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Mussolini, Franco and the Spanish Civil War:
An Afterthought
Morten Heiberg
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To cite this article: Morten Heiberg (2001): Mussolini, Franco and the Spanish Civil War: An Afterthought,
Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 2:3, 55-68
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material.
Touay we lave acquireu some knowleuge abour Iascisr Iraly`s
inrervenrion in rle Spanisl Civil War. Tlis is uue mosrly ro rle
American lisrorian ]oln Coveruale, wlo, 25 years ago, publisleu lis
pioneering sruuy Italian Intertention in tbe Spanisb Citil var.
1
Tlis
book las inluenceu a generarion o lisrorians inreresreu in rle
inrernarional aspecrs o rle Spanisl conlicr. Parricularly inreresring is
Renzo De Ielice`s 1981 sruuy o rle polirical aspecrs o rle Iralian
inrervenrion in rle civil war.
2
Now, wirl more uocumenrs available
rom Iralian anu Spanisl arclives, perlaps rle rime las come ro
consiuer rlese anu orler works on Iralian inrervenrion in Spain. On
rle basis o resl uocumenrs, rlis arricle briely analyses rwo key
aspecrs o rlis crirical lisrorical evenr. Tlar is ro say, ir ocuses on rle
Iralian uecision ro senu combar 'volunreers` ro Spain, anu on rle so-
calleu 'ascisrisarion` o Spain; in orler worus, on Iralian arremprs ro
make Narionalisr Spain a ascisr srare. Borl aspecrs are imporranr or
our unuersranuing o rle morives belinu Iralian inrervenrion.
Ifaian Miifary Infervenfion (Aufumn 1936)
Tle main argumenr o Coveruale`s well-grounueu sruuy is rlar
Mussolini`s policy rowaru Spain was baseu on rrauirional polirical
anu srraregic consiuerarions, rarler rlan on iueological reasons.
Tlrougl armeu inrervenrion Mussolini Coveruale mainrains rrieu
ro prevenr rle balance in rle wesrern Meuirerranean area rom being
4
Mussoini, Franco and fhe Spanish
Civi War: An Afferfhoughf
MORTEN HEI BERC
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alrereu. In slorr, Mussolini rrieu ro avoiu an alliance berween a ler-
wing Irance anu Republican Spain. Sucl an alliance miglr lave
lelpeu rle Irencl ro manage rleir imperial rerrirories in norrlern
Arica, anu ro use Spanisl bases in case o armeu conlicr againsr Iraly.
Ir was a ueensive policy wlicl accoruing ro Coveruale resembleu
rrauirional pre-Iascisr Iralian oreign policy.
3
Over rle lasr 15 years, lisrorians lave begun ro quesrion
Coveruale`s book. Arer Iraly`s milirary arclives were parrially openeu
ro rle public in rle 199s, lis milirary anu srraregic consiuerarions
lave been pur ro rle resr. Imporranr oicial milirary sruuies, anu some
conrriburions by Lucio Ceva, lave unuerlineu some o rle limirarions
in Coveruale`s work. Anu ir was Ismael Saz anu Paul Presron wlo
acrually quesrioneu rle American lisrorian`s reconsrrucrion o
Mussolini`s suuuen uecision ro supporr Iranco in ]uly 1936.
4
As or rle reasons belinu Iralian oreign policy, Coveruale`s
argumenrs lave been seluom quesrioneu anu, wlen quesrioneu, sucl
quesrioning was rarely baseu on arclival researcl. De Ielice agreeu
wirl Coveruale`s argumenr, anu useu ir as a basis or one o rle
claprers o lis biograply on Mussolini. Tlis may lave inuuceu many
lisrorians ro consiuer ir as rrusrworrly. Accoruingly, Cianluca Anure
noreu in 1986. 'Coveruale`s argumenr, wlicl De Ielice las auopreu
arer ilrering ir, is convincing`.
5
De Ielice, Anure anu, more recenrly,
rle milirary lisrorians Alberro Rovigli anu Iilippo Sreani mainrain
rlar in lare Ocrober or ar rle beginning o November 1936 Mussolini
began ro consiuer rle possibiliry o large-scale Iralian milirary
inrervenrion. Tle so-calleu 'slir` in Iralian policy is allegeu ro lave
been born our o rle clangeu milirary siruarion. Tle Narionalisrs were
uisauvanrageu because rley aileu ro caprure Mauriu, anu because rle
Russians were supporring rle Republic milirarily. Many lisrorians lave
agreeu on rlis acr. As an American sclolar las recenrly poinreu our,
rle Iralian uecision sloulu rlus be regarueu as a counter-escalation,
rlar is, a reacrion againsr rle Sovier uecision ro srir up rle conlicr by
senuing rroops anu weapons ro Spain ro supporr rle Republic.
6
In
auuirion, Rovigli anu Sreani also poinr our rlar Iraly warcleu wirl
some concern rle asr-growing Cerman milirary presence in Spain.
7
Brian Sullivan is one o rle ew lisrorians wlo las acrually
poinreu our rlar rlese argumenrs, albeir subsranrially correcr, perlaps
ail ro inrerprer rle Iralian inrervenrion in relarion ro rle overall
srraregy o Iascisr oreign policy, wlicl was experiencing a uramaric
clange in rlis periou.
I NTERNATI ONAL IASCI SM, 191945 56
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Wirlour re|ecring enrirely rlis explanarion o Mussolini`s
increasing aiu ro rle Narionalisrs, ir unuervalues orler srraregic,
oreign policy, anu polirical issues inluencing lis policy rowaru
Spain. By rle early all o 1936, argumenrs over Iralian
involvemenr in rle Spanisl conlicr lau uiviueu Mussolini`s
milirary auvisers. In parr, rlese argumenrs relecreu
unuamenral uisagreemenrs over rle wisuom o a ma|or slir in
Iralian oreign policy rowaru cooperarion wirl Cermany againsr
Brirain anu Irance, a policy openly avoureu by Ciano anu
increasingly arrracrive ro lis arler-in-law. By lare Augusr,
Mussolini alreauy lau begun ro cooruinare wirl Hirler rleir aiu
ro rle Narionalisrs. Tle increases in Iralian involvemenr in
Spain srrongly inuicare an increasingly pro-Cerman, anri-Irencl
oreign policy anu rle growing possibiliry o an evenrual
alliance wirl rle Cermans againsr rle Wesr.
8
Combineu researcl in Iralian anu Spanisl arclives cannor bur
conirm rlis assumprion. Iresl uocumenrs acrually cause us ro rlink
rlar Mussolini miglr lave alreauy planneu massive inrervenrion in
Seprember 1936. An Iralian nore o 27 Seprember reaus rlar ir was
acrually rle rrusree o rle Spanisl rebels in Rome, Anronio Magaz,
wlo, 'in rle name o rle governmenr o Burgos`,
9
urgeu rle Iralian
governmenr ro senu volunrary rroops ro Spain leu by Ceneral Ezio
Caribalui. Accoruing ro a secrer polirical reporr by Magaz, ar leasr
2, volunreers were expecreu ro leave. Anorler Iralian nore reaus
rlar Caribalui accepreu leauerslip o rle expeuirionary orce only i
rle Duce limsel appoinreu lim. A reporr saying rlar rle Sertizio
Injornazioni Militari (SIM, Milirary Inrelligence Service) sloulu 'be
ascerraining` rle requesrs o rle Spanisl governmenr, was enuorseu
by rle ollowing lanuwrirren, unsigneu remark. 'rle news is valiu
anu rle expeuirion will be alloweu`. Magaz mainrains rlar Caribalui
accepreu rle rask o organising rle expeuirion uuring a meering wirl
Mussolini. Nonerleless, on 1 Ocrober Caribalui was noriieu rlar
'uue ro rle currenr siruarion, ir is auvisable rlar rle expeuirion sloulu
nor be organiseu`. Iour uays larer, Magaz reporreu ro lis Spanisl
companions rlar 'rlougl rle Caribalui expeuirion las alreauy been
planneu, ir musr be uelayeu uue ro unpreuicreu uiiculries`. On 9
Ocrober, Magaz announceu rlar, 'i Ceneral Iranco rlinks rle
Caribalui expeuirion is necessary, ir will be reconsiuereu`. Tle
ollowing uay, in oruer ro avoiu Russian anu Bririsl opprobrium,
MUSSOLI NI , IRANCO AND THE SPANI SH CI VI L WAR 57
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Iranco recommenueu rlar rle expeuirion sloulu nor be organiseu. A
relegram o 23 Seprember rom rle Iralian consul in Tangier, Pier
Iilippo De Rossi, ro rle Iralian oreign minisrer, Ciano, slows rlar
Iranco alreauy knew abour rle Caribalui expeuirion. De Rossi
revealeu rlar Iranco uiu nor wanr ro srarr negoriarions unless rle
Iascisr governmenr approveu rle plan. Mussolini reau rle relegram.
Tlereore, ir is unrlinkable rlar rle subsequenr approval anu
uropping o rle plan, wlicl borl Magaz anu Iralian uocumenrs
menrion, rook place wirlour Mussolini`s uirecr parriciparion. Ir miglr
be rlar Mussolini approveu o rle expeuirion in lare Seprember only
larer ro re|ecr ir. In so uoing, le may lave rrieu ro avoiu
complicarions in Spanisl anu European polirics.
1
Wirl rle purpose o proviuing supporr or lis rlesis rlar a
signiicanr increase o Iralian inrervenrion lau a suuuen anu
improviseu narure ro ir, De Ielice las poinreu our rlar unril
December Iranco never askeu Mussolini ro senu rroops, anu rlar rle
uecision was raken wirlour consulring Iranco.
11
Bur, rle quesrion was
more complex. Accoruing ro Iralian uocumenrs, in Seprember Magaz
is allegeu ro lave acreu in rle name o 'rle governmenr o Burgos`.
Neverrleless, we cannor be cerrain rlar ir was Iranco wlo presseu
or Iralian inrervenrion. Ir is cerrain, lowever, rlar on 2 Seprember,
a Spanisl uiplomar quoreu Iranco as saying rlar Mussolini 'lau
promiseu` lim srrong supporr.
12
Tlis pressure uareu back ro rle uays
uuring wlicl rle leauerslip o rle Narionalisr zone srill lau ro be
ueciueu. Arer lis elecrion, Iranco`s iueas miglr lave clangeu
rauically. Ir is likely rlar rle Generalisino was o rle opinion rlar lis
uomesric leauerslip coulu be enuangereu, ar rlis poinr, by a leavy
oreign presence in wlar amounreu ro a Narionalisr uprising. Perlaps
rlis appears a more creuible explanarion rlan rle allegeu ear o rle
immeuiare Bririsl inrervenrion le menrioneu in rle relegram o 1
Ocrober. Iranco miglr also lave clangeu lis minu, as ir was in rlose
parricular uays rlar le sloweu uown rle pace o rle war ro buy more
rime ro secure lis own polirical posirion. Insreau o raking Mauriu,
enuing rle war, anu laving ro ueal wirl numerous polirical enemies,
le close ro conquer Toleuo in lare Seprember, an easy bur presrigious
vicrory. Seen in rle liglr o rlis mucl-uiscusseu rlesis, pur orwaru
by Paul Presron, rle porenrial inlux o Iralian soluiers miglr lave
enuangereu lis plan.
13
Ir appears rlar rle irsr plans or Iralian inrervenrion in rle conlicr
uareu back ro 2223 Seprember, i nor beore. Wirl regaru ro Iraly`s
I NTERNATI ONAL IASCI SM, 191945 58
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morive or enrering rle conlicr ar rlis poinr, ir is imporranr ro srress
rlar in Seprember rle possibiliries or enuing rle war quickly were
mucl grearer rlan in November-December, ar wlicl poinr rle
milirary siruarion appeareu mucl more compromiseu. One miglr
also lave uoubrs abour rle narure o rle allegeu 'stolta`, or slir in
Iralian oreign policy, in November. Tle inrervenrion plans o
November-December were essenrially rle same as rlose o
Seprember. uivisions o Iralian combar rroops ro be senr ro Spain
unuer rle commanu o an Iralian general. Ir uoes nor seem rlar rle
Duce was unwillingly uraggeu inro rle conlicr. Tle sources analyseu
above, rarler, give rle impression rlar Mussolini, ro some exrenr
pusleu by rle inner cabiner members ar rle Ialazzo Cbii, rle Iralian
oreign minisrry, was wairing or rle riglr momenr ro lave lis slare
o rle barrle in Spain. Probably, ir was ear o polirical complicarions
rlar blockeu rle inirial pro|ecr o senuing 2, men ro Spain unuer
Caribalui`s leauerslip. Perlaps, as suggesreu by Magaz, ir was
Cavagnari, or orler imporranr milirary auvisers, wlo inluenceu
Mussolini rowarus a more pruuenr posirion.
no uiiculries were oreseen in rle Minisrry o Ioreign Aairs.
However, a ew uays larer, wirlour any new clouus appearing
on rle inrernarional sky, wlicl was alreauy quire uark, rley rolu
me rlar uue ro inrernarional complicarions rle expeuirion lau
been calleu o. Wly nor rlink rlar rle Minisrry o rle Navy
['Ia Marina`], wlo was ro be responsible or rle imporranr sea
rransporr, also on rlis occasion eareu inrernarional
complicarions
14
Magaz`s version, in rlis respecr, seems creuible, as sucl minisrerial
uisagreemenrs increaseu arer Iraly`s rapproclemenr wirl Cermany.
Was rle Caribalui plan a way o counrering rle increasing Russian
milirary presence in Spain Tle exacr uare o rle increase in Russian
milirary aiu las been mucl uebareu. In Augusr, rle Sovier
involvemenr was, unuoubreuly, negligible. In my view, rle increase o
rle Sovier commirmenr is more likely ro lave occurreu some rime
arer rle crearion o rle Largo Caballero Cabiner on 4 Seprember.
Iresl Sovier sources, proviueu by rle rwo Spanisl lisrorians Elorza
anu Bizcarronuo, inuicare rlar in early Seprember rle uecision was
srill rlar o nor inrerering unnecessarily in rle conlicr. Only
increaseu ascisr aiu coulu make rle Russians alrer rleir posirion.
15
Elorza anu Bizcarronuo argue rlar rle uecision ro creare rle
MUSSOLI NI , IRANCO AND THE SPANI SH CI VI L WAR 59
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Inrernarional Brigaues was nor maue unril 18 Seprember, arounu rle
rime o rle Caribalui plan.
16
Tlis inuicares a cerrain parallelism in rle
Iralian anu Sovier assessmenrs on rle neeu ro inrervene in Spain. Tle
Russian accusarions againsr rle ascisr aggressors in rle Non-
Inrervenrion Commirree in Lonuon, wlicl mer or rle irsr rime on
9 Seprember, miglr lave prompreu Mussolini anu lis inner cabiner
rowaru more rauical measures. Srill, rle bullerins rom rle Iralian
cbar dajjaires in Moscow, Vincenzo Beraruis, in Augusr anu
Seprember all srress rlar belinu rle laruening o rle Sovier posirion,
Russian oreign policy was uriven by rle uesire ro reacl agreemenrs
wirl Paris anu Lonuon, anu ro avoiu conlicr wirl Iraly ('non
ininicarsi lItalia`).
17
Nonerleless, ir is uiiculr ro say wlar value
Mussolini miglr lave arracleu ro Beraruis`s reporrs.
Probably, one sloulu also consiuer Mussolini`s increasing
uererminarion ro clallenge Lonuon anu Paris over rle Spanisl
quesrion. On 5 Seprember, Mussolini inormeu Cranui rlar le
'sloulu nor even conceue rle minimum requesrs pur orwaru by
Crear Brirain (anu Irance)`.
18
Mussolini was urious, as le lau
observeu 'anri-Iralian` rrenus in Bririsl policy. Ceorge V lau avoiueu
visiring Iraly on lis rour o rle Meuirerranean, anu rle Iralian
language lau been suppresseu ar Malra, |usr as Brirain lau agreeu on
an anri-Iralian prorocol wirl Egypr.
19
In Roberr Mallerr`s view,
Mussolini`s reasons or wriring ro Cranui 'were clearly nor governeu
by a mere uesire or spireul reciprociry. On rle conrrary, rle Duce
seemeu uerermineu ro use rle excuse rlar Lonuon now rlreareneu ro
encircle Iraly as a means o rlwarring Anglo-Irencl arremprs ar
blocking Iralo-Cerman aiu ro rle Narionalisr armies in Spain`.
2
Aparr rom rle excuse proviueu by Bririsl 'anri-Iralian` rrenus,
rlere was probably also an anri-communisr morive ro Mussolini`s
reasoning. Mussolini`s uisgusr ar rle Republic in Spain can only lave
increaseu arer rle crearion o a cabiner leaueu by rle socialisr leauer
Largo Caballero, rle 'Spanisl Lenin`. Ir is likely, ar rlis poinr, rlar
Mussolini was convinceu o rle propleric narure o rle unpublisleu
aplorisms on Republican Spain le lau wrirren back in 1931. In rlem
le lau preuicreu rlar rle Spanisl Republic, like liberal republics in
general, woulu inevirably leau ro communism. Perlaps, Caballero`s
enrrance on rle polirical scene convinceu Mussolini rlar rle momenr
or concrere acrion lau come.
Having saiu rlar, ir is imporranr ro srress rlar anri-communism
miglr also lave been a perecr uisguise or expanuing Iralian
I NTERNATI ONAL IASCI SM, 191945 6
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inluence in rle wesrern Meuirerranean. In rle aurumn o 1936,
Ciano menrioneu rle srraregic ob|ecrives o Iascisr policy in rle
wesrern Meuirerranean. Ceura anu rle Balearic Islanus. He also
reerreu ro Spain as an 'exrension o rle Axis rowaru rle Arlanric
Ocean`.
21
Mussolini, roo, was oprimisric. 'Tle Balearics are in our
lanus`, le ueclareu ro rle Gran Consilio on 18 December.
22
Perlaps
MacCregor Knox las a poinr, wlen le claims rlar in aurumn 1936,
'Mussolini, Ciano anu rle Cermans, ro mask rle expansionism o rle
Axis, raiseu rle anri-Bolslevisr lag`.
23
In sum, Iraly was willing ro senu rroops ro Spain as early as
Seprember. Tlis means rlar rle Iascisr governmenr approveu o rle
inrervenrion in a conrexr rorally uierenr rom rlar o November-
December, wlen rle milirary siruarion worseneu. Tle inal
inrervenrion was, apparenrly, a mere re-rlinking o an exisring plan.
Mussolini uiu nor approve o inrervenrion simply our o ear o
Sovier aiu ro rle Republic. Neirler uoes rle 'ueensive`, 'rrauirional`
anu 'anri-Irencl` oreign policy line, suggesreu by Coveruale anu De
Ielice, seem a ully sarisying explanarion. Researcl by an increasing
number o sclolars seems more accurare in inrerprering Iascisr
oreign policy anu milirary srraregy rowaru Spain as mucl more
aggressive rlan pre-Iascisr Liberal oreign policy. Reliable Englisl
sources quoreu by Paul Presron srare rlar in May 1937, arer rle
Iralian ueear ar Cuauala|ara, Mussolini was inclineu oicially ro
ueclare war on rle Spanisl Republic, rlinking ir rle only way ro
enorce lis milirary presence.
Fascisfisafion
Perlaps Mussolini`s own ueclararions on 'ascisrisarion` are a goou
srarring poinr or rle seconu parr o rlis uiscussion. In 1932,
Mussolini pur lis revolurionary iueas orwaru in a speecl auuresseu
ro a anarical crowu in Milan.
I rell you, immense crowus, rlar rle rwenrierl cenrury is going
ro be rle cenrury o Iascism, ir is going ro be rle cenrury o
Iralian power, ir is going ro be rle cenrury in wlicl Iraly rerurns
or rle rliru rime ro become rle leauer o luman civilisarion .
In ren years, one may say wirlour wanring ro acr as proplers
rlar Europe will be clangeu . In ren years Europe will be
ascisr or ascisriseu! Tle anrirlesis in wlicl rle conremporary
MUSSOLI NI , IRANCO AND THE SPANI SH CI VI L WAR 61
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civilisarion is wrirling can only be resolveu in one way, wirl rle
uocrrine anu wisuom o Rome.
24
Accoruingly, we miglr ask i Mussolini lau any concrere plans ro
make Spain ascisr. In rle reviseu Iralian euirion o lis sruuy (wlicl
incluues a wiuer range o uocumenrs), Coveruale claimeu.
Iascisr iueological aims were more negarive rlan posirive.
Mussolini was more concerneu wirl rle rriumpl o rle
revolurion o rle Spanisl Ler rlan wirl promoring ascism in
Spain. Aparr rom rle evenrs wlicl olloweu rle 1937 Iarinacci
expeuirion, norling was maue ro convince Spanisl Narionalisrs
ro ollow rle ascisr mouel . [Tle inrervenrion] uemonsrrares
rlar rle rrauirional claracrerisrics o Spanisl oreign polirics
baseu on presrige anu orce anu rle negarive iueological aim
ro avoiu rle ueear o rle polirical orces wirl wlicl [Mussolini]
lau gor involveu proveu srronger rlan rle will ro promore
ascism .
25
Coveruale also mainrains rlar Iranco unireu rle various polirical
acrions o rle Narionalisr movemenr wirlour consulring lis
supporrers, Cermany anu Iraly. De Ielice ully agreeu on rlis poinr.
He even wenr as ar as ro srare rlar, 'ir cannor be proveu rlar, uuring
rle irsr periou o war, rle Iralian arriruue was inluenceu by slorr-
rerm plans ro make a ascisr uicrarorslip o Spain`.
26
De Ielice is probably riglr wlen le claims rlar Mussolini knew ir
woulu be uiiculr ro impose ascism in Spain, proviueu rlar by rlis
De Ielice meanr a ascisr regime iuenrical ro rle Iralian one. One
miglr argue, rlougl, rlar De Ielice lereby ignores an imporranr
aspecr o Mussolini`s oreign policy, namely rlar le acrively
promoreu ascism in uierenr counrries, anu rlar le was ully aware
rlar rlis 'jascisno desportazione` always lau ro auapr ro rle polirics,
culrure anu religion o rlose counrries. He rlouglr rlar an aggressive
oreign policy miglr lave lelpeu ro inluence rle polirical parries o
rle Riglr anu rle regimes o orler narions, so rlar rley miglr lave
insrirurions similar ro Iralian Iascism. As Saz las poinreu our,
Mussolini was convinceu rlar ir was possible or sucl regimes ro
aclieve an exrernal appearance, anu, in rime, move rom rlis
'conrainer` ro rle 'conrenr`, namely ascism.
27
We may srarr wirl rle case o Ernesro Cimnez Caballero, ro
wlose missions nor many lisrorians lave paiu arrenrion. Caballero
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was a ralenreu Spanisl wrirer, anu an aiue ro rle Conitati dAzione
per la Unitersalita di Rona (CAUR Acrion Commirrees or rle
Universaliry o Rome) in Spain. On 27 Seprember 1936, le
requesreu an auuience wirl Mussolini ro 'ger back ro Spain, iglr or
rle rriumpl o Spanisl ascism wlicl I oresaw ren years ago .
Long live rle Duce. Long live Roman Spain`. He uiu meer Mussolini
on 7 Ocrober in Palazzo Venezia, wlere le mer lim again on rle
ollowing uay. We uo nor know wlar rley ralkeu abour, bur rle
evenrs wlicl olloweu make us rlink rlar rle role o ascism in
Iranco`s Spain was ar srake. Anu maybe Mussolini gave Cimnez
Caballero special insrrucrions. Tley mer again on 22 ]anuary 1937.
Beore analysing rlis meering, ir is imporranr ro srress wlar
lappeneu berween ]anuary 1937 anu 19 April 1937, rle uay rlar
saw rle uecree on rle uniicarion o rle Spanisl polirical parries.
Tlrougl rle Iralian press arracl in Salamanca, Cuglielmo Danzi,
wlo was in realiry a secrer agenr wirl uirecr access ro rle
Generalisino, Mussolini urgeu rlar Iranco sloulu unire rle
uierenr polirical parries inro a single one. On 18 April, Danzi wrore
ro Rome. 'Toniglr I mer Ceneral Iranco ar rle Heauquarrers anu
rogerler we planneu rle union o rle parries inro a single one leu by
Ceneral Iranco`. Cimnez Caballero anu Iranco`s brorler-in-law,
Serrano Suner (rle ninence rise o rle new regime) are allegeu ro
lave wrirren rle Spanisl rexr o rle uecree.
On April 24 Cimnez Caballero wrore ro Mussolini ro inorm lim
rlar le lau carrieu our rle mission le lau personally appoinreu lim
ro 'on ]anuary 22 ar 7 pm`. Sucl a mission implieu 'ro work laru
rrusring in rle inal rriumpl o ascism`. Moreover, Caballero lau ro
urge rlar Iranco sloulu unire rle uierenr parries along rle
guiuelines o Iralian Iascism. Prouu ro lave wrirren mosr o rle rexr
o rle uecree anu o Iranco`s speecl, Caballero inormeu Mussolini
rlar le lau nor only 'reporreu` lis rask ro Iranco, bur also 'carrieu ir
our`. In a lerrer o 19 April, rle ambassauor Roberro Canralupo, back
in Rome, poinreu our rlar rle pro-Ialangisr version o Iranco`s
speecl was new. He also wrore rlar, as le lau previously srareu,
Iranco lau probably 'been oruereu ro reporr` ro Mussolini, wlo lau
imposeu lis 'polirical barrle plan` on lim. As a marrer o acr, we
cannor really say rlar Iranco was oruereu ro reporr. Nonerleless, we
can argue rlar rle Unijicacin rook place mainly because Iranco
neeueu ro conrrol rle uierenr polirical parries, incluuing rle original
Ialane. Srill, we sloulu nor unueresrimare Mussolini`s
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uererminarion ro 'ascisrise` Spain by playing an imporranr role in rle
ounuarion o rle new srare.
28
Spanisl inreresr in ollowing Rome`s
suggesrions ('le linee senate dal Duce`) anu in insralling a ascisric
regime ('tipo jascista`) is urrlermore conirmeu by numerous
uocumenrs publisleu by rle Iralian oreign minisrry in 199394.
29
Pro|ecrs ro creare a 'Roman Spain` as Caballero calleu ir
conrinueu rlrouglour rle summer o 1937. On 1 ]une, Caballero
inormeu rle Duce rlar le was back in Rome prerenuing ro visir lis
amily. As a marrer o acr, le wrore ro Mussolini, 'I lave ro ralk ro
you, sir, in secrer. Salamanca neeu nor know o our meering`.
3
He mer
Mussolini rwo uays larer, bur no one knows wlar rley uiscusseu.
Accoruing ro rle way Mussolini was rrearing rle Spanisl ambassauor
in Rome, we may suppose rlar le was using Caballero ro urge rlar
Iranco sloulu orm a new governmenr on rle anniversary o rle
rebellion.
31
On 4 Augusr 1937, Iranco signeu rle Ialane srarures anu
le was granreu ull powers. Wlen Mussolini was inormeu rlar Iranco
lau raken lis auvice, le wrore, 'one parry, one miliria, one synuicare.
Tlese are rle ounuarions o rle grear Spain o romorrow`.
32
Tlereore, rle Danzi, Iarinacci anu Caballero missions were clearly
rle means rlrougl wlicl Mussolini presseu or Iranco`s inrrouucrion
o a ascisr-like polirical sysrem. Yer De Ielice consiuereu rle mission
by Roberro Iarinacci (wlo in a conversarion wirl Iranco in rle
beginning o Marcl 1937 urgeu or rle crearion o a 'Spanisl Narional
Parry`) an exceprion promoreu exclusively by rle Iralian Iascisr Parry,
rle PNI.
33
In my view, rlis mission was merely one o a series o
inriarives ro ascisrise Spain promoreu by Mussolini anu rle Ialazzo
Cbii. Ir rlus seems increasingly uiiculr ro mainrain, as De Ielice anu
Coveruale lave uone, rlar Mussolini`s arriruue was exclusively baseu
on a sorr o 'lanus-o policy`. True, arer rle embarrassing Iralian
ueear ar Cuauala|ara in Marcl 1937, Mussolini coulu no longer rrear
Iranco as a mere suboruinare, as le now uepenueu on rle
Generalisino`s supporr i le wanreu a quick vicrory rlar coulu wipe
our rle 'brutta jiura` lis rroops lau cur. Srill, rlis acr uoes nor seem
ro lave sroppeu lim rom rrying energerically ro secure a ascisrisarion
o rle New Spain rlrougl borl secrer anu open iniriarives.
Iranco creareu rle new Spanisl governmenr in ]anuary 1938. Tle
Iralians pressureu or some pro-Iralian members o rle governmenr ro
be appoinreu, among rlese, Serrano Suner (secrerary o srare).
Moreover, uocumenrs poinr our rlar many Narionalisrs ounu rle co-
operarion wirl Iraly convenienr, since Spain lackeu acrual mouels anu
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solurions ro builu a new sociery. Ir is well-known rlar rle Iuero del
Trabajo, a srarure-like uocumenr or rle riglrs o rle working-class
similar ro rle Iralian Carta del Iatoro, olloweu Iralian mouels. Tle
very name Iuero was inrrouuceu ro subsrirure rle Carta |usr beore rle
uocumenr was approveu.
34
Iralian Iascism seemingly inluenceu rle
Spanisl sclool sysrem as well. Anorler memoranuum poinreu our rlar
rle Spanisl minisrer o euucarion 'las slown rle uesire ro exalr Iralian
euucarion. A number o requesrs lave been approveu. rle presence o
Iralian reclnical sra, reacling o Iralian in Spanisl sclools, Universiry
rraining programmes or reaclers, Iralian sra reacling in Spanisl
universiries .`. Two lunureu Spanisl primary sclool reaclers
arrenueu programmes on Iascisr euucarional sysrems. Represenrarives
o rle Ialane were senr ro Iraly ro sruuy rle Iralian Iascisr
auminisrrarive sysrem.
35
Iralian iniriarives were nor aimeu solely ro
|usriy rle supporr given ro an aurlorirarian anu conservarive regime.
Tley conirm as well Mussolini`s uerermimarion rlar Spain sloulu
ollow Iralian polirical uirecrives anu sloulu inrrouuce a ascisr sysrem.
Unuer rlis speciic poinr o view, Mussolini`s oreign policy rowaru
Spain was borl ambirious anu colerenr.
I ir is plausible ro speak o Iralian arremprs ro ascisrise Spain, we
srill lave ro uiscover rle reasons belinu rlem. Ir is a very complex
quesrion, so all we can uo lere is ro ocus on some main
claracrerisrics. In rle irsr place, Mussolini`s view o rle worlu was
one concerneu wirl a srruggle berween communism anu ascism. As
a marrer o acr, le consiuereu orler orms o governmenr as
anaclronisric. Tlis is proveu by lis privare wrirings (among wlicl,
many inreresring 1931 aplorisms on Spain). Mussolini was
convinceu rlar only a ascisr-like regime coulu granr Spain polirical
srabiliry. Tlis, le rlouglr, coulu prevenr Spain rom being rle
srronglolu o anri-ascism anu rom being rorn by class srruggles.
Unuer rlis poinr o view, iueology plays a very imporranr role.
Iurrlermore, perlaps Mussolini rlouglr rlar exporring Iascism
wlicl le rlouglr o as a sorr o personal 'rrauemark` miglr lave
given lim more presrige, borl in Iraly anu abroau.
Above all, ro 'ascisrise` Spain was by ar rle suresr way ro
suboruinare ir ro Rome. Tlis is proveu by Mussolini`s several arremprs
ro inluence rle cloice o Spain`s new regime. Ior insrance, le
recommenueu rlar Iranco sloulu nor allow or a rerurn o rle
monarcly. As or oreign policy, Mussolini wanreu Spain ro remain a
sarellire srare o Iraly, somerling wlicl musr be seen in relarion ro
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Mussolini`s overall Meuirerranean ambirions. As a marrer o acr,
Iranco lau oren reassureu rle Duce abour Spain`s suboruinarion ro
Iraly even rlougl Iranco ueenueu Narionalisr Spain`s inuepenuence
anu imperialisr ambirions. In 1939 Iranco rolu Ciano rlar le was
wairing or Mussolini ro give lim insrrucrions. Alrlougl Ciano`s uiary
may nor be enrirely creuible on rlis poinr, Spain subservienrly
subscribeu ro rle Anri-Cominrern Pacr anu ler rle League o Narions.
Arremprs ro make Spain 'Roman` aileu. Iranco auopreu rle
exrernal orms o ascism, bur rle uesireu passage rom rle
'conrainer` ro rle 'conrenr` was never really accomplisleu. Tlis was
parrly uue ro rle acr rlar rle unijicacin was a de jure uniicarion,
anu nor a real one, since rle uierenr polirical acrions kepr iglring
eacl orler. Ir is also imporranr ro nore rlar rle Spanisl Ialane was
maue up o poorly euucareu anu poorly rraineu inuiviuuals. In
1939, Spain miglr lave become more ascisriseu, bur rle Ialane
lackeu skilleu bureaucrars anu rlis also sloweu uown rle process.
As ]avier Tusell anu Cenoveva Carca Queipo ue Llano lave
poinreu our, Iranco was, ro a cerrain uegree, orceu ro rely on
rrauirional orces anu on rle army ro builu rle new srare.
36
Tle
ourbreak o rle Seconu Worlu War subsequenrly prevenreu Iranco
rom going ro Rome ro meer rle Duce. Accoruing ro Iranco, rlis
rrip woulu lave been rle irsr imporranr srage o lis polirical
rraining. Mussolini was rlen acing many serious milirary problems.
Tlereore, le coulu nor be rle prorecror o anyone, leasr o all o
Narionalisr Spain. More imporranrly, Mussolini began ro regaru
Iranco as a possible rival in grabbing rle Irencl colonies in
norrlern Arica. Tleir rienuslip was by rlen 'una anistad jallida`,
anu rleir imperialisr ambirions now uepenueu enrirely on Hirler.
37
In 1943, wlen giving rle cabiner rle news o Mussolini`s arresr,
Iranco bursr inro rears. He was cerrainly more concerneu rlar le
miglr suer rle same uesriny rlan le was eeling sorry or a ar-
away companion. Bur in rle somerimes srrange worlu o
inrernarional relarions lis inerior posirion in rle Axis lierarcly
saveu lim rom being slor, or rom laving ro commir suiciue in rle
bunker like lis ellow ryranrs, Mussolini anu Hirler.
NOTES
1. ]oln I. Coveruale, Italian Intertention in tbe Spanisb Citil var (Princeron.
Princeron Universiry Press, 1975); reviseu Iralian euirion. I jascisti italiani alla
Guerra di Spana (Rome anu Bari. Larerza, 1977).
I NTERNATI ONAL IASCI SM, 191945 66
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2. Renzo De Ielice, 'La polirica ascisra nelle sabbie mobili spagnole`, cl.4 in Renzo De
Ielice, Mussolini il Duce. Io stato totalitario (Torino. Einauui, 1981), pp.331466.
3. Coveruale, I jascisti italiani (nore 1), pp.71.
4. Paul Presron, 'Mussolini`s Spanisl Auvenrure. Irom Limireu Risk ro War`, in Paul
Presron anu Ann Mackenzie (eus.), Tbe Republic 8esieed: Citil var in Spain
1931939 (Euinburgl. Euinburgl Universiry Press, 1996), pp.2151; Paul Presron,
'Iraly anu Spain in Civil War anu Worlu War 193643`, in Sebasrian Balour anu Paul
Presron (eus.), Spain and tbe Great Iouers in tbe 20tb Century (Lonuon anu New
York. Rourleuge, 1999), pp.15184; Ismael Saz, Mussolini contra la II Republica:
bostilidad, conspiraciones, intertencin 1931193 (Valencia. Insrirur Alons el
Magnamim, 1986); Lucio Ceva, 'Conseguenze polirico-milirari uell`inrervenro
iraliano nella guerra ui Spagna`, in Cigliola Saceruori Mariano, Arruro Colombo anu
Anronio Pasinaro (eus.), Ia uerra citile spanola tra politica e letteratura (Iirenze.
Slakespeare, 1995), pp.21529; Lucio Ceva, 'Ripensare Cuauala|ara`, Italia
Contenporanea 192 (1993), pp.47586; Lucio Ceva, 'L`ulrima virroria uel Iascismo.
Spagna 19381939`, Italia Contenporanea 196 (1994), pp.51935. Oicial milirary
sruuies. Ieruinanuo Peuriali, Guerra di Spana e atiazione italiana (Rome.
Aeronaurica Milirare-Uicio Srorico, 1992); Alberro Rovigli anu Iilippo Sreani, Ia
partecipazione italiana alla uerra citile spanola, 4 volumes (Rome. Uicio Srorico
uello Sraro Maggiore uell`Eserciro, 199293).
5. Cianluca Anure, 'L`inrervenro in Spagna e la polirca esrera ascisra`, in Ismael Saz
(eu.), Italia e la uerra citil espaola (Rome. Cenrro ue esruuios lisrricos, 1986),
p.12.
6. Sranley C. Payne, Iascisn in Spain 19231977 (Mauison. Universiry o Wisconsin
Press, Mauison, 1999), p.26.
7. Rovigli anu Sreani (nore 4), Vol.1, testo, p.143; Anure (nore 5), p.14; De Ielice
(nore 2), pp.381, 385.
8. Brian R. Sullivan, 'Iascisr Iraly`s Milirary Involvemenr in rle Spanisl Civil War`,
journal oj Military History 59 (1995), p.73.
9. As rle relegram is rom beore 1 Ocrober 1936, rle expression 'governo ui Burgos`
musr be a poor rranslarion o rle Spanisl ']unra ue Burgos`, because rle irsr
governmenr lau nor been appoinreu yer.
1. De Rossi, relegram ro Ciano, 23 Seprember 1936, Docunenti Diplonatici Italiani
(DDI) (Rome. Isriruro Poligrao e Zecca uello Sraro/Libreria ui Sraro, 1952), Series
8, Vol.V, pp.158; Magaz, 'relazione riservara`, 17 Ocrober 1936, Arclivo
Renovauo (AR), Leggio (l.) 1459, expeuienre (e.) 3, Arclivo Ceneral uel Minisrerio
ue Asunros Exreriores (ACMAE), Mauriu; 'appunro` (wirl lanuwrirren nore by De
Peppo), 27 Seprember 1936, Cabinerro uel Minisrro 192343 (CAB) 5, Arclivio
Srorico-Diplomarico uel Minisrero uegli Aari Esreri (ASDMAE), Rome; 'appunro`,
26 Seprember 1936 (wirl unsigneu nore), CAB 5, ASDMAE; Magaz, relegram ro
Duque ue Almazan, 5 Ocrober 1936 anu 9 Ocrober 1936, AR, l.1455, e.1, ACMAE;
Duque ue Almazan, relegram ro Magaz, 1 Ocrober 1936, CAB 5, ASDMAE.
11. De Ielice (nore 2), p.385.
12. Duque ue Almazan, relegram ro Magaz, 2 Seprember 1936, AR, l.1455, e.1,
ACMAE.
13. Presron, 'Iraly anu Spain` (nore 4).
14. Magaz, lanuwrirren reporr, 17 Ocrober 1937, AR, l.1459, e.3, ACMAE.
15. Anronio Elorza anu Marra Bizcarronuo, _ueridos canaradas. Ia internacional
Conunista y Ispaa 19191939 (Barcelona. Planera, 1999), p.46.
16. Ibiu., p.461.
17. Reporrs by Beraruis. 6, 8, 13, 2 anu 27 Augusr, DDI (nore 1), Series 8, Vol.IV,
pp.762, 774, 7988, 8489, 8846; 3, 9, 17 anu 28 Seprember, DDI (nore 1),
Series 8, Vol.V, pp.91, 85.
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18. Quoreu in Roberr Mallerr, Tbe Italian Naty and Iascist Ixpansionisn 193519+0
(Lonuon. Irank Cass, 1998), pp.64, 87.
19. Ibiu., p.64.
2. Ibiu., p.64.
21. MacCregor Knox, 'Il ascismo e la polirica esrera`, in R.]. Bosworrl anu S. Romano,
Ia politica estera italiana, 1801995 (Bologna. Il Mulino 1991), p.326.
22. Ciuseppe Borrai, Diario 193519++ (Milano. Rizzoli, 1997), enrry or 19 November
1936.
23. Knox (nore 21), p.326.
24. Mussolini quoreu in Ismael Saz, 'El Iranquismo. :Rgimen aurorirario o uicrarura
ascisra`, in ]avier Tusell, Susana Sueiro, ]os Maria Marn anu Marina Casanova,
Il rinen de Iranco (Mauriu. UNED, 1993), Vol.1, p.2.
25. Coveruale, I jascisti italiani (nore 1), p.366.
26. De Ielice (nore 2), pp.3586.
27. Saz (nore 24), pp.194, 2. Ior De Ielice`s relucrance ro recognise any iueological
similariries berween rle various 'ascisr` regimes, see Renzo De Ielice, Iascisno
(Milano. Luni euirrice, 1998).
28. Minisrero uell`Inrerno, relegram ro Segrereria Parricolare uel Capo ui
Coverno/Esreri, n.61574, 27 Seprember 1936, CAB 7, ASDMAE; Segrereria
Parricolare, lerrer ro Caballero, 5 Ocrober 1936, CAB 7, ASDMAE; Segrereria
Parricolare, lerrer ro Caballero, 8 Ocrober 1936, CAB 7, ASDMAE; Caballero,
lerrer ro Mussolini, 8 ]anuary 1937, CAB 7, ASDMAE; Caballero, lerrer ro
Mussolini (wrirren on rle paper o rle Iralian embassy in Salamanca), 22 April 1937,
Uicio Spagna (US) 1, ASDMAE; Iralian embassy in Salamanca, 'relespresso` ro
Minisrero uegli Aari Esreri, 23 April 1937, seen by Mussolini, US 1, ASDMAE;
Canralupo, lerrer ro Pierromarcli, 19 April 1937, US 1, ASDMAE; Enrique Selva,
Irnesto Ginnez Caballero. Intre la \anuardia y el jascisno (Valencia. Pre-Texros
1999), pp.27282.
29. Peurazzi, relegram ro Ciano, 8 Seprember 1937; De Rossi, relegram ro Ciano 23
Seprember 1937; Peurazzi, relegram ro Ciano 5 Ocrober 1937; Peurazzi, relegram ro
Ciano 18 Ocrober 1937; anu nor leasr Anuso, relegram ro Ciano, 4 November
1937; all prinreu in DDI (nore 1), Series 8, Vol.V, pp.326, 156, 16676,
26972, 3878.
3. Caballero, lerrer ro Mussolini, 1 ]une 1937, CAB 7, ASDMAE (on rle reverse o
rlis uocumenr ir is wrirren rlar Caballero was receiveu by Mussolini on 12 May
1937).
31. Conue Carca, lerrer ro Iranco, 15 ]uly 1937, AR, l.1459, e.9, ACMAE.
32. Mussolini, relegram ro Viola, 9 Augusr 1937, Aurograi uel Duce, CAB 24, ACMAE.
33. De Ielice (nore 2), p.38.
34. Payne (nore 6), pp.2979; Paul Presron, Iranco (Lonuon. Ionrana Books, 1993),
pp.2889, 32.
35. Ciano, relegram ro Minisrero ui Culrura Popolare, 22 ]anuary 1938, US 2,
ASDMAE; Cabinerro uell`Inrerno, relegram ro Minisrero uegli Aari Esreri, n.3121,
8 Augusr 1938, US 2, ASDMAE; Viola, relegram ro Minisrero uegli Aari esreri,
'spese viaggio e soggiorno nel regno ui 2 maesrri spagnuoli`, n.3393, 5 November
1938, US 2, ASDMAE.
36. ]avier Tusell anu Cenoveva Carca Queipo ue Llano, Iranco y Mussolini. Ia politica
espaola durante la seunda uerra nundial (Barcelona. Planera, 1985), p.61.
37. Ibiu., pp.27189. Presron, 'Iraly anu Spain` (nore 4), pp.1746.
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