
6.24 10
5
5.795
3.110
8
7.51
pX X
11.59 2.6 10
12
2.115 1.30 10
2
Dimensional Analysis
Also known as the Factor-Label Method of problem
solving.
A quantity in one unit is converted into an equivalent
quantity in a different unit.
A way to analyze and solve problems by using the units (or
dimensions) of the measurement; based on the (correct)
assumption that if the units of your answer are right,
chances are good that your answer is as well.
You will use the units to solve the problem, doing the
actual math at the end.
Requires the use of conversion factors: equivalence
statements that allow us to convert units of one type to
another.
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Conversion Factors
Derived from equivalence statements: an equality relating
one quantity to another. Write in equation form if not
already.
One foot is 12 inches; there are 15,125 bolts in a Saturn Vue; a mole
of carbon atoms weighs 12.01 grams
Most useful when expressed as an equivalence ratio.
When 1by itself appears in an equivalence statement or
ratio, that 1 is an exact number.
1 12 15, 125 1 1 12.01 ft in screws Saturn Vue mol C g = = =
1 12 1 12.01
;
12 1 12.01 1

ft in mol C g
or or
in ft g mol C
Equivalence Ratios
Lets examine how an equivalence statement is converted
into an equivalence ratio:
1 101.325
1 101.325
101.325
atm kPa
atm kPa
kPa
= =
101.325 kPa
1
1
1 101.325
or
atm
atm kPa
=
=
1 atm
101.325
1
1
kPa
atm
= =
SO, Conversion factors are just a creative way to express 1!
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Conversion Factors (cont)
For unit interconversions in the same measurement system (i.e.
metric to metric or English to English) conversion factors are
defined quantities and therefore have unlimited significant
figures.
2 nm = 2 x 10
7
cm; 16 oz = 1 lb
For unit interconversions between different systems (i.e. metric to
English) cfs are measured values and DO have sig fig limits!
EXCEPTION: 1 in = 2.54 cm; this is an EXACT
conversion (only one!)
Equivalence statements always have the following relationship:
big # of a small unit = small # of a big unit
1000 mm = 1 m; 6.022 x 10
23
atoms = 1 mol
The units in a conversion factor can be treated the same way
you normally treat numbers: they can be squared, rooted,
canceled with identical units, etc.
Thus, conversion factors allow us to convert one
measurement in a given set of units into another.
2.54 cm
1 in
|
\
|
.
|
3
=
(2.54)
3
cm
3
(1)
3
in
3
=
16.4 cm
3
1 in
3
15 in
3
16.4 cm
3
1 in
3
= 246 cm
3
Remember to
change your
numerical portion
accordingly!
Note that ONLY
the units cancel!
14
Conversion factors can also be derived from physical properties,
chemical measurements, or constants:
Conversion factors derived from physical properties or chemical
measurements are considered measured quantities and therefore have
significant figures limits. It is therefore important to use most precise
value you can find when using them and apply sig fig rules as needed:
Constants also have significant figure limits, but most constants have
values with such high precision that it is rarely necessary to invoke sig
fig rules:
d
Hg
= 13.55 g cm
3
; heat of vaporization of Hg = 59.23 kJ mol
1
h = 6.626 10
34
J s
d
Hg
= 13.55 g cm
3
(4sf ) vs. d
Hg
= 13.6 g cm
3
(3sf )
h = 6.6260755 10
34
J s, commonly used as just 6.626 10
34
J s
Conversion Factors and Dimensional Analysis:
How To
Begin by creating a conversion path.
What do we have; what do we need; what do we know?
Determine what equivalence ratios (conversion factors) are
needed.
Put conversion string together, adjust and cancel units as
called for.
Put in actual numerical values.
Do the math CAREFULLY!
Does the answer make sense?
15
DA Example #1
A ruler is 12.0 inches long. How long is it in meters? (1 inch =
2.54 cm)
Set up a conversion path, putting needed equivalence statements
in it:
Put conversion string together:
in m
cm
?
1 in = 2.54 cm 100 cm= 1 m
12 in
2.54 cm
1 in
1 m
100 cm
= 0.3048 m = 0.30 m (2sf )
Answer has 2 sf; all
conversions here are exact
DA Example #2
Jules Verne wrote a book 20,000 leagues under the sea. How far is
this in feet?
Much more difficult; need a lot of uncommon conversions:
1 league = 3 nautical miles; 1 nautical mile = 10 cable lengths;
1 cable length =100 fathoms; 6 ft = 1 fathom
Set up a conversion path, putting needed equivalence ratios in it:
20000 leagues
3 nautical mi
1 league
10 cable lengths
1 nautical mi
100 fathoms
1 cable lengths
6 ft
1 fathom
= 3.6 10
8
ft = 4 10
8
ft (1sf )
league
?
nautical mile cable length
fathom feet
1:3 1:10
100:1
6:1
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DA Example #2 (cont)
20000 leagues
3 nautical mi
1 league

10 cable lengths
1 nautical mi

100 fathoms
1 cable lengths

6 ft
1 fathom
= 3.6 10
8
ft = 4 10
8
ft (1sf )
DA Example #3
A more common problem seen in chemistry is illustrated here:
A 0.032 molar solution of HCl (hydrochloric acid) has a density of 1.17; how
many mL do you need to measure out to ensure that the volume you have
contains 7.0 g of HCl?
Here you are actually faced with TWO problems: a value with no given units
(1.17) and too much information (0.032 molar)!
Approach: what do you need? Volume of HCl that contains 7.0 g of HCl
what do you know? Density of solution = 1.17 g/mL (!); molar = ??
Set up a conversion path, starting this time with what you need:
g HCl mL HCl
1.17 g/mL

7.0 g HCl needed
1 mL HCl soln
1.17 g HCl
= 5.98 mL = 6.0 mL (2sf )
SigFigs limited by starting amt
17
Multistep Problems: More Complex DA
Usually involves complex units: values naturally expressed as a ratio,
where units may be understood:
Gas mileage; speed; density; molar mass
STRATEGY:
Solve problems by breaking the solution into steps.
Convert complex units, using dimensional analysis.
Many complex tasks in daily life are handled by breaking them down into
manageable parts; Consider steps in cleaning a car:
I. vacuum the inside
II. wash the exterior
III. dry the exterior
IV. apply a coat of wax
Multistep Problem Example
You are driving your sports car to Tahoe at an average speed of
68 mph. After 250. minutes you decide to stop for lunch. How
many kilometers have you driven in this time and how much money
have you spent on gas to drive this distance? Your car gets 32 mpg
and gas costs 82 cents per liter.
There may be more than one way to approach problems like these.
Here is one solution path for this problem:
1. Determine time in hours spent driving;
2. Determine miles driven;
3. Determine kilometers driven;
4. Determine money spent.
Unusual Conversions needed:
1 mi = 5280 ft; 1 in = 2.54 cm; 1 gal = 3.785 L
18
Multistep Solution-1
1. Convert minutes to hours:
250. min
1 h
60 min
= 4.17 h (3 sf )
2. Determine miles driven:
4.17 h
68 mi
1 h
= 284 h (3 sf ; only 2 sf allowed)
Multistep Solution-2
3. Convert miles to kilometers:
284 mi
5280 ft
1 mi
12 in
1 ft
2.54 cm
1 in
1 m
100 cm
1 km
1000 m
= 457 km = 460 km (2 sf )
4. Determine money spent:
284 mi
1 gal
32 mi
3.785 L
1 gal
$0.82
1 L
= $27.62 = $28 (2 sf )
19
Summary
Errors occur during scientific measurements, regardless of
how careful one is!
Significant Figures allow us to convey the precision of our
measurements to our audience.
Units are as important as the numerical values are.
Equivalence ratios (conversion factors) allow us to relate a
value in one unit set to another.
Dimensional Analysis is a way of using one or more
equivalence ratio(s) to solve problems.
End of Chapter 1
Suggested Extra Problems:
5, 6, 8, 10-12, 14, 15, 19, 21, 23, 27, 31, 32, 51, 52, 59, 60,
63, 65, 68, 69, 72, 73, 79, 81, 86

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