Playmaking: How To Write A Script

PLAYMAKING:
how to write a script

PLAYMAKING: HOW TO WRITE A SCRIPT
I!si"er#s G$i"e to %ei!& a
S$ccess'$( P(a)wri&ht
RE*+ISCO,ER the Art- Scie!ce- R$(es- Co!.e!tio!s-
Rewar"s a!" Cra'ti!& s$rro$!"i!&
+RAMA AN+ PLAYWRITING
Writi!& '$!"a/e!ta(s to &$i"e )o$ to )o$r ow! /asterpiece000
1
TA%LE O2 CONTENTS
Drama is life with the dull bits cut out.
Alfred Hitchcock (1899 - 1980)
1. The %E2ORE 3 setti!& the sta&e- Pro(o&$e 4
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Themes and drama
1.3 Dramatic or non-dramatic
1.4 The routine of composition
1.5 Dramatis personae

2. %e&i!!i!& thi!&s ri&ht 3 the 'o$!"atio! a!" 5$i("i!&
5(oc6s o' "ra/a 17
2.1 Where it all starts - the point of attack: Shakespeare
and Isen
2.2 !"position
2.3 The first act
2.4 #$uriosit%& and #Interest&
2.5 'oreshado(in) *s forestallin)
3. Keepi!& the Pace a!" I!terest: The Mai! %o")- Mi""(e
a!" 8!'o("i!& "ra/a 99
3.1 Tension and it+s suspension
3.2 ,reparation: The fin)er-post
3.3 The oli)ator% scene
3.4 The peripet% -aout-turn.
3.5 ,roailit%/ chan)e and coincidence
3.0 1o)ic
3.2 3eepin) a secret
9
4. E!"i!& thi!&s o! a &oo" a!" hi&h !ote 3 The esse!tia(s
o' a +ra/a E!"i!& 7:
4.1 $lima" and 4nticlima"
4.2 $on*ersion
4.3 5lind-alle% themes 6 and others
4.4 The full close
5. A'tertho$&hts a!" 2i!a( Wor"s 3 The Epi(o&$e 41
5.1 $haracter and ps%cholo)%
5.2 Dialo)ue and details
Co!c($sio! 4;
THEATRE AN+ PLAYWRITING GLOSSARY a!" Li!6s 4<*:4
A dramatic critic is a man who leaves no turn unstoned.
eor!e "ernard #haw (18$% - 19$0)
Has an&bod& ever seen a drama critic in the da&time' (f course
not. )he& come out after dark* u+ to no !ood.
,. . -odehouse (1881 - 19.$)
7
1. The %E2ORE 3 setti!& the sta&e- Pro(o&$e
=0= I!tro"$ctio!
The aim of this )uide is to pro*ide (ould-e dramatists (ith some
s%stematic ad*ice and )uidance in a plain and practical (a%. 7an%
e"istin) ooks are more aimed at )uidin) the 8ud)ment of the critic in
(ritin) re*ie( columns/ rather than stimulatin) and de*elopin) the
creati*e impulse of the pla%(ri)ht.
9o asolute rules e"ist for (ritin) a pla% : much of the (ritin)
)uidelines are 8ust common sense. It (ould e easier to make a list of
dan)ers to a*oid : some are o*ious/ and others are perhaps
;uestionale/ ut doin) so ma% e too much of a ne)ati*e approach.
'or e"ample/ the pla% should not e too len)th% in duration/ and
characters should rather not e narratin) their circumstances or
e"poundin) their moti*es in speeches addressed to the audience or to
themsel*es. Some dramatic openin)s/ ho(e*er/ remain so strikin) and
timeless/ like <ichard ,lanta)enet limpin) do(n the empt% sta)e to
sa%:
=9o( is the (inter of our discontent
7ade )lorious summer % this sun of >ork?
4nd all the clouds that lour@d upon our house
In the deep osom of the ocean uried=
4ristotle did dra( some )uidelines from the practices of the 4ttic
dramatists/ as did Aorace from the 4le"andrians. There seem to e a
constant demand for te"tooks on the su8ect of the art and craft of
creatin) a drama. Ironicall%/ man% of the authors of such ooks ha*e
ne*er (ritten a pla% themsel*es/ ut are ea)er to tell others ho(.
Stran)er still/ is that so man% potential (riters (ant to learn from
4
these authors since the% are con*inced that the fine art of dramatic
fiction can and need to e tau)ht.
Drama differs from no*el (ritin) in the sense that it needs to run
throu)h the hi)hl% comple" mechanism of the theatre efore it can
ha*e it+s intended impact on the audience. To fled)lin) pla%(ri)hts this
(orld represents a fascinatin) m%ster%. 'airl% fe( had the pri*ile)e or
opportunit% to closel% )et to kno( or e"periment (ith this ne(
en*ironment. The o*ious solution to )ain kno(led)e is to #read up&
on the su8ect. The% ma% feel an in(ard con*iction of their ailit% to
e*entuall% master this m%sterious (orld/ ut often has neither
de*eloped an instincti*e sense aout the theatre/ nor an
understandin) of the technical difficulties/ limitations or possiilities
inherent to an on sta)e presentation. The functionalit% of theoretical
instruction is often o*errated/ and the no*ice pla%(ri)ht ma% find him
or herself in a confusin) tu) of (ar et(een theoretical pedantic
principles that ma% e out of touch (ith the practical realities of
toda%+s theatre/ and practices aimed solel% at the enefit at the o"-
office/ therefore sacrificin) kno(led)e/ ;ualit% and often cuttin)
corners in man% (a%s.
The challen)e therefore is to e"pose the no*ice 8ust enou)h to the
practical theatre life to learn enou)h aout the conditions/ mechanisms
and possiilities/ ut to a*oid o*er e"posure to the con*entional
theatrical trade in order to preser*e his or her ori)inalit% of *ision/
creati*it% and indi*idualit% of method.
-h& don/t the te0tbook writers write more dramatic +la&s
themselves'
Isn+t it etter to (rite pla%s instead of (ritin) aout themB 4 person
ma% ha*e a )reat lo*e for an art/ and ha*e some insi)ht into its
principles and methods/ ut lack the innate ailit% re;uired to create
:
an ori)inal piece of art. Cn the other hand/ some )ifted and e"cellent
pla%(ri)hts often lack the ailit% or patience to )uide and mentor
no*ices. 4n accomplished dramatist ma% often not e the est )uide
for no*ice dramatists. Ae can+t anal%De his o(n performance/ and
throu)h that discriminate et(een that in his performance (hich is of
uni*ersal *alidit%/ and that (hich ma% e )ood for him/ ut (ould e
ad for an% one else.
If he happened to e a )reat man/ he (ould ine*ital%/ e*en if
unconsciousl%/ seek to e"pose those he mentors to his indi*idual
attitude to(ards life. If he (ere a lesser man/ he (ould teach them
onl% his tricks. 5ut dramatists do not tend to take pupils or (rite
handooks. When the% e"pound their principles of art/ it is )enerall% in
ans(er to/ or in anticipation of criticism. Their )oal is not to help
others/ ut to defend themsel*es. 5e)inners are therefore mostl%
dependent on critics/ and not dramatists/ to find an% s%stematic
)uidance.
It is important to understand that if an% part of the dramatist@s art can
e tau)ht/ it is onl% a comparati*el% mechanical and formal part: the
art of structure. Cne ma% learn ho( to tell a stor% in )ood dramatic
form/ ho( to de*elop and direct it in such a (a% as est seiDe and
retain the interest of a theatrical audience. 5ut no teachin) or stud%
can enale a man to choose or in*ent a )ood stor%/ and much less to
do that (hich alone lends di)nit% to dramatic stor%-tellin) - to oser*e
and portra% human character/ (hich is the aim and end of all serious
drama.
!*en the )reatest )enius needs competent craftsmanship to enale his
creations to li*e and reathe upon the sta)e. The profoundest insi)ht
into human nature and destin% can+t e *alidl% e"pressed throu)h the
medium of the theatre (ithout some understandin) of the peculiar art
of dramatic construction. Some people are orn (ith such an instinct
;
for this art/ and master it (ith little practice.
To tell a stor% (ith impact to a theatre audience is an art and is
necessaril% relati*e to the audience to (hom the stor% is to e told.
Cne must assume an audience (ith certain characteristics efore one
can rationall% discuss the est methods of appealin) to its intelli)ence
and its s%mpathies.
Theatrical art o(es much to *oluntar% or)aniDations of pla%)oers/ (ho
ha*e comined to pro*ide themsel*es (ith forms of drama (hich
speciall% interest them/ and do not necessaril% attract the )reat pulic.
7oliEre (as popular (ith the ordinar% people of his da%/ and his pla%s
ha*e endured for o*er t(o centuries/ and are still doin) *er% (ell.
4 pla%(ri)ht should e ale to #disurden his soul& (ithin the three
hours@ limit/ (hich is imposed simpl% % the ph%sical endurance and
po(er of sustained attention that can e demanded of human ein)s
assemled in a theatre. There is a lar)e class of pla%)oers (hich is
capale of appreciatin) (ork of a hi)h intellectual order/ if onl% the
fundamental conditions of theatrical presentation are not i)nored/ as
doin) so (ill e to the detriment/ not onl% of his popularit% and profits/
ut of the artistic ;ualit% of his (ork. Wh% should the dramatist
concern himself aout his audience/ if he is a true artistB If he declares
his )oal to e mere self-e"pression and he (rites to please himself/
(ithout thinkin) to take into account the audience : intellectual or not
: he ma% stultif% himself in that *er% phrase. It is % oe%in)/ not %
i)norin)/ the fundamental conditions of his craft that the dramatist
ma% hope to lead his audience up(ard to the hi)hest intellectual le*el
(hich he himself can attain. The painter ma% paint/ the sculptor
model/ the l%ric poet sin)/ simpl% to please himself/ ut drama has no
meanin) e"cept in relation to an audience. It is a portra%al of life %
means of a mechanism de*ised to rin) it home in an immediate (a%
to a considerale numer of people assemled in a )i*en place. The
<
pulic constitutes the theatre. The real difference et(een the
dramatist and other artists/ is that the% can e their o(n audience/ in
a sense in (hich he can+t.
This )uide is aimed at students of pla% (ritin) (ho sincerel% desire to
do sound/ artistic (ork under the conditions and limitations of the
actual/ li*in) pla%house. This does not mean/ of course/ that the%
ou)ht al(a%s to e stud%in) =(hat the pulic (ants&. The dramatist
should )i*e the pulic (hat he himself (ants/ ut in such form as to
make it comprehensile and interestin) in a theatre.
=01 To choose a the/e
The (ord #theme& refers to the su8ect of a pla%/ or to the stor%. 'or
e"ample/ the theme of #<omeo and Fuliet& is %outhful lo*e crossed %
ancestral hate? the theme of #Cthello& is 8ealous%? the theme of #1e
Tartufe& is h%pocris%? the theme of #$aste& is fond hearts and coronets
and the theme of #Gettin) 7arried& is )ettin) married.
In some pla%s it is e*ident that there (as no theme that could e
e"pressed in astract terms/ present in the author@s mind/ ut throu)h
a process of astraction (e can formulate a theme for pla%s like #4s
>ou 1ike It&/ #The Wa% of the World& or for #Aedda Galer&.
Should the dramatist first think of a theme and then uild a stor%
around itB This is a possile/ ut not a promisin)/ method/ since a
stor% created to fit or illustrate a moral concept is al(a%s apt to
ad*ertise its ori)in/ to the detriment of its illusi*e ;ualit%. It can (ork/
if that intent is stated frankl% : e*en in the title/ and if it+s (itt% and
charmin)/ and does not pretend to e (hat it+s not. !"amples are the
'rench &,ro*ere& and #4 ,air of Spectacles&/ % 7r. S%dne% Grund%.
In this ri)ht little !n)lish comed% e*er% incident and situation ears
upon the )eneral theme/ and is pleasin)/ not % its proailit%/ ut %
>
ein) in)eniousl% appropriate.
4 theme of temporar% interest (ill often ha*e a )reat ut no less
temporar% success/ also if it is not uni*ersal enou)h/ as in #4n
!n)lishman@s Aome&/ % 7a8or du 7aurier. Thou)h there (as a )ood
deal of cle*er character dra(in)/ the theme (as so e*identl% the
source and inspiration of the pla% that in 4merica/ (here the theme
(as of no interest/ the pla% failed.
!"cellent pla%s in (hich the theme/ in all proailit%/ preceded oth
the stor% and the characters in the author@s mind/ are most of 7.
5rieu"@s as (ell as 7r. Gals(orth%@s #Strife& and #Fustice&.
The theme ma% sometimes e an en*ironment/ a social phenomenon
of one sort or another and not an idea/ an astraction or a principle.
The author@s primar% o8ect in such a case is to transfer to the sta)e
an animated picture of some road aspect or phase of life/ (ithout
concentratin) the interest on an% one fi)ure or )roup or to portra% an%
indi*idual character or tell an% definite stor%. Such taleau-pla%s are
5en Fonson@s #5artholome( 'air&/ Schiller@s #Wallensteins 1a)er&.
7ore recent pla%s like Aauptmann@s #Die Weer& and Gork%@s
#9achtas%l& are perhaps the est e"amples of the t%pe. It needs an
e"ceptional amount of kno(led)e and dramatur)ic skill to handle them
successfull%. It is far easier to tell a stor% on the sta)e than to paint a
picture/ and fe( pla%(ri)hts can resist the temptation to foist a stor%
upon their picture/ thus marrin) it % an inharmonious intrusion of
melodrama or farce. Fames 4. Aerne inserted into a charmin) id%llic
picture of rural life/ % the name of #Shore 4cres&/ a melodramatic
scene in a li)hthouse/ (hich (as hopelessl% out of ke% (ith the rest of
the pla%. This (as done in the elief that no pla% can e"ist/ or can
attract pla%)oers/ (ithout a definite and more or less e"citin) plot. It
seems to e etter to )i*e a taleau pla% 8ust so much of stor% as ma%
naturall% and ine*ital% fall (ithin its limits.
=?
Whate*er ma%e the seed that started a pla% - (hether it e an
anecdote/ a situation/ or personal e"perience/ a ne(spaper headline/
an emotional ad*enture or an incident in the street - the pla% (ill e of
small account as a (ork of art unless character/ at a *er% earl% point/
enters into its de*elopment. 7r. Aenr% 4rthur Fones (rites:
=Sometimes I start (ith a scene onl%/ sometimes (ith a complete idea.
Sometimes a pla% splits into t(o pla%s/ sometimes t(o or three ideas
comine into a concrete (hole. 4l(a%s the final pla% is altered out of
all kno(led)e from its first idea.& =7% e"perience is/= another
dramatist (rote/ =that %ou ne*er delieratel% choose a theme. >ou lie
a(ake/ or %ou )o (alkin)/ and suddenl% there flashes into %our mind a
contrast/ a piece of spiritual iron%/ an old incident carr%in) some
)eneral si)nificance. <ound this %our mind roods/ and there is the
)erm of %our pla%.= Ae (rites: =It is not ad*isale for a pla%(ri)ht to
start out at all unless he has so felt or seen somethin)/ that he feels/
as it matures in his mind/ that he must e"press it/ and in dramatic
form.=
The difference et(een a #li*e& pla% and a #dead& one is that in the
former the characters control the plot/ (hile in the latter the plot
controls the characters. Which is not to sa%/ of course/ that there ma%
not e cle*er and entertainin) pla%s (hich are =dead= in this sense/
and dull and unattracti*e pla%s (hich are =li*e.=
4ristotle remarked that the action or #muthos&/ not the character or
#ethos&/ is the essential element in drama. Ae *ie(s action to e the
essential element in tra)ed% and not merel% the necessar% *ehicle of
character. =In a pla%/=he sa%s/ =the% do not act in order to portra% the
characters/ the% include the characters for the sake of the action. 4
pla% can e"ist (ithout an%thin) that can e called character/ ut not
(ithout some sort of action. 4 tra)ed% is impossile (ithout action/
ut there ma% e one (ithout character. This is implied in the *er%
==
(ord =drama/= (hich means a doin)/ not a mere sa%in) or e"istin).
Deeds/ not (ords/ are the demonstration and test of character -
therefore/ historicall% it has een the reco)niDed usiness of the
theatre to e"hiit character in action or the portra%al of an action 6
some e"ploit or some calamit% in the career of some demi)od or hero.
Stor% or plot is thus % definition/ tradition/ and practical reason/ the
fundamental element in drama. 5ut action ou)ht to e"ist for the sake
of character.
Sometimes the impulse to (rite a pla% e"ists in the astract/
unassociated (ith an% particular su8ect/ and the (ould-e pla%(ri)ht
proceeds/ as he thinks/ to set his ima)ination to (ork/ and in*ent a
stor%. $are needs to e taken here/ since (hen (e think (e are
choosin) a plot out of the *oid/ (e are *er% prone to e ransackin) the
store-house of memor% and it ma% not e as ori)inal as (e thou)ht.
The plot #(hich chooses us& is much more dependale to e ori)inal 6
the idea (hich comes (hen (e least e"pect it/ perhaps from the most
unlikel% ;uarter.
Whate*er principles of conception and construction appl% to the
modern prose drama/ appl% (ith e;ual co)enc% to the poetic drama.
'or instance/ (e ma% find reason to think the solilo;u% more e"cusale
in *erse than in prose. 5ut fundamentall%/ the t(o forms are ruled %
the same set of conditions/ (hich the *erse-poet/ no less than the
prose-poet/ can+t i)nore. If/ in the course of his le)endar%/ romantic/
or historical readin)/ some character should catch his ima)ination and
demand to e interpreted/ or some episode should startle him %
puttin) on *i*id dramatic form efore his mind@s e%e/ then let him %
all means %ield to the inspiration/ and tr% to mould the theme into a
drama. The real laor of creation (ill still lie efore him/ ut he ma%
face it (ith the hope of producin) a li*e pla%.
=1
=09 +ra/atic or !ot
The critic 'erdinand 5runetiEre said: =The theatre in )eneral/ is
nothin) ut the place for the de*elopment of the human (ill/ attackin)
the ostacles opposed to it % destin%/ fortune/ or circumstances.= 4nd
a)ain: =Drama is a representation of the (ill of man in conflict (ith the
m%sterious po(ers or natural forces (hich limit and elittle us? it is
one of us thro(n li*in) upon the sta)e/ there to stru))le a)ainst
fatalit%/ a)ainst social la(/ a)ainst one of his fello(-mortals/ a)ainst
himself/ if need e/ a)ainst the amitions/ the interests/ the
pre8udices/ the foll%/ the male*olence of those (ho surround him.=
-!tudes $riti;ues/ *ol. *ii/ pp. 153 and 2H2. This definition descries
the matter of man% dramas/ ut it does not la% do(n an%
characteristic common to all drama/ and possessed % no other form
of fiction.
It seems to e true that conflict is one of the most dramatic elements
in life/ and that man% dramas - perhaps most - do turn upon strife of
one sort or another. 5ut it is clearl% an error to make conflict
indispensale to drama/ and especiall% to insist - as some of
5runetiEre@s follo(ers do - that the conflict must e et(een (ill and
(ill. 4 stand-up fi)ht et(een (ill and (ill -- such fi)hts occur in the
#Aippol%tus& of !uripides/ <acine@s #4ndroma;ue&/ 7oliEre@s
#Tartufe&/ Isen@s #,retenders+/ Dumas@s #'ranIillon&/ Sudermann@s
#Aeimat+/ Sir 4rthur ,inero@s #Ga% 1ord Jue"&/ 7r. Sha(@s #$andida&/
or 7r. Gals(orth%@s #Strife&. Such stand-up fi)hts are no dout one of
the most intense forms of drama. 5ut it is comparati*el% rare as the
formula of a (hole pla%. The point of some other *er% dramatic scenes
is not a clash/ ut an ecstatic concordance of (ills/ for e"ample in the
death scene of $leopatra/ the 5an;uet scene in #7aceth& or the
5alcon% scene in #<omeo and Fuliet&.
=9
The essence of human personalit% is found in the (ill/ and dramatic
art sho(s human personalit% raised to its hi)hest po(er. 4 simple
ps%cholo)ical oser*ation (ould e that human nature lo*es a fi)ht/
(hether it e (ith clus or (ith s(ords/ (ith ton)ues or (ith rains.
Cne of the earliest forms of mediae*al drama (as the =estrif= or
=fl%tin)=- the scoldin) match et(een husand and (ife/ or et(een
t(o rustic )ossips. $ertainl% there is nothin) more )rippin) in drama
than a piece of =cut-and-thrust= dialo)ue after the fashion of the
ancient =stichom%thia. 5ut a scene is not less dramatic merel% ecause
it has no room for a clash of (arrin) (ills.
Thou)h far from ein) uni*ersall% *alid/ the =9o ostacle/ no drama=
theor% has a certain practical usefulness/ and is (orth mentionin).
7an% a pla% (ould ha*e remained un(ritten if the author had asked
himself/ =Is there a sufficient ostacle et(een m% t(o lo*ersB= or/ in
more )eneral terms/ =et(een m% characters and the realiDation of
their (illB= There is nothin) more futile than a pla% in (hich (e feel
that there is no real ostacle to the ine*itale happ% endin)/ and that
the curtain mi)ht 8ust as (ell fall in the middle of the first act as at the
end of the third. The author mi)ht often do (ell ask himself (hether
he could not stren)then his ostacle/ and so accentuate the stru))le
(hich forms the matter of his pla%.
$onflict ma% not e essential to drama/ ut (hen %ou set out to
portra% a stru))le/ %ou ma% as (ell make it as real and intense as
possile. In William Kau)hn 7ood%@s drama/ #The Great Di*ide&/ an
inade;uate ostacle portra%ed causes the pla% to e not stron) enou)h
and thus it turned out to e less lastin). If there (ould ha*e een a
real disharmon% of character to o*ercome/ in addition to the sordid
misad*enture of a *iolent drunken husand/ (hich is the sole arrier
et(een them/ the pla% (ould ha*e een much stron)er.
In a pla% % Fames 5ernard 'a)an/ #The ,ra%er of the S(ord&/ there is
=7
a clear e"ample of an inade;uate ostacle. 4 %outh named 4ndrea
destined for the priesthood falls in lo*e/ and the tra)ed% ou)ht to lie in
the conflict et(een this earthl% passion and his hea*enl% callin) and
election. The fact that he has as %et taken no irre*ocale *o( is not
the essence of the matter. There (ould ha*e een a tra)ic conflict if
4ndrea had felt asolutel% certain of his callin) to the priesthood/ and
had defied Aea*en/ and endan)ered his immortal soul ecause of his
o*er(helmin) passion. That (ould ha*e een a tra)ic situation - ut
the author had carefull% a*oided it : unfortunatel%. 'rom the outset it
had een impressed upon the audience that he had no priestl%
*ocation. There (as no stru))le in his soul et(een passion and dut%.
Ais stru))les (ere all (ith e"ternal forces and influences. Therefore
the pla%/ (hich a real ostacle mi)ht ha*e con*erted into a tra)ed%/
remained a sentimental romance 6 and (as for)otten.
If conflict is not the essence of drama/ (hat isB What (ould e the
common ;ualit% of themes/ scenes/ and incidents/ (hich (e reco)niDe
as specificall% dramaticB Crisis. Drama ma% e called the art of crisis.
4 pla% is a fairl% rapid de*elopin) crisis in destin% or circumstance/ and
a dramatic scene is a crisis (ithin a crisis/ furtherin) the ultimate
e*ent. Drama deals (ith rapid and startlin) chan)es/ =peripeties/= as
the Greeks called them/ (hich actuall% occur in *er% rief spaces of
time. 9ot e*er% crisis is that dramatic. 4 serious illness/ a la( suit/ a
ankruptc%/ e*en an ordinar% prosaic marria)e ma% e a crisis in a
man@s life/ (ithout ein) necessaril% suitale material for drama. Ao(
do (e distin)uish a dramatic from a non-dramatic crisisB 5% the fact
that it can e made to naturall% de*elop throu)h a series of minor
crises/ in*ol*in) emotional e"citement/ and the *i*id manifestation of
character. 4 (ell used e"ample could e ankruptc%/ follo(in) a
course of )amlin)/ )enerall% in stocks. Aere is e*ident opportunit% for
a series of crises of some(hat *iolent and commonplace emotion.
=4
In 4merican drama especiall%/ the duels of Wall Street/ the comats
of ull and ear/ form a *er% popular theme. 'e( 4merican dramatists
can resist the temptation of sho(in) some masterful financier
fe*erishl% (atchin) the =ticker= (hich proclaims him a millionaire or a
e))ar. Aere the )reat crisis rin)s out *i*id manifestations of
character/ not onl% in the ankrupt person himself/ ut in those around
him/ and naturall% unfoldin) itself throu)h a series of those lesser
crises in interestin) and mo*in) scenes. ,la%s like #4 ankruptc%&
-58ornson. and #1a Doloureuse& -7aurice Donna%. pursue this theme.
Generall% speakin)/ the dramatic (a% of presentin) indi*idual incidents
could e descried as crisp/ staccato/ shockin) to the ner*es and
dealin) (ith curiosit% and surprise. ,eople proal% en8o% emotion
more than pure apprehension. The most dramatic effect (ill therefore
e created % handlin) an incident such as to e"tract the )reatest
*ariet% of poi)nanc% of emotion from it.
Secondar% suspense or surprise is e"perienced in empath% (ith the
characters/ % a spectator (ho kno(s perfectl% (hat is to follo(. The
dramatist should focus his main appeal on secondar% suspense/ for the
lon)er his pla% endures/ the lar)er (ill e the proportion of an% )i*en
audience kno(in) it eforehand - in outline/ if not in detail. 4 )ood
e"ample to e"tract the ma"imum effect from (hat mi)ht else ha*e
een an anti-clima"/ (ould e the death of Cthello - no eas% prolem
for Shakespeare. Desdemona (as dead/ !milia dead/ Ia)o (ounded
and doomed to torture. Ao( (as Cthello+s death to e made the
culminatin) moment of the tra)ed%/ and not a fore)one conclusion or
a mere con*entional suicideB Shakespeare+s dramatic )enius shines
unmistakal% from Cthello+s address/ as he is ein) led a(a%:
=Soft %ou? a (ord or t(o/ efore %ou )o.
I ha*e done the state some ser*ice/ and the% kno( @t?
9o more of that. I pra% %ou/ in %our letters/
=:
When %ou shall these unluck% deeds relate/
Speak of me as I am? nothin) e"tenuate/
9or set do(n au)ht in malice/ then must %ou speak
Cf one that lo*ed not (isel% ut too (ell?
Cf one not easil% 8ealous/ ut/ ein) (rou)ht/
,erple"@d in the e"treme? of one (hose hand/
1ike the ase Indian/ thre( a pearl a(a%
<icher than all his trie? of one (hose sudued e%es/
4leit unused to the meltin) mood/
Drop tears as fast as the 4raian trees
Their medicinal )um. Set %ou do(n this?
4nd sa% esides/ that in 4leppo once/
Where a mali)nant and a turan@d Turk
5eat a Kenetian and traduced the state/
I took % the throat the circumcised do)/
4nd smote him--thusL=
Aere Shakespeare has thro(n his audience off )uard/ 8ust as Cthello
has done to his captors/ and replaced the e"pected (ith a sudden
shock of surprise. Ae re-in*ented the incident to e crisp instead of
flaccid/ thus )i*in) it specific dramatic accent/ a sudden thrill of
no*elt% and une"pectedness. Ae succeeded in portra%in) #a )i*en
thin)& in asolutel% the most dramatic method concei*ale.
The tendenc% of recent theor% and practice/ has een to (iden the
meanin) of the (ord #dramatic&/ until it ursts the onds of all
definition. 4 mo*ement de*eloped in reaction a)ainst the traditional
=dramatic&/ correctin) con*entional #theatricalism& in a *aluale (a%.
It has/ at some points/ positi*el% enlar)ed the domain of dramatic art.
It helped to free art from ri)id rules and definitions. 4 *er% *alid
definition of the dramatic is: 4n% representation of ima)inar%
persona)es (hich is capale of interestin) an a*era)e audience
assemled in a theatre. It is e"pected of ori)inal )enius to o*erride the
=;
dictates of e"perience/ and it should e encoura)ed. In a certain t%pe
of pla% - the road picture of a social phenomenon or en*ironment - it
is preferale that no attempt should e made to depict a marked crisis.
There should e 8ust enou)h stor% to afford a plausile e"cuse for
raisin) and for lo(erin) the curtain. Cn the other hand/ theatrical
conditions often encoura)e a *iolent e"a))eration of the
characteristicall% dramatic elements in life.
If the essence of drama is crisis/ it follo(s that nothin) can e more
dramatic than a momentous choice (hich ma% make or reak the
character as (ell as the fortune of the chooser and of others. There is
an element of choice in all action (hich seems to e the product of
free (ill? ut there is a peculiar crispness of effect (hen t(o
alternati*es are clearl% formulated/ and the choice is made after a
mental stru))le/ accentuated/ perhaps/ % impassioned ad*ocac% of
the conflictin) interests. Those (ho ha*e mastered the e"tremel%
delicate and difficult art of creatin) drama (ithout the
characteristicall% dramatic in)redients should do so % all means.
Aopefull% the% fairl% allo( freedom to others for the 8udicious and
dramatic use of these in)redients as the% present themsel*es in life.
The s%molical )ame of chess is also a (ell-(orn dramatic tool.
=07 The ro$ti!e o' co/positio!
Kaluale insi)ht into the methods of a master is pro*ided % the
scenarios and drafts of pla%s pulished in Aenrik Isen@s #!fterladte
Skrifter&/ some of (hich no( ha*e een translated under the title of
#'rom Isen@s Workshop& -Scriner./ and (ell (orth stud%in).
The )reat lesson to e learnt from Isen@s practice is that the pla%
should e kept fluid or plastic as lon) as possile/ and not allo(ed to
ecome fi"ed/ either in the author@s mind or on paper/ efore it has
had time to )ro( and ripen. 7an% of Isen@s )reatest indi*idual
inspirations came to him as afterthou)hts/ after the pla% had
=<
reached a point of de*elopment at (hich man% authors (ould ha*e
considered the (ork of art ripe for irth.
4 )ood (ork method for the pla%(ri)ht is to the dra( up a tentati*e
scenario - a detailed scheme. In a dramatic structure of an%
considerale len)th/ proportion/ alance/ and the interconnection of
parts are so essential that a scenario is almost as indispensale to a
dramatist as a set of plans to an architect. 5ernard Sha( is thou)ht to
ha*e sometimes (orked (ithout an% definite scenario/ and in*entin)
as he )oes alon) - to the detriment of pla%s like #Gettin) 7arried& or
#7isalliance&.
$omposition-as:%ou-)o ma% onl% e possile for the no*elist or
perhaps e*en for the (riter of a one-act pla%/ ut hardl% (ise.
Sardou (rote careful and detailed scenarios/ Dumas felt it is a (aste of
time to do so. ,ailleron (rote =enormous= scenarios/ 7eilhac *er% rief
ones/ or none at all. Gals(orth% thou)ht that a theme ecomes lifeless
(hen %ou put do(n its skeleton on paper. 4lfred Sutro sa%s: =5efore I
start (ritin) the dialo)ue of a pla%/ I make sure that I shall ha*e an
asolutel% free hand o*er the entrances and e"its: in other (ords/ that
there is ample and le)itimate reason for each character appearin) in
an% particular scene/ and ample moti*e for his lea*in) it.= Gran*ille
5arker sa%s: =I plan the )eneral scheme/ and particularl% the alance
of the pla%/ in m% head&. Aenr% 4rthur Fones sa%s: =I kno( the leadin)
scenes/ and the )eneral course of action in each act/ efore I (rite a
line. When I ha*e )ot the (hole stor% clear/ and di*ided into acts/ I
*er% carefull% construct the first act/ as a series of scenes et(een
such and such of the characters. When the first act is (ritten I
carefull% construct the second act in the same (a%6. I sometimes
dra( up t(ent% scenarios for an act efore I can )et it to )o strai)ht.=
In the transition from extempore acting re)ulated % a (ritten
scenario onl% the formal learnin) of parts falls (ithin the historical
=>
period of the German sta)e. It seems proale that the romantic
pla%(ri)hts of the si"teenth and se*enteenth centuries/ oth in
!n)land and in Spain/ ma% ha*e adopted a method not unlike that of
the drama of impro*isation. The% ma% ha*e dra(n out a scheme of
entrances and e"its/ and then let their characters discourse -on paper.
as their fanc% prompted. T%pical modern pla%s are much more close-
knit/ in (hich e*er% (ord has to e (ei)hed far more carefull% than it
(as % pla%(ri)hts durin) the da%s of impro*isation. Mntil a pla% has
een thou)ht out *er% clearl% in )reat detail/ an% scheme of entrances
and e"its is merel% pro*isional and ma% e indefinitel% modified. 4
close interdependence e"ists et(een action/ character and dialo)ue/
(hich forids a pla%(ri)ht to tie his hands at an earl% sta)e (ith a
fi"ed and unalterale outline. It ma% e a po(erful/ lo)ical/ (ell-knit
piece of (ork/ ut ma% miss fle"iilit%/ *iranc% and life. <oom should
e left as lon) as possile for une"pected de*elopments of character.
7. 'ranIois de $urel/ an accomplished ps%cholo)ist/ mentions that
durin) the first fe( da%s of (ork at a pla% he is =clearl% conscious of
creatin)/= ut that )raduall% he )ets =into the skin= of his characters/
and appears to (ork % instinct. 9o dout some artists are actuall%
su8ect to a sort of hallucination/ durin) (hich the% seem rather to
record than to in*ent the doin)s of their characters. 'itch (as often
astonished at the (a% in (hich his characters de*eloped. Ae tried to
make them do certain thin)s: the% did others. Sir 4rthur ,inero sa%s:
=The e)innin) of a pla% to me is a little (orld of people. I li*e (ith
them/ )et familiar (ith them/ and #the%& tell me the stor%.& Ae meant
that the stor% came to him as the characters took on life in his
ima)ination.
A.4. Fones (rites: =When %ou ha*e a character or se*eral characters
%ou ha*en@t a pla%. >ou ma% keep these in %our mind and nurse them
till the% comine in a piece of action? ut %ou ha*en@t )ot %our pla% till
%ou ha*e theme/ characters/ and action all fused. The process (ith me
1?
is as purel% automatic and spontaneous as dreamin)? in fact it is reall%
dreamin) (hile %ou are a(ake.= The apparent spontaneit% of a
character@s proceedin)s is a pure illusion. It means no more than that
the ima)ination/ once set in motion alon) a )i*en line/ mo*es alon)
that line (ith an ease and freedom (hich seems to its possessor
preternatural and almost uncann%. 4uthors (ho are *er% )ifted for
character-creation proal% e"perience this illusion/ thou)h the% are
sane enou)h and modest enou)h to realiDe that an illusion it is. Aere
fle"iilit% is *ital.
The pla%(ri)ht@s scheme should not until the latest possile moment
ecome so hard and fast as to allo( his characters no elo( room for
spontaneit%/ and afterthou)hts aout chan)es (hich ma% arise as the
pla% de*elops. <e-ad8ustments ma% constantl% ha*e to e made if a
pla% is shapin) itself % a process of *ital )ro(th. That is (h% the
pla%(ri)ht ma% e (ise to keep his material fluid as lon) as he can. It
is ad*isale to treat a dramatic theme like cla% to e modeled and
remodeled/ rather than as (ood or marle to e car*ed unalteral%
and once for all. There ma% e authors (ho can (rite *ital pla%s/ as
Shakespeare is said to ha*e done/ (ithout erasin) a line/ ut the )reat
pla%(ri)ht is more likel% to e he (ho doesn+t mind to cut or chan)e
an act or t(o.
The dramatist should aim at ein) lo)ical (ithout seemin) so/ so that
the pla% ha*e passion/ not onl% precision/ and command out
enthusiasm/ not onl% our respect. Ker% earl% in the schemin) of his
pla%/ the pla%(ri)ht should assure himself that his theme is capale of
a satisfactor% endin) - not impl%in) a =happ% endin)/= ut one (hich
satisfies the author as ein) artistic/ effecti*e/ ine*itale or =ri)ht.= 4n
o*iousl% makeshift endin) can ne*er e desirale 7an% e"cellent
pla%s ha*e een (recked this (a%/ ecause the #last act is (eak=. It
is o*ious (hen the author has clearl% een at a loss for an endin)/
and has simpl% huddled his pla% up in a con*entional and perfunctor%
1=
fashion. Some apparentl% promisin) themes are #lind-alle% themes&/
since the% are inherentl% incapale of a satisfactor% endin). !arl% on
the dramatist should clearl% see the end for (hich he is aimin)/ and e
sure that it is an end that he acti*el% desires/ not merel% one (hich
satisfies con*ention/ or (hich =(ill ha*e to do.=
Some dramatists/ after ha*in) mapped out the pla%/ don+t
to start at the e)innin) and (rite it as a coherent (hole/ ut make a
dash first at the more salient and critical scenes/ or those (hich
speciall% attract their ima)ination. This can e )ood/ since it certainl%
enhances plasticit%.
Should the pla%(ri)ht e ale to *isualiDe the detailed scene of each
act in his mind+s e%eB Toda% props are much more important than
man% %ears a)o. 7ost modern dramatists pa% )reat attention to the
#topo)raph%& of their scenes/ and the shiftin) =positions= of their
characters. 4)ain it is (ise to (ait till for a comparati*el% late sta)e to
map out the sta)e-mana)ement. !*en (here a )reat deal turns on
some indi*idual o8ect/ the detailed arran)ements of the scene ma% in
most cases e taken for )ranted until a late sta)e in its (orkin) out.
7ake sure that the o8ect fits (ell (ithin the ph%sical possiilities of
the sta)e/ and that the arran)ement is opticall% possile and effecti*e.
'e( thin)s/ indeed/ are impossile to the modern sta)e/ ut there are
man% thin)s that are (iser not to attempt/ since it ma% distract the
audience+s attention such that the% ma% miss the dialo)ue and the
pla% ma% fail for them as result.
Sometimes #less is more&. 5efore rel%in) on an% special effects/ make
sure that it is/ not onl% possile/ ut con*enient from the practical
point of *ie(.
It is a )ood )eneral rule to a*oid e"pressions (hich sho( that the
author has a sta)e scene/ and not an episode of real life/ in his mind+s
11
e%e. ,eople of the theatre are the last to e impressed % theatrical
8ar)on. Msin) lots of are*iations for sta)e mana)ement directions is
8ust confusin). Sta)e la%outs ha*e chan)ed much/ and some older
terms no lon)er appl%. The common-sense rule as to sta)e directions
is keep it short/ clear and to the point/ impersonal and professional.
KisualiDe and descrie the room/ the )arden/ the sea-shore/ or
(hate*er the place of action ma% e/ not as a sta)e-scene/ ut as a
room/ )arden/ or sea-shore in the real (orld. $ulti*atin) this hait
ma% ear e"cellent results and is a safe)uard a)ainst theatricalit%.
=04 +ra/atis perso!ae
7ost dramatists dra( up a pro*isional Dramatis ,ersonae efore
e)innin) the serious (ork of constructin) the pla%. Isen mostl% did
so/ ut then shortened the list later. Some sa*ed up the characters
re8ected from one pla%/ and used them in another. There are essential
characters in e*er% pla%/ (ithout (hom the theme (ould e
unthinkale/ and au"iliar% characters that are simpl% con*enient for
fillin) in the can*as and carr%in) on the action/ ut not indispensale
to the theme. It depends upon ho( (e define the theme (hether a
character is essential or au"iliar%. The au"iliaries mi)ht all ha*e een
utterl% different/ or mi)ht ne*er ha*e e"isted at all/ and %et the
essence of the pla% (ould remain intact. The modern dramatist has a
(ide latitude of choice in the technical matter of (orkin) out his plot
(ith the smallest possile numer of characters/ or he ma% introduce a
cro(d of au"iliar% persona)es. The nature of his theme (ill e the
)uide to this. In a road social stud% or a pictures;ue romance/ man%
au"iliar% fi)ures are in order/ ut in a sutle comed%/ or a
ps%cholo)ical tra)ed%/ the essential characters should ha*e the sta)e
as much as possile to themsel*es.
4s to nomenclature/ some peculiar names (ere re)arded as acceptale
19
in =The $omed% of 7anners/= ut ma% ha*e ecome offensi*e toda%.
The fashion of lael-names came do(n from the !liDaethans/ (ho
orro(ed it from the 7edie*al 7oralities. Shakespeare )a*e us 7aster
Slender and Fustice Shallo(. 4 sla*e mi)ht e called
Cnesimus/ meanin) =useful/= or a soldier ,olemon/ to impl% his
(arlike function. 5ut it (as in the Fonsonian comed% of t%pes that the
practice of ad*ertisin) a =humour= or =passion= in a name -!n)lish or
Italian. estalished itself. !"amples are: Sir !picure 7ammon/ Sir
4morous 1a 'oole/ 7orose/ Wellred/ Do(nri)ht and 'astidius 5risk.
9ames should e characteristic (ithout eccentricit% or punnin).
'arcical names are/ (ithin limits/ admissile in farce/ eccentric names
in eccentric comed%/ (hile soerl% appropriate names are alone in
place in serious pla%s. The appropriateness of some of Isen+s names
ma% e lost upon forei)n audiences.
The asence of a list of =Dramatis ,ersonae= in some printed pla%s
adds to the difficult% (hich some readers e"perience in pickin) up the
threads of a pla% and it depri*es other readers of the pleasure of
anticipation. It is charmin) to lookin) do(n a list of names/ and
thinkin) that *er% soon the% and their hearts (ill e kno(n and some
of them ma% e our friends fore*er.
2. %e&i!!i!& thi!&s ri&ht 3 the 'o$!"atio! a!" 5$i("i!&
5(oc6s o' "ra/a
2.1 Where it a(( starts * the poi!t o' attac6: Sha6espeare
a!" I5se!

4ristotle re;uired that a pla% should ha*e a e)innin)/ middle and end.
4 tendenc% e"ists to reel a)ainst this re;uirement - as man% pla%s do
not end/ ut simpl% #lea*e off&/ for e"ample Isen@s #Ghosts&.
17
The pla%(ri)ht deals (ith short/ sharp crises/ not (ith protracted
se;uences of e*ents. The ;uestion for him/ is: 4t (hat moment of the
crisis/ or of its precedin) de*elopment/ (ould e the est place to
e)inB The ans(er depends on man% thin)s/ ut chiefl% on the nature
of the crisis and (hat impression the dramatist desires to make upon
his audience. In a comed%/ if his o8ect is to )entl% and ;uietl% interest
and entertain/ he ma% e)in % sho(in) us his persona)es in their
normal state/ concisel% indicates their characters/ circumstances and
relations/ and then lets the crisis de*elop from the outset efore our
e%es. If he (ants to seiDe the spectator@s attention firml% from the
start/ he (ill proal% )o strai)ht at the crisis/ to the *er% middle of it/
and after(ards )o ack in order to e"plain to the audience the
precedin) circumstances.
In some pla%s of Isen/ the curtain rises on a surface aspect of
profound peace/ (hich is soon found to e ut a thin crust o*er an
asolutel% *olcanic condition of affairs/ the ori)in of (hich has to e
traced ack(ards/ ma%e for man% %ears.
$onsiderin) Shakespeare@s openin)s - at (hat points does he attack
his *arious themesB 7ost of his comedies e)in (ith a simple/ ;uiet
con*ersation/ (ith latent ut rapid crisis de*elopment : ut no
plun)in) into it. In his fictitious pla%s it (as Shakespeare@s constant
practice to rin) the (hole action (ithin the frame of the picture/
openin) at such a point that no retrospect should e necessar%/
e%ond (hat could e con*e%ed in a fe( casual (ords. T(o notale
e"ceptions are #The Tempest& and #Aamlet&/ (here he plun)ed
into the middle of the crisis ecause his o8ect (as to concentrate his
effects and present the dramatic elements of his theme at their
hi)hest potenc%.
In the tra)edies/ Shakespeare mostl% e)an (ith a pictures;ue/ crisp
and stirrin) episode of *ehement action/ calculated to arrest the
14
spectator@s attention and spark the interest/ (hile con*e%in) little or
no information/ ut appealin) to the ner*es and arousin) anticipation
in 8ust the ri)ht measure. It is *er% import to disco*er 8ust the ri)ht
point at (hich to raise the curtain.
The dramatic effect of incidents is incalculal% hei)htened (hen the
emotions of the characters are peaked. The dramatic ;ualit% of an
incident is proportionate to the *ariet% and intensit% of the emotions
in*ol*ed in it.
In Isen@s (ork (e find an e"traordinar% pro)ress in the art of so
unfoldin) the drama of the past as to make the )radual re*elation an
inte)ral part of the drama of the present. The secret of the depth and
richness of te"ture so characteristic of Isen@s (ork/ la% in his art of
closel% inter(ea*in) a drama of the present (ith a drama of the past.
Isen perfected his peculiar )ift of impartin) tense dramatic interest to
the un*eilin) of the past in #Ghosts&.
There are masterpieces in (hich the (hole crisis falls (ithin the frame
of the picture/ and masterpieces in (hich the )reater part of the crisis
has to e con*e%ed to us in retrospect. Cne method is not etter than
the other.
10= E@positio!

!ach form has particular ad*anta)es. 4 retrospecti*e pla% like
#<osmersholm& flo(s stead% and full like a (indin) ri*er. 'or li)ht
comed% and for romantic pla%s (ithout in depth character-studies/ it is
undenial% attracti*e to ha*e one risk and continuous ad*enture/
e)un/ de*eloped/ and ended efore our e%es.
It+s difficult to produce a pla% of *er% comple" ps%cholo)ical/ moral/ or
emotional sustance/ in (hich the (hole crisis comes (ithin the frame
1:
of the picture. The method of attackin) the crisis in the middle or
to(ards the end is reall% a de*ice for the rela"in)/ to some e"tent/ the
narro( ounds of theatrical representation/ and enalin) the
pla%(ri)ht to deal (ith a lar)er se)ment of human e"perience.
Shakespeare had reall% far more elo( room than the pla%(ri)ht of
toda% (ith respect to the len)th of the pla%/ ut pla%s like Cthello and
3in) 1ear are not *er% comple" character studies/ althou)h pro8ected
(ith hu)e ener)%. Shakespeare had room as (as allo(ed % the
copious e"pression permitted % the rhetorical !liDaethian form.
Toda%+s pla%(ri)ht is hampered % often ha*in) to (ork in indirect
su))estion than in direct e"pression.
Cne of the keenest forms of theatrical en8o%ment is that of seein) the
curtain )o up on a picture of perfect tran;uilit%/ (onderin) from (hat
;uarter the drama is )oin) to arise/ and then (atchin) the storm
)ather on the horiDon/ as in #4n enem% of the people&. Sometimes the
atmosphere is alread% char)ed (ith electricit% (hen the pla% opens/
like in #The $ase of <eellious Susan& % Aenr% 4rthur Fones.
When an e"position can+t e dramatiDed enou)h throu)h the action
from the characters primaril% concerned/ it is etter to dismiss it in an%
natural and proale (a%. If all of a )i*en su8ect cannot e co*ered
(ithin the limits of presentation/ is there an% means of determinin)
ho( much should e left for retrospectB The curtain should e raised
at the point (here the crisis e)ins to mo*e to(ards its solution/ more
or less rapidl% and continuall%. Interest should e concentrated on one
set of characters/ and should not e fra)mented a(a% on susidiar% or
preliminar% persona)es.
When the attention of the audience is re;uired for an e"position of an%
len)th/ some attempt ou)ht to e made to a(aken in ad*ance their
)eneral interest in the theme and characters. It is dan)erous to plun)e
strai)ht into narrati*e/ or unemotional discussion/ (ithout ha*in) first
made the audience acti*el% desire the information to e con*e%ed to
1;
them. It essential that the audience should kno( clearl% (ho are the
su8ects of the discussion or narrati*e - that the% should not e mere
names to them. 3een e"pectanc% is the most desirale frame of mind
in (hich an audience can e placed/ so lon) as the e"pectanc% does
not ultimatel% disappoint.
Where it is desired to )i*e to one character a special prominence and
predominance/ it should e the first fi)ure on (hich the e%e of the
audience falls. 1et the first ten minutes e crisp/ arrestin)/ stimulatin)/
ut don+t co*er an% asolutel% *ital matter/ (hich (ould lea*e the
spectator in the dark as to the )eneral desi)n and purpose of the pla%.
101 The 'irst act
There ha*e een trends throu)h the %ears to (ork a)ainst the di*ision
of a pla% into acts. Shakespeare used acts to )i*e a rh%thm to the
action of his pla%s/ althou)h some students of the !liDaethan sta)e
speculate that he did not =think in acts/= ut concei*ed his pla%s as
continuous series of e*ents/ (ithout an% pause or intermission in their
flo(. In the !liDaethan theatre there (as no need of lon) interacts for
the chan)e of scenes/ ut there is aundant e*idence that the act
di*ision (as sometimes marked on the !liDaethan sta)e/ and that it
(as al(a%s more or less reco)niDed/ and (as present to
Shakespeare@s mind.
5ernard Sha( did (rite some pla%s in one continuous )ush of
dialo)ue/ in unit% of time and place/ a continuous mass or mash/ e.).
#Gettin) 7arried& (here he relies upon his *irtuosit% of dialo)ue to
enale him to dispense (ith form. Ae claimed that he is there%
re*i*in) the practice of the Greeks/ a claim that can e sho(n to e
unfounded. 4 t%pical e"ample of Greek tra)ed%/ #Cedipus&/ sho(s the
unit% of carefull% calculated proportion/ order/ interrelation of parts 6
1<
the unit% of a fine piece of architecture/ or of a li*in) or)anism.
9ote the difference et(een the formless continuit% of #Gettin)
7arried&/ and the precise orderin) and alancin) of clearl%
differentiated parts in the structure of a Greek tra)ed%. The di*ision
into acts remains a *aluale means of markin) the rh%thm of the
stor%. When there is no stor% to tell/ the di*ision into acts is proal%
superfluous.
4 pla% (ith a (ell-marked/ (ell-alanced act-structure is of a hi)her
artistic order than a pla% (ith no act-structure. The dramatist anal%De
the crises (ith (hich he deals/ and present them to the audience in
their rh%thm of )ro(th/ culmination and solution. The di*ision into acts
helps to mark that rh%thm. 4ristotle had the necessit% for markin) this
rh%thm in mind (hen he said that a dramatic action must ha*e a
e)innin)/ a middle and an end.
Taken in its simplicit%/ this principle (ould indicate the three-act
di*ision as the ideal scheme for a pla%. 7an% of the est modern pla%s
in all lan)ua)es fall into three acts. The three-act di*ision shouldn+t e
more made into an asolute rule than the fi*e-act di*ision. 7an%
modern serious pla%s are in four acts. 4 pla% ou)ht to consist of a
)reat crisis/ (orked out throu)h a series of minor crises. 4n act ou)ht
to consist either of a minor crisis carried to its temporar% solution/ or
of a random numer of such crises )rouped to)ether in the
de*elopment of a )i*en theme. 'i*e acts ma% e re)arded as the
ma"imum ecause of the time-limit imposed % social custom on a
performance.
=Cne act/ one scene= is a )olden rule/ since a chan)e of scene in the
middle of an act tends to impair the particular order of illusion at (hich
the modern drama aims and is ph%sicall% challen)in) to e"ecute. 4n
act can e defined as an% part of a )i*en crisis (hich (orks itself out
1>
at one time and in one place. It is a se)ment of the action durin)
(hich the author desires to hold the attention of his audience
unroken and spellound. 4cts mark the time-sta)es in the
de*elopment of a )i*en crisis and each act aim to emod% a minor
crisis of its o(n/ (ith a culmination and a temporar% solution. !ach act
is a little drama in itself and leads for(ard to the ne"t - and marks a
distinct phase in the de*elopment of the crisis. The act-di*ision
certainl% enhances the amount of pleasurale emotion throu)h (hich
the audience passes.
It is not aout ho( much or ho( little is con*e%ed to the audience in
the first act/ ut (hether their interest is aroused/ and skillfull% carried
for(ard. When the curtain is do(n the action on the sta)e remains in
suspense and the audience is ;uite (illin) to suppose that an%
reasonale space of time has elapsed since the pre*ious act ended.
Some pla%(ri)hts/ like Sir 4rthur ,inero in #Iris&/ drop the curtain once
or t(ice in the middle of an act/ to indicate a time inter*al.
The first act should sho( us clearl% (ho the characters are/ (hat their
relations and relationships are/ and (hat the nature of the )atherin)
crisis is. It is *er% important to keep the relationships simple/ since
intricacies (ill often pro*e to e mere useless encumrances.
The )ood pla%s are those of (hich the stor% can e clearl% summariDed
in ten lines/ (hile it ma% take a column to )i*e e*en a confused idea of
the plot of a lesser pla%. 4 useful )uideline is (hether the core of the
su8ect can e formulated in aout a hundred (ords.
The first act should e placin) the situation clearl% efore us/ pointin)
and carr%in) the stor% line distinctl% to(ards the heart of the pla% and
the de*elopin) crisis/ especiall% in three-act pla%s/ to sustain the
interest of the audience. Too much should not e told/ so that the
remainin) acts e (eakened/ nor should an% one scene e so intense
9?
so it outshines all suse;uent scenes and lea*e the rest of the pla%
(ith an effect of an anti-clima". The point at (hich the drama enfolds
: the )ermination of the crisis (here the drama sets in/ can e *er%
functional if appearin) in the first act. The pla%(ri)ht (ould e (ise
not to assume pre*ious kno(led)e of plot or character on the part of
the pulic.
109 C$riosit) a!" I!terest
In the (orld of drama the aim is to stud% ho( to a(aken and to
sustain the keen interest/ or curiosit%/ (hich can e felt onl% % those
(ho see the pla% for the first time. The challen)e is that popular pla%s
are su8ect to media scrutin% and criticism/ (ith the effect that fe( in
the audience attend in an uniased mindset and completel% open
minded. The first-ni)ht audience determines in )reat measure a pla%+s
success or failure. Wisdom for the dramatist is to direct all thou)ht and
care to(ards conciliatin) and en)a)in) an audience to (hich his theme
is entirel% unkno(n and so hopefull% to succeed in the challen)in) first
performance. ,opular kno(led)e ma% impose ne( limitations on the
pla%(ri)ht. In some cases he can rel% on a )eneral kno(led)e of the
historic ack)round of a )i*en period/ (hich ma% sa*e him some
e"position.
Ao(e*er (ell kno(n a pla% ma% e/ the pla%(ri)ht must assume that
in e*er% audience there (ill e a numer of persons (ho kno(
practicall% nothin) aout it/ and (hose en8o%ment (ill depend/ like
that of the first-ni)ht audience/ on the skill (ith (hich he de*elops his
stor%. Cn the other hand/ he can ne*er rel% on takin) an audience %
surprise at an% particular point.
The dramatist has little option ut to assume complete i)norance in his
audience/ ut onl% the first-ni)ht audience (ill e entirel% in this
condition/ since the more successful the pla% is/ the more e"tensi*el%
9=
suse;uent audiences (ill tend to ha*e prior kno(led)e aout it.
!"perience sho(s that dramatic #interest& is entirel% distinct from
mere #curiosit%&/ and sur*i*es (hen curiosit% is dead. Thou)h a
skillfull% told stor% is not of itself enou)h to secure lon) life for a pla%/
it enhances the attracti*eness of a pla% (hich has other and hi)her
claims to lon)e*it%. The arousin) and sustainin) of curiosit% should e
a primar% concern/ ut it is onl% a means to the more aidin) forms of
interest. With too to little foresee in the road ahead/ the audience+s
particular interest ma% fade.
Ao(e*er (ell (e ma% kno( a pla% eforehand/ (e seldom kno( it %
heart or nearl% % heart - so that/ thou)h (e ma% anticipate a
de*elopment in )eneral outline/ (e do not clearl% foresee the orderin)
of its details/ (hich ma% )i*e us almost the same sort of pleasure that
it )a*e us (hen the stor% (as ne( to us. 4 )reat pla% is like a )reat
piece of music: (e can hear it repeatedl% and e*er% time disco*er ne(
sutle eauties and comple" harmonies/ en8o%in) the etter and lesser
merits of each time it is performed. In trul% )reat drama/ the
forekno(led)e possessed % the audience is not a disad*anta)e/ ut is
the source of the hi)hest pleasure that the theatre is capale of
affordin). =$uriosit% # is the accidental en8o%ment of a sin)le ni)ht+s
performance/ (hereas the essential and aidin) pleasure of the
theatre lies in forekno(led)e.
107 2oresha"owi!& .ers$s 'oresta((i!&
The dramatist@s chief aim in the first act should e to arouse and carr%
for(ard the interest of the audience/ % usin) an interestin) theme.
!ach act as (e ha*e seen/ should contain a suordinate crisis that
contriutes to the main crisis of the pla%. !ach act should ha*e an
indi*idualit% and interest of its o(n and the first act should e an
introduction in relation to the (hole pla% and pro*ide at least a
91
)limpse of somethin) attracti*e e%ond. The fosterin) of anticipation
is *er% important to carr% for(ard the interest. 4n interestin) theme
ma% e *er% helpful in this.
The challen)e is to pro*ide the audience+s interest (ith a clearl%-
foreseen point in the ne"t act to(ards (hich it can reach on(ards/ or
(ith a definite eni)ma/ the solution of (hich can e looked for(ard to
(ith impatient e"citement. Intromissions of the supernatural pro*ided
a con*enient method for the pla%(ri)ht to point the audience to (here
he (ants the pla% to: =foreshado(in) (ithout forestallin).=
9 Mi""(e
90= Te!sio! a!" it#s s$spe!sio!
The first act ma% e re)arded as the entrance pro*idin) access to the
main hall of the actual drama 6 e it solemn or 8o%ous/ fantastic or
austere. There should e a carefull% planned interdependence
et(een all its parts and an inner la( of harmon% throu)h selection/
proportion and composition in a finel% constructed drama. It should
present a complete and rounded (hole. #$onstruction& means
dramatic architecture/ a careful pre-arran)ement of proportions and
interdependencies.
The main o8ect of the dramatist@s craft is to create/ maintain/
suspend/ hei)hten and resol*e a state of #tension&/ (herein a )reat
part of the secret of dramatic architecture lies. Tension refers to a
stretchin) out or a stretchin) for(ard of the mind. That should e the
characteristic mental attitude of the theatrical audience. If the mind is
not capti*ated to stretch for(ard/ the spectator ma% soon )et
uncomfortale in the restricted seatin) space. 5ein) intent on (hat is
to come/ means there are people that are attenti*e to (hat is there
and happenin). =4 scene of hi)h tension= refers primaril% to a scene
99
in (hich the actors under)o a )reat emotional strain/ (hich is onl% a
means to(ards hei)htenin) of the mental tension of the audience. In
such a scene the mind stretches for(ard/ to somethin) instant and
imminent. Cnce the tension has set in/ the pla%(ri)ht must not allo( it
to rela" until he delieratel% resol*es it 8ust efore the fall of the
curtain. There are minor rh%thms of tension and resolution/ ut the
main tension/ once initiated/ must ne*er e rela"ed/ else the pla% (ill
e o*er.
Tension should e hei)htened or ti)htened from act to act. There are
times (hen the tension ma% e suspended for a *er% short (hile to
achie*e a desired effect. It shouldn+t e suspended for too lon) else it
ma% harm the line of tension. The earl% part of the second act ma% e
used to (ork up the same line of interest to a hi)her pitch/ or the
suspense ma% e held up (hile the pla%(ri)ht prepares some further
de*elopment of the action. The audience has an instincti*e desire for
pro)ress/ so the act can ne*er lea*e the action 8ust (here it (as at the
e)innin) and should not e e"perienced to ha*e een empt%/ or
irrele*ant/ or disappointin). Cnce a pla% has started to mo*e/ it should
proceed continuousl%/ )atherin) momentum. If it stands still for a
(hile/ the pause should e delierate and ha*e purpose. 4cts should
ne*er seem moti*eless and (ithout result.
901 Preparatio!: The 'i!&er*post
$onstructin) a pla% is an art - in )i*in) the mind of an audience
somethin) to look for(ard to throu)h creatin) a capti*atin) line of
tension/ and then not disappointin) the audience % lettin) them feel
the% ha*e stretched for(ard in *ain. =Ao(= ma% e more important
than the =(hat.= Dumas remarked: =The art of the theatre is the art of
preparations.= It is helpin) the audience to sense (here the pla% is
)oin) and encoura)in) them to (onder ho( it+s )oin) to )et to the
solution. There should e a fin)er-post -road si)n. to direct the
97
anticipation to the road it should )o and the dramatist should place
these #road si)ns& there. 'or(ard momentum is important/ as too
much retrospect can e irritatin) and counteract the momentum of the
pla%. 'in)er-posts that point ack(ards aren+t too useful. C*er-
preparation/ or too otrusi*e preparation leadin) onl% to a small effect
is the characteristic error of the so-called =(ell-made pla%/= (ith too
elaorate and in)enious intri)ue/ (hich ma% lead to it+s demise since
fe( pla%(ri)hts mana)e to e intricate/ consistent/ and clear at the
same time. 7isdirected in)enuit% and too in*ol*ed patterns confuse
and fati)ue the mind+s e%e and ma% cause the audience to feel sceptic/
like in #The De)enerates& % S%dne% Grund%.
When a situation is at once hi)hl% improale in real life and
e"ceedin)l% familiar on the sta)e/ (e cannot help mentall% caricaturin)
it as it proceeds/ and then the pla% loses the credence on (hich
interest and emotion depend. In #7rs. Dane@s Defence&/ % Aenr%
4rthur Fones/ the first three acts of this pla% sho( de"terous
preparation and de*elopment % (hich interest in the se;uence of
e*ents is aroused/ sustained/ and skillfull% (orked up to a hi)h
tension. The action mo*es for(ards (ith momentum/ and the fin)er-
posts are placed 8ust (here the% are (anted. Good alance and
proportion et(een preparation and result ma% e *ital. The audience
ma% en8o% N look for(ard to an e*ent that has een =prepared= in the
sense that it has een presented as desirale/ and the spectators ha*e
(ondered ho( it (as )oin) to happen. 5ut an occurrence (hich could
e foreseen and is too predictale often )et resented in ad*ance.
909 The o5(i&ator) sce!e
In an oli)ator% scene the audience foresees and desires a certain
outcome/ and if it does not happen/ the audience ma% resent the
omission.

94
There are fi*e (a%s in (hich a scene ma% ecome oli)ator%:
% the inherent logic of the theme - onl% in pla%s to (hich a
definite theme can e assi)ned/ like those of Aer*ieu and 5rieu"/
and 5ernard Sha( in #$andida&
to achie*e specific dramatic effect : this ma% e instincti*el%
e"pected % the author char)in) the scene (ith emotion/ and
(orkin) up the tension to a *er% hi)h pitch. It ma% lead to
frustration or disappointment if the author chooses a less
dramatic (a% and #fail& to fulfill the oli)ation/ like in #4)atha&
% Ward and ,arker.
% the author ha*in) structurally created a lead up to it : scenes
seemin) to e indicated % delieratel%-planted directional
fin)er-posts/ (ith the effect that the audience ma% feel mislead/
like in Fules 1emaOtre@s pla%/ #<P*oltPe&
to 8ustif% some psychological chan)e -or startlin)
transformation. of character or (ill/ too important to e taken
for )ranted/ like in the third act of #Cthello& or 1ord Tenn%son@s
#5ecket&
to e imposed % history or le)end - (hen the dramatist uses a
stron)l%-marked historical character/ he should )i*e him a )ood
opportunit% of actin) up to the character (hich le)end assi)ns to
him. When such a persona)e is presented to us/ it ou)ht to e at
his hi)hest stren)th. Where le)end -historic or other(ise.
associates a particular character (ith a particular scene that is
presentale on the sta)e/ that scene ecomes oli)ator% in a
drama of (hich he is the leadin) fi)ure. 7ost (ell kno(n
historical fi)ures are est presente riefl%/ so that the dan)er of
anti-clima" is diminished/ like 9apoleon in #1@4i)lon&/ % 7.
9:
<ostand.
The oli)ator% scene is necessar% ecause of the strict concentration
and econom% re;uired from the dramatist/ and the hi)h mental tension
that is intrinsic to the theatrical audience and the effect (hich the
sta)e alone can pro*ide.
907 The peripet) Acha!&e o' 'ort$!eBcirc$/sta!ceC
The dramatic form of the #re*ersal of fortune& or the #turnin) of the
tales& (as a clearl% defined and reco)niDed part of the Greek theatre
and (as often associated (ith the #ana)norisis& or reco)nition. These
forms apparentl% had their ori)in out of the ritual celeratin) the death
and resurrection of the season of =mello( fruitfulness.=
The #peripeteia& (as ori)inall% a chan)e from sorro( to 8o% in the
reirth of the po(ers of nature/ a chan)e from despair to elation. 1ater
it ac;uired a special association (ith a sudden decline from prosperit%
into ad*ersit% ... a fall from the pinnacle of happiness to the depth of
miser%. In the 7iddle 4)es/ this (as considered to e the *er% essence
and heart of tra)ed%.
Toda% a sudden chan)e from )loom to e"hilaration or the other (a%
around/ can e a popular and effecti*e incident/ irresistil% dramatic :
an arupt re*ersal of in(ard soul-state or of out(ard fortune. In some
pla%s one scene ma% stand out markedl% *i*id and ma% contain a
peripet%.
In realit% man% people encounter such ph%sical peripeties/ like hearin)
aout one+s terminal illness from a doctor or crises in court cases/ or
moral peripet% - the sudden e*aporation of some dream or hope/ or
the crumlin) of some illusion/ an aout-turn from #4ll@s ri)ht (ith the
(orld/= to ein) crushed and desperate/ like in the third act of
9;
#Cthello&.
The most strikin) peripet% in Isen/ is Stockmann@s fall from #8uilant
self-confidence to defiant impotence& in the third act of #4n !nem% of
the ,eople&. In 8udicial peripeties some crushin) cross-e"aminations
occur/ in (hich it is possile to comine the tension of the detecti*e
stor% (ith ps%cholo)ical issues/ as is e*ident in Aenr% 4rthur Fones+
#7rs. Dane@s Defence&.
4 famous romantic peripet% occurs in #A.7.S. ,inafore&/ (here it (as
disco*ered that $aptain $orcoran and <alph <ackstra( ha*e een
chan)ed at irth. <alph instantl% ecomes captain of the ship/ (hile
the captain declines into an ale-odied seaman.
904 Pro5a5i(it)- cha!&e a!" coi!ci"e!ce
4ristotle said that in drama/ #the probable impossible is to e preferred
to the improbable possible&. ,lausiilit% is more important on the sta)e
than proailit%. If a thin) seems plausile an audience (ill accept it/
ut if it seems incredile at face *alue/ it ma% e impossile to
o*ercome the pre8udice a)ainst it. Therefore an improale or
unacceptale incident can+t e *alidl% defended on the plea that it
actuall% happened or (as pulished in the ne(spapers. The pla%(ri)ht
can ne*er recreate a situation on the sta)e as it actuall% happened. It
ma% e historicall% factual and accurate/ ut the dramatist cannot
restore the incident to its place of cause and effect/ (hich is the
essence and meanin) of realit%. Ae can onl% )i*e his interpretation of
the fact.
,roailit% or *erisimilitude is the )oal/ since the sta)e is the realm of
make-elie*e and appearance/ not of realit% or truth or literal
faithfulness to recorded fact. 4s lon) as it is con*incin) in relation to
human nature in )eneral/ it ma% e a)reeale and entertainin) (ithout
9<
ein) conspicuousl% false to human nature and (ill do no harm/ since
it makes no pretence to e historic truth. The artist must respect the
conditions and limitations of the medium in (hich he (orks and tr% to
keep out of his dialo)ue e"pressions that are too peculiar to a specific
circle/ and to use onl% (hat ma% e called the current #e*er%od%@s
lan)ua)e&.
,lausiilit% can e achie*ed on three different planes:
the purely external plane: plausiilit% of costume/ of manners/ of
dialect/ of )eneral en*ironment.
Plausibility of uncharacteristic circumstance: independent of the
(ill or ps%cholo)% of the characters/ chance and accident/
coincidence/ and all =circumstances o*er (hich (e ha*e no
control&. $oincidence is a special and comple" form of chance.
5oth terms come from the 1atin =cadere/=- to fall. $hance is a
fallin)-out/ like dice/ and coincidence is if all are si"es/ -unless
the dice (ere co))ed.. The pla%(ri)ht ma% let chance pla% its
proale part in the affairs of his characters/ ut as soon as it
)ets too )ood to e true/ the audience s(allo( the proceedin)s
under protest. That the catastrophe of #<omeo and Fuliet& should
depend upon a series of chances/ and especiall% on the
miscarria)e of the 'riar@s letter to <omeo/ is criticiDed/ ut it+s
*alidit% is deatale. In &Cedipus <e"&/ an astonishin) series of
amaDin) coincidences mi"ed (ith fate happen. =$haracter is
destin%/= ut if too man% coincidences are in*ented to
ser*e an artist@s purposes/ (e feel that he is takin) ad*anta)e
and plun)in) into the improale/ and coincidence ma% ha*e
een aused. 7ost of the most outra)eous coincidences occur in
for)otten pla%s/ some of (hich ma% ha*e sur*i*ed if the element
of coincidence (as limited to a more acceptale le*el/ althou)h
the% (ere intended to e realistic and aimed at a literal and
soer representation of life/ such as 4rthur ,inero+s #The
9>
,rofli)ate& and Walter 'rith+s #The 7an of 'ort%&.
psychological plausibility/ the plausiilit% of e*ents dependent on
character and truth.
Sarce% states that audiences (ould )enerall% s(allo( a camel/ in the
past/ thou)h the% (ill strain at a )nat in the present&. !*ents that
(ere lo)ical/ plausile/ and entertainin) and supposed to ha*e
occurred efore the rise of the curtain are easil% accepted % the
pulic/ (ho are less apt to scrutiniDe thin)s merel% narrated to them
than e*ents (hich take place in front of their e%es.
Se*eral classes of charmin) pla%s e"ist that are deli)htfull% in)enious
and improale: romances/ farces/ some li)ht comedies and semi-
comic melodramas. !"amples are Sir 4rthur ,inero@s farces/ $arton@s
li)ht comedies/ #1ord and 1ad% 4l)%&/ #Wheels (ithin Wheels&/ #1ad%
Aunt(orth@s !"periment&. Their charm lies in a sutle improailit%
and a delicate infusion of fantas% and humor so that the total effect is
far more entertainin) than that of an% proale se;uence of e*ents in
real life. The tendenc% to ause coincidence (as inherited % modern
drama from the 1atin comed%/ (hich (as founded on the Greek 9e(
$omed%.
90: Lo&ic
The concept of lo)ic is lo*ed % 'rench dramatists/ ut their o*er
-emphasis lead (riters such as 7. 5rieu" and 7. Aer*ieu to de*elop a
stiff/ formal and s%mmetrical st%le of dramatic lo)ical ar)ument/
(ithout the pulsin) and di*erse rh%thms of life. 1o)ic can easil% e
misapplied.
There is a place for lo)ic in dramatic pla%s/ and it is more conspicuous
to the audience throu)h it+s asence than its presence.
7?
If the dramatist de*elops a central underl%in) theme/ it needs to e
done in a lo)ical (a%/ to keep him from )ettin) entan)led in side
issues and to enhance the lo)ical flo( of the pla%.
Defecti*e lo)ic is e*ident in the 'rench pla% Sardou+s #Spiritisme&/
(here he re*ealed his elief in the ailit% of #disemodied
intelli)ences& to communicate (ith the li*in). Ae has the spirits ho*er
around the outskirts of the action/ not assi)nin) them parts to the
drama/ thou)h the hero+s elief in them rin)s aout the conclusion.
Some creep% e*ents take place that ta" the credulit% of the audience
to the limit/ and lea*e them (ith the lo)ical deduction that thou)h
spirit communications ma% e"ist/ it is ne*er of an% practical use and
the audience had een taken for a ride throu)h illo)ical m%sticism to
no purpose. Sardou (ould ha*e done etter to a*oid that theme/ for
the manifest failure of lo)ic lea*es the pla% neither )ood drama nor
)ood ar)ument.
Isen/ like Aa(thorne/ su))ests (ithout affirmin) the potential action
of supernatural ein)s. Ae sho(s us nothin) that is not possile to e
e"plained in a perfectl% natural (a%/ ut he lea*es us to ima)ine that
there ma% e influences at (ork that are not %et formall% reco)niDed in
ph%sics and ps%cholo)%. Isen is merel% appealin) to a mood that (e
all kno(/ in (hich (e (onder (hether there ma% not e more thin)s in
creation than (e reco)niDe in our scientific formulas. In this there is
nothin) illo)ical.
4 i) mistake in lo)ic is to hint at a prolem and then illustrate it in
such a (a% in terms of character that the prolem is sol*ed
prematurel%. Sometimes the matter is ar)ued and laoriousl%
discussed at )reat len)th/ ut the audience is lon)in)/ often in *ain/
for the one statement demanded % the lo)ic of the situation. In oth
#The 1iars&-Aenr% 4rthur Fones. and #The ideal Ausand& -Cscar
Wilde. the authors ha*e made the same error of lo)ic - su))estin) a
7=
road issue/ and then statin) such a set of circumstances that the
issue does not reall% arise.
T(o pla%s satiriDin) =%ello( 8ournalism= (ere produced almost at the
same time in 1ondon: #The !arth& % Fames 5. 'a)an and &What the
,ulic Wants& % 4rnold 5ennett. 5ecause it dealt lo)icall% (ith the
theme announced/ instead of (anderin) a(a% into all sorts of
irrele*ances/ #The !arth& (as considered the etter pla% of the t(o.
'a)an/ (orkin) in roader outlines/ ne*er stra%ed from the lo)ical line
of de*elopment/ and mana)ed to )et much nearer to the heart of his
su8ect. 4ll the detail 5ennett (ent into is eside the real issue/ and he
missed the real point tra)icall%/ that ein) a 9apoleon of the ,ress is
not that he )i*es the pulic (hat it (ants/ ut that he/in that
influential position/ ha*e such po(er that he can make the pulic (ant
(hat he (ants/ think (hat he thinks/ elie*e (hat he (ants them to
elie*e/ and do (hat he (ants them to do.
In $l%de 'itch@s last pla%/ #The $it%&/ the author had failed to estalish
a lo)ical connection et(een his theme and the incidents supposed to
illustrate it/ since the action is not reall% shaped % the influence of
=the cit%.=
!*en fantas% pla%s/ (hich assume to e more or less e"empt from the
limitations of ph%sical realit%/ should e lo)icall% faithful to their o(n
assumptions. In #,%)malion and Galatea# the audience is fore*er
shiftin) from one plane of con*ention to another - there is no fi"ed
startin)-point for the ima)ination and no lo)ical de*elopment of a
clearl%-stated initial condition.
90; Keepi!& a secret
Good ad*ice/ often and authoritati*el% laid do(n/ is that a dramatist
must on no account keep a secret from his audience/ ecause it is so
71
e"tremel% difficult to keep/ tr% as %ou ma%. 'rom onl% one audience
can a secret e fairl% successfull% hidden : the first-ni)ht audience.
4 hu)e percenta)e of an% suse;uent audience (ill e certain to kno(
all aout it in ad*ance. Surel%/ the more strikin) and successful the
first-ni)ht effect of surprise is/ the more rapidl% the report of it (ill
circulate throu)h all strata of the theatrical pulic. 4 m%ster% pla%
mi)ht make a )reat first-ni)ht success/ ut the more the pla%(ri)ht
relies upon the m%ster% for effect/ the more fatall% (ould that effect e
discounted at each successi*e repetition.
To actuall% keep a secret and appeal to the primar% curiosit% of actual
i)norance ma% e ruled out as practicall% impossile/ and not reall%
(orth% of serious art. 5ut there is also the secondar% curiosit% of the
audience that/ kno(in) the facts more or less/ 8ud)es the de*elopment
of the pla% from an instincti*e point of *ie( of i)norance.
4 pla% should e self-sufficient and not rel% on pre*ious kno(led)e of
the audience/ ac;uired from outside sources. The pla%(ri)ht must
formall% #assume& i)norance in his audience/ thou)h he must not
practicall% #rel% upon& it. It is reall% important to determine ho( lon) a
secret ma% e kept from an audience/ assumed to ha*e no prior
kno(led)e/ and at (hat point it should e re*ealed. It is useless to
keep a secret (hich/ (hen re*ealed/ is certain to disappoint the
audience/ and to make it feel underestimated.
In 5ernard Sha(+s #The De*il+s Disciple&/ in the second act/ an
e"ample of inartistic secrec% is found - an in8udicious/ purposeless and
foolish/ keepin) of a secret. It ma% e ar)ued that 5ernard Sha( (as
forced to make Fudith misunderstand her husand@s moti*es in order
to de*elop her character as he had concei*ed it. Ae (as so ent on
lettin) Fudith continue to conduct herself idioticall%/ that he made her
sensile husand act as idioticall%/ in order to thro( dust in her e%es/
79
and in the e%es of the audience as (ell/ e*en usin) phrases carefull%
calculated to decei*e oth her and the audience.
In #White(ashin) Fulia&/ Aenr% 4rthur Fones@s li)ht comed%/ it is
pro*ed that it is safel% possile to keep a secret throu)hout a pla%/
and ne*er re*eal it at all. Ae pretends that there is some e"planation
of 7rs. Fulia Wren@s relations (ith the Duke of Sa*ona/ and keep the
audience (aitin) for this =(hite(ashin)= disclosure/ (hile it (as not
reall% his plan. Fulia sa%s that =an e"planation (ill e forthcomin) at
the ri)ht moment=/ (hich ne*er arri*es. Fulia thinks that there (as
ne*er an%thin) de)radin) in her conduct and the audience is asked to
accept this as sufficient. The pla%+s success sho(s that in li)ht
comed%/ keepin) a secret can (ork (ell.
3eepin) of a secret ma% diminish tension/ and depri*e the audience of
that superior kno(led)e in (hich the iron% of drama lies. In Walter
'rith+s pla%/ #Aer 4d*ocate& the ;uestion to e considered is (hether
the author did ri)ht in reser*in) the re*elation of the secret to the last
possile moment. Would he ha*e done etter to ha*e )i*en the
audience an earlier clue of the true state of affairs - that the client
lo*es another man and not the attorne%B To keep the secret placed the
audience as (ell as the ad*ocate on a )oose chase/ and depri*ed it of
the sense of superiorit% it (ould ha*e felt in seein) him marchin)
confidentl% to(ards an illusor% happiness.
It ma% e dan)erous and e*en foolish for an author to keep a secret
from the audience/ ut the dramatist should not 8ust re*eal his secrets
at random. The art lies in kno(in) 8ust ho( lon) to keep silent and
(hen is 8ust the ri)ht time to share it. In 4rthur ,inero+s #1ett%& he
)ains a si)nificant effect and pro*es that he kne( perfectl% (ell (hat
he (as doin) % keepin) a secret 8ust lon) and carefull% enou)h. Ae
allo(ed the truth to slip out 8ust in time to let the audience feel the
(hole force of iron% durin) the last scene of the act and the )reater
77
part of the second act (here the tension is delicatel% )raded.
When a reasonale e"pectation is aroused/ it should e fulfilled % the
author. If a riddle is put for(ard/ its ans(er must e pleasin) and
smart. If a secret is to e kept at all/ it must e (orth keepin) or the
audience (ill resent it. 4 )ood alance should e kept et(een effort
and effect/ and et(een promise and performance. The pla%(ri)ht
should ne*er sh% a(a% from some o8ecti*e he set out to do. The art
is to arouse 8ust the ri)ht measure of anticipation/ and fulfill it at 8ust
the ri)ht time. 4 correct insi)ht into the mind of the audience is a
)ood indication of the skill of the dramatist.
74
7 E!"
70= C(i/a@ a!" A!tic(i/a@
The i))est challen)e for the pla%(ri)ht is to find a crisis (ith an
endin) (hich is acceptale to his artistic conscience and the dramatic
effect he re;uires. It is more challen)in) to (rite a )ood last act as a
)ood first one. 1ike(ise it is easier to dramatiDe the moment of the
irth of a crisis than to come to a definite and intensel% dramatic
conclusion for it. 1ack of a )ood endin) lea*es the audience unsatisfied
and disappointed. The dramatist@s ran)e of choice is unlimited/ and
the difficult% of (ise choice has ecome infinitel% )reater/ since the
traditional fi"ed moulds or pre-ordained outcomes of tra)edies and
comedies ha*e een roken. $omedies no( tend much more to e)in
than to end (ith marria)e/ and death has come a #orin)& (a% to
escape from life or its troules. The nearer the stor% is to realit%/ the
)reater the challen)e ecomes.
The hi)her the form of drama/ the more truth and the dramatic effects
ma% seem to clash. In melodrama/ the curtain falls (hen the hero is
rescued and the handcuffs are transferred to the *illain@s (rists. In an
ad*enture pla%/ farcical or romantic/ the pla% is done (hen the
ad*enture is o*er. In the hi)her order pla%s/ the challen)e is often
inherent in the theme to e rou)ht to a natural endin)/ to )et the
crisis to resol*e decisi*el% (ith dramatic crispness and a*oidin)
mechanicall% forced endin)s.
The rela"ed approach to 4ristotle+s form of #e)innin)/ middle and
end& ma% su))est a ne( intimate relation to life and sincerit% of
artistic e"perience. It is a natural de*elopment and doesn+t impl% a
decline in craftsmanship. Themes should e 8ud)ed in accordance (ith
their inherent ;ualit%/ and authors and critics alike should learn to
7:
distin)uish the themes that do call for a definite solution from the
themes (hich do not. !ndin)s should not e indecisi*e/ careless/
huddled up or makeshift. 4n #unemphatic& endin) can e in the form
of a delierate anti-clima" follo(in) a much ele*ated tension line in
the penultimate act and it can e that the conse;uences of a )reat
emotional or spiritual crisis cannot al(a%s e (orked out (ithin a short
time of it+s culmination.
4 )ood e"ample of an unemphatic endin) is the last act of 4rthur
,inero@s #1ett%&. This 8ustified anticlima" is not an artistic lemish or
mistake. The pla% could ha*e ended (ith 1ett%@s a(akenin) from her
dream/ and her fli)ht from 1etchmere@s rooms. There is no
indecisi*eness here. 5ut the author (anted to dra( a character/ and it
(as essential to our full appreciation of 1ett%@s character that (e
should kno( (hat she made of her life.
4n act of anticlima" should e treated as unpretentiousl% and (ith the
least emphasis as possile. To make ma8or scene chan)es is to
emphasiDe the anticlima" % thro(in) it into unnecessar% relief.
Some modern dramatists ha*e )one to the other e"treme in mo*in)
a(a% from the con*entional patterns/ to that e"treme of al(a%s
droppin) their curtain (hen the audience least e"pects it/ and ma%
e"perience it as *er% disconcertin). This is not a practice to e
commended and the fall of the curtain should not take an audience
entirel% % surprise. The audience should feel the moment to e ri)htl%
chosen too. To let a pla%/ or an act/ dra) on (hen the audience feels in
its heart that it is reall% o*er/ is *er% dan)erous. 4 remarkale pla%/
#The 7adras Aouse&/ (as ruined on its first ni)ht % a too lon) final
anticlima"/ and disinterest in the final dialo)ue and the choice of
leadin) characters for the last scene.
7;
701 Co!.ersio!
In some pla%s there are fre;uent cases in (hich the end depends on
somethin) *er% like the strai)htenin) out of a tan)led rope or the
loosenin) of some knot in the mind of some of the characters/ or
#dPnouement&. 'or e"ample/ the ostinate )uardian (ho for four acts
and a half had stood et(een the lo*ers/ suddenl% chan)ed his mind/
and all (as (ell for them.
$on*ersions fall into t(o classes: chan)es in *olition/ and chan)es in
sentiment. $han)es of (ill/ on the modern sta)e/ are not al(a%s
ade;uatel% moti*ated/ ut that is ecause of indi*idual lack of
e"pertise and can sho( itself in action. $han)es of sentiment are
much more important and more difficult to handle/ since it is *er%
difficult to e"ternaliDe con*incin)l% a person+s chan)e of heart. When
the outcome of a pla% depends on a con*ersion of this nature/ it
ecomes priorit% that it should not merel% e asserted/ ut pro*ed.
7an% pla%s failed ecause this (as disre)arded.
7arshall (rote a =farcical romance= named #The Duke of 3illiecrankie&.
The Duke@s chan)e of mind/ his (ill to set the 1ad% Aenrietta free/ is
*isil% demonstrated % the actual openin) of the prison )ate/ so that
it ecomes credile to the audience and the% elie*e that she elie*es
in it.
Ao( to dri*e home to the audience a decisi*e chan)e of heart is a
constant challen)e for the pla%(ri)ht@s craft.
Aaddon $hamers+ pla%/ #The 4(akenin)&/ turns around on a sudden
con*ersion of the *illain to the error of his (a%s/ ut ho( to con*ince
the heroine and the audience of his chan)e of heartB In the end the
audience remains skeptical and the desired effect is missed.
7<
The challen)e for the pla%(ri)ht to con*ince the audience of the
radical chan)e of mental attitude in a character/ is part of the i))er
prolem of ho( to sho( such in(ard processes out(ardl% in an
authentic and con*incin) (a%.
709 %(i!"*a((e) the/es D a!" others
4s indicated % the name/ a lind-alle% theme is one from (hich there
is no e"it. It is a prolem incapale of solution/ or of (hich all possile
solutions are e;uall% unsatisfactor% and undesirale. The dramatist
should make *er% sure not to e cau)ht in this situation of e;uall%
unacceptale alternati*es. Such a pla% (ears and ores the spirit and
is an artistic lunder.
The end of a pla% should satisf% us inside : like our e"perience of
truth/ 8ustice/ humor/ *anit% of aspiration/ etc. If it does not/ it lea*es
one unfulfilled and (ithout closure : and dissatisfied.
T(o famous pla%s emplo% lind-alle% themes : #7easure for 7easure&
-Shakespeare. and #7onna Kanna& -7aeterlinck.. Shakespeare/
confesses the prolem insolule in the fact that he lea*es it
unsol*ed - e*adin) it % means of a mediae*al trick. Isaella is forced
to choose et(een (hat can onl% e descried as t(o detestale e*ils.
What is the use of presentin) itB What is the artistic profit of lettin)
the ima)ination pla% around a prolem (hich merel% affles and repels
itB Thou)h the pla% contains some (onderful poetr%/ and has een
re*i*ed from time to time/ it has ne*er taken an% real hold upon
popular esteem : since it does not ultimatel% satisf%.
The challen)e of these t(o themes is not merel% that the% are
=unpleasant.= It is that there is no possile (a% out of them that is not
(orse than unpleasant: humiliatin) and distressin). The pla%(ri)ht
7>
should make sure that he has some sort of satisfaction to offer the
audience at the end/ efore he chooses to emark on a lind-alle%
theme.
!"amples of themes that are etter to a*oid:
7arria)e : o*er used and too con*entional
<e*en)e : an out(orn passion of *indicti*eness
Aeroic self-sacrifice : an out(orn passion
oath or promise of secrec%
707 The '$(( c(ose
There are themes in (hich tension can e maintained and hei)htened
to the end. Tra)ed% has al(a%s een re)arded as hi)her form than
comed%. It ma% e due to the tradition to round off human destin% in
death if/ after all the crises that life could thro( at him/ the hero can
look destin% in the face and #)o home& honoral%. Sophocles re)arded
it as # $all no man happ% till his life e ended.& 4s a form of art/
ma%e tra)ed% lets us appreciate #ein) ali*e& to a deeper e"tent/
after ha*in) li*ed throu)h this e"perience. 1ife ma% no( seem more
si)nificant than e*er efore. The tra)ic endin) is also prone to e
misused. Great pla%s often end in the hero+s death/ ut to kill %our
hero doesn+t make the pla% )reat. Tension can e maintained (ith the
presence of a threatenin) s(ord/ )un or poison. Tra)ic endin)s (ere
not al(a%s popular (ith audiences durin) some times in histor% : ut
it seemed to e the onl% (a% to a*oid an anticlima".
5efore attemptin) to (rite a tra)ed%/ the pla%(ri)ht should make sure
that the theme lends itself to real tra)ed%/ (ith all the d%namic an)les
%ou can place %our hero in relation to life and death. The stud% of
character must e profound efore the author can 8ustif% an% death
sentences on his persona)es. We all need to die some da%/ ut the
hero must e lar)e enou)h in life and studied in depth efore death
4?
could e considered a proportionate close. 4ristotle thou)ht that a
tra)ic hero must e too )ood/ or too ad/ and death on the sta)e
rin)s an inherent distinction that demands a sufficient cause. Toda%
(e look at the i))er picture of drama o8ecti*el% and don+t calculate
to (hat de)ree a man has #deser*ed& an honorale death. To e ale
to elie*e in the character/ (e need to kno( him intimatel% and share
his feelin)s : feel #(ith& him/ and elie*e that he #dies ecause he can
not li*e&.
Isen ne*er used death as a mere (a% to escape from prolems. In
fi*e of thirteen pla%s/ no one dies at all. ,la%(ri)hts should )uard
a)ainst the temptation to use suicide as a (a% of untan)lin) or cuttin)
the knotted rope of life. Death % fatal accident is fro(ned upon in
serious drama/ and murder is more popular in melodrama. Suicide
)ets to e used/ o*er used and sometimes aused. It ou)ht to e the
pla%(ri)ht@s/ as it is the man@s/ last resort. In most countries/ suicide
is )reatl% on the increase/ and the moti*es dri*in) people to it (ould
e of a dramatic nature. 5ut it remains a crude and insensiti*e
departure from the entan)lement of life and not to e used li)htl% %
the dramatist. The characters need to e lar)e enou)h/ true enou)h/
li*in) enou)h and the pla% should proe deep enou)h into human
e"perience to make the inter*ention of death seem less incon)ruous.
Sometimes the end is imposed upon the dramatist % the (hole drift
and direction of his action. $hance pla%s a lar)e part in the (a% e*ents
enfold/ for instance/ if 1eonard 'erris had not happened to li*e at the
top of a *er% hi)h uildin)/ Qoe (ould not ha*e encountered the
sudden temptation to 8ump/ to (hich she %ields in Sir 4rthur ,inero+s
pla%. Qoe e"periences her life to e miserale and a hopeless muddle.
She has a )ood heart/ ut no interests and no ideals/ apart from the
personal satisfactions (hich ha*e no( een poisoned at their source.
She has messed up other peoples+ li*es and inter*ened disastrousl% in
their destinies. She is ill/ her ner*es are all on ed)e and she is
4=
desperate enou)h to use this rapid/ ut not eas% e"it.
4nother #8ustified& use of suicide ma% e found in Gals(orth%@s
#Fustice&. The pla% is aout all the forces of societ% houndin) a luckless
%outh to his end/ ha*in) )otten on the (ron) side of the la(.
Sometimes pla%(ri)hts come across a theme for (hich there is no
concei*ale endin) ut suicide. If a theme does not force upon him a
specific kind of last act/ ut enales him to sustain and increase the
tension up to the *er% close (ithout ha*in) to resort to death to help
carr% the tension/ a pla%(ri)ht can feel happ%. Such themes are not
too common/ ut the% do occur/ like Dumas found in #Denise& and
#'rancillon&/ Sha(@s #$andida& and #The De*il@s Disciple& and
Gals(orth%@s #Strife&. In pla%s (hich do not end in death/ it (ill
)enerall% e found that the culminatin) scene occurs in the
penultimate act/ and that/ if anticlima" is a*oided/ it is % its skilful
rene(al and reinforcement in the last act and not % the maintenance
of an unroken tension. Cf the most successful pla%s ha*e een those
in (hich the last act came as a pleasant surprise. 4n anticlima" had
seemed ine*itale/ ut the pla%(ri)ht had found a (a% out of it/ like in
#4n !nem% of the ,eople&. In some modern pla%s a full close is
achie*ed % alto)ether omittin) the last act/ or last scene/ and lea*in)
the end of the pla% to the ima)ination.
40 Epi(o&$e
40= Character a!" ps)cho(o&)
The ailit% and po(er to oser*e/ to penetrate/ and to reproduce
character accuratel% is an inherent )ift. >ou ha*e it/ or not. It can+t e
ac;uired nor theoreticall% learned/ ut certain skills can e honed. The
pre*ious technical discussions ma% e helpful to(ards the effecti*e
presentment of character/ (hich is the )oal of construction in drama.
41
Should (e al(a%s aim to de*elop characterB $haracter/ for the
practical purposes of the dramatist/ ma% e defined as a comple" of
intellectual/ emotional/ and ner*ous haits/ of (hich some are innate
and temperamental. If (e complain that a certain character does not
de*elop -remains the same throu)hout the pla%./ (e impl% that he
ou)ht/ (ithin the limits of the pla%/ to ha*e altered the mental haits
underl%in) his speech and actions - more of an un*eilin) or disclosure
than chan)e/ since the time in drama is *er% limited. 4 dramatic crisis
should disclose latent ;ualities in the persons concerned in it/ and
in*ol*e a thorou)h manifestation of character that ma% cause positi*e
chan)e. Ao( does the character react to a series of crucial
e"periencesB 4t the end of a pla% the audience should kno( more of
the prota)onist@s character than he himself/ or his most intimate
friend/ could kno( at the start/ for the action should ha*e e"posed and
put him to some searchin) and re*ealin) tests. To stud% and paint a
character can happen % placin) him in a numer of situations/ to
sho( ho( his principal moti*e force reacts/ and (hat makes him tick.
4 character should e primaril% seen as an indi*idual/ and onl%
incidentall% -if at all. classified under this t%pe or that.
Is =ps%cholo)%= the same as #character-dra(in)= or is there a
distinction to e madeB $haracter-dra(in) is to present human nature
in its commonl% reco)niDed/ understood and accepted aspects.
,s%cholo)% is the e"ploration of character (hile rin)in) uncharted
territor% (ithin the circle of our kno(led)e and comprehension. In
other (ords/ character-dra(in) is s%nthetic/ ps%cholo)% is anal%tic.
The dramatist Gran*ille 5arker e"cels in ps%cholo)%. It is his instinct to
*enture into uncharted fields of character/ or to proe deepl% into
phenomena that others ha*e noted onl% superficiall%/ if at all. So does
William Kau)hn 7ood% in #The 'aith Aealer&.
49
Juestions to raise are: #4re (e )ettin) eneath the surface of this
character@s natureB 4re (e pluckin) the heart out of his or her
m%ster%B $an+t (e make the specific processes of a murderer+s mind
clearer to oursel*es and to our audiencesB= !*er% serious dramatist
should not all the time e aimin) at ps%cholo)ical e"ploration. The
character-dra(er@s appeal to common kno(led)e and intuiti*e
reco)nition is *er% *aluale and often sufficient. There are also
occasions (hen the dramatist misses opportunities if he does not at
least attempt to rin) unrecorded phases of character (ithin the scope
of our understandin) and our s%mpathies.
401 +ia(o&$e a!" "etai(s
The a*era)e ;ualit% of modern dialo)ue ears (itness to the
e"traordinar% pro)ress made % drama in the !n)lish lan)ua)e. The
pla%(ri)ht realiDes that it is possile to comine naturalness (ith
*i*acit%/ *i)or and *eral (it/ and )et a(a% from the laored/ flo(er%
dramatic (ritin) that !n)lish pla%s suffered under for a)es. 1an)ua)e
then (as a ne(l% disco*ered and irresistil% fascinatin) pla%)round for
the fanc% and had to e thick-stre(n (ith *eral ;uiles/ similes/
fi)ures/ and flourishes of e*er% description/ else it (as deemed
un(orth% to e spoken on the sta)e. Shakespeare freel% %ielded to
this con*ention/ and so helped to estalish it. Ais )enius helped him to
present it deli)htfull%/ HH25t in most of the !liDaethans it is an
e"tremel% tedious mannerism. 4fter the <estoration/ (hen modern
li)ht talk came into ein) in the coffee houses/ it ecame fashionale
to strain after (it/ and the dramatists did the same. There (as a keen
desire to (rite rilliantl% : if it (asn+t successful/ then it (as for lack of
talent.
Goldsmith/ 'ar;uhar and Steele/ realiDed the superiorit% of humor to
(it. With 5%ron it de)enerated into mere punnin) and *eral horse
47
pla%. In the earl% pla%s of Sir 4rthur ,inero there (as a )reat deal of
e"trinsic ornament/ especiall% metaphor-huntin). Some of the later
!liDaethans/ notal% Wester and 'ord/ culti*ated a (a% of arupt
utterance/ (here% an immensit% of spiritual si)nificance/ )enerall%
tra)ic/ (as supposed to e concentrated into a fe( rief (ords. This
did not last : and the pla%s also not. 9o pla% of (hich the dialo)ue
places a constant strain on the intellectual ailities of the audience
e*er has held a place in li*in) dramatic literature. It remains a
constant challen)e to the dramatist to keep his dialo)ue necessaril%
concentrated/ ut also plausil% near to the e*er%da% lan)ua)e of life/
and to achie*e st%le in the process. St%le/ in prose drama/ is the siftin)
of common speech to achie*e a eaut% of cadence and phrasin).
To e reall% dramatic/ e*er% speech must ha*e some earin)/ direct or
indirect/ upon indi*idual human destinies in future/ the present or the
past. Where the audience doesn+t percei*e this connection/ the pla%/
scene or speech ma% e e"perienced as dull.
To use lank *erse as a medium rather than prose can e prolematic/
difficult and dan)erous. Shakespeare =chose= *erse as his medium/ in
the same sense in (hich Isen chose prose. The% accepted it 8ust as
the% accepted the other traditions of the theatre of their time. The
histor% of the lank *erse pla% pro*es that this medium is thorou)hl%
dead and so incompatile to modern life and li*in) lan)ua)e. If *erse
has an% function on the sta)e/ it is that of impartin) l%ric eaut% to
passionate speech. 'or the mere rhetorical =ele*ation= of lank *erse
(e ha*e no use (hate*er. It consists of sa%in) simple thin)s (ith
pomposit%. The idea that the poetr% of drama should e sou)ht
specificall% in *erse has lon) a)o een e"ploded % Isen and
7aeterlinck and D@4nnunDio and S%n)e.
Israel Qan)(ill/ in his s%molic pla%/ #The War-God&/ has put lank
*erse to a ne( use/ (ith note(orth% success. Ae (rites in *er% strict
measure/ ut (ithout the least in*ersion or inflation/ (ithout a touch
44
of !liDaethan/ or con*entionall% poetic/ diction. Ae mana)ed to use
modern e"pressions/ and e*en slan)/ (ithout incon)ruit%/ (hile at the
same time he is ale to )i*e rhetorical mo*ement to the speeches of
his s%molic persona)es. In passa)es of ar)ument/ he can achie*e
that clash of measured phrase a)ainst measured phrase (hich the
Greeks called =stichom%th%/= and (hich the 'rench dramatists
sometimes produce in rapid rapier pla% (ith the 4le"andrine.
Qan)(ill@s practice su))ested that lank *erse/ to e 8ustified in
drama/ should e l%rical. Ais *erse is a product of pure intellect and
(it/ (ithout a sin)le l%ric accent. It is measured prose and if it e*er
tries to e more/ it fails. Ae has sho(n a ne( use for lank *erse/ in
rhetorico-s%molic drama - no small literar% feat.
There is nothin) more irritatin) on the modern sta)e than a pla% (hich
keeps on chan)in) from *erse to prose and ack a)ain. It )i*es the
*erse-passa)es an air of pompous self-consciousness. It is most
destructi*e for a dramatist to pass/ in the same (ork of art/ from one
plane of con*ention to another.
4 drama (ith #solilo;uies& and #asides& is like a picture (ith inscried
laels han)in) from the mouths of the fi)ures. The challen)e of the
pla%(ri)ht is to make his characters re*eal the inmost (orkin)s of
their souls (ithout sa%in) or doin) an%thin) that the% (ould not sa% or
do in the real (orld. In serious modern drama the #aside& is no(
practicall% osolete/ such that actors are puDDled ho( to handle it/ and
audiences (hat to make of it. To read a letter aloud ha*e *alidit%/ ut
a solilo;u% has no real ri)ht of e"istence. It is a purel% artificial
unra*elin) of moti*e or emotion.
4s asurd is the =one room one door= rule - the sta)e scene should
pro*ide a proale localit% for (hate*er action is to take place in it/
and doors in practical places (here the% are deemed functional. The
pre8udice that e"ists in some fields a)ainst the use of an% form of
4:
(ritten document on sta)e is as asurd. 1etters pla% a )i)antic part in
the econom% of modern life. Wh% anish them from the sta)eB
5ernard Sha(/ in an article celeratin) the ad*ent of the ne(
techni;ue/ once (rote/ =9o(ada%s an actor cannot open a letter or
toss off someod% else@s )lass of poison (ithout ha*in) to face a rutal
outurst of 8eerin).= The pla%(ri)ht@s sole and sufficient safe)uard is
to use his )ood intellect and common sense/ and not to e intimidated
(ith asurd ideas/ and use (hate*er tools are needed on sta)e to
deli*er a )ood 8o.
Co!c($sio!
There (ill al(a%s e lots of Rcooks+ in the kitchen/ or is that pla%(ri)hts
in the theater/ then there are also the critics/ the academics/ the
audience/ seasoned theater-)oers and (riters/ ne(ies and (anna-
e+s. 'or all of us there is somethin) to learn and appreciate/
e"perience that promises m%ster%/ intri)ue/ en8o%ment and shared
moments. That is drama/ that is li*e-theatre. There are 8ust as man%
opinions as to (hat makes for G<!4T theatre and drama.
,eople and pla%(ri)hts make up rules aout the theatre/ drama and
pla%s as the% )o alon)/ learn and master ne( thin)s/ find the )roo*e
andSor st%le that (orks for them and so on. There are no formulas and
rules reall% to hold as the Rideal+. It is (hat it isL Do not )et so cau)ht
up in the nitt%-)ritt% or mechanics of pla%-(ritin) that it loses some of
it fun/ en8o%ment and true core.
Drama-(riters ha*e lots to learn and disco*er/ each separatel% and
collecti*el%/ to unearth the eaut% and art/ refined craftsmanship that
is pla%-(ritin)L Good luck on %our learnin)/ 8ourne% of self-disco*er%
into the (onderful arenas and uni*erse that is theater and drama.
>CM TCC $49 743! TA! 7CST C' ,14>-W<ITI9G/ in its truest form/
4;
an art-form ased and practices/ on the interpretation of dramatic
literature cominin)/ pla%(ritin)/ actin)/ directin)/ and sta)ecraft.
Welcome to the (orld of riches that are pla%s or other dramatic
performancesL
Here are so/e &reat a""itio!a( so$rces 'or )o$r $se a!"
re'ere!ce
THEATRE AN+ PLAYWRITING GLOSSARY a!" Li!6s
Theatre G(ossar) Li!6s

4mateur Dramatics
,la%(ritin) 1H1
Sta)e Specs
Theatrecrafts.
Weer State Mni*ersit%
4ctin). The process of creatin) roles and characters in dramatic conte"t.
4esthetic Jualities. Those characteristics of a (ork that place it some(here
on the scale of eautiful to u)l%.
4esthetic <esponse. 4 person@s reaction to the emotional *alues and
co)niti*e meanin)s of a (ork of art -e.)./ a theatre e"perience..
4rtistic Discipline. 4dherence to eliefs/ *alues/ and eha*iors deemed
accepted in the artistic field.
4udience. Cne or more persons (ho oser*e actors in a scene or pla% in a
classroom or a theatre. In theatre education/ audience is sometimes loosel%
used to mean the reflecti*e performer as (ell as classmates/ other students/
fault%/ or the pulic.
$haracter. 4 person/ animal/ or entit% in a stor%/ scene/ or pla% (ith specific
distin)uishin) ph%sical/ mental/ and attitudinal attriutes.
$haracter Dimensions. ,h%sical aspects -e.)./ se"/ a)e/ e"ternal traits./
social aspects -e.)./ famil%/ occupation./ and ps%cholo)ical aspects -e.)./
4<
attitudes/ moti*ation/ *alues. of a character.
$haracteriDation. The process of e"plorin) the ph%sical/ social/ and
ps%cholo)ical aspects of a role in order to create a elie*ale character. -see
4ctin).
$ommunication. Keral or non*eral interaction et(een persons to share
meanin).
$oncentration. The ailit% to focus and maintain attention upon an o8ect/
ima)e/ idea/ action/ or e"periences (hile e"cludin) distractin) factors.
$oncept -Desi)n.. The desi)ner@s interpretation of the director@s *ision in
scener%/ properties/ li)htin)/ sound/ costumes/ and makeup.
$oncept -,roduction.. The unified/ ph%sical e"pression that fulfills the
director@s *ision.
Dialo)ue. Words spoken % the characters in a pla% to communicate their
thou)hts/ feelin)s/ and actions.
Drama. 4 piece of (ritin) intended for sta)e presentation. Drama refers to
an impro*isational process-centered form of theatre in (hich participants are
)uided % a leader to ima)ine/ enact/ and reflect upon human e"perience.
The primar% purpose of drama in the classroom is to facilitate learnin) % the
participants/ rather than to create a performance for an audience. The
essences of this definition is kno(n *ariousl% as creati*e drama/
impro*isational drama/ de*elopmental drama/ classroom or educational
drama.
Theatre refers to the stud% of art form throu)h performance-centered
acti*ities in*ol*in) an audience. 4s an academic discipline/ theatre
traditionall% includes the stud% of actin) techni;ues/ scene stud%/ dramatic
literature/ theatre histor%/ technical desi)n and sta)ecraft/ pla%(ritin)/ pla%
production/ theatre attendance/ aesthetics and criticism.
Dramatic 4cti*ities. Such acti*ities as pantomime/ creati*e mo*ement/
impro*isation/ creati*e drama/ stor%tellin)/ choral speakin)/ stor%
dramatiDation/ theme oriented drama/ stor% theatre/ readers@ theatre/ role
pla%in)/ theatre )ames/ and puppetr%.
Dramatic !"periences. Dramatic pla%/ dramatic acti*ities/ mo*ement/ and
processes in*ol*ed in personal e"pression throu)h creati*e drama as (ell as
attendance at/ oser*ation of/ and participation in theatrical performances.
Dramatic 1iterature. $ompositions in prose or *erse presentin) in dialo)ue or
pantomime a stor% in*ol*in) conflict or contrast of character and intended to
e acted on the sta)e? a pla%.
4>
Dramatic ,la%. Spontaneous free pla% in (hich children e"plore their
uni*erse/ imitatin) the actions and character traits of others. 7ake-elie*e
and fantas% ma% e part of the e"perience. $onsidered educationall% *aluale
for the child as a natural (a% of e"plorin) and e"pressin) thou)hts and
feelin)s/ it is pla% for the child@s o(n en8o%ment and not for performance.
!lements of Drama. Si" ma8or elements of drama accordin) to 4ristotle: plot/
character/ theme/ dialo)ue/ music/ and spectacle.
!motional ,erception. The detection and apprehension of emotional states/
feelin)s and reactions oth in oneself and others.
!motional <ecall and !"pression. !motional perceptions elicited from past
e"periences (hich can e used in understandin)/ portra%in)/ and reflectin)
on the human condition and human eha*ior.
!mpath%. 4ilit% to feel (ith another person or to put oneself in another@s
position? to *icariousl% e"perience the sensual and emotional state of another
person. To empathiDe is to =(alk in the shoes= of another. !mpath% feels (ith
a character? s%mpath% feels for a character.
!nact. The process and fulfillment of creatin) a elie*ale ein) outside
oneself.
!nsemle. The d%namic interaction and harmonious lendin) of the efforts of
the man% artists in*ol*ed in a dramatic acti*it% or theatrical production.
!*aluation. 4nal%sis and appraisal of personal efforts and the efforts of
others.
!"ercises. Indi*idual and )roup acti*ities desi)ned % the dramaStheatre
leader to teach process/ skills/ and concepts.
'antas%. The use of ima)ination to create stran)e/ unusual/ or nonrealistic
characters or settin)s.
5 W@s. Who refers to roles and characteriDations. Where refers to settin)/
locale/ en*ironment. What refers to dramatic action. When refers to time of
da%/ %ear. Wh% refers to moti*ation.
'ocus. The concept of )uidin) the attention of the pla%ers and audience to a
particular place or person at a )i*en moment.
'ormal Drama. Dramatic acti*it% desi)ned for presentation (ith the focus on
the final production and audience reception.
Guided Dramatic ,la%. Ima)inati*e pla% stimulated % a trained leader.
:?
Ima)e. The sensor% record of a o8ect or e"perience that remains in the
mind@s e%e in the asence of the actual o8ect or e"perience.
Ima)er%. The mental reconstruction of an e"perience (ithout the ori)inal
sensor% stimulation.
Ima)ination. The ailit% to de*elop ori)inal or no*el ima)es % relatin) one
ima)e to another/ alterin) or cominin) ima)es from pre*ious e"perience.
Impro*isation. The spontaneous use of mo*ement and speech to create a
character or o8ect in a particular situation.
Informal Drama. Dramatic acti*it% of an% sort that is nor desi)ned for
presentation.
Interpersonal Skills. The de*elopment of the indi*idual throu)h interaction
(ith others and self enhancement (hile participatin) in/ oser*in)/ and
stud%in) dramaStheatre. -see !nsemle.
1an)ua)e. The use of *ocal sounds in meanin)ful patterns and correspondin)
(ritten s%mols to form/ e"press/ and communicate thou)hts and feelin)s.
1i)htin). The illumination of the sta)e % means of artificial li)ht.
7akeup. $osmetics used to chan)e the appearance of the face and other
e"posed surfaces on the od% in order to emphasiDe characteristics
appropriate to a role.
7etaphor. 4 s%molic comparison (here one thin) stands for another thin):
an ima)e (hich s%nthesiDes t(o meanin)s.
7oti*ation. The actor@s 8ustification for doin) or sa%in) somethin).
7o*ement. 4 flo( of action comined (ith an a(areness of space/ time/ and
direction. 7o*ement includes )ross and fine motor skills emplo%ed in
non*eral communication.
7ulticultural. $omposed of man% different cultures and nationalities.
7usic. Kocal and instrumental rh%thmic sound used in a pla%. 4n% rh%thmic
or melodic element such as a patterned arran)ement of (ords.
9arrati*e ,antomime. 4n acti*it% in (hich the )roup pantomimes a stor% as it
is narrated % the dramaStheatre leader.
9on*eral $ommunication. $ommunication (ithout (ords usin) facial
:=
e"pression/ )estures/ and od% lan)ua)e.
Cral !"pression. The ailit% to communicate (ith (ords.
,antomime. 4ction (ithout (ords? non*eral communication throu)h od%
mo*ement/ )esture/ and facial e"pression.
,erception. The process % (hich people recei*e/ reco)niDe/ inte)rate/ and
interpret sensor% stimuli.
,erformance. The imitation of life in front of at least one other person. In a
road sense/ performance refers to the presentation of an% kind of
entertainment--from pla% to rock concert/ from solo presentation to
ensemle collaoration.
,eripeteia or peripet%. 4 sudden chan)e in fortune or circumstance
e"perienced % a character in the pla%.
,la%in). Impro*isin) or actin) out characters in a scene or stor%.
,la%in) in <ole. 4 techni;ue used % the creati*e drama leader durin) the
pla%in)/ in (hich the leader enacts a role that allo(s for some authorit% and
control/ to hei)hten and ad*ance the pla%in).
,la%in) Space and 4udience Space. 4n area for dramatic acti*ities. This ma%
e simpl% the space surroundin) a student@s desk or a cleared space in a
classroom (ithout a desi)nated place for oser*ation % an audience.
Theatrical production clearl% estalishes an actin) area/ or sta)e/ and a
desi)nated audience area: proscenium -one side./ thrust -three sides./ area
-four sides..
,la%makin). ,la%makin) is a term used to descrie dramatic acti*ities that
lead to impro*ised drama (ith a e)innin)/ middle/ and end emplo%in) the
)eneral form and some of the elements of theatre. The product ma% or ma%
not e shared (ith others.
,la%(ritin). ,la%(ritin) is the act of creatin) the plot/ theme/ characters/
dialo)ue/ spectacle/ and structure of a pla% and or)aniDin) it into a pla%script
form. It in*ol*es the ailit% to ima)ine the entire production scene % scene
and to put it into (ritten form so that others ma% interpret it for the sta)e.
,lot. ,lot is the structure of the action of the pla%? it is the arran)ement of
incidents that take place on the sta)e as re*ealed throu)h the action and
dialo)ue of the characters. ,lot structure usuall% includes a e)innin)/ a
middle/ and end (ith a prolem/ complications/ and a resolution.
,ortra%. The process of representin) a character.
:1
,rops. ,roperties? o8ects used % actors on sta)e -e.)./ fan/ (allet. or
o8ects necessar% to complete the set -e.)./ furniture/ plants/ ooks..
,uppetr%. The animation of o8ects/ ran)in) from hands and paper a)s to
dolls/ creatin) characters in dramatic situations.
<ecepti*e 1an)ua)e. The ailit% to understand (ord concepts.
<epla%in). !nactin) a scene or pla% a)ain (hile attendin) to impro*ement
noted in the e*aluation? roles are sometimes e"chan)ed so students ha*e
the opportunit% to pla% more than one character.
<esponse. <eaction to stimulus presented % character/ e*ent/ or
en*ironment.
<ole. The characteristic and e"pected social eha*ior of an indi*idual in a
)i*en position -e.)./ mother/ emplo%er.. <ole portra%al is likel% to e more
predictale and one-dimensional than character portra%al.
<ole-,la%in). !nactin) a person other than oneself in an impro*isation ased
on a )i*en dramatic situation.
<uric. 4n estalished set of standards used for the purpose of e*aluation.
Scene. Set? the arran)ement of scenic elements -e.)./ curtains/ flats/ drops/
platforms./ properties/ and li)hts to represent the locale in a dramatic
performance.
Script. The (ritten dialo)ue/ description/ and directions pro*ided % the
pla%(ri)ht.
Self-$oncept. 4 sense of kno(in) and appreciatin) oneself? an a(areness of
one@s potential/ *alues/ stren)ths/ and (eaknesses? an understandin) of
one@s ima)e as percei*ed % others.
Sensor% ,erception. Aei)htened a(areness of ph%sical sensations and
emotional states.
Sensor% <ecall. Sensor% perceptions elicited from past e"periences.
Settin). The time and place in (hich the dramatic action occurs.
Social Discipline. 4dherence to those eliefs/ *alues/ and eha*iors deemed
acceptale % the )roup.
Spectacle. 4ll *isual elements of production -scener%/ properties/ li)htin)/
costumes/ makeup/ ph%sical mo*ement/ dance..
:9
Spontaneit%. 4 free/ direct/ immediate response to an e"perience.
Stor% DramatiDation. The process of impro*isationall% makin) an informal
pla% ased on a stor%. >oun) children are often )uided % a leader (ho tells
or reads a stor% (hile the children take on all the roles/ (orkin) in their o(n
spaces. Clder children )enerall% assume specific roles and collaorate to
dramatiDe a stor%/ often interchan)in) roles and e"perimentin) (ith ideas.
Stor% Theatre. This form of theatre comines the art of stor%tellin) (ith
impro*isational actin). Msin) stories from the oral tradition -folk and fair%
tales/ m%ths/ and le)ends./ stor% theatre allo(s the characters to narrate in
the third person/ speak the dialo)ue in the first person/ and carr% out
ph%sical actions called forth in the stor%.
St%le. The characteristic manner of speakin)/ (ritin)/ desi)nin)/ performin)/
or directin)/ St%le is a relati*e term that encompasses literar% mo*ements
-e.)./ romanticism/ realism/ naturalism./ the method of indi*idual
pla%(ri)hts/ or an%thin) that displa%s uni;ue/ definale properties in
construction or e"ecution. St%liDed usuall% means an%thin) (hich de*iates
from (hate*er is considered realistic at a )i*en time. It is possile to ha*e a
dramatic st%le -pro*ided % the pla%(ri)ht. and a theatrical st%le -pro*ided
% the director and collaorators..
Sute"t. The unspoken meanin) or intention ehind the actions and dialo)ue
of a te"t or performance (hich is implied lar)el% % non*eral eha*ior and
sutleties in *ocal ;ualities.
Teachin) in <ole. 4 techni;ue used % the drama leader durin) the pla%in) of
a scene in (hich the leader enacts a role (ith the students in order to
hei)hten or ad*ance the pla%in).
Technical !lements. The aspects of theatre in*ol*ed in the creation of
spectacle -scener%/ properties/ li)htin)/ sound/ costumes/ and makeup..
Te"t. The asis of dramatic acti*it% and performance. Te"t can e a (ritten
script or an a)reed-upon structure and content -as in impro*isational (ork or
a theatrical piece (hich uses planned/ set/ disparate components..
Theatre. 4n art form ased on the interpretation of dramatic literature
cominin)/ pla%(ritin)/ actin)/ directin)/ and sta)ecraft. 4 uildin) intended
for the presentation of pla%s or other dramatic performances. -see
DramaSTheatre.
Theatre 4rts. 4n umrella term used to emrace all aspects of the discipline
of theatre.
Theme. The central thou)ht/ idea/ or si)nificance of action (ith (hich a pla%
deals.
:7
Theme-Criented Drama. 4n impro*ised drama de*eloped around a prolem/
issue or theme to e e"plored. ,articipants are led to identif% (ith a common
concern of a )roup of people -e.)./ sla*es and the under)round rail(a%/
chi*alr% and medie*al kni)hts/ the responsiilities of citiDenship..
Transformation. The internal or e"ternal chan)in) of a person or o8ect into
another throu)h ima)ination.
Kocal $haracteristics. Those traits (hich determine one@s *oice: pitch/
*olume/ rate/ ;ualit%.
Kocal Jualities. The characteristics of tones (hich distin)uish them from all
others. In *oice/ ;ualities are most closel% associated (ith mood and feelin).
Koice. Sounds produced % the e"piration of air throu)h *iratin) *ocal cords
and resonation (ithin the throat and head ca*ities.
Warm-up. 4n acti*it% in (hich the student focuses attention on limerin) up
the od%/ *oice/ ima)ination/ or intellect.
:4

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