Performance Evaluation of Swimmers

Scientific Tools
David J. Smith,
1
Stephen R. Norris
1
and John M. Hogg
2
1 Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada
2 Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Abstract The purpose of this article is to provide a critical commentary of the physio-
logical and psychological tools used in the evaluation of swimmers. The first-
level evaluation should be the competitive performance itself, since it is at this
juncture that all elements interplay and provide the highest form of assessment.
Competition video analysis of major swimming events has progressed to the point
where it has become an indispensable tool for coaches, athletes, sport scientists,
equipment manufacturers, and even the media. The breakdown of each swimming
performance at the individual level to its constituent parts allows for comparison
with the predicted or sought after execution, as well as allowing for comparison
with identified world competition levels. The use of other on-going monitoring
protocols to evaluate training efficacy typically involves criterion effort swims
and specific training sets where certain aspects are scrutinised in depth. Physio-
logical parameters that are often examined alongside swimming speed and tech-
nical aspects include oxygen uptake, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, blood
lactate accumulation and clearance rates. Simple and more complex procedures
are available for in-training examination of technical issues. Strength and power
may be quantified via several modalities although, typically, tethered swimming
and dry-land isokinetic devices are used. The availability of a swimming flume
does afford coaches and sport scientists a higher degree of flexibility in the type
of monitoring and evaluation that can be undertaken.
There is convincing evidence that athletes can be distinguished on the basis
of their psychological skills and emotional competencies and that these differ-
ences become further accentuated as the athlete improves. No matter what test
format is used (physiological, biomechanical or psychological), similar criteria
of validity must be ensured so that the test provides useful and associative infor-
mation concerning current or future performance. The practical worth of any
proposed testing or monitoring protocol should be carefully evaluated. In addi-
tion, the developmental stage of the athlete(s) in question should be reflected in
the testing/monitoring programme. Finally, increasing technological innovations
will bring to the pool deck or dry-land training area simple, fast and advanced
diagnostic tools, particularly in the areas of blood-borne markers of training re-
sponse and neuromuscular excitability.
CURRENT OPINION
Sports Med 2002; 32 (9): 539-554
0112-1642/02/0009-0539/$25.00/0
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved.
Successful competitive swimming performance
requires that a talented swimmer has developed
his/her technique and physical conditioning to a
high level and that the competition performance is
reliable (consistent high-quality swimming) through
the heats, semi-finals (when necessary) and finals.
Technique and conditioning are supported by a
strong psychological platform, appropriate tactical
awareness and a healthy body. The road to success
at Olympic and World level competitions may take
between 6 to 16 years of structured training, train-
ing developed by a coach who utilises intuition,
experience and scientific knowledge. The key to suc-
cess does not lie in training hard, but in training pur-
posely and carefully.
[1]
This requires that a swim-
mers training is planned and monitored and that
competition performance is evaluated with respect
not only to final time but also to technical compo-
nents and strategy. Components affecting swim-
ming performance include basic speed, stroke me-
chanics, starts and turning ability; the physiological
factors of basic and specific endurance, anaerobic
power and capacity, muscle power and flexibility;
and finally the psychological factors of motivation
and stress management. Evaluation of these com-
ponents together with analysed training and com-
petition data should subsequently be used for im-
proving the training prescription, the aim being
enhanced competitive performance. The purpose
of this article is to provide a critical commentary
of scientific tools used in physiological and psy-
chological disciplines as they are utilised in the
evaluation of swimmers.
1. Competition Performance Analysis
Competitive swimming performances have
been divided into three main elements: starting,
turning and clean swimming,
[2]
and finishing speed
in the last 5 to 20m of a race is considered as a
fourth element. In 1988, partitioning of these tech-
nical elements was used to analyse the Japanese
Olympic Trials,
[3]
and stroke rate, stroke length
and mid-pool swimming speed was analysed at the
Seoul Olympic Games.
[4-6]
The idea of competition
analysis started before 1980, but it was not until the
European Championship in Bonn, 1989, that per-
formance analysis in its current formbecame inter-
national. Research in the USSR and East Germany,
identified through film and video analysis that
presented specific objective data of the technical
components of a race was critical to coaches and
swimmers for enhancing training and competition
performance.
[7]
1.1 Methodology of Competition Analysis
In order to perform a race analysis, video foot-
age is recorded from several video cameras oper-
ating froma central control panel or as separate video
recordings. The videotape includes encoded time
displayed on the video picture and the video sys-
tem is linked to the electronic timing system of the
pool, which is activated by the starters signal. The
first analysis, performed at the European Champi-
onships in Bonn, 1989,
[7]
used cameras placed high
up in the stands, located at measured distances of
10m (start distance), 25m, 42.5m (turn distance
7.5m in 7.5m out), 90m (finishing distance) and
92.5m(turn distance for an event longer than 100m).
On playback, when a swimmers head touches a
digital line superimposed on a video monitor at the
above distances, the encoded time or frame number
is recorded in a computer. Split and final times
fromthe electronic timing systemare also captured
and incorporated into an individual swimmers
competition analysis report. The start distance of
10m and turn distance of 7.5m in and out was ini-
tially used based on measurements of over 400 So-
viet swimmers. The majority ended gliding at 10m
after the start and engaged in swimming motion
and similarly after a turn, had finished gliding by
7.5m. However, in January 1991 La Federation Inter-
nationale de Natation (FINA: the international gov-
erning body for competitive swimming) adapted new
rules for the backstroke events allowing a swim-
mer to be completely submerged during a turn and
for a distance of not more than 15m after the start
and each turn. Thus, for the backstroke events the
start distance for video recording increased from
10 to 15m and the turn to 10m since most swim-
mers emerged by that distance. The current format
540 Smith et al.
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
used by Ligue Europeenne de Natation (LEN: Eu-
ropean Swimming Federation) is a 15m start and a
turn distance of 5m in and 10m out and a final
finish distance of 5mfromthe wall for all events.
[8]
The calculation of the finish speed uses the time
difference from when the swimmers head touches
the 5msuperimposed line to touching the wall with
a hand but is divided by 4.5m rather than 5m, be-
cause the arm reach to the wall is estimated to be
0.5m.
1.2 Stroke Rate, Stroke Length and
Efficiency Index
Aswimmers average speed during clean swim-
ming (the portion of a race that excludes the start,
turns and 5m finish) is equal to the product of
stroke rate and length. Early investigations on the
relationships of these two variables in competitive
swimming
[9-11]
overestimated stroke length be-
cause it was calculated from the assumption that
stroke length equalled swimming speed divided by
stroke rate, where the calculation of swimming
speed was based on event distance divided by fin-
ishing time. This meant that the calculation did not
account for the dive start, or any variation in mid-
pool swimming speed and turning times.
[12]
How-
ever, with video and computer analysis techniques,
stroke rate and length are currently calculated for
every 25m section of a race up to a race distance
of 200m and every 50m for 400m upwards. The
clean swimming speed and subsequent stroke rate
and length are determined between distances after
a 15m start, mid-pool, and pre- and post-turn (ei-
ther 5 or 10m) and a finish distance from the wall
of 5m. Stroke rate is measured as the number of
seconds or frames required to complete 1 or 2
stroke cycles and stroke length is calculated using
the formula: stroke length (m) = swimming speed
(m/sec) divided by stroke rate (cycles/sec). Swim-
mers normally increase their swimming speed by
a combination of increasing stroke length and/or
stroke rate. Of these two speed components, it has
been concluded that stroke length is the most crit-
ical factor in achieving success in competi-
tion.
[5,10,13]
A stroke efficiency index can be calcu-
lated by multiplying swimming speed by stroke
length. This index assumes that at a given speed,
the swimmer who moves the greatest distance per
stroke has the most effective swimming tech-
nique.
[14]
Generally, fast swimmers have a longer
stroke length and higher efficiency index, but at
the elite level there are some variations based on
individual technique and feel for the water. As a
race progresses, there is a progressive reduction in
a swimmers efficiency index and comparison be-
tween race efforts for an individual swimmer could
be a useful marker of training effectiveness. To
increase speed in the short-term (within a race) a
swimmer should strive to increase stroke rate
while maintaining stroke length and in the long-
term (over the course of a season), the swimmer
should increase stroke length while maintaining
any decrease in stroke rate.
[15]
1.3 Practical Use of Competition Analysis
The information obtained in competition anal-
ysis is collected in a scientific manner to reduce
error of measurement so that accurate data can be
used by a coach within a swimming meet or be-
tween numerous international events. During a
meet, sport scientists endeavour to provide the
coach with both individual results and summary
results fromall swimmers participating in an event
before the next session begins (i.e. heat results be-
fore semi-finals/finals). An example of an individ-
ual swimmer report is presented in table I.
The analysis allows a coach to find weak and
strong points in the temporal aspects of a race and
check that race strategy and target stroke rates
were executed according to a race plan. It also per-
mits comparison with performance variables of
opponents so that the information can be applied
to developing technical improvements in training.
A history of the best technical components (start,
turn, clean swimming speeds and finishing time)
achieved in recent international competitions can
be found at www.swim.ee, the website of Dr R.
Haljand,
[16]
and an example of a comparison be-
tween swimmers is given in table II. The winner of
any swimming race is not necessarily the swimmer
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 541
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
with the fastest clean swimming speed, but the one
who executes all technical components well and
swims fast enough.
2. Monitoring of Training and
Performance Potential Via
Specific Protocols
The accurate analysis and assessment of various
components of performance within the training
context is an important process for coaches and
sport scientists to include as an integral aspect of
the training and competition programme of a swim-
mer.
[17-21]
Training and performance diagnostic pro-
tocols should provide the basis for an ability to: (i)
analyse the effects and trends brought about through
training; (ii) assess the quality, structure and pre-
paredness for competition; (iii) predict future com-
petitive performance; and (iv) provide recommen-
dations for continued directional training.
[17,22,23]
In addition, the primary areas of interest are likely
to be: (i) highest short-duration speed attainable
(i.e. 25m); (ii) the speed at maximal aerobic power;
(iii) the speed at physiological steady state; (iv)
swimming economy; and (v) anaerobic capacity. As-
pects of physiology and biomechanics are bound
together in close concert when dealingwithsport per-
formance and, therefore, these two elements should
be combined when examining the information
gained from particular sport-specific monitoring
protocols. Furthermore, swim coaches, in keeping
with other coaches, often have a battery or reper-
toire of sport-specific sets that they employ at
particular times during the training format to gauge
the progress and capability of their athletes.
[24,25]
However, this enthusiasm for data collection
should be tempered by the realisation that testing
in and of itself is no guarantee of future improved
performance and that it is critical that the practical
worth (i.e. the association with performance and
the relationship with other relevant factors) of any
proposed testing or monitoring protocol is care-
fully evaluated to avoid the potential situation of
gathering data that has little real world use. In
addition, it should also be understood that the test-
ing/monitoring programme may well need to re-
flect the differences in requirements between fledg-
ling, accomplished and elite performers and their
respective future performance goals.
Aside from the use of actual race performance
data (arguably the highest forms of training and
monitoring), maximal effort swims (in training
time trials) may be used to establish benchmark com-
parison points. In addition to direct cross-reference
to competition speed, it is also possible to derive
an individualised swimming speed versus time per-
formance curve based upon a series of criterion
efforts as shown in figure 1.
[3,26,27]
A few prominent research groups have built
upon the critical power concept described by
Monod and Scherrer
[28]
to establish protocols to
examine current training status and potential per-
formance capability, as well as recommendations
for training design, via various linear and non-linear
methodologies.
[3,26,27,29-31]
The review by Hill
[32]
provides a complete synopsis of the mathematical
models applicable to this concept. In general, al-
Table I. An example of a swimmer summary compiled after competition video analysis in the 100m freestyle final (John Doe: World Team,
lane 4, 1st finisher)
a
Distance
(m)
Time
(sec)
Lap time
(sec)
Clean speed
(m/sec)
Stroke Turn time
(15 m) [sec]
Turn speed
(m/sec)
rate (cycle/min) length (m) index (m m/s)
25 10.83 2.06 49.3 2.45 5.06
50 23.86 23.86 1.98 48.0 2.48 4.91 7.20 2.08
75 35.93 1.93 46.2 2.51 4.84
100 49.19 25.33 1.89 49.3 2.30 4.34
Mean 24.59 1.97 48.2 2.43 4.79
a The time and speed for result, first half, second half and 15m start were 49.19 sec, 2.03 m/sec; 23.86 sec, 2.10 m/sec; 25.33 sec, 1.97
m/sec; 5.87 sec, 1.74 m/sec, respectively.
542 Smith et al.
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
though few world class swimmers actually swim
the curve in terms of events, a basic goal for a
swimmer is to move his/her global swimming speed
versus time performance curve upwards and to the
right as shown in figure 2. An interpretation of this
shift is unlikely to be definitive without other in-
formation to include or exclude possible contribu-
tors (biomechanical, physiological and psycholog-
ical). However, the overall result is an improved
ability to sustain a particular (attainable) swim-
ming speed.
Several other non-invasive swimming tests
have been discussed in the literature such as the
30- and 60-minute swim tests (T30 and T60)
[33,34]
and the 2000
[35]
and 3000m swim tests,
[36]
all of
which supposedly give some representation of aer-
obic endurance capacity. The T30 and T60 tests
require the swimmer to cover the greatest distance
that they can in the set time allowed, whereas the
2000 and 3000m swims require the stated distance
to be completed in the shortest possible time. De-
spite the view that such tests give an indication of
an extended performance capability/endurance ca-
pacity (at least beyond competitive pool swim-
ming events, i.e. 1500m), typical average speeds
(m/sec) resulting from these tests are unlikely to
be uniform, thereby reflecting different levels of
physiological intensity. That is, world class swim-
mers would cover the 2000m with the fastest aver-
age speed, the 3000mand the T30 with a somewhat
similar speed and the T60 with the slowest average
speed when comparing these tasks with each other.
Such tests are based upon the interrelation-
ship between oxygen consumption (V
.
O
2
), blood
lactate concentration (B[La

]), and swimming

speed (see figure 3) and, in particular, the exten-
sive body of work commenting upon the use of
B[La

] as an indicator of the degree of effort by, or

Table II. An example of a comparison of swimmers: European Championships 2000, womens 100m breaststroke (reproduced from
Haljand,
[16]
with permission)
Parameter World best Kovacs Gerasch Bondarenko
Result (min:sec) 1:06.99 1:08.38 1:09.28 1:09.81
Start time 15m (sec) 7.69 8.28 8.48 8.50
Start speed 15m (m/sec) 1.95 1.81 1.77 1.76
Lap time (sec)
25m 14.48 15.12 15.64 15.84
75m 48.92 50.02 51.10 51.82
Swim speed (m/sec)
1st 25m 1.58 1.46 1.40 1.36
2nd 25m 1.46 1.46 1.40 1.36
3rd 25m 1.39 1.39 1.39 1.36
last 25m 1.36 1.34 1.35 1.35
Frequency (cycles/min)
1st 50m 49 47 52 37
2nd 50m 47 46 53 50
Stroke length (m)
1st 50m 1.78 1.87 1.62 2.20
2nd 50m 1.75 1.74 1.54 1.62
Turn time 5m in + 10m out (sec) 9.86 10.36 10.36 10.28
Turn speed 5m in + 10m out (m/sec) 1.52 1.45 1.45 1.46
Finishing time last 5m (sec) 3.34 3.42 3.40 3.21
Finishing speed last 5m (m/sec) 1.35 1.32 1.32 1.40
Average swimming speed (m/sec) 1.45 1.41 1.38 1.36
Average frequency (cycles/min) 48 46 52 43
Average stroke length (m) 1.77 1.80 1.58 1.91
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 543
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
impact upon, a swimmer during training and com-
petition.
[17,21,33,34,37]
Various methodologies have evolved to exam-
ine B[La

] eachwiththeir ownstrengths, weaknesses

and requirement for some degree of expert inter-
pretation that goes beyond purely the obvious right-
ward shift of the B[La

]/speed relationship. Usu-

ally some rationale is cited that suggests the ability
to provide information on preferred training inten-
sity(ies), endurance performance prediction and
adaptation to training.
[38-41]
Although B[La

] test-
ing protocols have been used in athletic settings for
several decades, it is important for all those con-
templating incorporating such methods and/or eval-
uating the results fromsuch tests to understand that
this is a highly controversial area, both at the basic
and applied levels.
Although there is a large body of peer-reviewed
literature available concerning blood lactate and
related topics, even a cursory examination of some
of this material will reveal not only a significant
number of cited testing methodologies, but also an
over-abundance of terminology and jargon that
may or may not be used interchangeably, and/or
refer even to similar physiological occurrences. It
should be apparent that the use of a single blood-
borne parameter (in this case B[La

]) as a stable
indicator of events taking place at the muscle level
under all conditions and possible methodologies
should be viewed with a critical appreciation of the
myriad of underlying limitations. Aspects such as
the temporal component, site of collection, and
type of blood sample taken may all influence the
resulting numeral representation, even before the
blood is presented for analysis by a particular in-
strument, which itself may also introduce another
level of variability.
[38,42-46]
Further complications
arise when one considers that factors such as an
athletes nutritional status (i.e. degree of glycogen
availability or dehydration) and the prevailing en-
vironmental conditions (i.e. hypoxia/altitude or
high temperature/high humidity) may also have
profound effects on the B[La

] results.
[38,45,47]
Despite the extensive list of potentially con-
founding factors, the use of blood lactate measures
in training and competition situations continues to
be undertaken and promoted as a routine proce-
dure. The basic premise is that, as intensity of effort
increases (i.e. power output or swimming speed),
the B[La

] rises as a reflection of the systems in-

volved in the production of energy required to per-
form the task and is further modulated by the un-
derlying mechanisms involved in dealing with
lactate turnover. Therefore, the rate of accumula-
tion of B[La

] depends upon the intensity level of

the swim, while the magnitude of the B[La

] is
determined by the duration of the event.
A clear example of a swimming-specific meth-
odology using B[La

]/speed is illustrated in the

2 400m 2-speed test
[48]
and subsequent cross-
reference to longer duration swimming (e.g. the
T30 and T60 protocols) and race performance.
[34]
It is important to realise that a mosaic of informa-
tion may be gleaned from such a format of moni-
toring. In the case of the B[La

], particularly using
methodologies such as Mader et al.,
[48]
Olbrecht et
al.
[34]
and Pansold and Zinner,
[17]
information may
be gathered concerning abilities to perform at par-
ticular swimming speeds (or variable B[La

] lev-
els), fixed B[La

] (or variable swimming speeds),

maximum swimming speed and peak B[La

]. This
information may then be used to more accurately
evaluate current performance capacities and de-
sign and control training programmes, as well as to
predict future competitive performance outcome.
S
w
i
m
m
i
n
g

s
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
e
c
)
Time (sec)
25m
100m
3000m
200m
50m
400m
1500m
800m
Fig. 1. Generic swimming speed versus time relationship.
544 Smith et al.
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
Overall, figure 4 illustrates the normal desired
training response of this measure, that is, a shift
down and to the right of the B[La

]/speed relation-
ship.
[1,17,21]
The kinetics of B[La

] may also be warranted

for examination under conditions where a pre-
viously established high B[La

] is then assessed
during either static or low-intensity dynamic re-
covery. This form of examination may provide spe-
cific information concerning the ability of a swim-
mer to clear or remove lactate, something that has
obvious benefits for endurance performance.
[1,49,50]
As with any measurement tool, the process of under-
taking the protocol and the conditions surrounding
it must be carefully controlled, together with a thor-
ough understanding of potentially confounding is-
sues. As Goldsmith
[51]
remarked: Physiological
variables, biomechanical variables, state of rela-
tive rest/fatigue, nutrition status, state of dehydra-
tion/rehydration will all need to be determined and
accurately measured to ensure a reliable test is car-
ried out. Recently, Olbrecht
[1]
has produced a com-
prehensive review of the training and performance
literature to illustrate the potential use of examin-
ing B[La

] and heart responses in swimmers in re-

lation to swimming speed.
The technical limitations of the routine meas-
urement of V
.
O
2
in the majority of swimming train-
ing situations has led to the development and evo-
lution of a number of field tests where heart rate
is determined at particular swimming speeds thereby
providing coaches with a more easily obtained
physiological/performance relationship (figure 5).
This use of simple heart rate versus swimmingspeed-
based protocols has widespread use in swimming
programmes based on Treffene
[52]
with the Cana-
dian 5 200m descending set (Johnson D, per-
sonal communication) and the Australian 7 200m
test
[21]
being prime examples. These tests are basi-
cally identical and allow the coach and sport sci-
entist to examine a number of variables and con-
structs. The overall relationship may be used as an
indirect marker of the economy of the swimmers
ability to effectively use his/her usable heart rate
range as swimming speed increases. The slope of
this relationship may be used indirectly to quantify
this economy and may further serve to indicate
states of transient or longer lasting fatigue, as well
as optimal states of preparedness (figure 5). In ad-
dition, even without attaining maximumheart rate,
a prediction of the speed that a swimmer first at-
tains maximum heart rate may be identified which
may itself be used to approximate the swimming
speed at maximal V
.
O
2
(V
.
O
2max
). Such tests may
also be combined with other simultaneous meas-
ures such as B[La

] evaluation.
[1]
3. Oxygen Update and
Swimming Economy
Some investigators have examined swimming
economy based on the relationship between V
.
O
2
and swimming speed.
[53,54]
V
.
O
2
measures during
swimming date back to 1920,
[55,56]
and as research
progressed, significant differences in the energy
cost of swimming at various speeds between un-
trained, competitive and elite swimmers was re-
ported by Holmer
[57]
and the regression slopes be-
tween V
.
O
2
and swimming speed were also shown
to be different for untrained, recreational and com-
petitive swimmers.
[53]
A flatter economy slope
could mean that swimmers have better physiolog-
S
w
i
m
m
i
n
g

s
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
e
c
)
Time (sec)
Swimmer A
Swimmer B
Pre-training
Fig. 2. Fundamental desire involves shifting the curve up and
to the right. The figure illustrates the potential for the relationship
between swimming speed and time to be improved over a time
period and reflect the possible bias of training and the plasticity
of a given swimmers adaptability.
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 545
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
ical adaptation, or that they have lower active
drag.
[58]
However, since V
.
O
2
is linearly related to
the intensity of effort at less than 100% V
.
O
2max
,
[59]
estimates of energy expenditure apply only to
slower swimming than competition speeds. Thus,
there is doubt that measurements of V
.
O
2
have any
relevance to economy during competition.
[14]
Nev-
ertheless, these estimates may provide an evalua-
tion of improvements in swimming technique and
assessment of aerobic power.
Propelling efficiency in front crawl swimming is
related to the amount of mechanical power parti-
tioned into overcoming drag forces.
[54]
Furthermore,
metabolic power output in front crawl swimming
is related to speed cubed.
[54]
Significant positive
correlations have been reported between V
.
O
2
and
swimming speed cubed (r = 0.96 to 0.99) and V
.
O
2
and stroke rate (r = 0.92 to 0.99).
[59]
Furthermore,
it was found that the slopes of the regression lines
between V
.
O
2
and swimming speed cubed and be-
tween oxygen demand and stroke rate were signif-
icantly negatively related to swimming perfor-
mance (speed at 100%peak V
.
O
2
). Better performers
were highlighted with lower V
.
O
2
stroke-rate slope
values and attained a significantly lower stroke rate
and longer stroke length at specified speeds.
[59]
The finding supported previous results by Costill
et al.,
[60]
and Craig and Pendergast
[10]
who demon-
strated that advanced swimmers were able to swim
a greater distance per stroke at a given speed than
poorer swimmers. Thus, it is suggested that the
swimmer who covers a greater distance per stroke
at a given speed, spends less metabolic power in giv-
ing masses of water kinetic energy change (wasted
power) and more into overcoming drag (useful
power).
[61]
To increase maximal swimming speed
and stroke length, swimmers must: (i) maximise
propulsion and propelling efficiency; and (ii) re-
duce active drag from the water.
[62]
With this in
mind, training studies have demonstrated improve-
ment in technical proficiency and a consequent re-
duction in metabolic cost of swimming at a given
speed after training.
[63]
Furthermore, the slope of
the swimming economy regression equation has
been shown to decrease significantly following
training.
[64]
4. Anaerobic Power and
Strength Evaluation
The effective assessment of anaerobic perfor-
mance from both a power and capacity point of
view is another important aspect of a swimmers
evaluation. However, tests examining anaerobic
capabilities are not as well developed as those for
supposed aerobic qualities and may require spe-
cialist equipment (i.e. metabolic measurement ap-
paratus) and involved protocols. An example of
which is the anaerobic capacity method of Medb
et al.,
[65]
based on the theory behind an accumu-
lated oxygen deficit. Currently, the use of explo-
sive tests or short-duration sprints serve to provide
some information regarding anaerobic power and
peak B[La

] levels post-race may also aid the

coach with regard to anaerobic capacity assess-
ment dependent upon interpretation. These tests
need relatively little equipment other than a swim-
ming pool, stopwatch, and relatively inexpensive
micro-sample blood lactate analysers. In fact, the
knowledgeable design of specific swimming sets
and subsequent execution can provide a great deal
of appropriate information regarding anaerobic
performance concerning power, capacity, and the
physiological/psychological mix of dealing with
an encroaching transient metabolic acidosis (lac-
B
[
L
a

]
Swimming speed (m/sec)
B[La

] peak*
B[La

] at MSS**
VO
2max

V
O
2

(
L
/
m
i
n
)

VO
2
at MSS**

Fig. 3. Swimming versus blood lactate concentration (B[La

]
mmol/L) and oxygen consumption (V
.
O
2
). V
.
O
2max
= maximal ox-
ygen uptake; * peak typically seen post-200m race perfor-
mance; ** some arbitrarily defined maximal steady state (MSS).
546 Smith et al.
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
tate tolerance). A key aspect to bear in mind with
such tests (indeed with any test) is the extent to
which it is actually correlated with performance.
Although muscular performance is determined
principally by the amount of energy made avail-
able for muscular activity, and the rate with which
energy can be used, sprinting speed cannot be traced
back to a shortage of energy. In most cases it is
attributed to strength, coordination and technique.
[1]
Various scientific methods have been developed to
assess muscular power for starting and turning, and
predict sprinting performance based on either
strength in dry-land conditions or swimming speed
under tethered conditions. A close association has
been typically accepted between sprint swimming
performance and vertical jumping height, and leg
extension power measured under isokinetic condi-
tions has been correlated with diving distance (r =
0.76).
[66]
Force and power production that simulate
actions used in butterfly and freestyle swimming
may be measured by the Biokinetic
1
swimbench
(Isokinetics, Richmond, California, USA). Although
it cannot duplicate the arm and hand action used in
the water, it does allowthe swimmer to incorporate
in one motion most of the muscle groups and me-
chanics required during sprint swimming.
[14]
Early studies demonstrated a strong relation-
ship between upper body strength and sprint swim-
ming (r = 0.93)
[67]
and sprint time for 25 yards in
swimmers less than 16 years old.
[68]
However, since
the best swimmers do not necessarily produce the
highest swim bench scores, it has been suggested
that maximal swimming speed and tethered swim-
ming force could be used to evaluate the balance
between the technical performance and the swim-
mers capacity for muscular production in the wa-
ter.
[69]
Adaptation of a Biokinetic system for
tethered swimming at cable velocities of 0.8 m/sec
for female and 1.0 m/sec for males up to a maxi-
mum distance of 12 to 15m away from the appara-
tus have been developed.
[70]
Further modifications
have been made to use the control mechanismfrom
a Cybexergometer. Arecent study examined the
relationship between swimming power, intra-cy-
clic linear body speed fluctuations and sprint
breaststroke performance using an adapted Cybex
dynamometer to measure swimming power.
[71]
The correlation between swim power and breast-
stroke sprinting speed was r = 0.64 (p = 0.11) and
0.87 (p < 0.05) for males and females, respectively.
However, the correlation between swimming power
and breaststroke performance for 91.4 and 365.8m
was r = 0.91 and r = 0.86, respectively (p < 0.05).
The study illustrated that the ability to effectively
generate power during a partially tethered sprint
was a predictor of both sprint and endurance
breaststroke performance.
5. Psychological Tests in
Competitive Swimming
There is convincing evidence that athletes can
be distinguished on the basis of psychological
skills and emotional competencies. These differ-
ences become obvious as the athlete improves.
Successful performance is governed by core psy-
chological factors that can positively or negatively
affect outcomes, notably, anxiety, confidence, con-
B
[
L
a

]
Swimming speed (m/sec)
B[La

] peak*
B[La

] at MSS**
Pre-MSS Post-MSS
Pre-peak Post-peak
Pre-training
Post-training
Progression in swimming speed
at two example B[La

]s
Fig. 4. Swimming speed versus blood lactate concentration
(B[La

] mmol/L) before and after a specific training phase. *

Peak typically seen post-200m race performance; ** some ar-
bitrarily defined maximal steady state (MSS).
1 Use of tradenames is for product identification only and
does not imply endorsement.
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 547
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
centration and motivation.
[72]
The use of valid and
reliable psychometric tests is one way to identify a
swimmers mental strengths and weaknesses and
the information can be used to better understand,
monitor, and develop efficient training and competi-
tive protocols to ensure successful performance. Col-
lecting psychometric data is not without contro-
versy and applied sport psychologists have generally
found that athletes dislike taking trait and state
tests primarily because they are viewed with mis-
trust and test results alone have never proved to be
accurate predictors of success. However, it is im-
portant to recognise that scientific knowledge can
be based on valid and reliable tests as well as on
observational approaches provided certain precau-
tions are in place.
Psychometric tests are derived in the first in-
stance from the general field of psychology, and
should be systematically developed for validity
and reliability, before being adapted to suit specific
sport environments, levels of ability and age groups.
The selected constructs should bear direct rele-
vance to the sport, for example, anxiety and com-
petitive swimming.
[73]
It is likely best to collect
trait measures reflecting personality tendencies
first, for example, competitive trait anxiety,
[74]
be-
fore intruding with state measures reflecting con-
ditions immediately before competition, for exam-
ple, competitive state anxiety.
[75]
State measures
can be taken once the practitioner is familiar with
the swimmers and has been unreservedly accepted
by them. Tests can be used to tease out personality
characteristics and dispositions, to create personal
profiles, to assess current psychological states and
cognitive coping skills, to identify problems and
appropriate interventions.
Psychometric tests require a quantitative ap-
proach to analyse the data accurately and the resul-
tant statistics require meaningful interpretation.
Repeated measures should be taken over time with
the swimmer. Hannin
[76]
suggested that scores be re-
corded in conjunction with performance results to
identify an optimal zone of functioning (IZOF). With
the careful collection of state scores patterns of be-
haviour may emerge that can be adjusted or changed
to produce best performances. Popular tests have
addressed personality factors, the measurement of
select constructs, mood disturbances, sport orien-
tations, team cohesion, and so on, and generally as
a construct emerges from the psychology literature
that has practical application in the sport-specific
context it will be utilised. Personology tests that
aim to establish a relationship between personality
traits and performance outcome have enjoyed be-
lievers as well as sceptics.
[77]
However, only those
versatile tests whose items are relevant to the sport
will yield useful information. Table III provides a
selection of inventories that have been used with
competitive swimmers. A resource of tests/inter-
ventions has been compiled by Ostrow.
[78]
State measures can be difficult to obtain but
where there are shortened versions of tests that re-
quire minimal time and intrusion, then these might
be more apt, for example, the Mental Readiness Form
(MRF) and Profile of Mood States (POMS). Opti-
mal mood profiles need to be sport specific.
[104]
Multidimensional constructs of importance to a
competitive swimmers performance have been
addressed elsewhere,
[88,105]
and research has been
conducted that supports the usefulness of specific
H
e
a
r
t

r
a
t
e

(
b
e
a
t
s
/
m
i
n
)
Swimming speed (m/sec)
* Denotes example 'slope' parameter
range under various conditions
Test 1
Test 2
HR
max
Test 1
*
*
Test 2
HR
submax
S
submax 1
S
submax 2
S
max 1
S
max 2
Fig. 5. Swimming speed versus heart rate. HR
max
= maximal
heart rate; HR
submax
= submaximal heart rate; S
max
= speed at
maximal heart rate ; S
submax
= speed at a given submaximal
heart rate.
548 Smith et al.
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
measures to create meaningful psychological pro-
files and helpful strategies.
[106-109]
There are new
areas of research focus, such as body image, per-
fectionism, and learning styles; however, Jones and
Swain,
[110,111]
in relation to anxiety, have pointed
to the increasing need to examine the intensity and
Table III. Summary of select psychological inventories and tests used in competitive swimming
Constructs to be measured Test (acronym) Reference
Anxiety
Competitive trait anxiety The Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) 74
Competitive state anxiety (cognitive anxiety; somatic
anxiety; confidence)
The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI2) 75
Competitive trait anxiety (cognitive anxiety; somatic
anxiety and concentration)
The Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) 79
Stress/recovery Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (REST-Q) 80
Attention Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) 81
Mood states
mood states (tension; depression; anger; vigour; fatigue;
confusion)
Profile of Mood States (POMS) 82
Mood states (tension; depression; anger; vigour; fatigue;
confusion and confidence)
Modified POMS 83
mental health (swimmers) [emotional stability;
self-confidence; dominance; self-knowledge; affiliation]
84
Sport confidence The Strait-State Confidence Inventory (TSCI) 85
Sources of confidence Sources of Sport-confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ) 86
Mental coping skills
Mental coping skills (concentration; anxiety;
management; mental preparation; motivation; team
emphasis)
The Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 (ACSI) 79
The Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport (PSIS) 87
Mental skills The Mental Skills for Swimmers Questionnaire 88
Coping strategies Controlling emotions; Organizing input; Planning the
subsequent response; and Executing the appropriate actions
(COPE)
89
Mental readiness The Mental Readiness Form (MRF) 90
Performance evaluation Mental States of Readiness and Satisfaction (MSRS) 91
Evaluation of strategies The Self-regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) 92
Attribution The Sport Attributional Style Scale (SASS) 93
Motivation
approach-avoidance Approach-avoidance Motivation Scale for Sports (AMSS) 94
task-ego orientation Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) 95
assessment Motives for Competition Scale (MCS) 96
Specialisation Sport Socialisation Questionnaire (SSQ) 97
Distractions/demands Daily Analyses of Life Demands for Athletes (DALDA) 98
Team cohesion The Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) 99
Sport orientation (competitiveness; desire to win; desire to
fulfil personal goals)
The Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) 100
Personality (extraversion; agreeableness; neuroticism;
conscientiousness; openness to experience)
The Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness (NEO)
Personality Inventory (NEO-PI)
101
Self-concept The General Sports Orientation Questionnaire (CSOQ) 102
Perfectionism The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) 103
Performance Evaluation of Swimmers 549
Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2002; 32 (9)
direction of competitive state anxiety, while Vealey
et al.
[86]
suggested that examining self-confidence
in athletes should include a closer look at the spe-
cific causes and consequences.
An alternative methodology to measurement in
swimming is a qualitative approach that seeks to
establish the experiences of the swimmer in deter-
mining his or her mental competencies, response
patterns and immediate needs in order to cope with
anxieties, losses of concentration, confidence and
motivation. This information is more specific and
encourages the swimmer to make intra-individual
comparisons rather than against established norms,
that is, how the swimmer is feeling relative to how
he or she normally feels in this situation. Butler
and Hardy
[112]
introduced performance profiling
which has been used in many sports including
swimming,
[105]
and other approaches include self-
recording, check listing,
[108,113]
assessing mental
skill abilities,
[88]
self-reflective exercises that eval-
uate performance states of readiness and satisfac-
tion,
[91,114]
monitoring tools for stress-recovery,
[114]
and the consistency of coping responses of young
swimmers in competition and training.
[115]
Moti-
vational interviewing can identify specific compet-
itive preparations
[116]
as well as monitor and assess
the effectiveness of cognitive techniques, for exam-
ple, goal setting
[117]
or problem solving on issues
that are dysfunctional to performance.
The American Psychological Association,
[118]
as well as applied sport psychologists,
[119,120]
have
pointed to the need to safeguard ethical principles
(notably privacy and confidentiality) and to follow
an established code of conduct when using inven-
tories. Practitioners needtobe aware of anymethodo-
logical shortcomings of tests, to follow procedures
accurately, to recognise any personal limitations in
test administration or interpretation and to be con-
servative in their feedback with the athletes. The
information gathered should not be used on its own
and certainly not for selection purposes but rather
in conjunction with keen observation, discussion,
explanation and attentive listening. Few tests are
entirely free from the contamination of measure-
ment error and it may be better to be a healthy sceptic
than to unreservedly embrace suspect results and
make false promises. Finally, there is always the
x-factor or compensatory competencies or alterna-
tive hypotheses in performance to consider. Tests
are not a means to identifying elite performers, but
can help provide additional knowledge to enhance
swimming performance provided these insights
are used in an ethical fashion.
6. Conclusion
In summary, competition video analysis pro-
vides the most comprehensive evaluation of a
swimmers true state of preparedness. The factors
of technique, conditioning, motivation and stress
management together with tactics and health are
integrated into a single measurable performance.
Teasing out of the factors by separate evaluation
tools is necessary to analyse these underlying com-
ponents to assess the strengths and weakness of the
swimming performance and identify that the com-
ponents are at a level that they are assumed to be.
Since some evaluation protocols are more practical
than others, the timing and selection of tests should
always be considered. It should be clearly recognised
by all concerned (coaches, swimmers and sport sci-
entists) that for monitoring or evaluative protocols
to be effective, they must be incorporated into the
training and competition programme in an inte-
grated and seamless manner.
The future for on-going monitoring in swim-
ming, indeed with all human performance endeav-
ours, is an exciting one as increases in technology
and the migration of equipment and techniques
fromresearch and the medical sciences bring to the
pool deck or dry-land training area simple, fast and
advanced diagnostic tools, particularly in the areas
of blood-borne markers of training intensity and
neuromuscular excitability.
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formance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of
Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, AB T2N
1N4, Canada.
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