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Drag Coefficient
S V
D
C
D
2
2
1
L = Lift in N
D = Drag in N
= Density of air in kg/m
3
V = Velocity in m
3
/s
S = Wetted area in m
2
Procedure:
a) Prepare a wind tunnel and calibrate it with the lift drag balance and ensure it is
fully serviceable.
b) The operating instructions are to be meticulously followed.
c) Fix the model on the vertical string and lock it.
d) Close the test section and ensure that no items are left inside the test section
before closing.
e) Blank all the points.
f) Set the lift force indicator to zero.
g) Fix the required air velocity using the velocity indicator.
h) Now by changing the angle of attack the corresponding lift force is noted
down.
i) The same is repeated for different angle of attacks.
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl.No.
Angle of
attack ()
L D C
L
C
D
Graph: aerofoil (symmetric and cambered)
1) Coefficients of lift Vs angle of attack.
2) Coefficient of drag Vs angle of attack.
3) C
D
Vs C
L
.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
30 20 10 0 10 20 30
CL
CD
Graph: (bluff body)
4) Coefficients of lift Vs angle of attack.
5) Coefficient of drag Vs angle of attack.
6) C
D
Vs C
L
.
Result:
Thus, the characteristics of symmetrical, cambered airfoil and bluff bodies were
studied and the graphs are plotted between C
L
and .
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
20 10 0 10 20 30
CL
CD
EXP NO: - 6 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER ROUGH AND
SMOOTH CIRCULAR CYLINDER
Aim:-
To study the pressure distribution over rough and smooth circular cylinders.
Apparatus:-
1) Low speed wind tunnel
2) Multi-tube Manometer
3) Smooth and rough circular Cylinder model
Formulas used:-
Coefficient of pressure at port number x is given by:
C
p
x
= (p
- p
x
) / (p
0
- p
) = (p
x
- p
) / q
Note: p
o
= p
+ (1/ 2) V
2
p
o
- p
= (1/ 2) V
2
= q
Procedure:-
1. Prepare the low speed wind tunnel as per the instruction for the pressure
distribution.
2. Ensure proper electrical installation and other safety.
3. Ensure proper and adequate power supply.
4. Fix the cylinder in the test section over which the pressure distribution is to be
studied.
5. Connect the tubes bundle from multitube manometer to the corresponding
tubes in the cylinder model.
6. Switch on the tunnel for few minutes to warm up.
7. Now set the required velocity of airflow using DC motor controller knobs and
observe the displacement of the manometer liquid in all tubes, standing at
different levels and note them down.
8. Note the manometer readings for different velocities to get required Cp.
Tabulation for Smooth Cylinder
S.No Port No.
Cp
x
= (p
x
- p
) /
q
1
1
0.573286
2
2
-0.39413
3
3
-0.41205
4
4
-0.41205
5
5
-0.51954
6
6
0.340389
7
7
0.017915
8
8
-0.41205
9
9
0.143322
10
10
-0.37622
11
11
0.44788
12
12
0.985336
Along the cylinder surface
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 5 10 15
Cylinder
Cylinder
Tabulation for Rough Cylinder
S.No Port No. Cp
x
= (p
x
- p
) / q
1
1
0.573286
2
2
-0.39413
3
3
-0.41205
4
4
-0.41205
5
5
-0.51954
6
6
0.340389
7
7
0.017915
8
8
-0.41205
9
9
0.143322
10
10
-0.37622
11
11
0.44788
12
12
0.985336
Along the cylinder surface
Result:-
Thus the pressure distribution over a smooth and rough circular cylinder is calculated and
the graph is plotted.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Cylinder
Cylinder
EXP NO: - 7 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER SYMMETRIC &
CAMBERED AEROFOIL AND ESTIMATION OF C
L
AND C
D
Aim
To study the pressure distribution over a symmetric and cambered aerofoil and find
out the lift and drag coefficient.
Apparatus:-
1) Low speed wind tunnel
2) Multi-tube Manometer
3) Symmetric and cambered aerofoil model
Formulas used:-
Coefficient of pressure at port number x is given by:
Cp = (p
- p
i
) / (p
0
- p
) = (p
x
p
i
) / q
Note: p
o
= p
+ (1/ 2) V
2
p
o
- p
= (1/ 2) V
2
= q
Also
C
N
=(C
PL
C
PU
)dx/c
C
L
=C
N
Cos
C
D
= C
N
Sin
Procedure:-
1. Prepare the low speed wind tunnel as per the instruction for the pressure
distribution.
2. Ensure proper electrical installation and other safety.
3. Ensure proper and adequate power supply.
4. Fix the aerofoil in the test section over which the pressure distribution is to be
studied.
5. Connect the tubes bundle from multitube manometer to the corresponding
tubes in the aerofoil model.
6. Switch on the tunnel for few minutes to warm up.
7. Now set the required velocity of airflow using DC motor controller knobs and
observe the displacement of the manometer liquid in all tubes, standing at
different levels and note them down.
8. Note the manometer readings for different velocities to get required Cp.
Tabu
S
ulation for s
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
symmetric a
Port N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Cp P
Along th
aerofoil
o. Cp
Plot for Sym
he chord len
p
x
= (p
x
- p
0.573286
-0.39413
-0.41205
-0.41205
-0.51954
0.340389
0.017915
-0.41205
0.143322
-0.37622
0.44788
0.985336
mmetric aer
ngth
) / q
ofoil
Tabu
S
Resu
Thus
the gr
ulation for c
.No P
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
C
ult:-
the pressure
raph is plotte
cambered ae
Port No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Cp Plot for t
e distribution
ed
erofoil
Cp
x
= (p
q
0.57
-0.39
-0.41
-0.41
-0.51
0.34
0.01
-0.41
0.14
-0.37
0.44
0.98
the Camber
Along t
n over a Sym
p
x
- p
) /
q
3286
9413
1205
1205
1954
0389
7915
1205
3322
7622
4788
5336
red aerofoil
the chord le
mmetric and
l
ngth
d Cambered
aerofoil is ccalculated annd
EXP. NO: - 8 STUDY OF CALIBRATION OF SUPERSONIC WIND
TUNNEL
Aim
To estimate the efficiency of Supersonic wind tunnel
Apparatus Required
Supersonic wind tunnel
Manometer
Pitot tube
Formulas Used:-
Coefficient of pressure at port number x is given by:
Cp
x
= (2/ M
2
) [(p
x
/p
)
-1]
(p
o
/p
)
= [1 ((-1)/2)M
2
]
(/-1)
Procedure:-
Study of calibration of supersonic wind tunnel is done in 3 methods
1. Determining by Mach number:-
a) Run the tunnel
b) For a particular pressure take Manometer readings
c) Then calculate the Mach numbers at each port.
b) See the Mach number in the test sections should be equal.
2. Measuring pitot pressures
1. Connect the Pitot tube in test section
2. Connect the wall static to the manometer
3. Run the tunnel
4. Take the manometer reading
5. See that Mach number in the test section should be equal in all the places
3. Measuring static pressures
1. Take the cross section of the supersonic wind tunnel.
2. Directly measure the length from throat to each port.
3. Take height at each port.
4. Calculate the Mach number theoretically.
RESULT: Thus the calibration of supersonic wind tunnel is studied and its
efficiency is estimated
EXP. NO: - 9 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN NOZZLE USING
SUPERSONIC FREE JET
Aim
1. To study the jet decay characteristics along the jet axis
2. To obtain lateral spread characteristics of the jet.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Free-jet test setup, Traverse mechanism, Pitot probe for total pressure measurements, u-
tube Mercury manometer and meter scale, Barometer, Thermometer.
THEORY
Jets can be classified in a variety of ways. They can be classified as compressible
or incompressible jets based on the speed of the jet. They can also be classified as
laminar or turbulent jets based on the Reynolds number. Based on the jet cross section
shape, they are classified as circular or non-circular jets. Jets come under the category of
free shear flows. Jets which have free and unconstrained boundaries are called free jets.
Examples are nozzle exhaust jet into atmosphere, water jet issuing from a conduit or a tap
etc.
The flow of a jet can be divided into two regions; the mixing region and the
potential core. The potential core is that portion in the centre of the jet and near the exit
of the orifice through which the jet flows. In the potential core, the viscous effects are
negligible and the fluid can be considered to be inviscid. The first part of the mixing
region is the boundary of the jet near the exit of the nozzle. This mixing region widens as
the flow goes downstream. Far downstream, the whole jet will be a mixing region. In the
mixing region, the effects of viscosity and heat conduction have to be considered. In the
mixing region there are large variations in velocity and density.
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
The experimental set-up consists of a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle
connected to a high pressure compressor tank. The high pressure air is passed into the CD
nozzle through a moisture separator, dust collector and a pressure regulating valve to
control the mass flow rate through the duct. To laminarize the flow, three meshes are
fitted inside the diverging duct. The duct also consists of a settling chamber to which CD
nozzle is attached and the compressed air coming out as a free- jet into the open
atmosphere. The speed of the free-jet can be controlled by controlling the mass flow rate
through the pressure regulating valve.
CONDUCTING EXPERIMENT
In this experiment, the variation of jet total pressure along the centerline of a free
jet is measured to understand its decay characteristics. The jet is of circular shape. To
find its lateral spread characteristics the total pressure variations in the lateral direction ie.
Direction at different X positions i.e. X = 1, 2, 3, 4 are measured. The total pressure
probe is mounted in a traversing mechanism, which ensures the movement of the probe
along the jet axis.
CALCULATIONS
Velocity calculations:
P
P
= (1 +
y -1
2
M
2
)
y
y-1
Where,
P
0
is the total pressure
P is the static pressure
M is the Mach number
is the specific heat ratio ( fir air = 1.4)
DISTAN
CE
ALONG
X-AXIS
in(cm)
DISTAN
CE
ALONG
Y-AXIS
in(cm)
MANOM
ETER
READIN
G in
(cm)
Mach
No
Velocity
m/s
DISTAN
CE
ALONG
X-AXIS
in(cm)
DISTAN
CE
ALONG
Y-AXIS
in(cm)
MANOM
ETER
READIN
G in
(cm)
Mach
No
Velocity
m/s
0 13.5 0.49 170.86 0 5.9 0.33 114.82
3 13 0.48 167.84 3 5.4 0.32 109.97
6 11 0.45 155.05 6 5 0.30 105.92
9 7.2 0.36 126.48 9 4.3 0.28 98.38
12 2.8 0.23 79.66 12 3 0.24 82.42
14 2.4 0.21 73.82 14 2.6 0.22 76.80
0 10.5 0.44 151.65 0 5.4 0.32 109.97
3 9.9 0.42 147.44 3 5 0.30 105.92
6 7.9 0.38 132.28 6 4.5 0.29 100.60
9 5.5 0.32 110.96 9 3.5 0.26 88.92
12 4 0.27 94.95 12 2.7 0.22 78.24
14 3 0.24 82.42 14 2.4 0.21 73.82
0 12.9 0.48 167.23 0 5 0.30 105.92
3 12.2 0.47 162.87 3 4.8 0.30 103.82
6 7.2 0.36 126.48 6 3.9 0.27 93.78
9 5.4 0.32 109.97 9 3.5 0.26 88.92
12 3.9 0.27 93.78 12 2.5 0.22 75.32
14 2.9 0.23 81.05 14 2 0.19 67.45
0 8.2 0.39 134.68 0 4.3 0.28 98.38
3 7.4 0.37 128.17 3 4 0.27 94.95
6 6.2 0.34 117.63 6 3.7 0.26 91.38
9 5 0.30 105.92 9 3.4 0.25 87.66
12 2.8 0.23 79.66 12 3 0.24 82.42
14 2.7 0.22 78.24 14 2.2 0.20 70.71
0 7.4 0.37 128.17 0 4 0.27 94.95
3 6.8 0.35 123.02 3 3.7 0.26 91.38
6 5.5 0.32 110.96 6 3.4 0.25 87.66
9 4.5 0.29 100.60 9 2.8 0.23 79.66
12 3.4 0.25 87.66 12 2.2 0.20 70.71
14 2.6 0.22 76.80 14 1.8 0.18 64.02
0 6.5 0.35 120.36
3 6.2 0.34 117.63
6 5 0.30 105.92
9 4.1 0.28 96.11
12 3.2 0.24 85.08
14 2.4 0.21 73.82
6
7
8
9
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
From the above formula find out the Mach number.
M = u/a
a= yRI
Where T is the Lab temperature
So u = Ma
TABULATION
Sl.No
Distance along
jet axis in cm
Difference
in heights
h in cm
Mach
Number
Jet velocity in
m/s
1
2
3
4
5
PLOTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Variations of total pressure and local reference velocity with distance along centerline
of the jet
2. Variations of total pressure and local reference velocities in lateral direction at
different X values.
3. Comparisons of velocity profiles in lateral direction of the jet at different X values.
Result:
Thus the jet decay characteristics along the jet axis and lateral spread
characteristics of the jet are studied with graphs.
EXP. NO: - 9 FLOW VISUALIZATION USING SHADOWGRAPH
SYSTEM
Aim:-
To visualize the flow pattern in supersonic flow.
Apparatus Required
Supersonic free jet
Converging Diverging Nozzle
Shadow graph System
Camera
Introduction
Flow visualization has played an important role in understanding the fundamentals of
fluids phenomena. One of the most important applications of flow visualization was due
to Osborne Reynolds, a prominent innovator in fluid dynamics, in 1883. He investigated
the circumstances of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow by injecting a liquid
dye into the water flowing through a long horizontal pipe. From these experiments came
the famous dimensionless Reynolds number for dynamic similarity. Another powerful
flow visualization tool is schlieren/shadowgraph technique, which is able to visualize
'invisible' density gradients and has been applied widely to study combustion,
aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, etc.
Experimental Procedure
It consists of a light source which can be varied its intensity, lenses, screen and
cameras. Direct shadowgraph is shown in figure.
Shadowgraph image
Difference between Shadowgraph and Schlieren systems
Sl. No. Shadowgraph
Schlieren
1 Displays a mere shadow
Displays a focused image
2 Shows light ray displacement
Shows ray refraction angle,
3 Illuminance level responds to Illuminance level responds to
4 No knife edge used
Knife edge used forcutoff
Result:
Thus the study of shadow graph system is studied and the shadow graph image is
taken.
2
2
x
n
x
n
- p
i
) / (p
0
- p
) = (p
x
p
i
) / q
Note: p
o
= p
+ (1/ 2) V
2
p
o
- p
= (1/ 2) V
2
= q
Also
C
N
=(C
PL
C
PU
)dx/c
C
L
=C
N
Cos
C
D
= C
N
Sin
Procedure:-
1. Prepare the low speed wind tunnel as per the instruction for the pressure
distribution on the Wedge aerofoil.
2. Ensure proper electrical installation and other safety.
3. Ensure proper and adequate power supply.
4. Fix the aerofoil in the test section over which the pressure distribution is to be
studied.
5. Connect the tubes bundle from multitube manometer to the corresponding
tubes in the aerofoil model.
6. Switch on the tunnel for few minutes to warm up.
7. Now set the required velocity of airflow using DC motor controller knobs and
observe the displacement of the manometer liquid in all tubes, standing at
different levels and note them down.
8. Note the manometer readings for different velocities to get required Cp.
Tabu
S
Resu
Thus
ulation :-
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Al
ult:-
the pressure
Port No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Wed
long the cho
e distribution
Cp
x
=
0
-0
-0
-0
-0
0
0
-0
0
-0
0
0
dge aeroflil
ord length
n over Wedg
= (p
x
- p
)
q
.573286
0.39413
0.41205
0.41205
0.51954
.340389
.017915
0.41205
.143322
0.37622
0.44788
.985336
ge aerofoil is
/
s calculated and the grapph is plotted..