Regulation of Engineering Professions and

Registration of Engineers
1.0 Introduction
This paper looks at the various challenges facing engineering profession and gives
suggested strategies and solutions to the challenges to sustain her Engineering
professionals, train and retain more Engineers, Engineering Technologists, Engineering
Technicians and Craft persons/Artisans with International recognition. The paper further
analyses some of the problems with the current E! Act of "#$$.
!enya is desirous of becoming a medium income economy as envisaged in vision "#%#.
This is through industriali&ation, amongst other strategies stipulated in vision "#%#. In
order for industriali&ation to be reali&ed, the country should train ade'uate numbers of
engineers and corresponding Engineering Technologists, Technicians and Craft
persons/Artisans in defined proportions and at the same time offering sustainable
incentives to the practitioners to retain them in the country not to migrate to other
professions or countries.
In order for !enya to make a breakthrough in industrialisation and technological
development it must ensure that it has a critical mass of well trained and 'ualified
(cientists, Engineers, Engineering Technologists, Engineering Technicians and craft
persons/artisans who comprise the Engineering Team. !enya critically re'uires four
cadres of staff namely an engineer, an engineering technologist, an engineering
technician and a craft person/ artisan and the engineering scientist (i.e. one who is
either an engineer or an engineering technologist who has attained a PhD degree). )or
developed countries the recommended ratio for the four categories of professionals is
1:2:4:16, however, in !enya the ratio of 1:3:12:60 would suffice.
2.0 The Engineering Team.
2.1 An Engineer
a) Attributes of an Engineer
Engineers apply their lifelong learning, critical perception and engineering *udgment to
the performance of engineering services. They challenge current thinking and
conceptuali&e alternative approaches, often engaging in research and development of
new engineering principles, technologies and materials. Engineers apply their analytical
skills and well developed grasp of scientific principles and engineering theory to design
original and novel solutions to comple+ problems. Their disciplined and systematic
approach to innovation and creativity, comprehension of risks and benefits and informed
professional *udgment enables them to select optimal solutions, *ustify and defend the
selection to colleagues, clients and community.
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b) Registered rofessiona! Engineer can be e+pected to comprehend comple+ity,
function independently and display leadership within multi,disciplinary and cross,cultural
teams. -ithin their engineering discipline, they will optimi&e costs and benefits to clients
and community within identified constraints, while achieving desired outcomes ethically,
and within the conte+t of a safe and sustainable environment. They accept ultimate
responsibility for the selection and application of design tools, implementation strategies
and overall integration and functionality of engineering pro*ects and programs
2.2 An Engineering Tec"no!ogist
a) Attributes of an Engineering Tec"no!ogist
Engineering Technologists e+ercise ingenuity, originality and understanding in adapting
and applying technologies, developing related new technologies or applying scientific
knowledge within their speciali&ed technical environment. Their education, e+pertise
and analytical skills e'uip them with a robust understanding of the theoretical and
practical application of engineering and technical principles. -ithin their branch of
technology, they contribute to the improvement of standards and codes of practice, and
the adaptation of established technologies to new situations.
b) Registered Engineering Tec"no!ogists can be e+pected to determine interactions
between a technology and the system, in which it operates, recogni&e and take account
of its suitability and manage associated technical risks. Technologists accept
responsibility for the detailed technological re'uirements of their engineering services
with due regard to the fundamental properties and limitations of components and
systems involved. They may lead and manage teams .e.g. engineering technicians/
engaged in inspection, approval and certification of designs, tests, installations and
reliable operations. They identify problematic circumstances, take remedial action and
keep colleagues, clients and community informed, while ensuring performance,based
criteria are satisfied within a safe and sustainable environment.
2.3 An Engineering Tec"nician
a) Attributes of an Engineering Tec"nician
Engineering Technicians apply their detailed knowledge of standards and codes of
practice to selecting, specifying, and installing, commissioning, monitoring, maintaining,
repairing and modifying comple+ assets, such as structures, plant, e'uipment,
components and systems. Their education, training and e+perience e'uip them with the
necessary theoretical knowledge and analytical skills for testing, fault diagnosis and
understanding the limitations of comple+ assets in familiar and well defined operating
situations.
b) Registered Engineering Tec"nician can be e+pected to e+ercise engineering
*udgment within the scope of accepted standards and codes of practice to the design,
inspection, certification, safe operation and cost,effectiveness of comple+ assets. They
may supervise tradesperson/crafts persons, lead and manage teams and utili&e
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advanced software and design aids to achieve practical and reliable designs,
installations and operations of comple+ assets.
3.0 Education and Training of the Engineer and Technologist
0reviously there used to be a big difference between a technologist and engineer in
terms of their education when technologist used to hold a % year course 'ualification of
1igher 2ational 3iploma. ut with the replacement of 1igher 3iploma with a 4 year
course leading to achelor of Technology, the difference between a technologist and
engineer in terms of education and training is e+tremely minimal and actually they both
have same roles in practice.
In general the engineer is supposed to take the scientist research findings 5 theories
and principles, then conceptuali&e them with the aim of coming up with new designs,
new materials and systems to serve society better .this is normally referred to as
Industrial Research as opposed to Basic or Theoretical Research that is carried out
by Engineering (cientists/. This means that the Engineer6s work is mainly in the office
and in the labs to test the new designs/materials/systems developed then pass over to
Engineering Technology personnel for implementation. In this way the country can be
able to develop.
7n the other hand the technologist is supposed to implement and/or put in practice what
the engineer has developed from the scientist research findings. esides, the
technologist has the role of interpreting and modifying designs, systems and materials
developed by the engineer to suit the conditions on the ground. This means that the
Engineering Technologists work is in the field where he/she undertakes the
implementation activities.
T"e e#$ected difference in education and training bet%een t"e Engineer and
Tec"no!ogist
&ub'ect (ateria! E#$ected ) for
Engineer
E#$ected ) for
Tec"no!ogist
8athematics If $##9 :# 5 ;#9
Engineering (ciences If $##9 :# 5 ;#9
8anagement courses :# ,;#9 If $##9
0ractical courses e.g. Computer courses,
<ab. and -orkshop Courses, etc.
:# ,;#9 If $##9
7ther Courses If $##9 $##9 i.e. same
The engineer re'uires more mathematics and engineering sciences to enable him/her
conceptuali&e and design, while the technologist re'uires more management and
practical courses to enable him/her carry out the implementation of pro*ects. The
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percentages given are theoretical as the reality on the ground is very different as we
have never sat down to agree on the actual sub*ect contents= different >niversities
develop their curricula without discussing and agreeing on the contents of the
respective curricula. In most cases both curricula are similar in content.. The
progression from degree level is to 8(c/8Eng and 8Tech respectively, then to
0h3/3(c and 0h3/3Tech respectively .see figure for pathways attached/.
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY PROGRESSION
PATHWAYS
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MC Master Crafts Person
GTT Government Trade Test
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
EPERIENTIAL
4.0 Engineering and Engineering Tec"no!og* Team
Engineering 0rofessions are divided into Engineering and Engineering Tec"no!og*.
The Engineering team consists of five .?/ cadres 5 Engineering (cientists, Engineers,
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MS!"MEn#
Post#rad D$%&oma
MTe!'
P'D"DS!"D(Te!'
)S!")En# )Te!'
MC * II
MC * I
DIPLOMA"TECHNICI
AN
CRA+TS
PERSON
GTT * I
MC * III
ARTISAN
GTT * II
)as$! Ed,!at$on
P-)LIC
GTT *
III
Profess$ona&
Master Crafts
Person
Engineering Technologists, Engineering Technicians and engineering Crafts persons.
The Engineering (cientists are usually 0h3 holders, and belong to either Engineers or
Engineering Technologists. That leaves only four cadres .i.e. Engineers, Engineering
Technologists, Engineering Technicians and engineering Crafts persons/ who re'uire
registration.
In general the engineer is supposed to take the scientist research findings 5 theories
and principles, then conceptuali&e them with the aim of coming up with new designs,
new materials and systems to serve society better .this is normally referred to as
Industrial Research as opposed to Basic or Theoretical Research that is carried out
by Engineering (cientists/. This means that the Engineer6s work is mainly in the office
and in the labs to test the new designs/materials/systems developed then pass over to
Engineering Technology personnel for implementation. In this way the country can be
able to develop and move forward technologically.
4.1 Integrated Re!ations"i$s Engineering rofession
a) The t"ic+ !ines show the normal route from the Engineering (cientist to the Engineering
Crafts 0erson. The basic/theoretical research findings .mainly theories and principles/ are
passed over the Engineer who conceptuali&es them and come out with new designs, new
materials, new systems, etc., tests them in labs .i.e. deals with Industrial @esearch/ and
pass them over to the Engineering Technologist for interpretation and implementation. The
implementation is carried out by the Engineering Technicians who deal with well,defined
engineering areas. The Engineering Technicians supervise Engineering Crafts 0ersons who
are skilled in specific areas of engineering. E+ample in a uilding there various engineering
sections with specific trades e.g. @efrigeration and air,conditioning section can headed by
Engineering Technician with two Engineering Crafts persons 5 one dealing with refrigeration
and the other dealing with air,conditioning. The Engineering Technologist will be in,charge
of the entire pro*ect i.e. the uilding.
b) The different pathways in education and training Engineering (cientist to the Engineering
Crafts 0ersons. The basic/theoretical research findings .mainly theories and principles/ can
be passed over to the Engineer who conceptuali&es them and comes out with new designs,
new materials, new systems, etc., tests them in labs and interprets them for implementation.
In the implementation process, an Engineering Technologist furthers it by breaking the
designs into activities for implementation that are to be passed over directly to the
Engineering Crafts 0ersons. An Engineer interprets industrial research findings and passes
them over to an Engineering Technologist to initiate the implantation process by the
Engineering technician and further by Crafts 0ersons. In this case the Engineer can directly
supervise the pro*ect activities.
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RELATIONSHIPS IN THE ENGINEERING PRO+ESSION
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)or industrial success, there should be a symbiotic relationship of the engineering team
to *ointly address the many comple+ technical problems, including the development of
new products, re'uire a team effort. Individuals on the team may include scientists,
engineers, engineering technologists, engineering technicians, and Aocational
Technicians or CraftspersonB. All these sub professionals contributes different
knowledge and skills gained from their educational, training and e+perience. (cientists
are the most theoretical of the team members who have advanced degrees and
research or theoretical interests. They seek ways to apply new discoveries to advance
technology for mankind. 8ost engineering scientists have an earned doctorate in
engineering or a closely related discipline.
An engineer is typically a graduate from a four,year engineering degree program,
whereas the technologists or technician is a graduate of a four,year or a two,year
degree program in engineering technology respectively from >niversities or Technical
Institutes/0olytechnics.
Engineering technician,Engineering Technologist dealing with broadly, defined
engineering problems and activities and provides a management function in production.
)inally a Craftsperson is recogni&ed and associated highly speciali&ed skill ac'uired
through rigorous practical training on the specific craft areas. may not be as clear.
T"e -ifference bet%een Engineering and Engineering Tec"no!og*
Engineering Engineering
Is a 0rofession in which knowledge of advanced mathematical and natural
sciences gained by higher education, e+perience, and practice is devoted to
the creation of ne% tec"no!og* for the benefit of humanity. Engineering
education for the professional focuses primarily on the conce$tua! and
t"eoretica! aspects of science and engineering aimed at preparing graduates
for the practice of engineering closest to the research, development, and
conceptual design functions.
Engineering
Tec"no!og*
Engineering tec"no!og*
Is the profession in which acknowledge of the applied mathematical and natural
science gained by higher education, e+perience, and practice is devoted to
a$$!ication of engineering $rinci$!es and the im$!ementation of
technological advances for the benefit of humanity. Engineering technology
education for the professional focuses primarily on analy&ing, applying,
implementing, and improving e+isting technologies and is aimed at preparing
graduates for t"e $ractice of engineering closest to the $roduct
im$ro.ement, manufacturing, and engineering o$erationa! functions.
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In >(A the Engi neeri ng Technol ogy Commi ssi on . ETC/ views engineering
technology as an integral part of the engineering enterprise and holds that
baccalaureate .degree/ engineering technologists appropriately
functionasprofessionalpractitioners,ratherthansupporting0ara,professionals,in this
enterprise. It is further held that an appropriate accreditation activity is necessary to
support the uni'ueness of this component. The Technology Accreditation Commission
.TAC/ of the Accreditation oard for Engineering and Technology .AET/ serves this
function.
The ETC believes that professional registration is important, especially as it relates to
those activities that directly affect the "ea!t", safet*, and %e!fare of t"e $ub!ic.
)urther, it supports the continuance of the industrial e+emption, while recogni&ing the
importance of registration in industry or some disciplines. The ETC further supports
and encourages registration for all eligible engineering technology faculties, since they
typically are engineering practitioners.
.(/ Regu!ation of Engineering rofession
Regu!ation of any 0rofession that touches on the (afety and 1ealth, and -elfare of the
public is e+tremely necessary worldwide. The most notable ones are the Engineering
and (edica! 0rofessions. The Engineering Team has five cadres .Engineering
(cientists, Engineers, Engineering Technologists, Engineering Technicians and craft
persons/artisans/, but only one cadre (Engineer) is being registered in !enya by
E!= the 8edical team also has five cadres .8edical scientists, 3octors/3entists,
8edical Clinical 7fficers, 8edical 2urses and <ab. Technologists/ but unlike the
Engineering Team all the cadres in the 8edical Team are regulated by ACT( of
0arliament and all the personnel are registered and therefore accountable for their
actions.
The engineering profession in !enya is regulated by the Engineers oard of !enya
.E!/ Act, "#$$. The oard is responsible for the registration of Engineers and
consulting firms, regulation of engineering professional services, accrediting
engineering courses in the institutions of higher learning, setting of standards,
development and general practice of engineering. The act prescribes very deterrent
penalties for offering employment to persons who are not registered by them.
The E! Act, "#$$ has no provisions @egulating and @egistering Engineering
Technologists, Engineering Technicians and the Craft persons/Artisans who form the
largest part of the Engineering team and who do more than C;9 of the engineering
activities in !enya.
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6.0 T"e Registration of Engineering and Tec"no!og* /adres
in ot"er /ountries
As mentioned above most countries, and more especially the industriali&ed and newly
industriali&ed countries have enacted laws that govern the Engineering profession .i.e.
both engineering and engineering technology/. (ome e+amples are given belowD
0nited 1ingdom: Engineering /ounci!
The engineering profession in the 0nited 1ingdom is regulated by the Engineering
/ounci! through engineering institutions that are licensed to put suitably 'ualified
persons on the Engineering CouncilEs @egister of Engineers. The @egister has three
sections or cadresD
Chartered Engineer .CEng/,
Incorporated Engineer .Engineering Technologist/ .IEng/, and
Engineering Technician .EngTech/.
2igeria: /ounci! for t"e Regu!ation of Engineering in 2igeria 3/4RE2), Act of 2o.
25 of 1662
The engineering profession in the 2igeria is regulated by the Council for the @egulation
of Engineering in 2igeria 3/4RE2). The Council registers four categoriesor cadresD
.a/ @egistered engineers .Engr/=
.b/ @egistered engineering technologists .Engn. Tech/=.c/ registered engineering
technicians .Tech/= and
.d/ @egistered engineering craftsmen .A registered engineering craftsmen uses
his full title with his trade in bracket under his name/.
7ua!ification frame%or+
$. An engineering craftsman may apply to transfer to the register of engineering
technicians if he obtains the 7rdinary 2ational 3iploma Certificate or an
approved e'uivalent educational 'ualification and the re'uired working
e+perience.
". An engineering technician may apply to transfer to the register of engineering
technologists if he obtains the 1igher 2ational 3iploma Certificate or he has
successfully completed an e'uivalent course of study in a polytechnic or college
of technology or any other approved institution.
%. An engineering technologist may apply to transfer to the register of engineers if
he 5
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passes the e+amination accredited by the Council, the academic content
of which shall meet the re'uirement for registration as an engineer= or
attends a post,1igher 2ational 3iploma course approved by the Council
and run by a polytechnic or university and passes an e+amination
accredited by the Council= or
passes a university degree programme or any e+amination conducted by
any other body authori&ed by Council
3. &out" Africa: Engineering /ounci! of &out" Africa 3E/&A): Engineering
rofession Act 46 of 2000
Establishment of the Engineering Council of (outh Africa: There is hereby established a
*uristic person to be known as the Engineering /ounci! of &out" Africa. The
Engineering Council of (outh Africa .EC(A/ is a statutory body established in terms of
the Engineering 0rofession Act, "### .Act 4F of "###/,and derives its powers and
responsibilities from the Act. The main focus of the Act is the promotion of public safety,
health and interests in relation to actions of persons registered with EC(A.
/ategories of registration
.$/ After obtaining the re'uired 'ualification and e+perience, EC(A registers
engineering practitioners in the following professional registration categoriesD
The categories in which a person may register in the engineering profession areG
(a) professional, which is divided intoG
8 0rofessional Engineer .0r Eng/,
8 0rofessional Engineering Technologist .0rTech Eng/,
8 0rofessional Engineering Technician .0rTechni Eng/, and
8 0rofessional Certificated Engineer .0r Cert Eng/.
(b) candidate, which is divided intoG
.i/ Candidate Engineer=
.ii/ Candidate Engineering Technologist=
.iii/ Candidate Engineering Technician= or
.iv/ Candidate Certificated Engineer
(c) (pecified categories prescribed by the council.
."/ A person may not practice in any of the categories contemplated in subsection .$/,
unless he or she is registered in that category.
.%/ A person may practice in a consulting capacity in the category in which he or she is
registered.
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.4/ A person who is registered in the category of candidate must perform work in the
engineering profession only under the supervision and control of a professional of a
category as prescribed.
4. /anada: Engineering Tec"no!og* A/T of 1653
The act registers two categoriesD Engineering technician and Engineering technologist.
Canada has a separate Act for professional engineers.
9. Austra!ia: Engineers Austra!ia
Engineers Australia administers t"ree 2ationa! Engineering Registers on advice from
a board established to ensure the registers operate with integrity and in the public
interest. @egistration on the 2ational Engineering @egisters is available in three
occupational categoriesD
2ational 0rofessional Engineers @egister .20E@/,
2ational Engineering Technologists @egister .2ET@/,and
2ational Engineering Associates @egister .2EA@/
The following titles are used by members of Engineers AustraliaD
20E@ 5 recogni&ed as 8IEAust C0Eng
2ET@ 5 recogni&ed as T8IEAust CEngT
2EA@ 5 recogni&ed as 78IEAust CEng7
The 2ational 0rofessional Engineers @egister .20E@/ and the 2ational Engineering
Technologists @egister .2ET@/ and the 2ational Engineering Associates .Engineering
Technician/ @egister .2EA@/ are administered to safeguard the community at no cost to
government. Engineers Australia administers the national engineering registers with
input from the 2ational Engineering @egistration oard to ensure that the registers
operate in the public interest.
6. 2e% :ea!and: /"artered rofessiona! Engineers of 2e% :ea!and Act of 2002
I0E2H is the @egistration Authority under the Chartered 0rofessional Engineers of 2ew
Healand Act of "##". I0E2H also operates registers of current competence for
0rofessional Engineers, Engineering Technologists and Engineering Technicians.
I0E2H operates the national registers of current competence,based registers forD
7.0 International Agreements Governing Mutual Recognition of Engineering
There are si+ international agreements governing mutual recognition of engineering
'ualifications and professional competence. In each of these agreements
countries/economies who wish to participate may apply for membership, and if
accepted become members or signatories to the agreement.
5.1 Agreements co.ering tertiar* ;ua!ifications in engineering
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There are three agreements covering mutual recognition in respect of tertiary,level
'ualifications in engineeringD
a) <as"ington Accord: This accord was signed in $C;C= it recogni&es substantial
e'uivalence in the accreditation of 'ualifications in professional engineering
education leading to the Engineering 3egree, normally of four to five years
duration
b) &*dne* Accord: )lowing from the -ashington Accord, a similar Agreement was
developed for Engineering Technologists or Incorporated Engineers, called the
(ydney Accord .(A/, which was signed in Iune "##$. It recogni&es substantial
e'uivalence in the accreditation of 'ualifications in engineering technology,
normally of three to four years duration.
c) -ub!in Accord: The 3ublin Accord .3A/ is an Agreement for substantial
e'uivalence in the typifying tertiary 'ualifications for technician engineering
education, normally of two year6s duration. It commenced in "##".
5.2 Agreements co.ering com$etence standards for $racticing engineers
The other three agreements cover recognition of e'uivalence at the practicing engineer
level i.e. it is individual people, not 'ualifications that are seen to meet the
benchmark standard. The concept of these agreements is that a person recogni&ed in
one country as reaching the agreed international standard of competence should only
be minimally assessed .primarily for local knowledge/ prior to obtaining registration in
another country that is party to the agreement.
a) Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Engineer agreement The oldest
such agreement is the APEC Engineer agreement which commenced in $CCC.
This has Jovernment support in the participating A0EC economies. The
representative organi&ation in each economy creates a KregisterK of those
engineers wishing to be recogni&ed as meeting the generic international
standard. 7ther economies should give credit when such an engineer seeks to
have his or her competence recogni&ed. The Agreement is largely administered
between engineering bodies.
b) International Professional Engineers agreement (I0EA) The nternational
Professional Engineers agreement commenced in "##$D It operates the same
competence standard as the A0EC Engineer agreement but any
country/economy may *oin. The parties to the agreement are largely engineering
bodies. There are intentions to draw I0EA and A0EC closer together.
c) International Engineering Technologist agreement (IETA) The nternational
Engineering !echnologist agreement was signed by participating
economies/countries in "##%. The parties to the Agreement have agreed to
commence establishing a mutual recognition scheme for engineering
technologists.
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8.0 ea!ness of the regulation of engineering and registration of engineers in
"en#a
The Engineers oard of !enya .E!/ Act "#$$ established a statutory oard whose
functions are the registration of Engineers and )irms, regulation of engineering
professional services, setting of standards, development and general practice of
Engineering. Part " of the Engineers oard of !enya .E!/ Act "#$$Articles !"(#)
and !$), a person shall not engage in the practice of engineering unless that person
has been issued with a license and has complied with the re#uirements of the Act.
According!* t"e Engineering Tec"no!og* /adres are not $ro.ided for to
engage in an* engineering acti.ities in 1en*a since Registration %it" t"e
=oard is t"us a !icense to $ractice engineering in 1en*a.
The E! Act "#$$ does not include the registration of the Engineering
Technologists, Engineering Technicians and Engineering Crafts persons .all who
belong to the Engineering Technology arm of the engineering 0rofession/,and to in
line with other international engineering regulating bodies. )or proper coordination
all the cadres of the Engineering team should be governed by legislation
$.0 interventions %ro%osals
$.& revie and amend the Engineers 'oard Act( 20&& )point out the areas for
amendment and propose the amendments)
$.2 Registration of Institution of Engineering Technologists and Technicians
In order to ensure that engineering scientists, Engineering Technologists,
Engineering Technicians and the Craft persons/Artisans operate under a regulatory
framework, the Institute of Engineering Technologists and Technicians .IET/ was
registered by the @egistrar of (ocieties at the Attorney Jeneral6s chambers on $F
th
2ovember "#$$ and The !enya Engineering Technologists, Technicians and
Craftsperson6s6 ill was published on %$
st
August "#$% $%enya &a'ette (upplement
)o. *+, (-ills )o../)0 y the time the tenth parliament was winding up its business,
the bill had gone through the first reading principally to regulate Engineering
technology registering Engineering !echnologists, Engineering !echnicians and
Engineering Crafts persons.
6.3 Reasons for t"e Enactment of t"e Engineering Tec"no!ogists and Tec"nician
Act
a/ Engineering technologists, engineering technicians and Crafts persons are not
presently registered and therefore are not accountable for the work they do
concerning engineering activities. Almost all engineering activities in !enya are
carried out by these people. %cf& in the medical profession in 'enya all cadres
of personnel ( doctors) dentists* nurses* clinical officers and lab&
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technologists- are all registered and therefore are accountable for the +or,
they do-
b/ -hile degree courses have to be approved by E!, the technical courses have
no professional body to oversee its approval and implementation. In almost all
countries worldwide 5 more so the most developed countries .>!, >(A,
Australia, 2ew Healand, (ingapore, India, 8alaysia, (outh !orea, (outh Africa,
2igeria, etc.,/ , all cadres are registered and governed by acts of parliament. as
shown above.
c/ Any engineering activity is likely to affect the safety and)or health and)or
+ellbeing of the humanity. All engineering activities re'uire the input of the all
engineering teams .the scientist, the engineer, the technologists, the technician
and the crafts person/ i.e. they all have a role to play and therefore each must be
accountable through an act of parliament.
7nce the institution is established by law, it shall seek affiliation to and
recognition by the following international educational accords for international
membership recognitionD
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