Theme no. 3.

Natural Tourist Resources

1. The forms of the relief as natural tourist resource.
2. Climate.
3. Hydrography.
4. Vegetation.
5. Fauna.
6. The Tourist andscapes.
1. The forms of the relief as natural tourist resource
Relief is the most rich and di!erse attracti!e resource of the "orld. #t is the core
of any landscape. The importance of relief for tourism is conditioned to the great
!arieties of its forms.
The escarpments $steep cliffs or slopes formed %y a fault or %y erosion&
%ecome tourist o%'ecti!es through their scale( splendor( and the !ertical change of
nature. Their force of attraction e!ol!es "ith the relati!e altitude. They dra" the
mountaineers $alpinists( clim%ers&.
)scarpments are often called scarps. * fault scarp is formed %y a fault( "hich is a fracture or
%rea+ in the earth,s crust( along "hich one side is raised and the other is forced do"n"ard. *n
erosion scarp is formed %y the une-ual erosion of gently sloping or hori.ontal layers of roc+. /uch
escarpments result "hen underlying( softer roc+s are eroded more rapidly than the upper( more
resistant roc+s.
* "ell0+no"n fault scarp is the eastern edge of the /ierra 1e!ada 2ountains in the "estern
3nited /tates. * "ell0+no"n erosion scarp is the 1iagara escarpment in the 4reat a+es region of
1orth *merica. 1iagara Falls is located "here the 1iagara 5i!er crosses the escarpment.
The crests and the peaks represent lines and points of certain sides of the
mountains. The more unusual and higher the pea+s are( the more their indi!iduality
gro"s( and the more they dra" tra!elers, attention.
The passes and the banks play a ma'or part in the gathering of tourists along
certain destinations. They lin+ different regions %et"een them. The passes inter!ene
%et"een the crests and the massifs. The %an+s are along the ri!er systems.
The gorges, the defiles, and the canyons constitute an imposing group of
natural resources. The gorges represent the first stage( the most sa!age( of the
!alleys. /ometimes their cross profile is so narro" that men,s access is !ery difficult(
or e!en impossi%le. The defiles are more e!ol!ed gorges. The canyons represent the
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height of e!olution of gorges. *s role model is the 4rand Canyon of Colorado in
*ri.ona.
Canyon( deep( cliff0sided chasm or gorge created %y the erosi!e action of a ri!er. Canyons
most often occur in semiarid or arid regions "here ri!er erosion deepens the canyon faster than
"eathering $the %rea+do"n of roc+s& of the sides can "iden it. The deepest and steepest canyons
de!elop in regions "ith flat0lying( alternating %eds of hard and soft roc+. #n such circumstances( the
sides of the canyon resem%le a staircase( "ith the layers of harder roc+s forming cliffs and the
layers of softer roc+ forming gentler slopes.
Canyons are particularly a%undant across large areas of *ri.ona and 3tah in the south"estern
3nited /tates "here there is an optimal com%ination of climate and roc+ structure. The largest
e6ample in this region is the 4rand Canyon of the Colorado 5i!er( "hich is 446 +m $277 mi& long(
more than 1588 m $5888 ft& deep( %ut only 29 +m $1: mi& across from rim to rim at its "idest. The
canyon "as formed in a remar+a%ly short period of a%out 1 million years( around 4 million to 5
million years ago. Canyons are also found in other dry regions around the "orld. ;ne of the largest
e6amples is the Fish 5i!er Canyon in 1ami%ia( "hich e6tends for 168 +m $188 mi&. This canyon is
25 +m $16 mi& "ide and almost 588 m $1688 ft& deep in places.
The caves (caverns) ha!e an attracti!e potential than+s to their important
recreational resources< their shape( !aried morphology( archeological and
paleontological remains( and fossil glaciers. They represent a system of e!olution.
Ca!e is a cham%er %eneath the surface of the earth or in the side of a hill( cliff( or mountain.
Ca!es !ary in si.e and shape( and many ha!e large openings to the surface.
Ca!es range in si.e from small hillside openings to !ast interconnected su%terranean systems
of many cham%ers and galleries. /ome ca!e systems e6tend for miles underground and may ha!e
many outlets.
1atural air conditioning occurs in large ca!erns if the temperature !aries only a fe" degrees
yearly( and the ca!es are more or less constantly !entilated "ith fresh air. These conditions are( in
part( the result of comple6 meteorological phenomena( mainly !ariations in %arometric pressure.
Ca!es formed %y a%rasion commonly consist of myriads of "inding tunnels and former
underground "ater"ays that sho" many features analogous to those of surface streams( such as
deposits of sand and gra!el. *%rasion0formed ca!es normally lac+ the "eird formations found in
ca!es of solution.
#n ca!es of solution( the dissol!ed lime car%onate is often precipitated in such a fashion as to
form grotes-ue deposits. The %est0+no"n structures are the stalactites( "hich hang li+e icicles from
the roofs of ca!es( and the stalagmites( "hich e6tend up"ard from the ca!ern floors $see /talactite
and /talagmite&. #f the t"o gro"ths meet and 'oin( a pillar forms( helping to support the roof. ess
"ell0+no"n forms of car%onate deposition include flo"stone and dripstone. =epending on
dissol!ed mineral impurities %rought into the ca!e %y the ground"aters( the formations !ary in
color from ala%aster "hite to hues of dus+y red and %ro"n. The dripstone formations may %e
e6ceedingly thin and translucent. *mong rare formations is the helictite( a t"isted( flo"erli+e
!ariety of stalactite. 2any ca!e formations are rather delicate and easily %ro+en( and some of the
%est e6amples ha!e %een damaged or remo!ed %y unscrupulous ca!e e6plorers and !isitors to
pu%lic ca!es.
2any formations in commercial ca!es ha!e %een gi!en fanciful names( such as >5oc+ of
*ges? and >Temple of the /un? in Carls%ad Ca!erns and >2artha @ashingtonAs /tatue? and
>FatmanAs 2isery? in 2ammoth Ca!e. Fre-uently recurring names include >Bapanese
Temple(??Fro.en @aterfall(??CingAs Ded Cham%er(? and >4reat Hall.?
* practice in many large ca!es( particularly those administered %y the 3./. 1ational Ear+
/er!ice( is to illuminate the more spectacular formations for the %enefit of sightseers. 2any pu%lic
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ca!erns ha!e miles of lighted trails( "ith stair"ays and ade-uate safety guards near areas
considered dangerous. #n some ca!es !isitors can ta+e all0day hi+ing tours.
#n past ages people often too+ shelter in ca!es( nota%ly in "estern )urope( the 2editerranean
regions( China( southern *frica( and Chile. These early ca!e inha%itants popularly ha!e %een called
ca!emen( %ut the term is misleading( for it implies that a race of people at one time d"elt
e6clusi!ely in ca!es. *ctually( during the #ce *ge( people( li+e other animals( sought refuge in
ca!es from time to time. 2any artifacts of Ealeolithic and 1eolithic peoples ha!e %een found in
refuse heaps near the entrances of ca!es. Erimiti!e paintings ha!e %een found on the "alls of some
ca!es( nota%ly in France and /pain. 2odern critics acclaim the artistic %eauty of these paintings(
attri%uted to the Cro02agnon( a race of the late Ealeolithic period.
The science of ca!e study is termed speleology. * su%di!ision of geology( speleology has
furthered +no"ledge in mineralogy( hydrodynamics( archaeology( %iology( and many other formal
disciplines. /peleologists use many special contri!ances and methods in e6ploring ca!es. ;ne
techni-ue is the use of dye stains to re!eal the outlets of complicated underground0stream systems.
3se of special shoes( safety helmets( fle6i%le ladders and ca%les( and dependa%le lamps ena%les
present0day speleologists to e6plore the recesses of large ca!es much more thoroughly than "as
formerly possi%le. Ca!e e6plorers occasionally stay underground for days( mapping and studying
an e6tensi!e area.
. !limate
Climate encourages or discourages the act of tourism( cataly.ing or inhi%iting
the tourist stay. 2ost tourists and specialists reduce the important of climate to fine
"eather. The fine weather notion includes climatic elements such as ne%ulosity(
fre-uency of precipitations( temperature of the air( "inds.
!loudiness $or nebulosity& is a factor influencing the sun %rightness time( "hich
is important to mountainous and coastal regions.
"re#uency of precipitations $or rainfall& is a follo"0up to ne%ulosity. 5ainy
"eather leads to the temporary sedentariness of the en!ironment. Erecipitations in
li-uid form are unfa!ora%le factors( "hile those in sno" form ha!e an opposite
effect.
Temperature of the air is ta+en into account "hen it is !ery high or lo" and it
is unfa!ora%le to the leisure acti!ities.
$inds. *ccording to their length and intensity they %lo" differently. For
e6ample( sea %ree.es reduce the temperature of coastal regions.
$eather. %. %ntroduction
@eather 0 state of the atmosphere at a particular time and place. The elements of "eather
include temperature( humidity( cloudiness( precipitation( "ind( and pressure. These elements are
organi.ed into !arious "eather systems( such as monsoons $"ind that changes direction "ith the
change of seasonsF the monsoon pre!ails mainly in the #ndian ;cean&( areas of high and lo"
pressure( thunderstorms( and tornadoes. *ll "eather systems ha!e "ell0defined cycles and
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structural features and are go!erned %y the la"s of heat and motion. These conditions are studied in
meteorology( the science of "eather and "eather forecasting.
@eather differs from climate( "hich is the "eather that a particular region e6periences o!er a
long period of time. Climate includes the a!erages and !ariations of all "eather elements.
%%. Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of the air. Three different scales are used
for measuring temperature. /cientists use the Cel!in( or a%solute( scale and the Celsius( or
centigrade( scale. 2ost nations use the Celsius scale( although the 3nited /tates continues to use
the Fahrenheit scale.
Temperature on earth a!erages 15G C $59G F& at sea le!el %ut !aries according to latitude(
ele!ation( season( and time of day( ranging from a record high of 5:G C $148G F& to a record lo" of
0::G C $0138G F&. Temperature is generally highest in the Tropics and lo"est near the poles. )ach
day it is usually "armest during midafternoon and coldest around da"n. /easonal !ariations of
temperature are generally more pronounced at higher latitudes. *long the e-uator( all months are
e-ually "arm( %ut a"ay from the e-uator( it is generally "armest a%out a month after the summer
solstice $around Bune 21 in the northern hemisphere and around =ecem%er 21 in the southern
hemisphere& and coldest a%out a month after the "inter solstice $around =ecem%er 21 in the
northern hemisphere and around Bune 21 in the southern hemisphere&. Temperature can change
a%ruptly "hen fronts $%oundaries %et"een t"o air masses "ith different temperatures or densities&
or thunderstorms pass o!erhead.
Temperature decreases "ith increasing ele!ation at an a!erage rate of a%out 6.5G C per +m
$a%out 19G F per mi&. *s a result( temperatures in the mountains are generally much lo"er than at
sea le!el. Temperature continues to decrease throughout the atmosphere,s lo"est layer( the
troposphere( "here almost all "eather occurs. The troposphere e6tends to a height of 16 +m $18 mi&
a%o!e sea le!el o!er the e-uator and a%out : +m $a%out 5 mi& a%o!e sea le!el o!er the poles. *%o!e
the troposphere is the stratosphere( "here temperature le!els off and then %egins to increase "ith
height. *lmost no "eather occurs in the stratosphere.
%%%. &umidity
Humidity is a measure of the amount of "ater !apor in the air. The air,s capacity to hold
!apor is limited %ut increases dramatically as the air "arms( roughly dou%ling for each temperature
increase of 18G C $1:G F&. There are se!eral different measures of humidity. The specific humidity
is the fraction of the mass of air that consists of "ater !apor( usually gi!en as parts per thousand.
)!en the "armest( most humid air seldom has a specific humidity greater than 28 parts per
thousand. The most common measure of humidity is the relati!e humidity( or the amount of !apor
in the air di!ided %y the air,s !apor0holding capacity at that temperature. #f the amount of "ater
!apor in the air remains the same( the relati!e humidity decreases as the air is heated and increases
as the air is cooled. *s a result( relati!e humidity is usually highest around da"n( "hen the
temperature is lo"est( and lo"est in midafternoon( "hen the temperature is highest.
%'. !loudiness
2ost clouds and almost all precipitation are produced %y the cooling of air as it rises. @hen
air temperature is reduced( e6cess "ater !apor in the air condenses into li-uid droplets or ice
crystals to form clouds or fog. * cloud can ta+e any of se!eral different formsHincluding cumulus(
cirrus( and stratusHreflecting the pattern of air motions that formed it. Fluffy cumulus clouds form
from rising masses of air( called thermals. * cumulus cloud often has a flat %ase( corresponding to
the le!el at "hich the "ater !apor first condenses. #f a cumulus cloud gro"s large( it transforms
into a cumulonimbus cloud or a thunderstorm. Fi%rous cirrus clouds consist of trails of falling ice
crystals t"isted %y the "inds. Cirrus clouds usually form high in the troposphere( and their crystals
almost ne!er reach the ground. Stratus clouds form "hen an entire layer of air cools or ascends
o%li-uely. * stratus cloud often e6tends for hundreds of miles.
Fog is a cloud that touches the ground. #n dense fogs( the !isi%ility may drop %elo" 58 m $55
yd&. Fog occurs most fre-uently "hen the earth,s surface is much colder than the air directly a%o!e
it( such as around da"n and o!er cold ocean currents. Fog is thic+ened and acidified "hen the air is
filled "ith sulfur0laden soot particles produced %y the %urning of coal. =ense acid fogs that +illed
thousands of people in ondon up to 1956 led to legislation that prohi%ited coal %urning in cities.
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;ptical phenomena( such as rain%o"s and halos( occur "hen light shines through cloud
particles. 5ain%o"s are seen "hen sunlight from %ehind the o%ser!er stri+es the raindrops falling
from cumulonim%us clouds. The raindrops act as tiny prisms( %ending and reflecting the different
colors of light %ac+ to the o%ser!er,s eye at different angles and creating %ands of color. Halos are
seen "hen sunlight or moonlight in front of the o%ser!er stri+es ice crystals and then passes through
high( thin cirrostratus clouds.
'. (recipitation
Erecipitation is produced "hen the droplets and crystals in clouds gro" large enough to fall to
the ground. Clouds do not usually produce precipitation until they are more than 1 +m $8.6 mi&
thic+. Erecipitation ta+es a !ariety of forms( including rain( dri..le( free.ing rain( sno"( hail( and
ice pellets( or sleet. 5aindrops ha!e diameters larger than 8.5 mm $8.82 in&( "hereas dri..le drops
are smaller. Fe" raindrops are larger than a%out 6 mm $a%out 8.2 in&( %ecause such large drops are
unsta%le and %rea+ up easily. #ce pellets are raindrops that ha!e fro.en in midair. Free.ing rain is
rain that free.es on contact "ith any surface. #t often produces a layer of ice that can %e !ery
slippery.
/no"fla+es are either single ice crystals or clusters of ice crystals. arge sno"fla+es
generally form "hen the temperature is near 8G C $32G F&( %ecause at this temperature the fla+es are
partly melted and stic+ together "hen they collide. Hailstones are %alls of ice a%out 6 to 158 mm
$a%out 8.2 to 6 in& in diameter. They consist of clusters of raindrops that ha!e collided and fro.en
together. arge hailstones only occur in !iolent thunderstorms( in "hich strong updrafts +eep the
hailstones suspended in the atmosphere long enough to gro" large.
Erecipitation amounts are usually gi!en in terms of depth. * "ell0de!eloped "inter storm can
produce 18 to 38 mm $8.4 to 1.2 in& of rain o!er a large area in 12 to 24 hours. *n intense
thunderstorm may produce more than 28 mm $8.: in& of rain in 18 minutes and cause flash floods
$floods in "hich the "ater rises suddenly&. Hurricanes sometimes produce o!er 258 mm $18 in& of
rain and lead to e6tensi!e flooding.
/no" depths are usually much greater than rain depths %ecause of sno",s lo" density. =uring
intense "inter storms( more than 258 mm $18 in& of sno" may fall in 24 hours( and the sno" can %e
much deeper in places "here the "ind piles it up in drifts. )6traordinarily deep sno"s sometimes
accumulate on the up"ind side of mountain slopes during se!ere "inter storms or on the do"n"ind
shores of large la+es during out%rea+s of polar air.
'%. $ind
@ind is the hori.ontal mo!ement of air. #t is named for the direction from "hich it comesH
for e6ample( a north "ind comes from the north. #n most places near the ground( the "ind speed
a!erages from : to 24 +mIh $from 5 to 15 mph&( %ut it can %e much higher during intense storms.
@ind speeds in hurricanes and typhoons e6ceed 128 +mIh $75 mph& near the storm,s center and
may approach 328 +mIh $288 mph&. The highest "ind speeds at the surface of the earthHas high as
4:8 +mIh $388 mph&Hoccur in tornadoes. )6cept for these storms( "ind speed usually increases
"ith height to the top of the troposphere.
'%%. (ressure
Eressure plays a !ital role in all "eather systems. Eressure is the force of the air on a gi!en
surface di!ided %y the area of that surface. #n most "eather systems the air pressure is e-ual to the
"eight of the air column di!ided %y the area of the column. Eressure decreases rapidly "ith height(
hal!ing a%out e!ery 5.5 +m $3.4 mi&.
/ea0le!el pressure !aries %y only a fe" percent. arge regions in the atmosphere that ha!e
higher pressure than the surroundings are called high0pressure areas. 5egions "ith lo"er pressure
than the surroundings are called lo"0pressure areas. 2ost storms occur in lo"0pressure areas.
5apidly falling pressure usually means a storm is approaching( "hereas rapidly rising pressure
usually indicates that s+ies "ill clear.
Climate - the long-term effect of the sun's radiation on the rotating earth's varied surface and
atmosphere. It can be understood most easily in terms of annual or seasonal averages of
temperature and precipitation.
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Temperature is an important aspect of climate and can be used to grade climatic zones on a
scale of five: (! Tropical" with annual and monthly averages above #$% & ('(% )!* (#! +ubtropical"
with , to months above #$% &" and the balance between $% and #$% & (-$% to '(% )!* (.!
Temperate" with , to # months at $% to #$% &* (,! &old" with to , months at $% to #$% &" and
the rest cooler* and (-! /olar" with # months below $% &.
0ithin each hemisphere" eight basic climatological zones can also be recognized in terms of
precipitation: (! 12uatorial: rain in all seasons* (#! Tropical: summer rain with winters dry* (.!
+emiarid Tropical: slight summer rain* (,! 3rid: dry in all seasons* (-! 4ry 5editerranean: slight
winter rain* ('! 5editerranean: winter rain" summers dry* (6! Temperate: precipitation in all
seasons* ((! /olar: sparse in all seasons.
3. &ydrography
The hydrographic elements ha!e pictures-ue attri%utes( physical and chemical
features( and some "ater dimensions.
The main forms of hydrography,s presence in tourism are<
5i!er systemsF
a+esF
/ea and ocean "aterF
@aterfallsF
4eysersF
2ineral( thermal( and thermo0mineral springsF
4laciers.
The river systems are a first0rate tourist resource than+s to the opportunity
gi!en %y s"imming( fishing( and landscapes, !arieties.
)akes, contrary to the current "ater( ha!e a greater tourist contri%ution than+s
to landscapes( salt la+es "ith healing properties( the pictures-ue -uality of glacial and
!olcanic la+es( etc.
*ea and ocean +ater is important for tourism due to the morpho0hydro0climatic
comple6 of coastal regions.
River System , main channel of a river together +ith all tributary rivers and streams
that flo+ into it. 2a'or 1orth *merican ri!er systems include the 2ississippi( Colorado( and
Colum%ia( each consisting of a ma'or ri!er together "ith se!eral ma'or tri%utary ri!ers and many
smaller tri%utary ri!ers and streams. The area draining into a ri!er system is called a drainage %asin
$see Dasin< =rainage Dasins&. The 2ississippi ri!er system drains an area of 3(258(888 s- +m
$1(258(888 s- mi& and e6tends from the Canadian %order in the north to the 4ulf of 2e6ico in the
south( and from the 5oc+y 2ountains in the "est to the *ppalachian 2ountains in the east. The
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larger tri%utary ri!ers of ma'or ri!er systems are important ri!er systems in their o"n right. For
e6ample( the ;hio( 2issouri( and Tennessee ri!ers are tri%utaries of the 2ississippi.
The %oundaries %et"een indi!idual ri!er systems are called drainage divides. 5ain falling on
opposite sides of a drainage di!ide "ill flo" into separate ri!er systems. Continental di!ides are
drainage di!ides that separate groups of ri!er systems that drain into different oceans. The main
continental di!ide in the 3nited /tates lies along the crest of the 5oc+y 2ountains and separates the
ri!ers that flo" into the Eacific ;cean from the ri!ers that flo" into the 4ulf of 2e6ico.
The smallest tri%utaries of ri!er systems( called fingertip tributaries( are small gullies. *s
the !arious tri%utaries of a ri!er system successi!ely 'oin together do"nstream( they form a treeli+e
net"or+ "ith the fingertip tri%utaries as t"igs( larger tri%utaries as %ranches( and the main ri!er
channel as the trun+. *s the amount of "ater %eing carried through the ri!er system %ecomes
greater do"nstream( the si.e of the channels that carry the "ater also increases( as does the si.e of
the !alleys that the "ater car!es. The outlet( or mouth( of a ri!er system is usually located at the
coast of an ocean or at the shoreline of a la+e. #n arid regions( ho"e!er( ri!ers may gradually
disappear as they flo" do"nstream as the "ater e!aporates or seeps into the ground.
Lake , large, inland body of fresh or salty standing +ater. a+es are distinguished from
%odies of "ater such as %ays and gulfs( and some seas( that ha!e an interchange "ith the ocean and
are su%'ect to tides. a+e %asins are formed %y many geologic processes( such as %uc+ling of
stratified roc+ into large folds( displacement of large masses of roc+ %y faults( and %loc+ing of
!alleys %y landslides. a+es also form %y glaciation. 4laciers car!e out large %asins %y scooping up
%edroc+ and redistri%uting loose material. 2any of the la+es of 1orth *merica formed this "ay(
including the 4reat a+es and 1e" Jor+As Finger a+es. The source of la+e "ater is atmospheric
precipitation that reaches the la+e directly and %y means of springs( %roo+s( and ri!ers. The primary
mineral constituent of salt lakes is common saltF bitter lakes contain sulfatesF alkali lakes contain
car%onatesF bora- lakes contain %oratesF and some la+es contain com%inations of these su%stances.
a+es form at all altitudes and are distri%uted throughout the "orld. *lmost one0half of the
"orldAs la+es are in Canada. a+es are a%undant in high latitudes( particularly in mountain regions
su%'ected to glacial action. 2any la+es are important commercially as sources of minerals and fish(
as shipping arteries( and as !acation resorts.
The largest la+es in the "orld include the Caspian /ea( a+e /uperior( and a+e Victoria. The
=ead /ea is the "orldAs lo"est la+e( 48: m $1(348 ft& %elo" sea le!el. The Caspian( the "orldAs
largest la+e( co!ers an area of 378(99: s- +m $143(243 s- mi&. a+e Dai+al is the deepest
fresh"ater la+e in the "orld( "ith a ma6imum depth of 1637 m $5371 ft&.
Sea , general designation for all the salt +ater in all the specific oceans and seas that
cover a large area of the surface of the earth. The name is particularly gi!en to %odies of salt
"ater such as the 2editerranean /ea that are partially landloc+ed and are smaller than the ocean to
"hich they are generally connected. The name is also used to designate inland %odies of salt "ater(
such as the Caspian /ea( and has occasionally %een gi!en to inland %odies of fresh "ater( such as
the /ea of 4alilee $a+e Ti%erias&.
Waterfall . sudden sheer descent of a stream or river over a steep drop in its bed,
sometimes in a free fall. The term cataract( usually designating a series of rapids in a large ri!er(
is often applied to "aterfalls of large !olume. * "aterfall of any height that has a small !olume of
"ater or is one of a series of falls is called a cascade. The term cascade is also applied to a "aterfall
if( "hile plunging( it maintains contact "ith the stream%ed. The highest "aterfalls fre-uently are
cascades. @aterfalls are !alua%le today as sources of hydroelectric po"er.
)specially !oluminous or spectacular "aterfalls include *ngel Falls $979 mI3212 ft& in
Vene.uelaF Tugela $94: mI3118 ft& in the pro!ince of C"aKulu01atal( /outh *fricaF Cu-uenan
$618 mI2888 ft& in Vene.uelaF Ta+a++a" $583 mI1658 ft& in Dritish Colum%iaF 4reat Fall $4::
mI1688 ft& in 4uyanaF Crimmler $3:1 mI1258 ft& in *ustriaF /il!er /trand Falls $357 mI1178 ft& in
CaliforniaF @ollomom%i $335 mI1188 ft& in *ustraliaF Bog Falls $253 mI:38 ft& in #ndiaF and #guacu
Falls. The gi!en length measurements for some of these falls in!ol!e more than one leap.
Geyser , hot spring that erupts intermittently in a column of steam and hot +ater. /ome
geysers erupt at regular inter!als( %ut the ma'ority erupt irregularly( the inter!als ranging from a
matter of minutes to years. The length of time of the eruption !aries "ith the geyser( from seconds
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to hours. The height of the column ranges from a%out 1 m $a%out 3 ft& to a%out 188 m $a%out 32:
ft&( and the amount of "ater e'ected in a single eruption !aries from a fe" liters to hundreds of
thousands of liters.
* geyser erupts "hen the %ase of a column of "ater resting in the earth is !apori.ed %y hot
!olcanic roc+. The force "ith "hich the "ater column is e6pelled depends on its depth. The "eight
of the "ater column increases "ith its depth. The "eight( in turn( increases the pressure e6erted on
the %ase of the column( there%y increasing the %oiling point of the "ater there. @hen the "ater
finally %oils( it e6pands( dri!ing some "ater out into the air. @ith the "eight of the column
reduced( the pressure correspondingly drops( and the %oiling point of the "ater remaining in the
column falls %elo" its actual temperature. Thereupon( the entire column instantly !apori.es(
causing the geyser to erupt. )ruption inter!als depend on such !aria%les as the supply of heat( the
amount and rate of inflo" of su%surface "ater( and the nature of the geyser tu%e and its
underground connections.
*lmost all +no"n geysers are located in three countries of the "orldH1e" Kealand( #celand(
and the 3nited /tates. * famous geyser is ;ld Faithful in Jello"stone 1ational Ear+( "hich e6pels
a%out 3:(888 to 45(888 liters $a%out 18(888 to 12(888 gallons& at each eruption. ;ld Faithful usually
erupts at inter!als of %et"een 38 and 98 minutes( its column rising as high as 52 m $178 ft&( %ut
natural changes in the underground "ater system ha!e recently made the timing of the eruptions
less relia%le. The geyser gi!es "arning of its impending acti!ity %y e'ecting 'ets of "ater 3 to : m
$18 to 25 ft& high.
Mineral Water , spring +ater that contains mineral salts or gases, and +hich
conse#uently may have an action on the human body different from that of ordinary +ater.
*s a remedial agent( mineral "aters ha!e %een used from early times( and "ere familiar to the
ancient 4ree+s and 5omans. They are usually classified as al+aline( saline( chaly%eate or iron0
containing( sulfurous( acidulous( and arsenical. 2any effer!escing car%onic0acid "aters are used as
ta%le %e!erages and to dilute spirits or "ines. /aline "aters are ta+en for their medicinal effects.
2ineral springs are numerous in the 3./. *mong the eastern states( 1e" Jor+ is the leading
producer( and the springs at /aratoga( 1e" Jor+( ha!e an international reputation and compare
fa!ora%ly to foreign spas. #n the *ppalachian 2ountains are the cele%rated hot springs of Der+eley
/prings( Virginia( and @hite /ulphur /prings( @est Virginia. ;f the south0central states( Centuc+y(
Tennessee( and *r+ansas are the chief producersF the hot springs of *r+ansas are among the most
important in the country. ;ther "ell0+no"n hot springs include those of @au+esha( @isconsin( as
Vegas( 1. 2e6.( /an Dernardino( California( and 2edical a+e( @ashington. ;ne of the "idely
+no"n springs in the 3./.( French ic+ /prings( #ndiana( produces the Eluto "aters( "hich ri!al the
famous Hunyadi Banos "aters of Hungary as a purgati!e.
The most noted of the )uropean mineral "aters include Vichy and *ppollinaris( %oth
al+alineF *penta( Hunyadi Banos $Hungary&( and Friedrichshall( saline "aters rich in sulfateF
Carls%ad and 2arien%ad( rich in sodium chlorideF Tun%ridge @ells( chaly%eateF *i60la0Chapelle(
Daden( and *i60les0Dains( sulfuratedF and Dath and Daden( arsenical.
2ineral @ater( spring "ater that contains mineral salts or gases( and "hich conse-uently may
ha!e an action on the human %ody different from that of ordinary "ater. *s a remedial agent(
mineral "aters ha!e %een used from early times( and "ere familiar to the ancient 4ree+s and
5omans. They are usually classified as al+aline( saline( chaly%eate or iron0containing( sulfurous(
acidulous( and arsenical. 2any effer!escing car%onic0acid "aters are used as ta%le %e!erages and to
dilute spirits or "ines. /aline "aters are ta+en for their medicinal effects.
Glacier , large, usually moving mass of ice formed in high mountains or in high latitudes
+here the rate of sno+fall is greater than the melting rate of sno+. 4laciers can %e di!ided into
four "ell0defined typesHalpine( piedmont( ice cap( and continentalHaccording to the topography
and climate of the region in "hich the glacier "as formed.

:
/. 'egetation
Vegetation is closely lin+ed to relief and climate. The tourist role of !egetation
resides in<
The make,up of plant associations $it can %e seen through type of
!egetationF for instance( e-uatorial forest( rain forest( etc.&F
The presence of certain endemic and relic plants $%ao%a%( se-uoia(
eucalyptus $or gum tree&( cedar of e%anon and *tlas cedar&F
0imension and age of some plants1
The annual evolution rhythm1
The periphery effect and the island effect $the edge of a forest( tourists
concentrating in clearing and glades&F
2lements of a spiritual nature in contact "ith !egetation.
"3R2*T #. #1T5;=3CT#;1
Forest . plant community, predominantly of trees or other +oody vegetation, occupying
an e-tensive area of land. #n its natural state( a forest remains in a relati!ely fi6ed( self0regulated
condition o!er a long period of time. Climate( soil( and the topography of the region determine the
characteristic trees of a forest. #n local en!ironments( dominant species of trees are
characteristically associated "ith certain shru%s and her%s. The type of !egetation on the forest
floor is influenced %y the larger and taller plants( %ut %ecause lo" !egetation affects the organic
composition of the soil( the influence is reciprocal. =istur%ances such as a forest fire or tim%er
har!esting may result in a shift to another forest type. eft undistur%ed( ecological succession "ill
e!entually result in a clima6 forest community. Human inter!ention is practiced to maintain some
desira%le forest types.
II. CLASSIFICATI!
Forests may %e di!ided into the follo"ing eight general types on the %asis of leaf
characteristics and climate.
1. 0eciduous forests of the temperate regions are the typical formation of the eastern
3nited /tates. T"o su%types e6istF forests of the same latitude in the northern and southern
hemispheres are radically different( pro%a%ly due to the continental climate of the northern
hemisphere and the oceanic climate of the southern.
2. 0eciduous monsoon forests are characteristic of Dengal and 2yanmar $formerly +no"n
as Durma& and common throughout /outheast *sia and #ndiaF they are also found along the Eacific
coastal regions of 2e6ico and Central *merica. The climate is characteri.ed %y hea!y daily
rainfall( seasonally relie!ed %y dry periods during "hich the trees shed their lea!es.
3. Tropical savanna forests are found in regions such as the campos of Dra.il( "here forest
and grassland meet. /a!annas( "hich occur "idely in *frica and /outh *merica( are dominated %y
grasses and sedges( "ith open stands of "idely spaced trees that are fre-uently thorny. /ome
sa!annas are created %y fire or %y gra.ing and %ro"sing mammals.
4. Northern coniferous forests form a "orld"ide %elt in su%arctic and alpine regions of the
northern hemisphere. 4narled scru% trees dominate at the northern tree line and on mountaintops.
/pruce and fir trees are characteristic of the more northerly forestsF pine( larch( and hemloc+
9
dominate farther south. These forests usually occupy formerly glaciated regions and occur in
association "ith la+es( %ogs( and ri!ers.
5. Tropical rain forests are characteristic of central *frica and the *ma.on "atershed. Elant
gro"th is profuse( and %ecause the fall and regro"th of lea!es occur gradually throughout each
year( the forest is al"ays acti!e. Tree species are highly di!erse %ut usually ha!e smooth( straight
trun+s and large( simple lea!es. arge !ines are common( %ut the tangled gro"th of a 'ungle occurs
only "here the normal forest area has %een a%used or at a ri!er,s edge.
6. Temperate evergreen forests are found in the su%tropical regions of 1orth *merica and
the Cari%%ean islands that ha!e a "arm maritime climate. The type is %est de!eloped along the 4ulf
Coast and in the Florida )!erglades. The characteristic trees are li!e oa+( magnolia( palms( and
%romeliads.
7. Temperate rain forests( "ith %road0lea!ed e!ergreen trees( are common on 2editerranean
coasts. 5ainfall may %e lo"( %ut the ocean0cooled air is moisture laden( and fogs are fre-uent. #n
the 3nited /tates the temperate @est Coast rain forests are dominated %y hemloc+( cedar( spruce(
fir( and red"ood.
:. Tropical scrub forests occur in regions of slight rainfall( %ordering "etter forests.
4nusual trees
There are many types of unusual trees around the "orld that e6hi%it a !ariety of interesting
characteristics. *mong these are prehistoric relics( trees that e6hi%it %i.arre gro"th patterns or
formations( and trees "ith interesting strategies for o%taining the air( "ater( and nutrients necessary
for gro"th.
i+e the gin+go( the da+n red+ood is old enough to %e considered a li!ing fossil. #ts
fossili.ed remains "ere studied and identified in the 1:88s( and scientists %elie!ed that the tree had
%ecome e6tinct a%out 28 million years ago. #n 1941( ho"e!er( a Chinese %otanist disco!ered li!ing
trees in an isolated !alley in central China. /ince then( the tree has %een found in other places in
China( and the fossil record indicates that millions of years ago it gre" in 4reenland and in 1orth
*merica as far south as California. i+e other se-uoias( the da"n red"ood gro"s "ell from seeds(
and seedlings ha!e %een planted throughout the Eacific 1orth"est and in *las+a. /pecimen trees
ha!e also %een successfully gro"n in many of the milder parts of the )ast Coast of the 3nited
/tates. 3nli+e other se-uoias( the da"n red"ood is deciduous and loses its lea!es in the fall.
*lthough the banyan tree %egins life "ith a single trun+( aerial roots gro" do"n from its
spreading lim%s and ta+e root. These roots enlarge( e!entually %ecoming trun+li+e( and in old age a
single tree may ha!e the appearance of a small forest. The largest %anyan( found on the island of /ri
an+a( has 358 ma'or trun+s and se!eral thousand smaller ones. The name of the tree comes from a
Hindu "ord for trader( %ecause in many regions "here %anyans are found( traders and merchants
use the tree,s shade "hile displaying their "ares.
The baobab tree, the closely related %ottle tree( and certain cactus trees ha!e trun+s "ith
fleshy centers. These trun+s store large amounts of "ater( ena%ling the trees to sur!i!e the arid
conditions under "hich they gro". The trun+ of the %ao%a% may measure 9 m $38 ft& in diameter.
The %ottle tree has a %ulging %ottle0shaped trun+. !acti, although fre-uently co!ered "ith spines(
can yield "ater to a lost hi+er e!en in the driest desert.
*lthough it is nati!e to *frica( the sausage tree is culti!ated as an ornamental in "arm areas
such as southern Florida and Ha"aii. The sausage tree has large deep red flo"ers( "hich are
replaced e!entually %y giant sausage0shaped fruits a%out 68 cm long. Doth the flo"ers and fruits are
%orne on long stems hanging from the lim%s of the tree.
The pencil tree, a nati!e of *sia( is gro"n as an ornamental in Ha"aii and else"here
%ecause of its odd t"igs( "hich are s"ollen( pencil0li+e( and %right green. The t"igs ser!e the tree
in place of lea!es( "hich are almost totally lac+ing. The pencil tree has strongly caustic sap. ;n
contact "ith the s+in the sap causes a rash( and it may e!en cause temporary or permanent
%lindness if it touches the eye.
5ald cypress trees, deciduous needle0leaf trees that gro" in s"ampy areas( are unusual
%ecause of special %reathing organs +no"n as cypress +nees. These organs are e6tensions from the
root system that pro'ect a%o!e the usual "ater le!el and a%sor% o6ygen from the air for use %y the
roots.
18
*trangler fig trees are an e6ample of a parasitic method of de!elopment that occurs in
se!eral plant families. * seed is deposited %y a %ird( mon+ey( or other animal in a depression or a
crotch of a lim%. The seed sprouts and %egins to de!elop( and roots e!entually find their "ay to the
ground( sometimes tra!eling 25 m $:2 ft& or more. There the roots ta+e hold and %egin to enlarge
to"ard each other( enclosing the trun+ of the host tree. Finally( the roots 'oin side %y side to restrict
the gro"th of the original tree( "hich e!entually rots a"ay( lea!ing the parasite standing as an
independent plant.
5aobab . common name for a tropical *frican tree $see 2allo"&. The %ao%a% tree gro"s
only to the height of a large maple tree( %ut e6tensi!e lateral gro"th ma+es it one of the largest
trees. The trun+ of the %ao%a% sometimes attains a diameter of 9 m $38 ft&( and the %ranches(
fre-uently as thic+ as the trun+s of other large trees( form a hemispherical mass of foliage often 45
m $158 ft& in diameter. The fruit( called mon+ey %read( is a%out the si.e of a citronF the pulp( "hich
has a pleasing acid taste( is used in the preparation of cooling drin+s. The %ar+ of the tree yields a
strong cordage fi%er. The %ao%a%( nati!e to *frica( is no" culti!ated in many tropical countries
throughout the "orld.
/cientific classification< The %ao%a% %elongs to the family Dom%acaceae. #t is classified as
*dansonia digitata.
2ucalyptus L genus of trees and some shru%s of the myrtle family. This genus( "hich
includes a%out 458 species( forms the preponderant !egetation and most !alua%le tim%er trees of
"estern *ustralian forests. )ucalyptus trees are characteri.ed %y leathery( "hitish lea!es that hang
!ertically( their edges facing the sun( and their ragged %ar+ and peculiar aroma. /ome trees in the
genus are among the tallest trees +no"n. ;ne specimen of mountain ash "ith a height of at least 97
m $at least 31: ft& "as found near 2el%ourne( *ustralia.
2any species are +no"n as gum trees %ecause of their resinous e6udations. *mong these are
the %lue gum and the cider gum( the lum%er of "hich is "idely used. ;ther species are +no"n as
stringy%ar+s %ecause of their fi%rous inner %ar+. The peppermint trees( %lac+ peppermint and
/ydney peppermint( are also included in this group. The iron%ar+s ha!e hard gray %ar+ and yield
good tim%er. Dotany Day +ino( a dar+ red( odorless gum employed as an astringent and a
hemostatic drug and for tanning and dyeing( is deri!ed from the iron%ar+s. The %lood"oods ha!e
reddish "ood and also yield Dotany Day +ino. =ragonAs %lood( tannin( oils( dyes( tars( and acids are
yielded %y other species of eucalyptus.
!edar (tree) . common name for three or four species of large trees nati!e to mountainous
areas of 1orth *frica and *sia. Cedar trees %elong to the pine family( the mem%ers of "hich ha!e
needleli+e lea!es and( li+e all conifers( %ear their seeds on scales clustered into cones. They differ
from other mem%ers of the family in their e!ergreen four0angled lea!es %orne on short side0
%ranches. The genus produces fragrant( dura%le( red0colored "ood used in construction and
ca%inetry. *lthough no true cedars are nati!e to 1orth *merica( they are planted as ornamentals in
milder areas( and !arious horticultural !arieties( %ased on gro"th form and leaf color( e6ist.
The %est0+no"n cedar is the cedar of e%anon( mentioned often in the ;ld TestamentF the
First Temple of /olomon "as %uilt of this "ood $see 1 Cings 5<6&. #t is nati!e to *sia 2inor( and
today only a fe" original gro!es remain( although they contain some trees of great age. Trees may
reach 38 m $188 ft& in height and produce spreading %ranches that split off from the main trun+(
unli+e most conifers( "hich ha!e a single dominant trun+. The dar+ to %right green lea!es are a%out
2.5 cm $a%out 1 in& long( and the upright cones are a%out 18 cm $a%out 4 in& long. The Cyprus
cedar( usually considered only a !ariety of the cedar of e%anon( occurs on the island of Cyprus in
the 2editerranean. The *tlas cedar is closely related to the cedar of e%anon and occurs in the
*tlas 2ountains of 1orth *frica. The remaining cedar( deodar( occurs in the Himalayas and is an
important tim%er tree in #ndia. 3nli+e the other species( "hich ha!e hori.ontal %ranches and cones
flat at the ape6( the deodar has pendulous %ranches and rounded cones.
The name cedar is also applied to other conifer trees "ith fragrant "ood $see Cypress&. The
"ell0+no"n "hite cedar gro"s in s"amps of the eastern 3nited /tates and reaches a height of 24 m
$:8 ft&. *n ar%or!itae is also called cedarF "estern cedar and eastern "hite cedar are %oth important
tim%er trees in the 3nited /tates. )astern red cedar( "idespread in the eastern 3nited /tates( is a
'uniper. * flo"ering tropical *merican mahogany is +no"n as /panish or @est #ndian cedar.
11
*e#uoia. #. #1T5;=3CT#;1
*e#uoia L common name for a group of huge( ma'estic e!ergreen trees characteri.ed %y a
columnar( reddish0%ro"n trun+ rising 38 m $188 ft& or more a%o!e a %uttressed %ase. /e-uoia
species are conical in shape( "ith needleli+e lea!es and small( o!al cones. The trees are named for
the Chero+ee leader /e-uoya.
;nce "idespread in the 1orth Temperate Kone( most se-uoias suffered e6tinction "ith the
ad!ancing glaciers of the last ice age o!er 11(888 years ago. ;nly three species sur!i!edHthe giant
se-uoia and coast red"ood in California( and the da"n red"ood in south"estern China. Fossil
remains of se-uoia trees ha!e %een found in geological strata as old as the Burassic Eeriod( %et"een
1:8 million and 135 million years agoHtannins in the "ood protected it from decay. The Eetrified
Forest 1ational Ear+ in *ri.ona consists largely of e6tinct se-uoia species.
## 4#*1T /)M3;#*
The giant se-uoia( or >%ig tree(? is found in a narro" strip a%out 388 +m $a%out 288 mi& long
on the "estern slopes of the /ierra 1e!ada range at ele!ations %et"een a%out 988 and 2488 m
$a%out 3888 and :888 ft&. #t is the most massi!e of all li!ing forms. The largest specimen( the
4eneral /herman Tree in /e-uoia 1ational Ear+( is :4 m $275 ft& tall( has a diameter of 11.1 m
$36.4 ft& at the %ase( and "as estimated in the early 1998s to "eigh a%out 2588 metric tons. ;ther
trees range from 46 to 99 m $158 to 325 ft& in height( "ith diameters up to 9 m $38 ft&. * count of
annual rings on stumps has !erified ages as great as 2388 years. /ome li!ing trees( ho"e!er( are
%elie!ed to %e close to 4888 years old.
The lea!es of the giant se-uoia are scaleli+e and lie close to the %ranches. The %ar+ of the
trun+ is fluted and is spongy in te6tureF in large trees it reaches a thic+ness of 68 cm $2 ft&. The
"ood is light( coarse0grained( and highly resistant to insects and fire. 2ost of the giant se-uoia
gro!es are included "ithin the 1ational Ear+ /ystem or are other"ise under go!ernment protection
Hcutting of the %ig trees is prohi%ited.
### C;*/T 5)=@;;=
The coast red"ood gro"s along the humid Eacific coast from southern ;regon to central
California. #ts height ranges from 38 to 112 m $188 to 367 ft&( a si.e approached only %y the
eucalyptus of *ustralia( one specimen of "hich measures at least 97 m $at least 31: ft&. The
diameter of the trun+ measures up to 7.5 m $25 ft&. The life span of the coast red"ood is %elie!ed to
%e 2588 years. The lea!es are %luer in tone than the giant se-uoia and are more needleli+e. The
"ood is similar %ut e!en0grained. 3nli+e most other conifers $cone0%earing trees&( the stump of the
coast red"ood produces sprouts after cutting that can gro" to considera%le si.e in 'ust 48 years. For
this reason( and %ecause the tree is more plentiful and its "ood harder than the giant se-uoia( it has
%een cut e6tensi!ely. /ome irreplacea%le old0gro"th specimens are preser!ed in state and national
par+s( %ut sur!i!al of the red"ood gro!es else"here is in -uestion.
#V =*@1 5)=@;;=
The da"n red"ood "as at one time the most common se-uoia tree in 1orth *merica and is
thought to %e ancestral to the California red"ood. #t attains a height 'ust under 38 m $188 ft& and
a!erages 1.: m $6 ft& in diameter. #ts lea!es are flat and gro" in slender( opposite %ranches. 3nli+e
the e!ergreen se-uoias( the da"n red"ood is a deciduous tree. Fossil specimens "ere collected in
the 1:88s( and in 1941 li!ing trees "ere found in China. /eeds and seedlings collected in 194: %y
the *rnold *r%oretum in 2assachusetts ha!e %een successfully propagated in 1orth *merica.
6. "auna
Fauna $or "ildlife& is the most mo%ile element of nature( characteri.ed %y its
structural di!ersity. The cogniti!e tourism ma+es these attri%utes attracti!e. #n order
12
to +no" the animal +ingdom of remote territories "ith limited accessi%ility one
created .oological gardens $.oos& and a-uariums $fish tan+s&.
The implication of fauna in tourism presupposes hunting and fishing. The
efficiency of hunting tourism is gi!en %y the game density $=& of a certain region<
0 7 8 9 *,
"here<
MH game -uantityF
/Hgame surface in hectares.
%. &unting. %ntroduction
"unting , sport of pursuing and killing +ild game animals in order to provide food, or
simply for the thrill of the chase, or for the en:oyment of outdoor life. Eeople ha!e %een hunting
since prehistoric times to pro!ide themsel!es and their families "ith food( fur and leather clothing(
and hides for shelter. @ith the de!elopment of agriculture( animal hus%andry( and( e!entually(
manufacturing( hunting gradually diminished in importance as a means of sur!i!al. Decause of its
challenge and pleasure as a sport( ho"e!er( hunting has remained a popular acti!ity e!en in modern
times.
4ame animals are hunted throughout the "orld. #n 1orth *merica( deer( el+( %ear( pronghorn(
cari%ou( ra%%it( s-uirrel( duc+( goose( pheasant( and "ild tur+ey are hunted. *mong the animals
hunted in *sia are elephant( tiger( "ild sheep( deer( %ear( ra%%it( "aterfo"l( and pheasant. *frican
safari0hunting offers opportunity to %ag a di!ersity of game< Cape %uffalo( elephant( lion( antelope(
and duc+ and other "ild fo"l. )uropean hunters generally go out for "ild %oar( fo6( red stag( ra%%it(
and !arious game %irds. Baguar( peccary( deer( duc+( do!e( and tur+ey are popular -uarry in Central
and /outh *merica.
%%. &istory of hunting
The leisured no%ility of ancient )gypt( 4reece( and 5ome en'oyed hunting for sport. 4ree+
historian Nenophon argued that hunting is an asset to society( in that the recreation promotes the
"ell0%eing and health of the hunter. The first la"s designed to conser!e game animals "ere not
instituted until the 13th century( "hen Cu%lai Chan( emperor of the 2ongols( for%ade his su%'ects
to hunt during animal %reeding seasons. =uring the 2iddle *ges $5th century to 15th century& the
feudal lords of )urope imposed e6tensi!e restrictions on hunting( effecti!ely limiting the ta+ing of
game to the ruling classes. /tag hunts "ith hounds and horses and the pursuit of game %irds "ith
trained falcons $see Falconry& "ere popular pastimes of the no%ility.
The in!ention of gunpo"der in the 14th century and the perfection of the matchloc+ rifle in
the 15th century drastically changed methods of hunting. @hereas the trap and snare( the %o" and
arro"( and falcons and hounds had pre!iously %een used( rifles no" facilitated the %ringing do"n
of fleeing %irds and animals at greater distances and in greater num%ers.
Today( most hunters use rifles and shotguns to pursue their sportF shotguns and .220cali%er
rifles are generally used for small game such as s-uirrels and ra%%its( and larger cali%er rifles are
employed for animals such as deer and el+. For game %irds such as duc+s( geese( do!es( and
pheasant( 120 and 280gauge shotguns are used. Claiming that primiti!e "eapons ma+e the hunt
more challenging( many hunters no" ha!e gone %ac+ to the use of %o"s and arro"s( especially for
deer $see *rchery&( and some use mu..le0loading rifles.
;. The Tourist )andscapes
13
The tourist o%'ects "hich %elong to relief( climate( hydrography( fauna( and
flora do not e6ist isolated. They com%ine to ma+e up tourist landscapes<
Carstic $limestone& landscapesF
Volcanic landscapesF
2ountainous landscapesF
Coastal landscapes.
#eac$ . gently sloping strip of land bordering an ocean or other body of +ater. 5eaches
form by the action of rivers, +aves, currents, tides, and +ind, and they are usually covered
+ith sand or gravel.
Deaches change shape from day to day and season to season. @a!es( tides( currents( and the
"ind sometimes %roaden a %each %y depositing sand and sometimes narro" a %each %y carrying
sand a"ay. Deaches along the ocean are di!ided into a foreshore and a %ac+shore. The foreshore
e6tends from the place the ocean reaches at lo" tide to the place it reaches at high tide. The
%ac+shore consists of the remaining portion of the %each that is only su%merged during unusually
high tides and storms. The steepest part of the foreshore is called the %each face. The %ac+shore
may contain one or more %erms( ridges of sand and de%ris running parallel to the %each and
deposited %y a storm at its high0"ater mar+. The %ac+shore may also contain sand dunes( piles of
sand %uilt %y "ind %lo"ing across a sandy %each.
/ome %eaches consist chiefly of materials deri!ed from one +ind of roc+( "hich may gi!e the
%each a distincti!e color. Coral or limestone produces "hite sand( and -uart. usually produces
yello"ish sand. /ands formed from !olcanic roc+ are %lac+. @a!e action tends to carry a"ay
lighter minerals( lea!ing %ehind sand that is enriched in hea!ier minerals. These hea!ier minerals
often contain !alua%le metals( such as titanium( .irconium( uranium( and gold( and many %eaches
are mined for them.
/ome of the "orld,s ma'or recreational %eaches are %arrier %eaches( "hich are formed "hen
the action of "a!es and currents is not strong enough to "ash sand fully to the shore. The sand is
instead deposited in the "ater near the shore( forming a sand%ar. The %ar may gro" out"ard until
strong "a!es pile the sand high enough that it rises a%o!e "ater le!el( forming a %arrier %each.
Darrier %eaches are generally elongated islands( %ut the %each may %e 'oined to the mainland as
sand and silt accumulates in the "ater %et"een the t"o land areas. @ell0+no"n %arrier %eaches
include those at 2iami Deach( FloridaF *tlantic City( 1e" BerseyF and Coney #sland in 1e" Jor+
City.
;ther famous recreational %eaches are located at *capulco on the "estern coast of 2e6ico( at
Cannes on the 2editerranean coast of France( and at /ydney on the southeastern coast of *ustralia.
Deaches along the islands of Ha"aii in the 3nited /tates ha!e helped generate a large tourist
industry in that state.
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