The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Periods of Banat (Romania)

THE PREHISTORY OF BANAT
I. The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic

Editors-in-Chief
Nikola Tasi (Belgrade)
Florin Draovean (Timioara)
Editors of the first volume
Borislav Jovanovi (Belgrade)
Editorial Board
Bogdan Brukner (Novi Sad)
Nikola Tasi (Belgrade)
Borislav Jovanovi (Belgrade)
Gheorghe Lazarovici (Cluj-Napoca)
Dragana Antonovi (Belgrade)
Valeriu Srbu (Brila)
THE ROMANIAN ACADEMY THE SERBIAN ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES AND ARTS

THE MUSEUM OF BANAT TIMIOAR
The Publishing House of the Romanian Academy
Bucharest, 2011
THE PREHISTORY OF BANAT
Editors-in-Chief
Nikola Tasi and Florin Draovean
I. THE PALAEOLITHIC AND MESOLITHIC
Edited by
Florin Draovean and Borislav Jovanovi
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THE TIMI COUNTY COUNCIL AND THE MUSEUM OF BANAT
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Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei
Te Prehistory of Banat / editors-in-chief: Nikola Tasi and Florin Draovean ;
ed. by Florin Draovean and Borislav Jovanovi. - Bucureti: Editura Academiei
Romne, 2011-
vol.
ISBN 978-973-27-2057-8
Vol. 1 : The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic.- 2011. - ISBN 978-973-27-2058-5
I. Tasi, Nikola (ed.)
II. Draovean, Florin (ed.)
III. Jovanovi, Borislav (ed.)
94(498)
Copyright 2011, Te Publishing House of the Romanian Academy.
All rights reserved.
FOREWORD 11
(Dr Nikola TASI)
FOREWORD 13
(Dr Florin DROVEAN)
I. INTRODUCTION 15
II. THE PALAEOLITHIC IN BANAT 19
(Ion Cornel BLTEAN)
II.1 General considerations 21
II.1.1 General remarks on the period
II.1.2 Some terminological remarks on the use of quartz/quartzite
as raw material in some Palaeolithic setlements in the Banat 22
II.2 Geological structure in the Banat region 23
II.2.1 General remarks 23
II.2.2 Te SviniaSvinecea 24
II.2.3 Te Presacina 25
II.2.4. Te CernaJiu 26
II.2.5 Te ReiaMoldova Nou 27
II.2.6 Te Haeg 29
II.2. 7 Te Rusca Montan
II.2.8 Te CaransebeMehadia Depression 30
II.2.9 Te Bozovici Depression 30
II.2.10 Te Sichevia Depression 31
II.2.11 Te Fget Depression 31
II.2.12 Te Lugoj Depression 31
II.2.13 Te Oravia Depression 31
II.2.14 Te southern Apuseni Mountains 31
II.2.15 Some remarks on the rock types used in Prehistory 32
II.3 Quaternary sedimentary deposits in the Banat region 34
II.4 Research history of the Palaeolithic in the Banat region 39
II.5 Te Palaeolithic archaeological evidence in the Banat area 40
II.5.1 Pedological analyzes, sedimentological remarks on stratigraphical
profles of the palaeolithic setlements in the Banat 40
Table of Contents
6 | Table of Contents
II.5.1.1 Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave 40
II.5.1.2 Coava 41
II.5.1.3 GorneaDealul Cuniei 42
II.5.1.4 GorneaPzrite 42
II.5.1.5 PescariLivadiei Cave 42
II.5.1.6 RomnetiDumbrvia 43
II.5.1.7 TincovaSlite 44
II.5.2. Repertoir of Palaeolithic archaeological sites 45
II.5.2.1 Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave 45
II.5.2.2 Caransebe 46
II.5.2.3 Constantin Daicoviciu 47
II.5.2.4 Coava 47
II.5.2.5 Curtea 49
II.5.2.6 Curtea 49
II.5.2.7 Duleu 50
II.5.2.8 GorneaDealul Cuniei 50
II.5.2.9 GorneaPzrite 51
II.5.2.10 GorneaVodneac 53
II.5.2.11 Grdinari 53
II.5.2.12 IabalceaCerbului Cave 53
II.5.2.13 IabalceaPopov Cave 53
II.5.2.14 Leucueti 53
II.5.2.15 Liborajdea 54
II.5.2.16 PescariGaura Chindiei I Cave 54
II.5.2.17 PescariLivadiei Cave 54
II.5.2.18 Adis Cave 55
II.5.2.19 Duban Cave 55
II.5.2.20 OilorBobot Cave 55
II.5.2.21 Vraka Cave 55
II.5.2.22 RomnetiDumbrvia 56
II.5.2.23 RomnetiWater Cave 60
II.5.2.24 Sadova Veche 60
II.5.2.25 Bones Cave 61
II.5.2.26 La Hou Cave 62
II.5.2.27 TincovaSlite 65
II.5.2.28 Viag 68
II.5.2.29 Zvoi 68
II.6. Geochronological elements of the upper pleistocene from southwest Romania 68
II.6.1 Introductive issues. Several palaeoclimatical and chronological landmarks 68
II.6.2 Chrono-climatic sloting of the Banat Palaeolithic levels 69
II.7. Conclusions 70
II.7.1 Lithic industries using quartz/quartzite raw materials from southwest Romania 70
II.7.2 Te Banat Aurignacian industries. Characterisation and chronologic position 73
II.7.3 Lithic industries from southwest Romania assigned to the Tardigravetian horizon 75
III. THE PALAEOLITHIC IN NORTHERN SERBIA 77
(Duan MIHAILOVI, Bojana MIHAILOVI, Milica LOPII)
III.1 Natural environment 79
III.2 History of researches 81
III.3 Palaeolithic sites 82
III.3.1 Crvenka-At, Balata and other Palaeolithic sites in the vicinity of Vrac 82
III.3.2 Petrovaradin Fortress 85
III.3.3 Baranica Cave and Tabula Traiana Cave 87
III.3.4 alitrena Cave 89
III.3.5 Other Palaeolithic sites 90
Table of Contents | 7
III.4. Palaeolithic of Northern Serbia in its regional context 91
III.4.1 Middle Palaeolithic 91
III.4.2 Upper Palaeolithic 93
IV. THE MESOLITHIC IN BANAT 103
(Adina BORONEAN)
IV.1 Introduction Mesolithic studies in Romania 105
IV.2 Mesolithic in the Banat area 106
IV.2.1 Te Hou Cave 106
IV.2.2 Te Iron Gates 107
IV.2.2.1 Te environmental context of the Iron Gates sites 107
IV.2.2.2 Te Iron Gates climate 109
IV.3 Short history of the research 110
IV.4 Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic in the Iron Gates 111
IV.4.1 Te Early Mesolithic (130007200 cal BC) 113
IV.4.1.1 Cuina Turcului Rockshelter 114
IV.4.1.2 Climente II Cave 116
IV.4.1.3 Veterani Cave 117
IV.4.1.4 Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave 118
IV.4.1.5 Ostrovul Banului 118
IV.4.1.6 Te Early Mesolithic a summary 120
IV.4.2 Te Late Mesolithic (72006300 cal BC) 121
IV.4.2.1 Veterani Teras 121
IV.4.2.2 Rzvrata 122
IV.4.2.3 Icoana 123
IV.4.2.4 Ostrovul Banului 126
IV.4.2.5 Schela Cladovei 126
IV.3 Te Final Mesolithic (63006000 cal BC) 132
IV.3.1 Alibeg 132
IV.3.2 Final MesolithicEarly Neolithic contacts? 134
IV.4 Conclusions 136
V. CONTINUITY AND FUTURE RESEARCH 143
VI. APPENDIX 151
VI.1 Bibliography 153
VI.2 Figures 169
Te Banat, as well as the entire Middle Danube region of which it forms part,
is one of Europes most interesting geographical regions when it comes to studying
the formation and development of prehistoric cultures. In the north, it opens onto
the Pannonian expanses, onto the tall loess ridges and steppes, an area rich in water
resources and fertile land. In the east, the lef-bank tributaries of the Tisa (Tisza)
provided easy access to the rich Transylvanian hills which ofered game hunting
opportunities, but also precious mineral resources, copper, iron, gold and, especially,
salt indispensable for a pastoral economy. In the south, the Morava river valley
provided communication with the central-Balkan hinterland and, in some periods,
the Danube tribes, as a result of pastoral movement or, rarely, plundering campaigns,
reached as far as the prosperous Mediterranean world. Finally, in the west, the Sava
and the Drava, two large right-bank tributaries of the Danube, enabled contact,
varying in intensity, with the Alpine foothills which played an important role in
the development of metallurgy in the Bronze and Iron ages. In such a markedly
favourable geographical seting, the cultures to which the multivolume series Te
Prehistory of the Banat will be devoted arose and developed.
Geo-topographic and economic factors led to the Banat regions cultural and
historical unity. It is refected in the same or similar processes of culture formation,
the same or similar autochthonous substratum, the same or similar forms within
material culture, and similar levels of socioeconomic development. Te regions
cultural unity can be traced as far back as the late Palaeolithic. Continuing into
the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods, it was at its peak in the late Bronze and the
Iron Age. Te archaeological record abounds with supporting evidence such as
potery and, even more, metal tools, weapons and jewellery for very close ties and
economic interests among the prehistoric cultures in this broad area.
Te regions cultural unity on the one hand and the artifcial barriers in the
form of modern state borders on the other have reinforced the old idea of publishing
F
ew regions in prehistoric Europe were the scene of such a lively and constant
cultural, ethnic, stylistic, and economic interaction as the modern-day
Pannonian Plain in general and the Banat in particular. Over the millennia,
diferent prehistoric cultural groups coexisted or succeeded one another there, and
their diferent stylistic features lend particular interest to the study of the Banat
regions cultural past.
Foreword
12 | Foreword
a series devoted to the prehistory of the Banat as a region. Engaged in the project are the Romanian
Academy of Sciences, the Timioara Branch, the Museum of Banat and the Serbian Academy of
Sciences and Arts, the Novi Sad Branch, but also a number of Banat and Vojvodina museums: the
Museum of Vojvodina, Novi Sad; the city museums at Beej and Vrac; and the national museums at
Zrenjanin, Kikinda and Panevo. Te series will consist of fve volumes, each devoted to a period of
prehistory: I. Te Palaeolithic and Mesolithic; II. Te Neolithic; III. Te Eneolithic; IV. Te Bronze
Age; and V. Te Iron Age. Te project assembles many archaeologists from both Serbia, notably
Vojvodina, and Romania. Te two countries have a long tradition of archaeological collaboration
headed by G. Lazarovici, V. Dumitrescu, P. Roman, D. Berciu, F. Draovean, M. Garaanin, N. Tasi,
B. Jovanovi, R. Raajski, M. Giri, and especially the late Bogdan Brukner, who was one of the initi-
ators of the publication project and the co-author, along with the writer of these lines and Borislav
Jovanovi, of the seminal volume Te Prehistory of Vojvodina published by the Institute for the
Historical Study of Vojvodina in 1974. Given that many important prehistoric sites have since been
discovered in the Banat and other parts of Vojvodina, the basic idea of the team assembled round
this project is to present all excavation results for prehistoric sites in the Banat, and to ofer, based
on the archaeological record, an interpretation as complete as possible of the formation and devel-
opment of cultures in this part of Europe, their stylistic, cultural and chronological relationship with
the adjacent regions Pannonian, Transylvanian and Balkan their importance for the genesis of
other cultures in vertical and horizontal projections. Te plentiful archaeological material, previ-
ously unpublished, will also be included in this multivolume publication which will undoubtedly
make useful reading of more than local interest.
Belgrade, September 2010
Dr Nikola Tasi
Vice-President of the
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
From the very beginning, we must mention as the initiator and promoter
of this editorial project the outstanding personality of the late Professor Bogdan
Brukner, who, with his exuberant energy, managed to gather in 1995 a group of
researchers from the two countries who began to plan the writing of a prehistory
of Banat. Tis initial group included Nikola Tasi, Borislav Jovanovi, Milorad
Giri, Gh. Lazarovici but also the late Florin Medele, Marian Gum, Jovan
Uzelac. Following lively debates of ideas upon the archaeological data, the editorial
commitee decided to structure the work into fve volumes which focus, in sequence,
on the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Te research
work is to close with the period of the Roman conquest of Banat.
Te work, inaugurated now by the frst volume dedicated to the Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic, gathers the results obtained by research undertaken in this
geographic area in the later half of the twentieth century and the frst decade of
the new century and millennium. In this period, archaeological research in the two
parts of Banat, Romanian and Serbian, evolved at varying paces. If during the frst
three decades afer World War II the research undertaken by Serbian specialists
developed signifcantly and materialized in remarkable publications, since the
1980s the Romanian specialists have been the ones to take the initiative. At present,
a positive moment in Romanian archaeology, large-scale archaeological excavation
T
he historical province of Banat, defned by natural borders the Tisza
River to the west, the Danube to the south, the West Carpathians to the
east and the Mure River to the north is one of those areas which, due to
their special geographic position, represented an important contact zone between
the Balkans and Central Europe. Due to this fact, as both historical documents and
the present day situation show, Banat became an ethnic and cultural mosaic rarely
encountered elsewhere on the Continent, a mosaic in which various peoples and
ethnic groups setled, lived together and largely preserved their cultural identity
unchanged despite the vicissitudes of history. Tis characteristic feature, which can
also be traced in prehistory, was the main reason why a group of scholars from Serbia
and Romania came to the conclusion that it would be both useful and necessary to
edit a book dedicated to the prehistory of this area, an area divided afer World War
I among Serbia, Hungary and Romania.
Foreword
14 | Foreword
areas have been opened in the most important prehistoric sites under the patronage of the museums
in Timioara, Reia and Cluj-Napoca. Despite this fact, and although extensive research has been
undertaken on both sides, the vast majority of the material discovered has remained unpublished
or has only been the subject of dig reports, small-scale studies or, at best, of several monographs.
Tis situation, corroborated with the unfortunate lack of a joint strategy for the scholarly use of the
results, rendered dif cult the understanding of the cultural phenomena which took place in Banat
and made it impossible for researchers to write works of synthesis that present the ancient history
of the province in its entirety. Tis was the frst argument that triggered the initiative of editing the
Prehistory of Banat.
In the same time, the prehistoric civilizations that developed in Banat naturally expanded
beyond the present-day political borders and exerted a very strong infuence upon the neighbouring
areas, determining the birth and development of a new culture, both in the Pannonic and Central
European areas as well as the area of the Lower Danube. All these important contributions of Banat
to the evolution of the ancient history of a great part of Europe have strengthened the need for the
existence of such a work. Tese are several of the arguments that determined specialists in the two
countries to set out to edit a work of synthesis.
We hope that the publication of the Prehistory of Banat, which relies on previously unpub-
lished material resulting from research undertaken over the last six decades, will ofer specialists a
useful and necessary research tool both for understanding the cultural phenomena that took place
in this area at the dawn of history and for the clearer defnition of the role that Banat played in the
genesis and evolution of some of the prehistoric civilizations in Central and Southeast Europe.
Timioara, September 2010
Dr Florin Draovean
Te Museum of Banat Timioara
T
here is no doubt that the Banat region is of great signifcance for understanding
the cultural processes during the Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic, both
because of its geographical position and ecological characteristics, and of
the archaeological fnds recorded so far. On the one hand, the Banat is situated at
the intersection of geographical routes connecting the East and Central Balkans
with Central Europe and the Southwest Carpathians, making investigations in this
area of exceptional importance for the study of human migrations during early
prehistory. On the other hand, the Banat is situated on the southwestern fringes
of the Carpathian basin, where climatic and ecological factors were relatively
favourable (in comparison with the northern regions) and where conditions for the
exploitation of diverse ecological zones also existed. Terefore, it is not surprising
that the Banat was inhabited throughout most of the ages. It is no surprise that rich
Middle Palaeolithic sites, the earliest remains of modern man in Europe and very
important sites from Early and Late Upper Palaeolithic are to be found here or the
neighbouring regions. Of particular signifcance is the fact that a whole series of
Mesolithic sites were investigated in the southern Banat (including only a part of the
Iron Gates region). Tese sites gained worldwide fame for their unique heritage in
terms of the art, economy and society of the Mesolithic period.
Te writing of the frst volume on the Banat prehistory was associated with
great dif culties resulting from the uneven degree of investigations as well as the
inadequate degree of publication of archaeological and palaeoecological material.
Important problems were encountered when dealing with poor knowledge of
the palaeogeography of the region, the lack of absolute dates for some of the sites
and litle information on the sources of raw materials used for knapping. All these
factors made a synthetic approach to an integrated study of the Banat Palaeolithic
extremely dif cult.
Because of relatively small number of systematically investigated sites, we were
compelled to study the Palaeolithic of the region within a wider regional framework.
Another justifcation for such an approach lies in the fact that the lowland areas of
the Banat are naturally linked to the Pannonian basin, while the mountainous areas
are connected to the rest of the Carpathian range. Still, we had to deviate from this
particular approach as far as the Iron Gates area was concerned. Te volume only
presents the sites formally included in the Banat area, while the sites downstream
of the Iron Gates gorge proper were not included. Te sites on the right bank of
the Danube appear in the volume with less detailed information and are mentioned
only within the general approach to the Mesolithic development in the area.
Some of the Palaeolithic investigations from both sides of the Romanian
Serbian border were brought to the public eye for the frst time. We described in
detail the sites in western Romania with fnds from earlier excavations, but also
18 | Introduction
new data on recent Palaeolithic investigations in northern Serbia. Special atention was paid to
questions of wider regional importance and particularly to the transition from the Middle to the
Upper Palaeolithic. Tese new issues were triggered by the considerable breakthrough achieved in
this particular feld in both countries during the past few years.
Te Mesolithic sites on the lef Danube bank are considered in the context of more recent
interpretations, generated both by the availability of new
14
C dates, stable isotope analysis and new
excavations, employing new techniques and methodologies.
It is true that investigations of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in Southeastern Europe did
not follow the tempo of those in the western part of the continent, neither from the theoretical,
nor from the methodological aspect. At one point in time, research was mostly directed at compre-
hending the phenomena exclusively within state borders. Te Mesolithic research in the Iron Gates
was perhaps an exception, as specialists from various other countries were included quite early in the
research teams. More recent discoveries in Romania and Serbia also prompted international cooper-
ation. However, many things still need to be done. It is necessary to provide the conditions to ensure
access to scientifc resources and facilitate information exchange, as well as to coordinate and unify
research criteria and methods. Only these will help to address and perhaps solve problems of general
importance for understanding the cultural, economic and social changes in the early prehistory of
Southeast Europe.
II.1 General consideration
II.1.1 General remarks on the period
T
he passage to the Upper Palaeolithic, from the archaeological point of view,
across wide spaces, still involves some discussions about both the type of
the material and especially about its creators in the anthropological sense.
Te fact is generally known that in the Near East the frst Homo sapiens sapiens
populations came before the Neanderthalian groups and that in Europe the two
groups lived together and came in contact with each other by around 30,000 BP.
Te interdisciplinary research undertaken by contemporary archaeology
highlights diferent strategies of raw material exploitation, thus determining the local
origin, the origin from the nearest neighbouring area or from an area up to a radius
of 20 km, in some cases, up to 80 km (meso-local sources) or even beyond that, up to
a 1,000 km (extra-local sources). Te raw material supply took place either by direct
exploitation of an outcropping source at the moment of dwelling or by digging wells
through which the strata containing the desired raw material were reached, or by
bartering relations with other communities, a situation in which one could come by
both semi-fnished tools (cores, blades, chips) or by fnished tools (scrapers, chisels,
scratchers, etc.). It is the period in which we witness the qualitative and quantitative
increase of spiritual and artistic phenomena (ornamented pieces, cave paintings,
statuetes, etc.), the planned exploitation of a well-delineated territory (logistic
mobility) by task groups, circumstances under which we can speak of a hierarchy
of dwelling systems (residential setlements, temporary setlements). Starting from
the data supplied by the ethnology of the present-day groups of hunters-gatherers,
we can speak in the case of the Upper Palaeolithic of basic groups of 25 individuals,
of groups made up of 175 individuals who can ensure biological reproduction
and thus the survival of a population and of regional populations that can reach a
maximum number of 500 individuals. From an ethno-archaeological point of view
it is considered that a group made up of 25 individuals take up an area of approxi-
mately 250 m
2
.
1
Obviously, the scarcity of available data does not allow us a more nuanced
approach based on the archaeological material dug up on the Banat territory, in the
present-day state of research. We can only correlate the data reaped from this area
with the data from the more or less nearby areas, which, on account of objective
reasons and, why not, on account of sometimes subjective reasons, benefted from
a clearly superior extent of archaeological research focusing on the Palaeolithic Age.
1
DJINDJIAN, F. et alii 1999.
22 | Ion Cornel Bltean
Te Quaternary was beyond any doubt a fertile period regarding the morphological trans-
formations undergone by the temperate zone as the successive geographic states lef their strong
imprint on the organization of terrestrial geosystems. Some of these transformations were
substantial (extensions and withdrawals of sea shore, the shaping and building of subglacial and
proglacial morphological levels, the organization and reorganization of hydrographical systems
with the entire array of their consequences, the repeated reshuf ing of biotic systems under the
climatic spell, etc.). Others were more discrete, but almost everyone has lef conclusive evidence of
their existence.
Tese traces are not always easy to read and the spacial and temporal infuences ofen render
scientifc analysis dif cult. Te forms that remained relatively inert relict forms are relatively scarce
and they are only on a macroscale. Most of them have undergone functional changes depending on
the intensity and typology of morphogenetic feld typology.
Unfortunately, the archaeological research undertaken along the time in the Palaeolithic
setlements of the Banat have not benefted from extensive studies regarding the microsedimen-
tation context of the Palaeolithic dwelling levels, on the one hand, and on the other hand, they have
not considered the geomorphologic evolution of the area to which the Palaeolithic site belonged,
and so much the less it has considered the coroboration of relief forms with the Palaeoclimatic
information.
Te geomorphologists role is not only to identify the forms that belong to this period, but
also to solve the dif cult question of their genesis. To this efect, the specialist falls back on a varied,
interdisciplinary methodology. Te scientifc product is only valid when the form is expressed by
means of the geomorphological environment parameters, environment that engendered the form and
when it is contextualized in time and space.
Te expansion of spatial-analytical techniques may solve the inconsistencies that crop up
between the processual and areal geomorphological approaches, thus lending climatic geomor-
phology the power to solve the issue of spatial-temporal variations brought about by climate on the
forms of relief on condition that the relations climate-process-form should be clearly sorted out.
To conclude, we can say that the morphological transformation of the relief under the spell of
climatic parameters is a continuous process, even if the morpho-stratigraphic and pedo-stratigraphic
testimony may sometimes give the impression of sudden leaps of evolution followed by long periods
of relative balance.
As a consequence thereof, the present-day forms of relief keep many of the features of the
past states as the form has an intrinsic capacity of self-preservation and, in addition to it, the new
geological processes have partially or completely erased the testimony of the older ones
2
.
II.1.2 Some terminological remarks on the use of quartz/quartzite
as raw material in some Palaeolithic setlements in the Banat
Considering the fact that the terminological aspect represents one of the important sources of gener-
ating confusion in archaeology, we have tried as much as possible to use the international termi-
nology avoiding translations more ofen than not inaccurate as well as the use of terms referring
directly to certain more or less conspicuous human activities. Regarding the tool types we shall use
the recognized terms by the special-feld literature (especially by the French one), both for the purely
typological and for the technological aspects.
Technology. Before highlighting some aspects of quartzite chipping, the sorting out of a
terminological aspect of cortex and neocortex should be done:
2
PENDEA, F. 2005: 3.
The Paleolithic in Banat | 23
the cortex is an ofen irregular surface, of a diferent geological nature from the mass of
the material which delineates it and which is usually a poor transmiter of the percussion
energy. Tis is the reason why generally when one chips fint, one should frst decorticate
the nodule before one shapes the core and begins the actual knapping.
the neocortex is the outer layer of the river nodules, formed by mechanical weathering in
the water during transport; it is a smooth, regular surface, of the same geological nature as
the raw material that delineates it and which may be used as a percussion plane
3
.
Te knapping accidents, of the burin de Siret type, crop up as a result of an unwanted fracture
plane, which cuts through the percussion point and which divides the support into two more or less
equal parts
4
. One also fnds rfchi type accidents and, to a lesser extent, the outrepass type, which
are to be put down to a poor dosage of percussion intensity and to the variation of the mechanical
characteristics of the quartz block. One should also mention that the outrepass type accidents are
somewhat atypical forms due to the sudden change of direction of the shock waves along a less
resistant area falling perpendicularly on the cuting axis
5
.
In general, the lithic industries of quartz have been characterized as mediocre and atypical,
which made some prehistorians speak of an archaic character of these and this due to the raw
material which has a diaclasis-rich structure. Tus, the accidental fractures due to the shock
waves propagation along a plane of tectonical diaclasis are frequent accompanying the chipping
of vein quartz.
In the case of the vein quartz, the percussion bulb is visible, even the bulb cracks are sometimes
visible if the material evinces a fne structure. Anvil percussion is a technique that enables one to
obtain a series of chips of foreseeable shape, starting from nodules or vein quartz blocks that are
too big for one to hold them in ones hand, or from unusable cores on account of the dwindling
favourable angles
6
.
Te stigmata due to the use of a nodule as a percussor are recorded by the material on
percussion areas in two ways: with and without loss of material. Te hard direct percussion bring
about any knapping accidents, especially those of burin de Siret type, whereas direct percussion
with a sof percussor is used to accomplish certain edge shapes of some bifacial tools or retouchings.
What concerns the terminological aspect of typological makeup of quartz tool industries,
one generally uses recognized terms for the fint implements, but the typological variability is much
narrower and implicitly the use of some terms referring to subtypes of well-defned fint pieces is
harder to justify.
Before closing these lines, we would surely like to uter our wish and hope to be able to resume
the archaeological research on the Banat in order to grant more depth to the issues brought up by the
Palaeolithic discoveries here.
II.2 Geological structure of the Banat region
II.2.1 General remarks
From a geological perspective, the territory of the Banat belongs to the Southern Carpathians in
which one distinguishes two tectonic units: the Danubian Autochtonous and the Getic nappe
7
. Te
tectonic structure lends architecture to the relief, this being in close connection with lithology, too,
3
MOURRE, V. 1997: 202.
4
MOURRE, V. 1996: 208209; 1997: 205.
5
MOURRE, V. 1997: 208.
6
MOURRE, V. 1997: 207.
7
SNDULESCU, M. 1984: 210216; ONCESCU, N. 1965: 15; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 373.
which diferentiates the relief according to the origin of the constitutive rocks
8
and last, but not least,
with palaeoclimatology, which brings on structural changes
9
.
Te Danubian Autochtonous is generally built up of epimetamorphic crystalline schists
pierced by old granite intrusions, and sedimentary formations that cover the crystalline mountain
ranges; it crops out in the southwestern part of the Southern Carpathians, between the Olte Valley
and the Danube.
In the considered area, the Danubian unit outcrops within the Retezat Mountains and
within the larger part of the arcu, Cerna Mountains, Almj and the Mehedini plateau
10
. Across
this area certain parts are covered by formations that belong to the Getic nappe and partially to the
Severin nappe
11
.
In the Almj Mountains there are three pre-Hercynic granitoid bodies laid out from north
to south. Te Sfrdinu body, the northernmost one, is emplaced into the Ielova and the Poiana
Mraconia crystalline basement. Te Cherbelezu granite, lying more to the south, shoots through
the Corbu crystalline. Te Ogradena granite body, the southernmost one, was intruded into the
Neamu crystalline schists and has a complex structure
12
. Also in the area of the Almj Mountains
one can mention the basic and ultrabasic rocks from Iui and Plavievia set of by the serpentinite
range of Tisovia
13
.
Te intrusive body Muntele Mic has a northeastsouthwest strike and is made up of granites,
granodiorites and quartziferous diorites with porphiritic structure
14
.
Te pre-alpine sedimentary sequences have been preserved only on limited areas, most of
them being removed during the later exondations
15
.
Within the Alpine cycle, the Danubian autochthonous becomes submerged again; the
sedimentation occurs within longitudinally oriented areas which evolve as depressions (Svinia-
Svinecea, Presacina, Cerna-Jiu)
16
and lasts until the end of the Cretaceous with some discontinuities.
II.2.2 The SviniaSvinecea area is located in the southern part of the Almj Mountains
and is drained by the Danube between Cozla and Svinia; to the north it extends somewhat towards
the Svinecea Mare peak
17
.
Te Upper Carboniferous deposits are of a continental facies, prevailingly psephitic-psammitic
sequences, with coal, conglomerates, sandstones, and clay shales
18
.
Following the Carboniferous, the Permian sedimentary deposits have a continental-lacus-
trine character and are of terrigenous and volcanogenic origin. Te terrigenous deposits are made up
of conglomerates, sandstones, clay shales (ofen of a red colour) and freshwater limestone. Te fora
from the clay shales and the fauna from the freshwater limestone interspersed with the sandstones
8
IANOVICI, V. et alii 1969: 73; COTE, P. 1973: 38; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 104.
9
PENDEA, F. 2005.
10
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 338, Fig. 107; HARTA GEOL. 25: 16, 5152; HARTA GEOL. 31: 29; HARTA GEOL. 32: 11,
17; HARTA GEOL. 40: 11; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 364365; GEOG. ROM. 1983, 91; MUTIHAC,V.
1990: 227231, Fig. 59.
11
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 2021.
12
HARTA GEOL. 31: 29; HARTA GEOL. 32: 1720; HARTA GEOL. 40: 1112; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L.
1974: 366367, 377; SNDULESCU, M. 1984: 242; 248; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 233.
13
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 338339; HARTA GEOL. 32: 2526; HARTA GEOL. 40: 1315; COTE, P. 1973: 40, 236;
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 381382; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 373; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 235.
14
HARTA GEOL. 25, 28, 52; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 369, 376377; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 233.
15
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 236.
16
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 383; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 91; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 236237.
17
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 373.
18
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 344; HARTA GEOL. 40: 16; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 384; MUTIHAC, V.
1990: 237.
point to a Lower Permian age
19
. Te volcanogenic material is made up of rhyolites and more rarely
of basalts
20
.
Te beginning of the Jurassic is characterized by a marine transgression afer the exondation
which began during Permian. On the area outskirts, the Liassic starts with massive conglomerates,
followed by siliceous sandstones interspersed with argillaceous shales with coals. Tis succcession
is also present in Drencova area, where quartzarenites are overlaid by clay sandstones, marls and
abundant fossiliferous sandstones. Te Lower Jurassic sedimentary sequence ends with Toarcian
arcosik quartzarenite
21
.
In the central part of the Svinia-Svinecea area (at Munteana) one encounters a limestone
facies of the Liassic
22
. Here, afer a sedimentation intermission, the Dogger (Middle Jurassic) starts
with a micro-conglomerate level followed by spatic limestones, oolitic limestones and ferrugineous
limestones
23
, and in other marginal areas, as for example west of Svinia, this becomes very thin or is
completely absent. One mentions in the basal part an important sequence of whitish quartzarenites
interspersed with micro-conglomerates
24
.
Te Malm is mainly composed of limestones (the complete succession may be found in
the Munteana area and in the area of the village Svinia). At its basis lies a nodular red limestone
horizon, 5 to 15m thick, followed by a reddish-grey or greyish limestone horizon with silica bands
(jaspers). Tese bands become so frequent that they make up a 3 to 4 m thick horizon of silico-
lites (radiolarites)
25
. Tis horizon is followed by red limestones (marly limestones) with siliceous
accidents, with a thickness of 1015m
26
.
At the beginning of the Cretaceous, the Danubian domain evolves under conditions of tectonic
calmness, with the formation of carbonatic deposits. Te Neocomian includes stratifed, fossiliferous
micritic limestones, with fint bands
27
. Te Berriasian contains a bundle of fne limestone, and the
Valanginian and the Hauterivian include the rest of the limestone suite of the Neocomian, stratifed
micritic limestones with siliceous accidents, ofen in the form of bands
28
with a thickness of 2550m
which are outcropping in the Sirinia Valley and along the Vodnschi rut, close to Svinia village
29
.
Te stratigraphic column continues with alternating limestones and marly-limestones with
siliceous accidents
30
. Te Upper Cretaceous is represented by deposits bearing the imprint of tectonic
movements of the Late Cretaceous, which are made up of carbonatic sandstones and marly clays
31
.
II.2.3 The Presacina area, in its present-day structure, is delineated between the Caransebe
Mehadia couloir to the west and the Godeanu to the east, the lower Cerna river marking of its
southern edge, and the arcu Mountains, marking its northern edge
32
.
19
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 345; HARTA GEOL. 40, 16; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 384386; MUTIHAC,V.
1990: 237.
20
HARTA GEOL. 40: 17.
21
ONCESCU, N. 1965:, 345; HARTA GEOL. 40: 1718; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 387; MUTIHAC,V. 1990:
239, Fig. 60.
22
HARTA GEOL. 40: 17; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 239.
23
HARTA GEOL. 40: 1819; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 388; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 239.
24
HARTA GEOL. 40: 19.
25
HARTA GEOL. 40: 19; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 389, Fig. 143; TTRM,N. 1984: 113; MUTIHAC,V.
1990: 239240.
26
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 389.
27
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 347.
28
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 347; HARTA GEOL. 40: 20; TTRM,N. 1984: 199, Tab. 17; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 240.
29
30
HARTA GEOL. 40: 21.
31
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 347; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 390391; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 240.
32
Te conglomerates from the southern part of the Presacina area, on the basis of the similar-
ities to the area of SviniaSvinecea are ascribed to the Carboniferous. Te conglomerates and the
red sandstones, with thin clay strips to which volcanic material is added, are ascribed to the Permian
and may be found on the southwestern edge of the area, while in the central part they can be seen
along the MehadiaCornereva alignment
33
.
Te alpine cover is similar to the one of the SviniaSvinecea area, belonging to the Jurassic-
Cretaceous. Within the base of the Liassic suite conglomerates and sandstones prevail, and then
follow black clays and sandstones, with marly-limestone lenses
34
. Te Dogger starts with quart-
zarenites and arkosic sandstones and then the sedimentation continues with limestone deposits.
Te Malm (Upper Jurassic) is mainly carbonaceous, the series beginning with limestones and
siliceous accidents (50 m thick)
35
, which, without a palaeontological argumentation, are ascribed
to the Oxfordian. Tese strata are overlain by stratifed nodular, black-greenish limestones, which
are 2060 m thick. Te Malm deposits crop out in the basins of the valleys of the Ramna, Topla,
Ciumrna (the central part of the area of Presacina), in the valleys to the south and east of Mount
Arjana and two alignments running parallel to the river Cerna
36
. In the Bogltin area one mentions
nodular limestone of a reddish or greenish tint with rare siliceous accidents
37
.
From the Cretaceous (Valanginian and Hauterivian) one can observe micritic limestones
alternating with siliceous concretions
38
.
During the Upper Cretaceous, due to tectonic instability, a huge mass of rocks was deformed.
Te northern half of the Presacina area is covered by a volcano-sedimentary formation,
in which the pyroclastic material is associated with terrigenous materials made up of black clays,
sandstones, diferent limestone varieties (ofen fossiliferous), nodular limestones and jasper
limestones
39
. Based on palaeontological evidence one considers that the formation belongs to the
Middle and Late Jurassic (running up perhaps even to the Early Cretaceous).
From the tectonic point of view, the Presacina area is folded as one can distinguish synclines
and anticlines oriented northsouth
40
.
II.2.4 The CernaJiu area is delineated to the east by the Cerna valley as it stretches beyond
the Jiu valley along the southern slope of the Vlcan Mountains into the Olte valley, towards
Polovraci. To the south and the west the CernaJiu area stretches out towards the Cazane area
41
. Tis
area functioned as a marginal sedimentation area on which Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous
reefs formed
42
. Starting at the end of the Lower Cretaceous the CernaJiu area entered into a period
of tectonic instability
43
.
In the Cerna area, the grey stratifed limestones with siliceous accidents and the nodular black-
greenish, sometimes reddish limestones, which bear up against Stamberg facies massive limestones
are ascribed to the OxfordianKimmerindgian
44
.
Along the Dubova-Tople alignment a clear alochthonous succession crops out. Tree forma-
tions have been distinguished: the frst one is clayey-silty shales (80m thick), with siliceous nodules
33
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 347; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 393394; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 242.
34
35
36
TTRM,N. 1984: 113; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 243244, Fig. 60.
37
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 348; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 395.
38
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 244.
39
40
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 396397; GEOG. ROM. 1983, 91; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 246247.
41
42
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 389399; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 91.
43
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 247254.
44
TTRM,N. 1984: 114.
and thin strips of micrites and biomicrites belonging to the OxfordianEarly Tithonic; the second
one, prevailingly carbonatic (30m thick), contains especially clayey micrites and biomicrites with
silicious nodules and belongs to the Upper Tithonic-Berriasian; the third formation, an upper
clayey-silty one, does not contain silicolites
45
.
On the Mehedini plateau, the Nadanova strata that belong to the VranconianCenomanian
includes a lower level made up of alternating limestones with siliceous accidents (black fint) and marly
shales and an upper level made up of marly-limestones, marls and clays interspersed with fne sandstones
46
.
Te main tectonic elements and at the same time typical of the Danubian Autochthonous are
the duplicates. Te tectonic lay-out of the Danubian Autochthonous bears the imprint of the Getic
nappe overthrust
47
.
Te Getic nappe crops out across a wide surface in the Southern Carpathians from the Olt
Valley to the Danube and it contains mesometamorphic crystalline schists and a group of epimeta-
morphic schists
48
.
In our area of interest, the southern Poiana Rusc Mountains, Muntele Mic, the Semenic
Mountains, part of Almj Mountains and the ReiaMoldova Nou area belong to the Getic nappe
49
.
Te mesometamorphic crystalline schists of the Getic nappe are one of the most developed
and homogenous units from the Southern Carpathians, being made up of micaceous paragneisses,
micaschists, together with amphibolites, quartzites and subordinately crystalline limestones and
dolomites
50
. Te epimetamorphic crystalline schists are located in the southern half of the Poiana
Rusc and Semenic Mountains, where they overlay the mesometamorphic crystalline schists
51
.
Afer the completion of the Baikalian cycle
52
, the Getic domain evolved as an exondated area,
becoming again an accumulation area during the Upper Carboniferous. In the Jurassic it appeared
as a depression zone which would evolve later as a sedimentation area that is the ReiaMoldova
Nou area
53
.
II.2.5 The ReiaMoldova Nou area lies in the western part of the Banat, between the
two towns having a northsouth orientation
54
. Te pre-Alpine sedimentary cover contains prevail-
ingly continental deposits ascribed to the Upper Carboniferous (breccias and conglomerates with
torrential stratifcation, well-stratifed sandstones with clayly shales strips with coals) and to the
Lower Permian (black clayly shales interspersed with sandstones and micro-conglomerates, red
conglomerates, red or green clays)
55
.
Te Alpine sedimentary cover formed afer the Upper PermianTriassic exondation. One
ascribes to the Werfenian the quartz conglomerates and the quartzarenites with plant traces lying at
the botom of the succession, which discordantly cover older formations
56
.
45
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 402, Fig. 151; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 252, Fig. 60.
46
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 348; HARTA GEOL. 32, 31; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 405; TTRM,N. 1984:
202, Tab. 17; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 250.
47
48
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 1516, 324; HARTA GEOL. 32: 11, 12; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 409410;
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 257.
49
HARTA GEOL. 25: 16, 17, 5051; HARTA GEOL. 31: 9; HARTA GEOL. 32: 12; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 9091;
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 373; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 257, Fig. 64.
50
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 259.
51
HARTA GEOL. 25: 1719; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 414417, Fig. 157158; GRIDAN, T. 1981: 1416,
Fig. 2; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 261262, Fig. 64.
52
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 421423, Fig. 160161.
53
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 263.
54
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 332, Fig. 105A; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 91.
55
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 335; HARTA GEOL. 31: 1415; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 430432; MUTIHAC,V.
1990: 264.
56
TTRM,N. 1984: 49.
Te Liasic develops in the Gresten facies and includes polygenic conglomerates followed by
sandstones and shales with coal layers
57
. Basically, this period of time relates to so-called Steierdorf
Formation made up by three members: the conglomeratic member of Budinic, sandy member from
Terezia Valley and clay member of Uteri
58
. Te Dogger is prevailingly made of limestone, as one
encounters limestone with siliceous accidents (elipsoids) with Reineckeia anceps
59
. Tese sequences
are also called Gumpina limestones
60
followed by a sequence of metric or decimetre banks of
siliceous limestone, where the silica may sometimes prevail resulting in genuine silicolite banks. Te
Malm starts out through a marly-limestones level followed by dark limestones with siliceous bands
(250m thick), which lends a special aspect to those sedimentary rocks (they represent the Upper
Oxfordian and Lower Kimmeridgian) which pass into nodular limestones with rarely siliceous
accidents (Brdet limestones belong to Upper KimmeridgianLower Tithonian
61
. In the Reia
area the Lower Oxfordian formations are overlaid by a horizon of fne grey-yellowish limestones,
which is characterized by the presence of numerous layered siliceous accidents
62
. Basically, their age
is established without palaeontologic arguments, being deducted on grounds of stratigraphical links
with the under and suprajacent deposits
63
. Taking into consideration that the Inferior Oxfordian is
palaeontological dated within the marl-limestones of Tmaa through a fauna of ammonites, it is
admited for the limestone from Anina Valley a Superior Oxfordian age, established according to the
presence of the Colomisphaera fbrata species, but corroborated with the Superior Kimmridgian age
of the subsequent layers thus, it can be said that part of the limestone from Anina Valley are dated
from the Inferior Kimmeridgian
64
.
Te basis of the Cretaceous is represented by an alternance of sub-micritic limestones and
marly-limestones followed by a 150m thick sequence of marls and marly-limestones (Valanginian
and Hauterivian) covered by limestones with siliceous concretions (especially north of Cobelite
range)
65
and takes up the largest part of the ReiaMoldova area. Te Inferior Cretacic in the
section is based on the Formation of Marila Limestones (Inferior and Middle BerriasianSuperior
Valaginian), the Formation of the limestones from Plopa (Superior BarremiamGargasian) and
the Formation of sandstone from Gura Golumbului (Superior Clansayesian Albian)
66
. Te central
facies is well developed on the Mini Valley up to the confuence with Steier Valley and encloses
marly-limestones and grey or yellowish limestones with more or less spherical fint concretion,
with the diametre of 340 cm
67
. Te Barremian (massive organogenic limestones) in the Reia-
Moldova Nou area marks of the seting in of favourable conditions to the formation of the reef
facies. To the Lower Barremian one ascribes a level of stratifed limestones with spherical silici-
fcations
68
. With the Albian deposits (conglomerates, glauconite bearing sandstones, micaceous
sandstones and siltic clay) the sedimentary suite from the ReiaMoldova Nou area ends
69
. In the
57
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 335336; HARTA GEOL. 31: 1617; TTRM,N. 1984: 111; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 265266.
58
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 3038; 50.
59
HARTA GEOL. 31: 1819; HARTA GEOL. 121B; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 433, Fig. 163; TTRM,N.
1984: 111; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 266, Fig. 65; BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 50.
60
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 336; BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 125.
61
HARTA GEOL. 31: 2122; HARTA GEOL. 121B; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 434; TTRM, N.
1984: 112.
62
HARTA GEOL. 31: 20.
63
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 4647.
64
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 47
65
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 336; HARTA GEOL. 31: 24; HARTA GEOL. 121B; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 435;
TTRM,N. 1984: 197, Tab. 15; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 266267.
66
BUCUR, I. I. 1997: 9091.
67
HARTA GEOL. 31: 24.
68
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 336; BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 127.
69
HARTA GEOL. 31: 2527.
Reia area the Upper Cretaceous may be sporadically found at Doman, Radimna Valley and east
of Coronini
70
. On the other hand, there also may be encountered the so-called transition deposits
represented by the limestone from Lindinei Valley, accumulated in four sequences and charac-
terized by decimetre up to metric banks with numerous spheroidic, ellipsoidal or irregular silica
intrusions, located from stratigraphical and chronological perspective between the marl of Crivina
and the massive Barremien limestone
71
.
Te complete succession of the Lower Cretaceous (conglomerates and carbonaceous
limestones, marly sandstones, marly-limestones, detrital deposits and marl deposits) may be found
in the western part of the Almj Mountains, in the opot area, respectively
72
.
Having reached this point of our geological trip, it would be polite to mention that the Miniului
Valley, well-known to the archaeological literature from the past years due to the discoveries of early
times human bones, as well as due to multiple inhabiting levels, is is dug in the so-called Limestone
of Miniului Valley, of Superior Barremian age Apian (Bedoulian and Gargasian) setled due to
some conditions of the Urgonian bio-sedimentary system (plurality of favourable biologic, climatic
and dynamic conditions)
73
. Te carstic hyporelief from the Mini basin is made up of several small
and middle-sized caves, with relatively wide outward-looking openings, which were once part of
one of more underground complexes, whose communication is nowadays to a great extent silted up.
Within this carstic system, the main drainage levels are the following:
1. main drainage, active at present;
2. subfossile level;
3. fossile level, to which both Petera cu Oase (Cave with Bones) and other caves belong,
which at present are separated as a consequence of cave-ins and silt-ups (Petera Ponor-
Uscat, Petera din Dolin, Petera La Hou, Petera cu Abri).
Te sediment input that has been carried out by wind or by water seems to have been very
intense during the interglaciary periods
74
. Basically, the deposits accumulated in Pleistocene
Holocene in this micro-region are characterized by Pleistocene and/or Holocene gravel, clays
and sands, or calcareous tufa mainly encountered along the valleys which cross the calcareous
massif
75
.
II.2.6 In the Haeg area, the Middle Jurassic stratigraphic column (Dogger) also includes a
sequence of spatic violaceous silty limestones with siliceous accidents of about 40 m thick
76
. Te
Malm encloses a series of silexite stratifed limestones, identical with those from the Anina Valley
from the ReiaMoldova Nou area, and the Upper Jurassic ends with nodular, weakly silty strat-
ifed limestones, with rare red-greenish siliceous concretions
77
.
II.2.7 The Rusca Montan area was singled out as a sedimentation basin towards the end of
the Lower Cretaceous (reef massive limestones, detrital deposits) and evolved until the end of the
Cretaceous
78
.
70
HARTA GEOL. 31: 2729.
71
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 134.
72
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 337; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 438; TTRM, N. 1984: 199; MUTIHAC, V.
1990: 274, Fig. 67.
73
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 8087.
74
LAZAROVICI, G. et alii 2005: 355359.
75
BUCUR, I.I. 1997: 103.
76
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 444; TTRM,N. 1984: 111; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 268.
77
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 445; TTRM,N. 1984: 112; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 269.
78
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 363; HARTA GEOL. 25, 31, 3334; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 440443;
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 273274, Fig. 67.
Te TuronianConiacian deposits consist of grey muscovitic carbonaceous sandstones,
which gradually pass into hard reddish-grey marly-limestones, stratifed in banks (with a thickness
ranging between 5cm to 12 m), within which a level of silicolites crop up
79
.
Te Supragetic units also includes the northern part of the Poiana Rusc, Dognecea and
Locva Mountains, where one can fnd small exposures of mesometamorphic crystalline schists
80
; a
great development is shown by the Hercynic crystalline schists
81
.
Along a northsouth alignment, between Sasca and Moldova Nou, one can notice a fake-like
structure consisting of Triassic and Jurassic deposits
82
. Tese sedimentary rocks which belong to
the Jurassic (Dogger and Malm), are represented by micritic limestones, nodular limestones with
frequent siliceous accidents and silty-limestones
83
.
Towards the end of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Palaeogene, an intense magmatic
activity took place. Te intrusive bodies spread out along three north-south alignments
84
. Te
westernmost alignment runs along the Moldova NouSascaOraviaBoca RomnNdrag line.
Along this alignment, in the Rusca Montan area, one can fnd the TincovaNdrag mountain range,
consisting of diorites, granodiorites, andesites and subordonately rhyolites and dacites
85
. Te second
alignment, BerzascaopotPoiana Rusc, consists of granodiorites, diorites, gabbros, dacites,
andesites, lamprophyres
86
. Te easternmost alignment runs along the line LpunicelTeregova
Armeni and also includes small intrusive bodies, similar to the previous alignment
87
.
Laramic (Banatitic) magmatism represents the fnal act in the major lay-out of the Southern
Carpathians; the later changes (ruptural) have led up to the sinking of limited parts, which have
become sedimentation basins thus forming the postectonic or intramountainous depressions
88
.
II.2.8 The CaransebeMehadia Depression is delineated to the east by the Godeanu
and arcu Mountains, to the west by the Semenic Mountains, and to the south by the Almj
Mountains. Tis depression formed during the Badenian (represented by a sandy-conglomerate
level, followed by a marly-sand one and then by detrital and carbonatic deposits), being silted up
at the beginning of the Pliocene, represented by sands, gravels and clays
89
. Tis depression repre-
sents the last gulf through which the water from the Pannonian Lake thrust into the range of the
Carpathians.
II.2.9 The Bozovici Depression lies in the Nera basin
90
. It came into being during the
Burdigalian or even during the Aquitanian and is flled by continental-lacustrine deposits with
torrential stratifcation including conglomerates, carbonatic limestones, sands, gravels, marls and
ribbon clays
91
.
79
HARTA GEOL. 25, 32; MUTIHAC,V. 1990:273.
80
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 279280.
81
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 281285, Fig. 6869.
82
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 288.
83
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 289.
84
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 292.
85
HARTA GEOL. 24, 1618; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 448450; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 293.
86
HARTA GEOL. 31, 3031; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 450451.
87
MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 451; TTRM, N. 1984: 204; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 375; MUTIHAC, V.
1990: 293.
88
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 355356; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 294.
89
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 368369, Tab. 10; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 460462; GRIDAN, T. 1981: 6364;
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 299300, Fig. 71.
90
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 401.
91
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 369, Tab. 10; HARTA GEOL. 31, 32; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 462; MUTIHAC,V.
1990: 300.
II.2.10 The Sichevia Depression lies in the western part of Almj Mountains. Its flling
consists of continental-lacustrine deposits that contain conglomerates and gravels, followed
by sandstones, marls and clays
92
. On the outskirts of the depression one may fnd freshwater
limestones with siliceous concretions
93
. Te age of these deposits is the same as those from the
Bozovici depression.
Starting with the Badenian, some areas on the outskirts of the elevated areas that came in
contact with the Pannonian depression underwent a sinking and were covered by water. Tus,
they functioned as nearby (adjacent) depression areas near to the Pannonian Depression as the
tectonic lay-out and the lithofacial composition thereof lending the aspect of a plain to these
morphological units
94
.
II.2.11 The Fget Depression is bounded to the east by Dobra, and to the south of the Mure
it is crossed by the Bega River. Te Badenian develops in the eastern part being represented by marls
and clays, in some places with a carbonatic character (Lpugiu and Coteiu area), and the Pliocene
covers most of the depression with sands, gravels, clays and marls with torrential stratifcation
95
.
II.2.12 The Lugoj Depression stretches out among the Poiana Rusc Mountains (to the east),
Dognecea Mountains (to the southwest) and the Semenic Mountains (to the south). It is crossed by
the Timi River, and to the southeast it is connected to the CaransebeMehadia Depression. Te
Badenian covers the crystalline-mesozoic basement and crops out only along the edges of the area.
Te Sarmatian can be found in limited areas and includes sands with gravels, argillites, and 23m
thick concretionary limestones. Te Pliocene, as in other depressions is represented by gravels,
sandstones, sands, clays and very fossiliferous marls
96
.
II.2.13 The Oravia Depression formed by the caving in of the western part of the Banat
Mountains (during the Badenian) and had a similar evolution with the other adjoining depressions
97
.
II.2.14 The southern Apuseni Mountains crop out limestones with sliceous accidents
(Oxfordian), which support the Upper Jurassic limestones mountain ranges
98
. During the
Kimmeridgian a uniformization of the sedimentation conditons takes place in the Mure couloir as
one may come across grey limestones sometimes with rare silicifcation
99
while in other areas it is
assumed that this state of geological evolution might be usually represented by stratifed limestones
with siliceous accidents
100
.
As far as the Cprioara sector is concerned, it is appreciated that the Malm succession starts with
brown or greenish jaspers (they only crop out southwest of Cprioara village, in banks of 0.5 to 1m thick
and continue with grey slaty limestones with siliceous intrusions
101
. Frequently encountered between
the Peti Valley and the village of Pojoga are siliceous intrusions of a brown or violet colour (amorphous
opal sometimes with the tendency to get recrystallized) ocurring as lenses, nodules or bands
102
. In the
92
ONCESCU, N. 1965, 369, Tab. 10.
93
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 463; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 300301.
94
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 390.
95
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 395396.
96
97
98
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 403404; IANOVICI, V. et alii 1969: 152153; TTRM,N. 1984: 115.
99
IANOVICI, V. et alii 1969: 154155.
100
101
HARTA GEOL. 25, 35; DUA, A. 1969: 24, 27; IANOVICI, V. et alii 1969: 153; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L.
1974: 538, Fig. 205.
102
DUA, A. 1969: 28.
Deva-Zam area, upon a layer of jaspers develops the Cbeti strata consisting of siliceous sandstones
alternating with dark argillites
103
which belong to the BarremianAptian
104
.
In the Petri area, the series belonging to the Neocomian (8001000m thick) is based upon
rough conglomerates, with diabasic elements, porphyritic granites, jaspers (green and brown),
Stramberg limestones hold together in an argillaceouscarbonatic cement overlaid by pyroclastic
sandstones and white limestones, marly-limestones, marly-schists and sandstones. In detrital and
argillaceous rocks one can fnd interspersions of siliceous rocks with a high occurrence of radio-
larians and sponge spicules
105
.
II.2.15 Some Remarks on the rock types used in Prehistory
In order not have to come back during the work to some aspects touched upon in the previous pages,
we should discuss now some maters concerning the raw material used in Palaeolithic setlements
from the study area.
In the Romneti, Coava and Tincova setlements, the raw material is uniform,
characterized by the prevalence of opal (over 80%), with diferent brownish shades and with black-
purple inclusions, along with which we can also fnd jaspers, radiolarites, black or green schists
and quartzites
106
. For the southern Banat one mentions the prevalence of quartziferous rocks,
sandstones, schists and calcedonia
107
.
For the classifcation of the sedimentary rocks, the compositional criteria allow the determi-
nation of the main petrographical types: detrital, pyroclastic, clays, siliceous, aluminium, phosphatic,
ferruginous and manganese, evaporitic rocks
108
.
Mineralogically, the silicolites are dominated by the presence of the metastable and stable
components of silica (SiO
2
) opal A, opal CT, calcedonia
109
, quartz
110
and to an extent of 510%,
clay minerals, carbonates, haematite, volcanic glass, and organic mater
111
.
Nodular silicolites (siliceous accidents) are green, red or black and, considering the host rock
and their relationships, we can divide them into:
fint, consisting of hard cryptocrystalline material, 98% silica, which mainly occur in
chalks;
chert, siliceous cryptocrystalline thick and compact rocks;
chaille, siliceous accidents that formed through the silifcation of limestones and merge
with the host rock
112
.
Stratiformous silicolites may be organogenic (diatomites, radiolarites, and spongolites),
chemical (sinters or siliceous crusts) and mechanical
113
. Jaspers formed through the epigenesis of
the radiolarites: jasper is a ferruginous chert, usually red, but it can be yellow, brown or black
114
.
Radiolarites are made up of radiolaria remnants held together in a silicious matrix and are usually
103
MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 354, Fig. 79.
104
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 408409, Fig. 135; DUA, A. 1969: 4344; TTRM,N. 1984: 204207, Tab. 18.
105
HARTA GEOL. 24: 15.
106
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 18.
107
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 533; 1973: 17; 1978: 19.
108
GRIDAN, T. 1983: 94.
109
RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 367, Fig. 9.1.; PAVELESCU, L. 1980: 40.
110
CAILLEUX, A. 1974: 39, Tab.12; HAMILTON, W. R. et alii 1976: 128; PRVU, G. et alii 1977: 29; PAVELESCU,
L. 1976: 5760; 1980:, 3839; ANASTASIU, N. 1988: 162164.
111
ANASTASIU, N. 1988: 283, 287.
112
HAMILTON, W. R. et alii 1976: 204; RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 373374; GRIDAN, T. 1983:
102; ANASTASIU, N. 1988: 286, 288289.
113
CAILLEUX, A. 1974: 43; ANASTASIU, N. 1988: 284, Tab. 4.20; 288.
114
HAMILTON, W. R. et alii 1976: 130; RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 373; GRIDAN, T. 1983: 102.
red, brown, black or green
115
. Spongolites of grey, brown or reddish colour consist of sponge
spicule clusters caught in an opal or chalcedonic mass
116
. Sandstones are a psammitic cemented rock
consisting of clastic grains with a diameter ranging between 0.22 mm. Marls are a sedimentary rock
lying between clays and limestones according to the mineralogical composition
117
.
Te term quartz covers a wide variety of materials, difering from the point of view of their
nature (crystals and monocrystalline rocks), their colour, their homogeneity (the presence or
absence of diaclases), their texture and petrographic structure (the relative display of the consti-
tuting minerals).
Quartz, the most frequent crystalline variety of silica, is the constitutive mineral of certain
polycrystalline rocks, but it can also exist in an isolated state, or in the shape of automorphic crystals
in the case of hialin quartz, or in the shape of monocrystalline aggregates made up of xenomorphic
quartz crystals in the case of vein quartz
118
.
Hialin quartz or rock crystal is a crystalline form encountered in numerous geological contexts,
which, under normal formation circumstances has prism, rhombohedron or bipyramid faces. Te
anisotropy of this material comes in in two types: cleavage and diaclases.
Vein quartz or ordinary quartz covers a wide variety of monocrystalline agglomerates of
xenomorphic quartz. Te chromatic variations are put down to the contained impurities depending
on the temperature of the formation inside the vein. Te presence of diaclases is accounted for by the
tectonic evolutions to which the vein quartz is subjected afer crystallization
119
.
Te essential diference between quartz and quartzite is linked to their formation mode: the
quartz is a vein magmatic rock (hydrothermal origin) whereas quartzite is a massive metamorphic
rock
120
.
Quartzites are compact siliceous rocks with conchoidal fracture consisting of detrital quartz
grains, which may be sedimentary (orthoquartzites), when they come from the cementation of
sandstones through diagenesis or metamorphic (metaquartzites), when they come from the recrys-
tallization of a sandstone or even of a quartz vein; they are white or yellow-reddish or grey
121
. Te
distinction between orthoquartzites and metaquartzites is only possible by observing their structure
along a thin section. Te quartzarenites are characterized by over 90% quartz content
122
.
Concerning the use of quartzite in Palaeolithic setlements we should mention that the
distinction cannot be carried out by naked eye between vein quartz (consisting of a complex of
quartz crystals, but of a magmatic origin) and quartzite
123
, that is why petrographical analyzes are
necessary as the use of the generic term of quartz is not to the beneft of lithic technology studies
124
.
Te diference between the name given by the archaeologists (quartzite) and the the one given by the
geologists (quartz) is also remarked by Florea Mogoanu, although he prefers the term of quartzite
125
.
Concerning the raw material sources, we consider that they are local as we here understand
mobility in a limited area
126
, and they exist in outcrops of Mesozoic deposits
127
, obviously without
115
RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 372; GRIDAN, T. 1983: 103; ANASTASIU, N. 1988: 285.
116
RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 373; GRIDAN, T. 1983: 102103; ANASTASIU, N. 1988: 286.
117
PRVU, G. et alii 1977: 2324; RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 282; GRIDAN, T. 1983: 99.
118
MOURRE, V. 1996: 206; 1997: 202.
119
MOURRE, V. 1996: 207; 1997: 203.
120
MOURRE, V. 1996: 207.
121
MOURRE, V. 1997: 204, Tab. 1; PRVU, G. et alii 1977: 1415.
122
CAILLEUX, A. 1974: 42; HAMILTON, W. R. et alii 1976: 194; PRVU, G. et alii 1977: 2022; RDULESCU,D.
& ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 233, 236237; GRIDAN, T. 1983: 9697.
123
MOURRE, V. 1997: 204.
124
COLLINA-GIRRD, J. 1997: 212213; MOURRE, V. 1997: 202203.
125
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 1819.
126
STRTAN, I. 1970: 10; COMA, E. 1971: 16; MOGOANU, F. 1973: Note 10; 1978: 19; PUNESCU, A. 1970a: 85.
127
PUNESCU, A. 1970a: 8384; STOICOVICI, E. 19851986: 51.
being able to rule out in the present state of research for lack of petrographic analysis (according to
our knowledge for the Palaeolithic setlements in the Banat only one petrographic analysis has been
carried out, the one from RomnetiDumbrvia, level II)
128
and a travel in order to come by the
raw material across a larger territory.
II.3 The quaternary sedimentary deposits in the Banat region
Te drainage network (for example its lay-out is swayed by the neotectonic movements) is seen as
being the most important motive force of moulding relief
129
, having as a frst consequence both the
terrace formation with prevailingly river deposits and the sinking of the mountainous valleys
130
.
Generally speaking, the geological studies underline the fact that most of the Lugoj and
Oravia depressions are covered by Quaternary deposits
131
. Tus one considers the yellow-reddish
clays deposits to belong to the Upper Pleistocene
132
, with ferromanganoan concretions, from the
western part of the Oravia depression
133
.
Across the CaransebeMehadia depression (Fig. 4), from this period, we encounter river
terraces, botom land plains and debris cones
134
. Te sedimentation within this depression- couloir,
but also within other depressions of the Banat came about through more erosion cycles that afected
the mountains, yielding sand and gravel spreads ofen encountered in the make-up of geomorpho-
logical formations of Pleistocene age. Along the Timi Valley, in the region of GrnaBrebu Nou,
the terraces that correspond to the frst interstadium of the Wrm Glaciary Age have a width of
2030m (the third terrace), 3035m (the fourth terrace) and are made up mainly of well-rounded
gravels; the ffh terace is poorly developped and belongs to the RissWrm Interglaciary Age
135
. In
the Zgribeti and Copcele area (north-west of Caransebe) the old Timi Valley terrace is made up
of alluvial deposits and belongs to the Middle Pleistocene
136
(Fig. 4).
In the Poiana Rusc Mountains, the sediments belonging to the Pleistocene (Lower Upper)
can be found on the terraces with relative heights of 812m, 1825m, 3540m, 5060m, 8090m,
100110 m
137
.
Te reddish clays typical of the Upper Pleistocene, can be found both in the northeast
of Mntur along the Bega Valley as well as to the west, on the territory covered by Timioara
geological sheet
138
. In the Cprioara Coteiu de Sus area, the Quaternary deposits have a small
development, being represented by terrace deposits, boulder felds, debris cones
139
.
Along the Bega River, in the area of Romneti village, Quaternary deposits are well developed.
Tese can be especially found to the west and north-west of the village, on the terraces with a height
of 90100 m ascribed to the Middle Pleistocene (Mindel Riss) made up of gravels and sands
covered by reddish clays with concretions, but also on the terraces with a height of 6065m of Riss
Age, made up of gravels and sands. For the considered area there are other deposits mentioned as
128
PUNESCU, A. 1970a: 218.
129
COTE, P. 1973: 138144.
130
COTE, P. 1973: 134, 141, 145146; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 145; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 399.
131
MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 625, 632; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 397.
132
133
HARTA GEOL. 31: 34.
134
ONCESCU, N. 1965: 369.
135
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 383.
136
HARTA GEOL. 25: 46.
137
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 428.
138
HARTA GEOL. 24: 23; HARTA GEOL. 25: 47.
139
DUA, A. 1969: 8283.
belonging to the Quaternary (Upper Pleistocene) and namely the deluvial deposits (clays mixed
with gravel in the area of morphological contact), the colluvial deposits (detritus) and proluvial
deposits (gravels, sands belonging to the debris cones) to which one can add the terrace alluviums
of 3540m (W
1
) and 2025m (W
2
) consisting mainly of gravels and sands
140
.
Along the Danube
141
(between Bazia and Moldova Veche) and Nera, the Pleistocene is
represented by the high (upper) and medium terrace deposits
142
consisting mainly of gravels with
altered crystalline schist fragments and sandy material.
Loessoid deposits formed during Quaternary
143
can be found in the West Plain (Timi Plain)
144
.
In the West Plain the Quaternary deposits contain an alternance of sandy clays, gravels and
cobblestones, with a thickness that ranges from a few centimetres to approximately 400 m
145
. Te rough
deposits in this area have been intepreted either as debris cones or alluviums of the higher terraces
setled in places due to continuous sinking
146
. On the whole, the West Plain has the shape of a stripe
running from north to south, with variable breadth. Its maximum breadth is between Lipova and Beba
Veche. It is tranversally furrowed by a rich drainage network with lower, lacustrine-marshy areas
147
.
In the present-day structure, the Banat relief is characterized by an obvious asymmetry, an
intense tectonic fragmentation, the lay-out of rivers and depressions, the sloping of the relief from
east to west, being as many features thereof
148
.
From the geographic point of view, in the Occidental Carpathians (that are bounded to the
south by the Danube) one can distinguish two subunits of the third degree, the Apuseni Mountains
and the Banat Mountains
149
, the last one beeing situated between the Mure Valley, to the north and
the Danube Valley to the south
150
. Te western edge of the Meridional Carpathians is set by the Cerna
Timi couloir and the Danube gorge
151
. Tus the relief of the area under discussion is dominated
in the eastern part by the arcu, Godeanu Mountains and to the south by the Cerna Mountains
152

140
HARTA GEOL. 25: 46.
141
Te sector of the Gorge (Bazia Vrciorova) represents a transversal valley consisting of several narrow areas
(ravines and gorges) and wide areas (Neogene Depressions of Moldova, Liubcova Berzeasca, Iui Milanov,
Ogradena Orova), remnants of an Old Miocene Sea Channel (COTE, P. 1973: 143, 229). Along the Gorge,
the Danube cuts into rocks of various petrography and structure, yielding an unhomogenous morphology of the
valley along a longitudinal section. Between Bazia and Pescari the Danube river bed cuts the crystalline schists of
the Locva Mountains up to the confuence with the Liborajdea River it cuts the limestone of the sedimentary area
Reia Moldova Nou, then it fows through the granite of Liborajdea, the sandstones, conglomerates, gravels and
clays from the Liubcova Neogene basin. Between Berzasca and Cozla, the Danube cuts through the Ialova crystalline
and then through carboniferous conglomerates and ardesian shales, suddenly sloping down into the syncline of
Sirinia, further down from Cozla (SENCU, V. 1979: 13). Up to Plavievia the river cuts into limestones, marls,
carbonaceous sandstones, gabbros and serpentinites, further down from this village the Danube fows throught the
Cazane, afer which the riverbed rises in the area of the granites from Ogradena, and then it slopes steadily down into
the Bahna Eelnia neogene basin. Along the last tract of the gorge, between Orova and Drobeta Turnu Severin,
the Danube cuts through crystalline schists, through a small limestone area at Vrciorova through the Sinaia strata,
Neogene and Quaternary deposits (SENCU, V. 1979: 14, Fig. 23).
142
HARTA GEOL. 31: 35.
143
ZEUNER, F. E. 1959: 24, 2940; ONCESCU, N. 1965: 512; MUTIHAC, V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 632, 637;
RDULESCU, D. & ANASTASIU, N. 1979: 240242, 249250; GRIDAN, T. 1983: 97; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 399;
PETRESCU, I. 1990: 193195; TUFFREAU, A. & MARCY, J. L. 1998: 8.
144
HARTA GEOL. 24: 24; COTE, P. 1973: 96, Fig. 42a, 360; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 639.
145
GEOG. ROM. 1983: 86.
146
GEOG. ROM. 1983: 154; MUTIHAC,V. 1990: 403.
147
COTE, P. 1973: 354355.
148
GEOG. ROM. 1983: 611; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 373.
149
COTE, P. 1973: 232233; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 611, Fig. 143.
150
GEOG. ROM. 1983: 611; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 365.
151
COTE, P. 1973: Fig. 105; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 605; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 365.
152
CAR 1981: 13, Fig. 1; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 342344.
and Mehedini Mountains
153
. Te Banat Mountains are made up of the Semenic Mountains, which
have a maximum height of 1447m with the Piatra Goznei peak
154
, the Almj Mountains which rarely
rise above 1000 m reaching 1224 m only with the Svinecea Mare peak
155
, Anina Mountains with
the Leordi peak, 1160 m
156
and Locva and Dognecea Mountains
157
. Poiana Rusc Mountains, lying
in the north-east of the Banat stand out as a well delineated unit, set of by a system of faults and
couloirs (Bistra, Timi, Mure, Strei) reaching a maximum height of 1374m with the Pade peak
158

representing at the same time a typical horst lying among crystalline geomorphological units arcu
Retezat, Cibin and Biharia.
On their whole, the Banat Mountains have the appearance of horsts, semi-horsts and
grabens
159
, a distinct note being lent by the big river gorges of the Danube, Cerna, Timi, Bistra and
Mure
160
.
As we have mentioned before, the mountain relief of the Banat decreases in height from east
to west (under the shape of an amphitheatre), being continued in the mentioned direction by the
Piedmont Hills (Western Hills), with heights generally ranging between 200m and 300m, whose
main morphological features were imprinted by the drainage network by its setling into the botoms
of the depressions the Mure in the Bega depression, the Timi in the Caransebe depression,
the Brzava in the Boca depression and the Cara in the Oravia depression
161
. Among the most
representative units are worth mentioning: the Lipova Plateau, the Fget Hills, the Buzia Hills,
the Ramna Hills, the Tirol Hills
162
, these being in their turn followed by plains like the Timi and
Brzava Plains
163
. Te depressions are generally small, being either of tectonic origin or generated by
erosion, developing a hilly relief with large terraces
164
.
Before closing our brief presentation of the Banat relief, we should mention the gorges
(typical of and important for archaeology, from the viewpoint of habitation and not only) which
cut through the mountains. So, in the south of the Banat we fnd the gorges of the Danube
165
, from
this towards north, through the litle golf cut by the Cerna river, up with the Orova town, one can
enter the CernaTimi gorge
166
which connects the area with the Bistra Valley to the east, this one
making the access way towards the ara Haegului. Te northern part of the Banat is delineated by
the Mure couloir, which connects the area with the Transylavania depression
167
. Tis couloir has the
appearance of a geomorphological contact region, which gets singled out by the graben character,
consisting of the Mesozoic basement and intensely fractured crystalline rocks
168
.
153
CAR 1981: 13; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 339342.
154
COTE, P. 1973: 239240; CAR 1981: 15; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 613; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 375, 379, Fig.138.
155
CAR 1981: 1315; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 611; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 398399.
156
CAR 1981: 1516; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 611; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 386.
157
COTE, P. 1973: 240241, Fig. 110; CAR 1981: 1516; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 611; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 392, 398.
158
COTE, P. 1973: 242244; TIMI 1981: 21; CAR 1981: 12; GEOG. ROM. 1983: 613; GEOG. ROM. 1987:
421426.
159
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 375.
160
GEOG. ROM. 1987: 375.
161
COTE, P. 1973: 298, 307.
162
COTE, P. 1973: 297298, Fig. 145, 305307, Fig. 152; TIMI 1981: 2425; CAR 1981: 17.
163
COTE, P. 1973: 354358, Fig. 174, 360362; TIMI 1981: 2526.
164
COTE, P. 1973: 242.
165
By the name of the Cazane one designates the gorge tract between Plavievia and Ogradena, the Miocene basin
Dubova dividing the area in Cazanele Mari and Cazanele Mici (SENCU, V. 1979: 17). Te Iron Gates of the Danube
is the name given to the area between Gura Vii and Vrciorova where the Danube rolls over craggy rocks (SENCU,
V. 1979: 14); COTE, P. 1973: 143, 229232, Fig. 107; CAR 1981: 16.
166
CAR 1981: 16, 2526, 2829; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 412415, Fig. 151.
167
COTE, P. 1973: 243244; MUTIHAC,V. & IONESI, L. 1974: 620622; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 426, Fig.153.
168
COTE, P. 1973: 243.
Obviously one should not leave out, in the present context of the discussion, the other rivers
wich cut their river bed through the Banat, of which we only mention the most important ones: the
Nera, Cara, Brzava, Bega rivers, the hydrographic network being almost completely tributary to
the Danube
169
.
* * *
Te numerous studies of Quaternary geomorphology carried out on the continental scale put
forward diferent situations from one case to another; that is why the detailed extrapolation of the
results and especially of the regional models cannot be unanimously accepted. Most studies carried
out in the last decades take into consideration reference periods of the size of stadial-interstadial
cycles from a Quaternary macro-cycle
170
, as being relevant from the geomorphological viewpoint,
sometimes spelling out things in detail within these cycles. Other studies of palaeogeomorphology
uncover and analyze distinct geomorphological events within a stadial-interstadial hemicycle. For
example, ANDRES et al. (2001) pointed out changes of the river geomorphological regime within
an extremely short span of time such as the Young Dryas and deal with the changes in the state of the
geomorphological system with periods running up to several hundreds of years. In another study,
VANDENBERGHE et al. (1998) sets forth at least 5 tempered-cold climate changes within a time
span ranging between 41 and 27 ka on the basis of geomorphological evidence.
All these issues are not anything else but problems connected to the change of balance states of
the geomorphological systems as a response to the climatic changes, of course with the secondary contri-
bution of other factors like the neotectonic ones
171
.
Unfortunately, on the Banat territory, the geomorphological studies have a general character;
the detailed geological studies have focussed mainly on the industrial exploitation of coals,
bituminous shales, stones as construction materials and of other raw materials.
Te Quaternary deposits are treated briefy by the archaeologists, in general terms and on a
very wide scale, which makes the obtaining of information an almost impossible business, which
might enable one to understand the chrono-climatic and palaeo-sedimentological context of palaeo-
lithic habitation in the Banat.
Te lack of any information from Palaeolithic sites slow down or even render impossible the
reconstruction of the palaeogeographic environment of the Pleistocene within the area delineated
by the Mure and the Danube.
From the palaeoforistical viewpoint, with palaeoclimatic consequences, we only have the
pollen analysis available, which were carried out in the 70s, and which are ofen considered lacunary
and not-representative, especially because of the fact that they were not verifed in the region from
nearby the prehistoric site, to which we add the total absence of absolute dating (
14
C sau TL). Tis
practically renders impossible the link to the new studies on the European geomorphology, palaeo-
climate and, last, but not least, the geomorphological development of this area
172
.
Te recent analysis of Geomorphological Palaeoenvironment of Upper Quaternary in the
Depression of Transylvania (Eemian-Weichselian-Holocene)
173
focuses on the special features of the
Transylvanian Depression micromorphology, of the slope processes, of the permafrost issues,
fnding some general features, too, which are also valid for the adjoining micro-areas
174
:
169
CAR 1981: 2430; GEOG. ROM. 1987: 376.
170
DE MOOR, G. et alii 1978; GIBBARD, P. L. et alii 1981; LATRIDOU, J. P. 1986; MANGERUND, J. 1991;
VANDENBERGHE, J. 1992; 1993; KSSE, C. BOHNCKE, S. 1992; KSSE, C. et alii 1995; MOL, J. 1997;
HUIJZER, A. S. & VANDENBERGHE, J. 1998.
171
PENDEA, F. 2005: 9.
172
HAESAERTS, P. et alii 2003; SHACKLETON, N.J. et alii 2004; WILLIS, K. & VAN ANDEL, T.H. 2004.
173
PENDEA, F. 2005.
174
PENDEA, F. 2005: 11.
the alluvial aggradation terraces stand proof of intense, alluvial processes, followed by
short periods of incision into the own alluvia, the terrace bridge corresponding to the old
alluvial surface of the river meadow;
the alluvial erosion terraces crop up when there is lateral erosion from the river onto the
alluvial river food plain during a period of river level stagnation (static balance) afer
which the river gets deep again leaving the old erosion surface in the alluvia as a terrace
bridge;
the terraces hard rock can be genetically likened to the previous ones, the only diference
is that in the statical balance periods the river frets sideways at the stone in situ, leaving
sometimes a thin alluvial deposit on the surface. Te subsequent aggradation periods,
climatically induced, can heap over this erosion surface thick alluvial deposits of the
following cycle.
On the other hand, the concept of response time
175
helps us understand that the climatically
induced changes in the shape and morphology of the riverbed, for example, do not occur at the same
time as the climatic event in question, but afer a period which is made up of the response time (the
time between the occurrence of the disturbance and the beginning of the erosion or accumulation
processes) and the relaxation time or the time necessary for the system to reach another balance state
176
.
Te main geomorphological efects which the numerous glaciary cycles had on Europe are
in general: proximal glaciation-induced morphogenesis, which contains the complex of processes and
forms directly connected to the action of ice masses and those associated with it (e.g. river-glaciation
complex, glacial-lacustrine complex) and distal glaciation-induced morphogenesis, which contains a
wide variety of processes and forms, but which falls into diferent categories according to distance to
the glaciary bodies: periglacial processes and forms of relief and Quaternary processes and forms of relief
fom low latitudes
177
.
Te Eemian (Oxygen Isotope Stage 5) is, unfortunately, very hard to assess from the geomor-
phological viewpoint as due to its nature, the long temperate period with which this macrocycle
started, did not evince any expressive morphodynamic features and, moreover, most deposits or
morphology that goes back to this stage were strongly freted away during the Weichselian.
Te Lower Plenicial (Weichselian, 7560 ka BP) represents one of the main phases of
severe cold climate of the Last Glacial. From the geomorphological point of view one can notice
a substantial wind activity responsible for the loessoid deposits syngenetically modifed through
areola processes. One can also notice cryoclastism and torrentialitaty processes, but these do not
reach the size of the later glacial maximum. Te gasteropodes fauna from the loessoid deposits point
out to a quite cold steppe environment. Te alluvial cycle of the present-day terrace no. 2 (812 m)
highly probably started out in this stage. Te evacuation of Carpathian origin materials and their
deposition as gross hydraulic bed of the above-mentioned terrace was delayed by either the reduced
transport capacity of the rivers or by the relaxation time of the river systems
178
.
Te geomorphocronological information of the Interpleniglacial and Upper Pleniglacial
stops at the level of the years 25 ka BP, when a new period of sparing climate is proved by the devel-
opment of some pedogenetical processes of sub-arid type within the span 2521 ka BP. Te devel-
opment of very high energy processes down the slopes and with almost integral evacuation down
to the level of the main riverbed of the present-day terrace no. 2 is prompted by the small amount of
accumulative formations across the slope sections. We can say that the slopes are typifed by erosive
processes. Tis is proved by the numerous stratigraphic hiatus instances and the small thickness
175
ALLEN, J.R.L. 1974.
176
BULL, W.B. 1991.
177
PENDEA, F. 2005: 15.
178
PENDEA, F. 2005: 185.
of the slope deposits from the present-day terrace no. 2 which also suggests its instability due to
frequent riverbed modifcations
179
.
In Tardiglacial (1510 ka BP), the morphodynamic regime of the rivers is predominantly
meandering throughout this period.
Obviously, in general, these are the features that can be found along the Timi, Bega, Cerna
or Danube valleys.
II.4 Research history of the Palaeolithic in the Banat region
For the Banat territory, although the signalling of archaeological material appeared quite early
180
, the
frst mentions of Palaeolithic discovery showed up in the 20
th
century.
In the 19
th
century the main palaeontological discovery is assigned to R. Hoernes or Bodog
Milleker in 1891
181
who, in 1875, signals some fauna remains belonging to the Upper Pleistocene
(Ursus spelaeus, Capra ibex) in Buhui Cave from SteierdorfAnina
182
. One should mention that the
cave is active, having a length of 3200 m, and near the main exit there is a secondary gallery with
sediments, but the research carried out by Emilian Alexandrescu did not lead to the discovery of
lithic pieces. Te repertory of palaeolithical fndings would be later on enriched by the activity of the
speologist Ern Balogh, who, between 1936 and 1939, carried out research in several caves from the
Cara Valley. Heinz Feichter carried out research down the Timi Valley, fnding a macrolithic piece
in 1943 which he traces back to the Palaeolithic.
Afer WW 2, Marius Moga carried out systematic diggings in the Petera cu Ap (Water Cave)
from Romneti considering, under reserve, that some osteological materials are palaeolithic
183
. Te
research in this cave would be resumed in 1960 by Florea Mogoanu.
Te start of the Palaeolithic research in the Banat, based on theorethical and methodological
foundations, occurs in 1954 on the occasion of the resuming of the diggings in the Petera Hoilor
(Tieves Cave) from Bile Herculane by a group headed by C. S. Nicolescu-Plopor. Te impor-
tance of the discovery (Palaeolithic and post-Palaeolithic) and the problems it raised spurred on the
pursuit of research headed by C. S. Nicolescu-Plopor, Alexandru Punescu (19601961) and Petre
Roman (19651972)
184
. Te co-operation of the Herculane group with the Banat museums and
here we should mention the important role played by Ion Stratan, in his capacity as Director of the
History Museum of Lugoj turned out to be very fruitful, as one had managed to identify and inves-
tigate the setlements of Tincova (1958), Romneti (1959), Coava (1961). Te research in these
setlements was conducted by C. S. Nicolescu-Plopor at Tincova (between 1965 and 1966 the
diggings were conducted by Florea Mogoanu) and by Florea Mogoanu at Romneti and Coava.
To all these discoveries one will add the Palaeolithic, Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic sites
brought to light by the Iron Gates research complex group starting with the year 1964. On this occasion
four Palaeolithic setlements were dug up: Bile Herculane (Florea Mogoanu, 19681970, 1972),
Gornea Cuniei Hill and Pzrite Hill (Florea Mogoanu, 19691970 and Vasile Boronean,
1970) and Climente I (Vasile Boronean, 1965)
185
. Te natural result of this research has been the
publication of several reports, articles and studies that round of the image of the Palaeolithic in
Banat as much as possible
186
. All these will peak with the publication of Paleoliticul din Banat (Te
179
PENDEA, F. 2005: 187.
180
MEDELE, F. 1997: 6367.
181
PUNESCU, A. 1987: 15.
182
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 2.
183
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 1315; PUNESCU, A. 1987a: 15.
184
185
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 1516, 25, 30, 79; PUNESCU, A. 1987: 1516.
186
MEDELE, F. 1997: 6769.
Banat Palaeolithic) (Florea Mogoanu, 1978) and of Palolithique suprieur et pipalolithique de la
zone des Portes de Fer (Vasile Boronean, 2000a).
In the period between the two monographic studies, the research concerning the Banat
Palaeolithic comes down to a few cases of lithic materials dug up in some caves or on the occasion of
some building works. In 1989, during a digging campaign, at the prehistoric setlement of Gornea
187
,
at the Pzrite point, one reached the Palaeolithic layer, too and the resulting materials could round
of the image of Palaeolithic at this point.
In the summer of 2001, the archaeological survey aiming at the Banat Palaeolithic setle-
ments were resumed under the supervision of Emilian Alexandrescu with a view to start systematic
digging, especially at the Romneti setlement and let us hope that in a not too distant future, at the
Tincova setlement, too.
Starting with 20022003, the accidental discovery of human bones from early modern times
from the Petera cu Oase, was the stimulus staring a multidisciplinary archaeological research project,
with international participation. In this context, archaeological, sedimentological and palaeonto-
logical research was carried out among the bear bones deposits from the Petera cu Oase and in
the multi-layered site from the Petera La Hou (Te Tief s Cave). All these and the resuming of
research in the sites that are in the open (Tincova, Romneti and Coava) will shed a new light on
the archaeological evidence of Pleistocene in southwestern Romania.
II.5 The Palaeolithic archaeological evidence in the Banat area
Over time the archaeological literature has recorded more than 20 fnd spots with archaeological
materials considered as the Palaeolithic in the Banat, ranging from the Lower Palaeolithic to the
Epipalaeolithic.
Obviously, not many of these materials have lived up to criticism as they were the results of
natural factors and did not hold any special scientifc interest. Having in mind Banats archaeological
potential, we cannot believe that only 4 caves were able to ofer real dwelling conditions to the
Palaeolithic man
188
(we consider, as we mentioned in the introductory chapter, only the Palaeolithic
discoveries from the present-day counties Cara-Severin and Timi) of approximately 100
189
in this
repertory there some caves included were also included that lie the present-day Mehedini county).
Regarding to the open air setlements, we consider that their existence should be an argument for
the resuming of Palaeolithic research in Banat.
II.5.1 Pedological analyzes and sedimentological remarks on
stratigraphical profiles of the Palaeolithic setlements in the Banat
II.5.1.1 Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave (Cara-Severin County) (Fig. 3). Also known as
Grota Haiducilor (Tieves Cave), this cave lies on the right bank of the Cerna river, at approximately
200 m behind the present-day Hotel Roman, at an absolute height of 257 m. Te cave has three
entrances, named A, B, C, oriented towards east and southeast, but the only accessible one is the
middle one, which, through a corridor, connects to the large gallery (20 8 m), where one fnds the
rotonda (with a maximum diametre spans 10m and a height of approximately 12 m). Tis is where
the excavations took place, leading to the discovery of the quartzite tool
190
.
187
188
PUNESCU 1992, 3.
189
PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 1835.
190
MOGOANU, F. 1971: 5.
Te geological stratigraphy, resulted from the 14 m
2
excavated in the cave rotonda, is the
following
191
(Fig. 9a):
1. a deposit with gromerular aspect, made up of small clay concretions mixed with sundry
organic-mineral compounds (the lower tract follows the micro relief of the cave bed, so
that one cannot rule out the water environment sedimentation); this stratum may be
traced back to the end of Interglacial W
1
W
2
and the beginning of W
2
.
2. a deposit of loessoid aspect, of a dark yellow colour on its lower part (with limestone
grains cropping up) and of a light colour on its upper side, within a mixture of rolled
pebbles; at the base of this deposit (Wrm II), the quartzite pieces were found;
3. a layer of brown colour with sedimentedly rolled pebbles dating to the interstadium
W
2
W
3
;
4. non-homogenous deposits (in what their structure and colours are concerned);
5. a 15cm thick deposit made up of large rocks, bound together by a limestone cement of a
light yellow colour on its lower side and of a reddish colour on its upper side;
6. a deposit of a reddish colour, afected on its upper part by a fre taking place during the
frst stage of Neolithic habitation.
II.5.1.2 Coava (Curtea village, Timi County). In the summer of 1961, the Palaeolithic
setlement of Coava
192
was uncovered on the banks of the Bega river. Te site was lying at a height
of over 100 m from the river level, on a spot the locals call Cuca, consisting of two knolls (Cuca
Mare and Cuca Mic), that are connected by a slightly riverbed-like area (Fig. 7). Te site lies to the
southwest of the Coava village outskirts, on the right bank of the river Bega, in the southeast part
of the Lipova plateau
193
.
Earliest archaeological research (with a mere sampling purpose) occured as early as 1961
194
,
continuing until 1964. Afer a two year intermission, the research was resumed in 1967 and went on
until 1969. A total area of 226 m
2
was excavated, the trenches running as deep as 1.5 m but in order
to get a complete stratigraphical succession, they should have been approx. 3.00m deep
195
.
Te succession of deposits in the setlement area is the following one (from botom to top)
(Fig. 10b):
1. a white-yellowish sandy layer ( 320280 cm);
2. a layer with reddish sandy bands ( 280255 cm);
3. a layer made up of very fne white-yellowish sand ( 255230 cm);
4. a layer made up of very fne yellow-reddish sand ( 230135 cm);
5. reddish sandy clay, shot through by grey-bluish stripes ( 13585 cm);
6. a layer made up of brown-reddish compact sandy clay, with rich prismatic structure,
containing iron oxyde concretions and rolled pebbles on its lower side ( 8535 cm);
7. a wind blown deposit of yellow-whitish colour ( 3515 cm);
8. a grey-yellowish dusty layer ( 15 0 cm).
Archaeologically speaking a stratigraphic
196
succession of three layers (yielding only lithic
material) was identifed. Tus, the frst level one, known as Coava I, lies between the depth of
191
MOGOANU, F. 1971: 36; 1972: 10; 1973: 14; 1978: 2527.
192
STRTAN, I. 1965: 412.
193
MOGOANU, F. 1967a: 556; STRTAN, I. 1970: 12.
194
STRTAN, I. 1965: 412.
195
MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 344; 1969: 8990; MOGOANU, F. 1978: 7374; STRTAN, I. 1970:
1213.
196
We must say that this stratigraphic profle, like those determined for the other setlements also, lacks a spatial context
framing (no information on the trench number, its location within the setlement or orientation of the profle).
Concerning the numbering of the layers, we shall consider as 1 for the oldest sedimented layer, references such as
in the lower part of or in the upper part of were expressed considering on a present-day zero level.
8575cm, in the lower part of layer 6; second archaeological layer, known as Coava II lies between
the depths of 6045cm, approximately in the middle of the same layer 6; Coava III was observed at
the depths of 3525cm, to the lower part of layer 7
197
.
II.5.1.3 GorneaDealul Cuniei (Sichevia village, Cara-Severin County) (Fig. 2). Te site
is located in the Danube Gorge, on the northeastern edge of the depressionary basin of Liubcova,
at the contact point between the Almj and Locva Mountains.
Te geological stratigraphy (from botom to top) (Fig. 10a) is the following
198
:
1. a grey-yellowish sandy layer with limestone concretions ( 8060 cm);
2. a brown-reddish layer with prismatic structure ( 6030 cm);
3. a transition reddish layer ( 3015 cm);
4. a grey, less compact with yellowish shades ( 150 cm).
To the lower part of layer 2 of a variable depth between 6040 cm, a cultural layer was
found, containing 154 lithic pieces. Teir stratigraphic position calls for some remarks. Te above
mentioned layer is directly overlapped by Holocene deposits (lacking the typical W
3
deposits),
thus drawing atention to possible processes of solifuction; therefore we are in fact dealing with an
uncertain stratigraphic position of the Palaeolithic layer
199
. Taking into consideration some charac-
teristics of lithic tools of Upper Palaeolithic origin and also the prismatic structure of layer 2, Florea
Mogoanu suggested the layer belonged to the interstadium W
2
W
3
, which also entails an even later
position for the Palaeolithic layer
200
. We hope the resumed research will clarify the stratigraphic
position of this Palaeolithic occupation.
II.5.1.4 GorneaPzrite. Pzrite Hill lies east of the Camenia Valley (Fig. 2) and has a
height of 40m against the Danube level. Te researched area excavated until now measures 36 m2
reaching an average depth of 75 cm
201
. For stratigraphic purposes, an area of 9 m2 was deepened to
180 cm
202
, and the following succession was observed (from botom to top):
1. a layer with loessoid aspect, rich in limestone concretions ( 18060 cm);
2. a brown-reddish layer with prismatic structure ( 6025 cm);
3. a grey-reddish arable layer ( 250 cm).
In the lower part of layer number 3, at the point of contact with layer 2 at a depth of
2520cm (at the centre of the plateau reaching 4030 cm) a few Palaeolithic pieces were found.
II.5.1.5 PescariLivadiei Cave (2222/xxx) lies within the area of Pescari village at a relative
height of 7080 m; it is a small slightly ascending cave, oriented towards south-southwest, dug out in
the limestone rock of the Pescari-Alibeg strait. Vasile Boronean, following his research carried out
here between 1972 and 1975 (together with Elena Terzea), determines on the ground of the profles
from S
I
and S
II
the following stratigraphic succession
203
(from botom to top):
1. an archaeologically sterile layer, made up of two clay horizons (a lower brow-dark reddish
one, 1015 cm thick, overlain by a brown-light reddish to orange one, noted 1A) 40 cm
thick;
2. a layer rich in clastic material, made up of three loessoid horizons, 85cm thick, named 2,
3, 4;
197
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 74, 78; MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 341.
198
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 535, Fig. 5; 1978: 30, Fig. 7.
199
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 537; 1972: 10; 1973: 17; 1978: 32, 105.
200
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 537; 1978: 32.
201
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 34; LAZAROVICI, G. 1977: 2223.
202
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 532; 1978: 34.
203
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 143; 2000b: 20; TERZEA, E. 1979: 111114, Fig. 23.
3. a layer from the Iron Age (Basarabi culture), 15cm thick;
4. a Medieval layer (14
th
15
th
centuries), 57cm thick.
Te lithic implements from the frst two horizons with clastic materials is represented by a
series of fint chips, of which some seem to have some atypical fnish which, even if they are hard to
classify
204
, may be traced back to a Mousterian facies without bifacial forms
205
.
Te fauna of layer 1 suggests a temperate climate, which allowed the growth of forests with
moist meadows and of oasis of herbaceous vegetation
206
. On layer 2, horizon 2 (according to the
authors notation) the faunal record comprised Ursus spelaeus, Crocuta spelaea, Canis lupus and
Martes martes, Cervus elaphus (forest forms), Microtus nivalis, Capra ibex (Alpine immigrants) which
suggest a harsher climate meaning that the temperature dropped and rich rainfalls set in
207
. Te fauna
associations of layers 3 and 4 include numerous steppe species (Cricetus cricetus, Mesocricetus newtoni,
Cricetulus migratorius, etc.) which underline a progressive marking of the continental note of the
climate, whereby the forest areas shrank and the open areas expanded
208
. Trough a few pieces of
evidence uncovered at the Mousterian level, the presence of the Large Pachidermae has thus been
atested (Mammuthus primigenius and Coelodonta antiquitatis) which seem to have been hunted in the
areas around the gorge, but without the specimens having reached the gorge, as they are missing in
the Mousterian sediments from the Climente cave
209
. As a characteristic note of the loessoid deposits
from this cave we can quote the relatively signifcant remains of Ursus spelaeus and Microtus arvalis.
Together with carnivorous species (Vulpes vulpes, Canis lupus, Panthera spelaea, etc.) or those typical
to forested areas (Martes martes, Ursus arctos, etc.) and rodents they complete the image of the fauna
present in the area during the time of the latest glaciation
210
. Te comparative analysis of the fauna
from some caves in the Danube gorge (Livadia cave, Climente cave) shows that the steppe elements
crop up in the area (at the end of W
1
) probably coming from the Banat plain and, in a primary stage,
do no seem to have gone beyond the western end of the gorge, while the Alpine species seem to
have migrated downhill in the proximity of the caves only during the coooling stages. Teir reduced
occurence suggests a gentler climate inside the gorge even in the maximum glacial periods
211
.
II.5.1.6 RomnetiDumbrvia (village belonging to Tometi, Timi County) (Fig. 6).
Te Palaeolithic setlement lies on the north-east edge of the Poiana Rusc mountain range, on a
terrace lying at the confuence of the Bega Mare and Bega Mic rivers, NNW part of the village
212
.
It was dug up in 1959, as the research unfolded during several campaigns in 1960, 19611964 and
19671972
213
.
Stratigraphy. A rich, pluristratifed setlement was exposed revealed over an area of 450 sqm,
with a 150cm profle (along some sections it reached down to 300cm for geological purposes).
Te succession of deposits
214
(from botom to top) is the following
215
(Fig. 10c):
204
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 143.
205
PUNESCU, A. 2002.
206
TERZEA, E. 1979: 112.
207
TERZEA, E. 1979: 113, Tab. 8.
208
TERZEA, E. 1979: 113.
209
TERZEA, E. 1979: 135136.
210
TERZEA, E. 1979: 114, 135.
211
TERZEA, E. 1979: 135136.
212
ALEXANDRESCU, E. 2002.
213
MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 336340; MOGOANU, F. 1967a: 556; 1978: 51.
214
Te succession of deposits from Romneti will be set out according to the data ofered by F. Mogoanu in the study
from 1978, without mentioning the numberings of the Palaeolithic levels during the diggings the way they appear in
older studies.
215
MOGOANU, F. 1968b: 644, Fig. 1; 1972: 1213; 1978: 51, Fig. 22; MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 332,
Note 3; 1969: 84.
1. terrace foundation, cone of dejection 320 cm;
2. fne, reddish clay, mixed with pebbles 320280 cm;
3. compact horizon of iron oxydes and water rolled pebbles 280250 cm;
4. clay mixed with fne pebbles 250200 cm;
5. clay mixed with rolled pebbles and iron oxydes 200180 cm;
6. fne, reddish clay with vertical greyish-blueish veins 180110 cm;
7. brown-reddish clay with prismatic structure, rich in iron oxydes concretions especially on
the lower side 11050 cm;
8. intermediate yellow-reddish layer with brown stains 5035 cm;
9. loessoid deposit with an intermediary web of iron oxydes 3515 cm;
10. present-day level of impression 150 cm.
Layer I lies in the upper part of deposit 6, between the depths of 115105 cm. Te lithic tools
found here are atypical, mainly in connection with the raw material that was used, quartzite, respec-
tively. Level II of habitation belongs to the Aurignacian and lies at the base of layer 7, being exposed
over an extremely small surface, with a thickness of 5cm ( 9590cm). Level III, alongside Tincova
Palaeolithic level and level I of Coava, represent one of the most important habitation levels of the
Banat Palaeolithic. Te excavations carried out at Dumbrvia did not show a clear delineation of
this level, which, thus still in deposit 7 from the stratigraphy mentioned above. Level IV, identifed
across a surface of 20 m
2
, has a thickness of approximately 7cm, stratigraphically lying between the
depths of 6760 cm. Level V lies at a depth of 5040cm, in the yellow-reddish deposit (no. 8),
evincing a discontinuous aspect. It contained several fint concentrations (workshops like) lying at a
distance of 34m from each other. Tey contained a large number of atypical fakes and a very low
number of tools. Level VI, the last level of the stratigraphic sequence from Romneti lies at a depth
of 3020cm, in the upper part of the sediment evincing a loessoid aspect (Fig. 10c).
II.5.1.7 TincovaSlite (Sacu village, Cara-Severin County) (Fig. 5). Te Palaeolithic
(Aurignacian) setlement from the place called Slite was discovered in 1958; from the geomorpho-
logical point of view it lies on a dejection cone on the western edge of the Poiana Rusc Mountain
range
216
. It lies 60 m above the right bank of the river Timi. Te archaeological research began in 1958;
the frst two campaigns took place under the supervision of C. S. Nicolescu-Plopor and Ion Stratan
217
.
Starting with 19651966 the research in this setlement was taken over by Florea Mogoanu
218
.
Te stratigraphic succession (from botom to top) (Fig. 9b) is the following
219
:
1. alternating gravel, blocks and clay that make up the foundation of the dejection cone;
2. fne, deep reddish, sandy, earth ( 300265 cm);
3. sand and rolled pebbles mixed with iron oxydes ( 265235 cm);
4. reddish earth clay with greyish-bluish strips ( 235125 cm);
5. clay with prismatic structure of brown-yellowish colour with iron oxydes concretions
( 12555 cm);
6. yellowish-whitish loessoid deposit, mixed with small iron oxydes concretions (
5520cm);
7. present-day greyish-yellowish level of impression ( 200 cm);
We would frst like to mention several lithic quartzite pieces uncovered during the 1967
campaign at a distance of approxiamtely 20m south of the Aurignacian setlement (or in the summer
216
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C.S. & STRTAN, I. 1961: 29; STRTAN, I. 1962: 123; 1970: 8; MOGOANU,F.
1972: 10; 1973: 22; 1978: 37.
217
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C.S. & STRTAN, I. 1961: 2931; STRTAN, I. 1962: 123125; 1970: 8.
218
MOGOANU, F. 1967a: 555556.
219
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 38.
of 1966 about 200 m north)
220
in a small test pit (3 2 m)
221
. Teir stratigraphic position is
uncertain, as one could not determine if the deposit they originated from was reshuf ed or not.
Tere are about 15 quartzite pieces uncovered in the degraded loess deposit (lying at the base of
the present day vegetal deposit) of yellowish-greyish colour, at a depth of 4030 cm. Te Aurignacian
lithic matrials included in a single cultural level, have been dug up in the upper part of deposit 5.
II.5.2 Repertoir of Palaeolithic archaeological sites
II.5.2.1 Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave (Fig. 11). Te frst information on the archaeological
research carried out in this cave was given to us from Nicolae Stoica de Haeg, who mentions that in
1778 the priest Samoil Popovici and Ignatie Sandal from Mehadia discovered various buckles and
harnessing pieces
222
. In 1872, the year when the Society for History and Archaeology of Timioara
was founded, the frst excavations also started, under the supervision of dr. Ludwig Arnyi, A. Jzsa and
T.Lehotzky
223
followed by the research carried out by Bdrog Milleker and G. Tgls around 1880,
by Agoston Solymsy in 1904, Otokar Kadi in 1916 and by a group of museologists from Craiova
in 1927
224
. Te scientifc research began in 1954, Petera Hoilor being tackled under the framework
of the archaeologic site Cerna-Olt
225
. Te excavations carried out on several campaigns have brought
forth a stratigraphic sequence that is important for several cultural-chronological horizons. Te lithic
tools uncovered at the foot of the loessoid deposits that make up layer 2, at the depth of 270250cm,
count 125 pieces; typologically we should mention the following pieces
226
(Fig. 12):
5 scrapers created on triangular-shaped falkes (2) with neocortical but or on alternately
retouched fakes (3);
3 Mousterian atypical points of a triangular shape with a thick neocortical but;
8 retouched fakes with a neocortical but, some seeming to be denticulated;
pieces of a natural couteau dos.
Tis tool points out to a Mousterian industry characterized by the absence of the Levallois
technique and of the bifacial shapes, but rich in scrapers. Te stratigraphic position and the uncovered
fauna remainders (high frequency of Microtus nivalis and Marvalis suggesting a cold climate) enabled us
to atribute these pieces back to a presumed Late Mousterian, which developed at the beginning of W
2
227
.
Other than the above-mentioned pieces, in the same (greyish-yellow) sediment as well as in
sediment B (dark yellowish with many pebbles) from the big gallery, pieces of Upper Palaeolithic
origin were found
228
. Among them we would like to mention some blades with continuous retouches
on one side, one notched piece, one piece with retouched truncation, a burin-scraper, an angle burin
on break, 5 atypical scrapers and two prismatic cores- that can be traced back to the Aurignacian.
Within this context one should also mention the only hearth identifed for the Palaeolithic. It was
quasi-round in shape, with a size of 90 80 cm and a thickness of 69 cm. Te fauna associated with
this horizons consists of, among others, micromammals (Microtus nivalis, Microtus arvalis, Microtus
agrestis etc.), Ursus spelaeus, Cervus elaphus, etc., all pointing out to a certain amelioration of the
climate, favouring an expansion of forest, mainly of decidous trees
229
. Tis occupation period here
represents the only Aurignacian cave occupation discovered in the Banat up to the present moment.
220
MOGOANU, F. 1968a: 303; 1972: 11.
221
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 4849.
222
PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 16.
223
224
PUNESCU, A. 1987: 15; MOGOANU, F. 1971: 3; 1972: 9; 1978: 23.
225
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C.S. et alii 1955: 140146.
226
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 2729; PUNESCU, A. 2002.
227
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3; MOGOANU, F. 1968a: 309; 1971: 912; 1972: 910; 1973: 1417; 1978: 29, 102.
228
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 29.
229
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 45; 2002.
Te frst pre-Neolithic discoveries made in this cave provoked a lengthy debate among the
Romanian archaeologists. Te topic of this debate was the discovery of hearth with microliths and
no potery in squares 1114 on the 1954 campaign
230
. Essentially, it centered around the occupation
level III from Herculane, identifed both in the rotonda (in a light yellow sediment in the lower part
and reddish in the upper part) and in the big gallery in sediment C of greyish-black colour. In this
gallery an oval shaped habitation complex (385 180 cm, approx. 10 cm thick) was found. In its
proximity there were four hearths
231
. In the lithic assemblage there were 475 (mostly) fint pieces, and
some radiolarite pieces. 90 of them are tools: scrapers (in great numbers), backed blades, notched
pieces, side-scrapers, pieces of the raclete type, burins, piercers, pieces esquilles
232
, narrow backed
blades, truncated blades and very few geometrical armatures (scalene triangle, circle segments,
asymmetrical trapezese) and pieces of backed knife type (Fig. 13)
233
.
From the foristic point of view one identifed following coal samples testing, Pinus sp. and
some indeterminable decidous trees. Te uncovered fauna comprises micromammals (Microtus
arvalis, Microtus agrestis, Cricetulus migratorius, etc.), big mammals (Ursus arctos, Cervus elaphus,
Castor fber, etc.), birds (Pyrrhocorax cf. graculus), fsh (Cyprinus carpio, Aspis rapax) and several
(fossile Cerithium sp.) shells used for adornments
234
.
Te discovery of these complexes made
14
C dating possible. Tus, sample 1 (calcinated bones
from hearth no. 2, squares 34 of the longitudinal sections (southern profle) in the big gallery,
119107 cm deep) provided the date 1149075 BP (GrN16978) considered to be accurate, if
we consider the features of the lithic material, of the fauna and fora, being at the same time an
argument for considering this Epipalaeolithic dwelling that probably developed within the Allerd
and Dryas III oscillation
235
. All these lead one to trace this lithic assemblage to the Tardigravetian of
a Mediterranean type, also found in the Danube gorge at Cuina Turcului
236
.
II.5.2.2 Caransebe (Cara-Severin County). At Carbonifera Veche (New Caransebe, lef of the
CaransebeOrova road) 34 fint objects were found and assigned by Richard Petrovszky to the
Upper Palaeolithic. Another piece was found while digging a ditch for a high voltage post. In the Timi
foodplain on its lef bank, at the Mhal, other pieces were found and considered to be Palaeolithic
237
.
In the absence of a stratigraphic context as well as a formal description and graphic illustration, they
should be looked upon with utmost caution. During some feld research carried out recently isolated
lithic pieces that could be Palaeolithic were found: a quartzite fake found on Dealul Iepura, about
1km east of the town, on the right-hand side of the road to Lugoj, or an atypical fake from the same
raw material found at Zborte (approximately 1.5 km from Dealul Iepura)
238
. Beside these pieces, in
the colections of the County Museum of Ethnography and of the Border Brigade Caransebe one
can also fnd an opal chip with retouchings in the distal area found in the area of the village Lpugiul
de Sus (Hunedoara County), a macrolithic yellowish-brown fint piece with directly retouched parts
on either side, the back side preserving cortex areas, found in the area of the villages Romneti
Baloeti (Timi County) and a quartzite blade found by Octavian Popescu at the point called Ocna
lui Vucu, near the peak of Pleiva in Anina Mountains
239
.
230
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C.S. et alii 1955: 143; NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C.S. et alii 1957: 5153.
231
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 5; NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. & COMA, E. 1957: 1821; NICOLESCU-
PLOPOR, C.S. & PUNESCU, A. 1961: 203213.
232
BITIRI, M. 1959: 453454.
233
234
235
236
PUNESCU 1970b: 328; 1979: 1128; 1984: 251252; 1989: 146150; 2001: 6870, 336361.
237
PETROVSZKY, R. 1975: 365; JUNGBERT, B. 1978: 910.
238
Octavian Popescu, personal communication.
239
Emilian Alexandrescu, personal communication.
II.5.2.3 Constantin Daicoviciu (Cara-Severin County) on Dealul Pning at the point
Lacariera veche (At the Old Quarry) lying on the right bank of the brook Vlior, at approximately
2 km northnorth-east of the bridge over the river Timi, on the road to Tincova, while lime was
being extracted, one came across former avens, maybe of a cave destroyed by the quarry works, flled
up with breccia, in which fossile bones and quartzite nodules may be found. Atypical quartzite
chips have been found in this area
240
.
II.5.2.4 Coava (village belonging to Curtea, Timi County).
Typological study
Coava I
In the frst horizon there were 609 pieces of which only 110 are typical. In order to have a
clearer picture of the implements we listed the piece types in the table below
241
according to the
model-list of D. De Sonneville-Bordes J. Perrot (Fig. 15):
Ord. no. Types of pieces No. %
1. End-scrapers 2 1,81
2. Atypical end-scrapers 2 1,81
4. Ogival scrapers 1 0,90
5. End-scrapers on retouched blade 3 2,72
6. End-scrapers on Aurignacian blade 3 2,72
7. Fan shaped end-scraper 1 0,90
8. End-scraper on fake 8 7,27
11. Carinated end-scraper 9 8,18
12. Atypical carinated end-scraper 4 3,63
13. Nosed end-scraper 2 1,81
13a. Atypical nosed end-scraper 3 2,72
15. Core-like end-scraper 5 4,54
16. Rabot 2 1,81
27. Dihedral straight burin 3 2,72
28. Ofset dihedral burin 1 0,90
29. Diehadral angle burin 3 2,72
30. Burin de angle along the break 1 0,90
31. Multiple dihedral burin 1 0,90
47. Atypical Chtelperron point 1 0,90
52. Font-Yves point 1 0,90
65. Blade with continuous retouch on one side 15 13,63
66. Blade with continuous retouch on two sides 15 13,63
67. Aurignacian blade 10 9,09
68. Strangled blade 1 0.90
74. Notched piece 2 1,81
75. Dentriculated piece 4 3,63
77. Side-scrapers 6 5,45
90. Dufour bladelet 1 0,90
Total implements 110
Cores and simple blades 103
Flakes 178
Atypical fakes 218
Overall total 609
240
Octavian Popescu, personal communication.
241
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 7478.
Te characteristic typological indices for this level are:

IG 39.09%
IB 8.18%
IGA 16.36%
IBd 8.18%
Analysing the table and indices from above we notice a relative quantitative prevalence of
retouched blades, including here also the Aurignacian blades (one is of the pointed type) produced
through scaled retouch . Among the end-scrapers an important place falls to those making up the
Aurignacian group. Carinated end-scrapers were made cores (some worn and broken), massive
points or crested blades and are produced by direct covergent or semi-convergent blade retouches.
Te two nosed end-scrapers were manufacured, one on a core tablet, and the other on an Aurignacian
blade. One should remember the presence of the core-like end-scrapers and of the rabot type pieces,
elements encountered in other Aurignacian setlements in the Banat. Te group of the burins is
numerically small, being generally made up of atypical items. From this level we have a strangled
blade and two very important pieces, respectively a Dufour bladelet and a Font-Yves point (Fig. 15).
We regret that we cannot have a view of the but types, of the metrical variation of the support,
of the frequency of the pieces that stem from the frst stages of the reduction sequence as the material
(nowadays in the custody of the History Museum of Lugoj), whose storing conditions render its
study dif cult if not even impossible with a view to reconstructing its archaeological contexts from
which it stems has not been processed and one makes no references to the lithic implements (the
same holds for the other two levels). At level I, the same as for the other two levels, no other elements
have been discovered that should enable one to make additional references to the activities of the
Palaeolithic man.
Coava II stratigraphically lies between the depths of 6045cm, in the sediment of layer 6,
this cultural level is poor in lithic implements, including a total number of 56 typical pieces, made of
fint. Typologically we obtain the following data:
Ord. no. Types of pieces No.
1. End-scraper on blade 2
2. Atypical end-scraper on blade 3
5. End-scraper on retouched blade 2
8. End-scraper on falke 2
11. Carinated end-scraper 3
12. Atypical carinated end-scraper 6
13. Nosed end-scraper 1
15. Core-like end-scraper 3
16. Rabot 2
24. Atypical piercer 1
27. Straight dihedral burin 2
29. Diehadral angle burin 2
30. Angle burin along the break 1
65. Blade with continuous retouchs on one side 5
66. Blade with continuous retouch on both sides 9
67. Aurignacian blade 3
75. Denticulated piece 3
77. Side-scrapers 5
90. Dufour bladelets 1
Total implements 56
From the table from above it results that at this level, one generally encounters, to a smaller
proportion, the same tools type as on the frst level. Te presence of the carinated, nosed, core-like
end-scrapers, but also of the Dufour bladelets allows us to assign this layer to the Aurignacian. Te
scarcity of the materials prevent one from launching other hypotheses referring to the position of
this level within the wider framework of the Central-East European Aurignacian.
Coava III. Te lithic assemblage uncovered on this layer are numerically reduced, amounting
to a total of 183 pieces, of which only 24 are tools, but they are interesting from the composition
standpoint:

Ord. no. Types of pieces Nr.
1. End-scraper on end of blade 1
2. Atypical end-scraper on end of blade 2
4. Ogival end-scraper 1
8. End-scraper on fake 2
9. Circular end-scraper 2
10. Tumb-nail end-scraper 1
11. Carinated end-scraper 2
27. Straight dihedral burin 1
52. Font-Yves point 1
65. Blade with continuous retouch on one side 2
66. Blade with continuous retouch on two sides 3
Total implements 24
Analysing the table above we notice the existence of two cultural components. Te frst,
the Aurignacian one, is represented by pieces such as carinated and core-like end-scraper, the tip
Font-Yves points and of the Dufour bladelets and the second, the Gravetian one, is set forth by
microlithic tools that include circular and thumb-nail end-scrapers, to which one adds the presence
of several obsidian points
242
.
II.5.2.5 Curtea (Curtea village, Timi County) the toponym of archaeological interest, the Dealul
Pmnt (or Pmnt Rou), lies at a distance of approximately 0.5 km southwest of the edge of the
Curtea and at approximately 2.5 km southwest of Izvorul lui Miron monastery. Florea Mogoanu, in
1972, afer a small test pit (10 m
2
) has brought to light the existence of a fint-processing workshop,
mentioning that some cortex and cores points stem from here
243
. On the above-mentioned hill plateau,
three atypical quartzite pieces were found that could be assigned to the Middle Palaeolithic
244
.
II.5.2.6 Curtea (Curtea village, Timi County) the place called Dealul viei (Vineyard Hill or in
the vineyard) lies at a distance of about 0.4 km eastsoutheast from the Dealul Pmnt. Following
the sondages carried out here, in a yellowish dust-like deposit, at the depth of 4520 cm, several
fint pieces were found. Among them there were: a carinated end-scraper, two core-like end-scrapers
and several blades and cores
245
, which actually determined Florea Mogoanu to consider these
materials as Aurignacian. During the feld research of the last year no other archaeological materials
were found
246
.
242
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 78, 130; 1967a: 559; MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 343; 1969: 90; STRTAN, I.
1970: 1415; CHIRICA, V. 1996a: 138.
243
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 71.
244
245
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 71.
246
II.5.2.7 Duleu (Cara-Severin County). Richard Petrovszky mentions at Corcanu a fint blade
of blackish colour that may be assigned to the Palaeolithic
247
. Without further details we cannot
consider this as a Palaeolithic setlement.
II.5.2.8 GorneaDealul Cuniei (Sichevia village, Cara-Severin County). Te site is
located in the Danube gorge, on the north-east edge of the depression basin of Liubcova, at the
contact between Almj Mountains and Locva Mountains. Te present day village Gornea lies at
about 3 km north of the Danube, along the Camenia Valley
248
. Te hill of Cunia lies at about
400 m north of the OrovaMoldova Nou road and at about 500 m southwest of the village, it
slopes gently to the south (to the Danube) and to the east (towards the Camenia Valley, which
separates it from the the hill of Pzrite) stepwise, being interspersed with gentle slope
249
(Fig.
2). As we mentioned in the research history, during the activity of the Complex Research Group
Iron Gates under the supervision of Florea Mogoanu two short excavation campaigns took place
in 1969 and 1970. On Cunia hill the excavation took place on one of the middle steps, at the
point called rchevite with a total surface of 28 m2 (in three sections) having been dug, generally
running as deep as 0.80 m.
In the lower part of layer 2 (brown-reddish), with a variable depth of 60 to 40 cm, a cultural
horizon was identifed. It was poor in archaeological material and yielded only 154 lithic pieces, in
need for some stratigraphical details: the above mentioned stratum is directly overlain by Holocene
deposits (the W
3
characteristic deposits are lacking), which draws our atention to possible solifuction
processes, meaning we could be dealing with an uncertain stratigraphic position of the Palaeolithic
layer 1
250
. Considering several characteristics of the lithic tools of Upper Palaeolithic nature and the
prosmatic structure of layer 2, Florea Mogoanu suggests assigning it to interstadium W
2
W
3
, which
also entails a later position of the Palaeolithic layer
251
. Of course, it is desirable that the resuming of
research should bring along clearer elements on the stratigraphic position of this Palaeolithic setlement.
Te lithic inventory comprising 154 pieces is made especially of black shales, jasp, quartz-
iferous rocks, fint and siliceous gritstone
252
. Although the number of typical pieces is very small
and cannot be subjected to the technical-typological analysis afer the Bordian method, we can still
identify types such as (Fig. 16):
1 Typical Levallois fake 19
1a Typical Levallois blade 5
2 Atypical Levallois fake 7
3 Unretouched Levallois point 5
4 Retouched Levallois point 3
9 Single straight side-scrapers 2
11 Single concave side-scrapers 2
12 Double straight side-scrapers 1
14 Double straight-concave side-scrapers 1
17 Double convex-concave side-scrapers 2
38 Naturally backed knife 1
42 Notched piece 1
43 Denticulated piece 1
Total implements 50
247
PETROVSZKY, R. 1975: 373.
248
EICU, D. & LAZAROVICI, G. 1996: 911.
249
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 535; LAZAROVICI, G. 1977: 23.
250
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 537; 1972: 10; 1973: 17; 1978: 32, 105.
251
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 537; 1978: 32.
252
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 336; 1978: 30; PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3.
Non-Levallois points 21
Non-Levallois blades 4
Levallois core 1
Discoidal core 1
Quasi-discoidal core 1
Atypical fakes 76
Overall total 154
As far as the technical study is concerned, we do not have a representative sample, thus we do
not know what value the indices and the characteristic groups afer the Bordes method might have
been; we only retain that the plain buts prevail. Apart from those we encounter the following types:
faceted (convex and fat), diedrical and punctiform. Our atention is drawn by the low percentage
of the cores (1.94) from the total number of discovered pieces, by the cortex points, the crested
blades, etc. useful elements for the determination of the setlement character. On the basis of this
material we consider the lithic industry of GorneaCunia as belonging to a typical Mousterian of
Levallois faking, rich in side-scrapers
253
, made on Levallois points with a faceted convex but (4),
non-Levallois but (3) and Levallois blade but (1) (Fig. 16).
As there is no match between the total number of discovered pieces claimed by Florea
Mogoanu (147)
254
and the number resulting from the above table (154)
255
. In the collections of
the Mountainous Banat Museum from Reia we have noticed the existence of materials marked as
Gornea (Cunia and Pzrite, with the mention of having been dug up by Florea Mogoanu). We
do not know whether they have been subjected to the analysis of Florea Mogoanu (some of them,
retouched, not being graphically rendered). From these materials, which we have not included in the
table, we mention: transversal convex side-scrapers
256
(from a siliceous rock of greyish colour with
whitish intrusions) cortical fake (L = 32,5 mm, W=44mm, T = 9 mm) with a plain but, inventory
entry no. 2702, A 7068, box no. 3f51); end-scraper on retouched fake, it has a wide plain, oblique
but (L = 28 mm, W = 30 mm, T = 12 mm, box no. 3f45, inventory entry number 2517, A7065);
point with retouch in the distal part atypical end-scraper with plain but, made of quartzite rock
of greyish colour (L = 32 mm, W = 29 mm, T = 6 mm, box no. 3f51 having inventory entry number
2708 A 7005) (Fig. 16).
Te palinological analyses
257
did not reveal any geochronological information, but thus the
indicated palaeoenvironment should be looked upon with much caution.
II.5.2.9 GorneaPzrite. Te Hill of Pzrite lies east of the Camenia Valley and is 40 m
above the level of the Danube (Fig. 2). In the lower part of stratum 3, at the contact area with
stratum 2 (2520 cm, at the centre of the plateau, the Palaeolithic level runs as deep as 4030 cm)
a Palaeolithic was exposed, poor in archaeological remains. Te same as at Cunia, the position of
the lithic material is uncertain, as it could have originated either in the upper part of stratum 2, or at
a certain level of the Eolian stratum that petered out following a process of erosion
258
, assigned, as an
hypothesis, to the end of stadium W
3
.
Te lithic tools display an atypical character: out of about 180 discovered pieces, the following
types were identifed
259
(Fig. 17):
253
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 537; 1973: 19; 1978: 31; PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3.
254
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 30.
255
PUNESCU, A. 2002.
256
BORDES, F. 1961: 12, Fig. 3/14, 28.
257
CRCIUMARU, M. 1978: 101; 1980: 142144.
258
MOGOANU, F. 1970, 535; 1978, 36; LAZAROVICI, G. et alii 1993, 300.
259
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 3436; PUNESCU, A. 2002.
3 end-scrapers, one on end of blade, one on a retouched cortex point, a fnely denticulated
and a double one;
1 dihedrical burin;
1 piercer on a crested blade;
1 notched piece;
1 esquille piece;
1 side-scraper;
denticulated pieces and many points, some of triungular shape with wide faceted or
plain but;
9 microlithic blades of which some retouched (4) and macrolithic blades with fne wear
retouches (10);
57 simple blades of which three Levallois;
11 cores, of which 7 prismatic.
For a while, the continuing archaeological research did not reach any Palaeolithic occupation,
but the 1989 campaign brought to light typical materials. Te 1989 excavation aimed both at the
spread of the Bronze Age fortifcation and the stratigraphy of the hill
260
. Tus, in the middle of
the hill Pzrite a trench was cut (S
11
, 75 2 m) that crossed the plateau from the north to the
south
261
in which at the depth of 3040 cm, in a brown soil with small limestone concretions, the
remains of a Palaeolithic level occurred in two diferent places. For time saving reasons, the section was
narrowed to 1 m, which did not allow us to classify the nature of the complexes (place of knapping,
hearth or dwelling
262
. Starting from here we tried to discuss this material in diferent terms than
the previous atempts simply employing terms such as tips, scrapers, drills etc.) in another
cultural environment, but our striving was in vain. Unfortunately the materials from the 1989
campaign could not be found among the collections of the Mountainous Banat Museum Reia or
of the National History Museum of Transylvania. Beyond this ironical overtone, we believe that
all we are lef with are the 62 published pieces (which can represent all the discovered pieces in
1989 according to some opinions). We would not have been so disappointed if the drawings had
been carried out afer the required principles of the graphic rendering of lithic material, but in the
present case this thing is of litle avail, too. By analysing the three published plates, we observe the
(potential) existence of the following piece types: a simple end-scraper on a point
263
, a dihedrical
burin
264
, a piece of the raclete type
265
, fakes and balde with marginal wear retouch
266
, a discoid
core
267
and a Levallois point
268
.
Among the collections of the Mountainous Banat Museum in Reia we have also identifed a
concave side-scrapers made on a rejuvenating tablet with a dihedrical but (L= 25 mm, H = 40mm,
T = 7 mm, box no. 3f46, inventory entry number A.10846, the 1967 campaign), a simple fake and
an end-scraper on end of blade.
Without granting too much importance to these pieces, we consider the lithic industry at
Pzrite as belonging to the Aurignacian, in a maybe later evolution period of this culture in the
Banat
269
.
260
261
262
263
LAZAROVICI, G. et alii 1993: Fig. 8/13.
264
265
266
267
268
269
MOGOANU, F. 1972: 10; 1973, 19; PUNESCU, A. 1992: 4; 2002.
II.5.2.10 GorneaVodneac (Cara-Severin County). Here, lying on a sloping plateau at the
Pzrite foothill, 400 m north of the OrovaMoldova Nou road, Alexandru Punescu (quoting
page 3 of the abstract of V. Boroneans doctoral thesis from 1981) mentions the discovery of
several fint pieces (a core-like end-scraper, a double notched, an end-scraper, etc.) assigned to the
Aurignacian
270
the same as those from Pzrite. Vasile Boroneans published version of the doctoral
thesis is said that lhomme continua-t-il dhabiter cete contre pendant le palolithique suprieur,
comme le prouvent les documents archologiques mis au jour dans la grote Climente I de Dubova,
Gornea, dans la colline de Pzrite, ainsi qu Vodneac
271
. Also in the same area, and even in the profle
of a section of the colleague Boronean, I have found potery fagments that belong to Starevo-Cri culture
to which the fint discoveries made by our colleague may belong
272
. According to more recent opinions
referring to these materials, one cannot rule out the possiblity of their provenance from Pzrite
273
.
II.5.2.11 Grdinari (Cara-Severin County). Among the collections of the Mountainous Banat
Museum from Reia there is a piece (box no. 3f45, inventory entry number 2487) of orange colour,
very strongly water rolled, without a clear pointing facet and evincing on its right side, two deep
depressions giving it the appearance of a denticulated piece. It was considered to be Palaeolithic.
II.5.2.12 IabalceaCerbului Cave (2240/1, village of Caraova, Cara-Severin County) lies at
about 5.5 km southeast of the village, on the right bank of the Cara river, at a height of 504m. During
the sondages carried out here, Ern Balogh found (under a guano stratum, at the depth of 0.50)
several (purposely), broken bones which he assignes to the Aurignacian. Together with them there
were limestone and quartzite rocks among which a triungular point with several retouches, which
he considers to be Mousterian
274
. We retain here, under some reserve, for the present-day state of the
research, the presence of the points and of a Musterian tip made of quartzite as arguments referring
to the existence of a Palaeolithic setlement in this cave. It is worth mentioning that, periodically, the
cave becomes wet as there probably are underground springs
275
.
II.5.2.13 IabalceaPopov Cave (Popov Cave, village of Caraova, Cara-Severin County)
has only one entrance, its maximum length amounts to 112m, and its absolute altitude is 421 m
276
.
Ern Balogh carried out a sondage here (12 1 m, 0,75 m). In clayish yellow deposit, he found
several Ursus spelaeus broken bones, among which he identifed some tools: daggers, points, scarpers
and even some blades of the Kiskevly type. Between 1958 and 1960 feld surveys took place in this
cave, on which occasion several Ursus spelaeus bone were gathered
277
which ended up in the custody
of the then County Museum of Reia. It needs to be stressed that the so-called Palaeolithic bone
tools discovered are doubtful showing nothing else but natural breaks
278
a result of the physical-
chemical and mechanical processes that have afected the cave sediments.
II.5.2.14 Leucueti (village of Bethausen, Timi County). On the upper terrace of the Bega river,
following some surface research carried out by Ion Stratan between 1967 and 1968, an Aurignacian
270
271
BORONEAN, V. 2000a: 22.
272
LAZAROVICI, G. 1977: 30.
273
274
PETROVSZKY, R. 1975: 368; MOGOANU, F. 1978: 1314; JUNGBERT, B. 1979: 400; PUNESCU, A. 1987:
15; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 21.
275
276
BORONEAN, V. 2000b: 27.
277
PETROVSZKY, R. 1975: 368; MOGOANU, F. 1978: 14; JUNGBERT, B. 1979: 400401.
278
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 14; PUNESCU, A. 1987a: 15.
setlement was postulated
279
. Considering the range of the Palaeolithic research in the Banat in the
60s and 70s we believe that a new Aurignacian setlement would have made the subject of at least a
modest test pit. Te fact that this station has not been retained by the special feld literature leads us
to believe that its signalling is a mere step of the feld survey research in the Banat, obviously until the
feld corroboration of the above mentioned information.
II.5.5.15 Liborajdea (village of Sichevia, Cara-Severin Country). Te point Gura Liborajdea
lies at the intersection of the river Liborajdea into the Danube, near the road leading to Pescari.
Four microlithic fint blades, three fint cores and a crested blade were found here crte, but on the
occasion of the feld survey from the summer of 2001 no other materials were found
280
. Without
further sondages looking for new materials and clear detemination of their stratigraphic position, we
cannot consider this point as a Palaeolithic setlement.
II.5.5.16 PescariGaura Chindiei I Cave (2222/1) lies at 6 km downstream of village Pescari
(Cara-Severin Country) at a relative height of 80 m. It consists of one gallery with a total length of
24 m
281
. We do not know what the Palaeolithic fnds (the material has disappeared) from the cave
were like
282
but the author of the research remarked that the oldest cultural stratum probably belongs
to the Early Iron Age
283
. In order to clarify the mater, we briefy describe the stratigraphy of the cave
(from botom to top), resulting afer the excavation in 1971 of three trenches:
archaeologically sterile stratum (overlapping the rock bed).
stratum with materials from the First Iron Age
stratum with mixed materials (Dacian and Medieval).
recent stratum of catle and goats droppings, ashes and coal, contemporary potery fragments
284
.
For these reasons we do not consider this cave as a new Palaeolithic setlement.
II.5.2.17 PescariLivadiei Cave (2222/xxx) lies within the area of the village of Pescari, at a
relative height of 7080 m; it is a small cave, gently sloping up, with south-south-west orientation,
dug out in the limestone mountain range of the strait of Pescari-Alibeg. Vasile Boronean, afer
excavations carried out between 1972 and 1975 (together with Elena Terzea), found some lithic
tools in the frst two clastic material horizons: a series of fint points, some of which appear to have an
atypical retouch. Despite the fact they are typologically dif cult to classify
285
, may be assigned to a
Mousterian without bifacial shapes
286
.
In a black-brown-greyish soil, rich in clastic material, stratum 2, horizon 4 (we believe that
is horizon 5 since stratum 1 has two clearly chromatically distinguishable horizons), the Bucharest
researcher uncovered a Palaeolithic occupation
287
from which several pieces were gathered
288

among which a few side-scrapers stand out
289
. Te number of discovered pieces is very small (8, 7
on fint of diferent nuances and 1 of grey gritstone), but one can make out the following types
290
:
279
MOROZ-POP, M. 1983, 475.
280
281
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 144; 2000b: 35.
282
ROGOZEA, P. 1987: 348; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 25.
283
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 144.
284
285
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 143.
286
PUNESCU, A. 2002.
287
JUNGBERT, B. 1982: 551; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 29.
288
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 143, Pl. XXVI/13.
289
BORONEAN, V. 2000b: Pl. 28.
290
PUNESCU, A. 2002.
simple bifacial straight side-scraper (dos aminci) with retouches of the semi-Quina type
(dimensions: L = 6,9cm, H = 3,8cm, T = 1,3 cm);
double biconvex side-scraper on a non-Levallois blade with a partially removed but
(dimensions: L = 8.1cm, H= 3.6cm, T = 1.1 cm);
convergent convex side-scraper on a non-Levallois point with a quasi-plain but;
simple straight side-scraper, with thick retouches, made on a Levallois blade;
simple non-Levallois fake with cortical but;
simple non-Levallois fake with faceted but;
two atypical, microlithic fakes.
Although numerically reduced, the lithic inventory of this horizon might belong to a
Mousterian knapping non-Levallois facies, rich in side-scrapers
291
. At this level, a human bone was
found which, according to Dardu Nicolescu-Plopor, represents phalanx I of Homo, probably,
Neandertaliensis
292
. One should mention that no tests have been run in order to obtain an absolute
dating chronology for the level of Mousterian from that cave. Based on the fauna and the archaeo-
logical material, one practically traces this stratum back to fnal Wrm I
293
.
Te archaeological research did not reveal any hearths from the Mousterian ocupation neither
any element that might point out to artistic expression is lacking.
II.5.2.18 Adis Cave (3022/6) lies in the basin of Cprionica, on the lef slope of the Mure; it has
the length of 58.5 and a relative height of 50 m. Palaeolithic tools were mentioned
294
but the materials
are lost. Te feld research was carried out in 19761977 by Vasile Boronean, and continued later
by groups of speleologists from Arad. On these ocassions fossile faunal elements were found (Ursus
spelaeus) but also some fint pieces which might belong to the Upper Palaeolithic
295
.
II.5.2.19 Duban Cave lies within the area of the village of Sasca Montan
296
. Flint points, a
side-scraper a tip and Palaeolithic end-scrapers were mentioned here
297
. All these materials (occuring
with some slightly burnt, brown potery) are thus no conclusions can be drawn.
II.5.2.20 OilorBobot Cave (2143/2) is a slumped (fossile) cave with a groto aspect lying at
about 150200m from the landmark of km 14 towards Godeanu (26 km towards Bile Herculane).
During the sondages (0.500.60 m, 0.50 m) carried out near the lef wall of the frst entrance a
fint piece was found of brown colour. It was seen as Upper Palaeolithic
298
. On the grounds of the
presented drawing and in the absence of the description we cannot subscribe to the authors frm
claim and consider this piece as a Palaeolithic one.
II.5.2.21 Vraka Cave (2238/10) lies at a height of about 50m against the Cara river middle line
within the area of Caraova
299
. In this fossile warm cave, without air currents, a test pit was excavated
in which an Aurignacian fint of light brown colour was discovered
300
. From the drawing, the piece
is an end-scraper on a retouched blade with a slightly convergent front side, but its isolated presence
291
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3; 2002.
292
TERZEA, E. 1979: 114; PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3.
293
BORONEAN, V. 1979: 143; TERZEA, E. 1979: 114.
294
ROGOZEA, P. 1987: 353, 360; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 19.
295
296
297
ROGOZEA, P. 1987: 349, 358; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 24; BORONEAN, V. 2000b: 38.
298
PETROVSZKY, R. et alii 1981: 436, Pl. II/3; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 31; BORONEAN, V. 2000b: 33.
299
300
PETROVSZKY, R. et alii 1981: 432, Pl. II/2; PETRESCU, S.M. 2000: 35.
without a certain stratigraphic context makes its assignation to the Aurignacian problematic (prehis-
torical ceramic fragments were also found, probably Coofeni).
II.5.2.22 RomnetiDumbrvia (village of Tometi, Timi County). Te Palaeolithic
setlement (Fig. 18) lies at the confuence of the rivers Bega Mare and Bega Mic, in the NNV part of
the village. It was found in 1959; the research took place over several campaigns in 1960, 19611964
and 19671972
301
.
Te stratigraphical sequence. A rich, multistratifed area of 450 m, with a profle of 150cm
(on some trenches even 300 cm) was excavated. Te succession of the deposits from this setlement
(from botom to top, see supra) made the object of several presentations
302
.
Horizon I lies in the upper part of deposit 6, between the depths of 115105 cm. Te lithic
tools found here show an atypical character, triggered mostly by the raw material that was used,
respectively quartzite. Of the 48 discovered pieces only a few can be classifed typologically
(Fig.19/15):
3 pieces of triangular shape of Musteroid aspect with a neocortical but (2) and wear
retouches on the distal end (1);
1 massive fake partially covered by neocortex with its lef side retouched on the distal
end;
2 pieces of the naturally backed knife type couteau dos naturel, one of them with fne
wear retouches;
2 end-scrapers made on fakes; one has a convex active part and the other has a rectilinear
part;
1 prismatic core preserving the negatives of laminary knapping.
Based on the presence of these tools Florea Mogoanu believed that this horizon I could be
dated to a later date, proof thereof being both the stratigraphic position and the last three mentioned
pieces deemed to be Upper Palaeolithic
303
. From here, V. Chirica saw this entire horizon as Upper
Palaeolithic
304
making up a diferent Aurignacian and obviously previous culture, respectively the
Upper Quartzite Palaeolithic
305
. Such issues cannot be solved through a mere approach of the raw
materials used, but mainly through further interdisciplinary research.
Horizon II lies at the basie of stratum 7. It was exposed over an extremely small surface, with
a thickness of only 5 cm (9590 cm). Te lithic assemblage is also very poor, including only a
few piece types. Together with the atypical material there are several fragmented blades with direct
or reverse retouches (2), two atypical end-scrapers, a dihedrical burin made on a massive blade,
partially covered in cortex, with the right side directly retouched, and a macrolithic side-scraper
(Fig. 19/69) (L=16.2 cm, H=13.9 cm, T=4 cm) with scalariform retouches
306
. No other remains
assigned to this Palaeolithic level were found.
Horizon III. Together with the Tincova horizon and Coava I, this horizon represents one of
the most important elements of the Banat Palaeolithic. Te excavations carried out here did not lead
to the delineation of this occupational level, which stratigraphically lies at a depth of 8670 cm,
301
MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 336340; MOGOANU, F. 1967: 556A; 1978: 51.
302
MOGOANU, F. 1968b: 644, Fig. 1; 1972: 1213; 1978: 51, Fig. 22; MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 332,
Note 3; 1969: 84.
303
MOGOANU, F. 1968a: 304306; 1978: 54.
304
CHIRICA, V. 1996a: 132.
305
CHIRICA, V. 1996a: 137.
306
MOGOANU, F. 1967a: 556, Fig. 1; 1978: 5456; MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 336, Fig. 1.
therefore in deposit 7. Te lithic assemblage, although relatively numerous (with a total number of
pieces close to 5000) has only a few tools (114 pieces). Te following types were identifed (D.de
Sonneville-Bordes and J. Perrot typology):
Ord. no. Types of pieces Lev. III % Lev. IV Lev. V
1. End-scraper on blade 6 5.26 1 0
2. Atypical end-scraper on blade 1 0.88 1 4
3. Double end-scraper 1 0.88 0 1
5. End-scraper on retouched blade 1 0.88 0 1
6. End-scraper on Aurignacian blade 2 1.75 0 1
8. End-scraper on fake 15 13.16 3 1
10. Tumb-nail end-scraper 1 0.88 1 0
11. Carinated end-scraper 7 6.14 0 1
12. Atypical carinated end-scraper 6 5.26 1 2
13. End-scraper museau 2 1.75 1 0
14. Nosed end-scraper 1 0.88 0 0
15. Core-like end-scraper 8 7.02 3 1
16. Rabot 6 5.26 1 3
17. End-scraper-burin 1 0.88 1 1
21. Piercer end-scraper 1 0.88 0 0
24. Atypical piercer 2 1.75 0 0
27. Dihedral straight burin 7 6.14 6 5
28. Dihedral ofset burin 3 2.63 3 2
29. Dihedral angle burin 2 1.75 4 3
30. Angle burin along the break 4 3.51 2 4
31. Multiple dihedral burin 1 0.88 1 4
32. Burin busqu 1 0.88 0 0
34. Burin on straight retouched truncation 2 1.75 3 1
35. Burin on oblique retouched truncation 2 1.75 4 0
36. Burin on concave truncation 1 0.88 1 0
37. Burin on convex retouched truncation 1 0.88 1 0
39. Transversal burin on a notch 1 0.88 0 0
43. Core-like burin nucleiform 1 0.88 0 0
60. Piece on straight retouched truncation 0 0.00 2 0
61. Blade with oblique retouched truncation 1 0.88 3 0
63. Blade with convex retouched truncation 1 0.88 3 0
65. Blade with continuous retouches on one side 6 5.26 0 1
66. Blade with continuous on both sides 1 0.88 3 0
67. Aurignacian blade 5 4.39 1 0
74. Notched piece 1 0.88 1 0
75. Denticulated piece 1 0.88 2 0
76. Scalar piece 0 0.00 1 0
77. Side-scraper 2 1.75 4 0
84. Truncated blade 0 0.00 2 0
85. Backed bladlets 0 0.00 0 1
89. coche fake 1 0.88 1 1
90. Dufour bladelets 8 7.02 0 0
Total tools 114 61 38
Simple blades 788
Flakes 1941
Cores 47
Atypical fakes 2165
General total 5055
On the ground of the data in the table above, the following characteristic typological indices
were calculated:
IG 44.74%
IB 22.80%
IGA 14.04%
IBd 14.91%
IBt 5.26%
ILD+FY 7.02%
As one can see, the end-scrapers group holds the greatest weight, taking up 44.74% of the
total number of tools found at this level. Our atention naturally goes to the typical nosed and
carinated shapes of the Aurignacian that reach 14.04% to which we add the core-like end-scrapers
and the pieces of the rabot type. Seen against the group of the end-scrapers, the percentage of the
burins group, which amounts to 22.80%, defnitely higher than the Tincova percentage, seems quite
important to us. Interesting is the fact that inside this group the dihedral burins prevail, reaching
almost 15%. Compared to the Aurignacian setlement from Tincova here the Dufour bladelets
amount to only 7.02%. Te rest of the lithic tools is made up of retouched blades on one or both
sides (1), mostly fragmented, while one can distinguish the pieces with scalar retouches typical of
the Aurignacian (Fig. 2021).
Te raw material, which is quantitatively important, is largely unstudied. Given the storage
conditions it seems unlikely for a future atempt to meet a high degree of success. Naturally, the
great number of the blades, points and atypical points speak themselves for the character of the
setlement, obviously connected to the processing of fint. Unfortunately lacking such information
it is imposible to determine the frequency of the buts types, the type of economy, or the operational
chain. Te discovered cores make 0.92% of the total numer of pieces of this level; most of them
do not have a typical shape, but there are some pyramidal, prismatic, uni- or bipolar (Fig.2426),
shapes frequently encountered in the Aurignacian environment. Without knowing what middle-
size blades mean, we retain that they prevail (592), followed by 158 microlithic blades and 38
macrolithic blades (Fig. 27/2, 5, 6; Fig. 28/1, 2; Fig. 36)
307
.
Horizon IV. Identifed across a surface of about 20 m
2
this level of occupation has a thickness
of about 7 cm, stratigraphically lying between 67 and 60 cm. Compared to the previous level,
it is much poorer, yielding only 61 typical pieces. Generally, the same types as in level III were
identifed, even if in a smaller proportion in the case of the end-scraper group, but slightly higher
in the case of the burins on retouched truncation (Fig. 22/17) or of the pieces with retouched
truncation. We have no information on the rest of the discovered material in this horizon, and even
less metrical data or technological data. No other elements that might be connected to Palaeolihic
man were discovered.
Horizon V lies at the depth of 5040cm in the yellow-reddish deposit (8) evincing a discon-
tinuous aspect showing several fint concentrations, perhaps workshops lying at a distance of 34m
of each other. Tey yielded a high number of atypical points and a very small number of tools, many
of them atypical (Fig. 22/812). Studying the typological table, one can notice a decrease on the
number of the end-scrapers and an increase on the number of burins. Based on the characteristic of
the assemblage, this horizon was assigned to the Aurignacian.
307
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 61.
Horizon VI. Te last occupational from Romneti lies at the depth of 3020 cm in the
upper part of the loessoid sediment. Te lithic assemblage is also numerically reduced, but it is
comparable to the previous ones. Tus the following types have been distinguished:
Ord. no. Types of pieces No. of pieces
1. End-scraper on blade 5
2. Atypical end-scraper on blade 2
7. Fan-like end-scraper 1
8. End-scraper on fake 8
9. Circular end-scraper 3
10. Tumb nail end-scraper 9
16. Rabot 1
27. Dihedral straight burin 3
28. Dihedral ofset burin 1
30. Dihedral angle burin 2
34. Burin on straight retouched truncation 1
36. Burin on concave truncation 1
48. La Gravete point 3
67. Aurignacian blade 1
74. Notched piece encoche 1
77. Side-scraper 2
78. Raclete 2
79. Triangle 2
85. Backed fakes 3
Total tools 56
One can notice that together with the types characteristic to the Aurignacian new ones also
appear, suggesting another cultural component (one should however notice the absence of the
carinated and nosed end-scrapers). Te new ones include the La Gravete points, backed fakes, pieces
typical of the Gravetian, but also scalene triangles and thumb-nail like and circular end-scrapers,
shapes mainly encountered during the Epipalaeolithic. As well as in Coava III, the frst Gravetian
in the Banat Palaeolithic appears in Romneti VI, but the Aurignacian background suggested by the
Dufour bladelets is not gone yet (Fig. 23/112).
Another aspect of this setlement is represented by the so-called Romneti-DumbrviaII
308

which Florea Mogoanu saw as a distinct setlement lying at about 80 m north of the previously
discussed one, on the same geomorphological unit. Te anthropical elements are represented exclu-
sively by ithic tools found in of small concentrations (from their expansion standpoint), some of
them quite rich quantitatively. Te material is generally atypical, characteristic to the knapping
workshops, but some typical pieces were identifed making the classifcation of these workshops
possible (while one considered their stratigraphic position, too) within the horizon represented by
levels VVI from Romneti (Fig. 23/1315, 1621, 2223).
From the series of these workshops, two have been singled out, lying at the east-north-east
edge of the terrace; one of them specialized in the production of Dufour bladelets and the other one
in quartzite processing. Te frst workshop was lying at the depth of 4530cm, taking up some
4m
2
, and yielded (beside some retouched fakes and two atypical end-scrapers) 15 Dufour bladelets.
One should note the absence of cores and/or carinated end-scrapers. Te second workshop
309
is
308
MOGOANU, F. 1972: 14; 1978, 67; MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1969: 85, 89.
309
MOGOANU, F. 1968a: 306307.
characterized by quartzite as raw material and yielded macrolithic tools among which one singles
concave lateral side-scraper made on a fake with well-marked neocortical and chonchoidal but,
with reverse retouches, a piece of a triangular shape with well-marked neocortical and chonchoidal
aspect. Te character of this material is Musteroid, raising the problem of its classifcation within the
context of the Banat Palaeolithic; on one hand, the relations with other quartzite discoveries, and
on the other hand, with the Aurignacian environment.
In what the present author is concerned, Romneti-Dumbrvia II is not considered as
a distinct Palaeolithic setlement, mainly because level V is described as being very large, but
discontinuous, being made up of small agglomerations, small workshops for fint processing, lying at
34m fom each other
310
. As refting and technology studies are lacking (it is well-known the case
when afer refting the potential contemporaneity between two occupations was brought to the
fore
311
, despite the fact they lay at a far greater distance than those discussed by us at Romneti)
we suggest as a working hypothesis that these workshops belong to occupational level V from
Romneti. Our hypothesis takes into account both the stratigraphic position and the compo-
sition of the lithic assemblage (as it is set out), from which elements are absent that particularize
level VI, but are of Aurignacian origin (Dufour bladelets, Font-Yves points, core-like end-scrapers
s, notched pieces).
Like other Banat Palaeolithic setlements, at Romneti too one failed to fnd other remains
than the lithic material such as hearths, foral and faunal elements that should support the succession
of 6 chronological Palaeolithic horizons. Under such circumstances, the only edifying tests are the
granulometrical ones, while the palinological tests carried out by Marin Crciumaru
312
, according to
whom the climatic oscillation Romneti = Lascaux was defned
313
, are not deemed to be relevant
by specialists.
II.5.2.23 RomnetiThe Water Cave (Petera cu Ap, 2273/1). It lies at 5 km eastsoutheast
of the village of Romneti (Tometi, Timi County), on the road leading to Freti. Marius Moga
considered, under some reserve, that among the numerous broken bones of Ursus spelaeus some
Palaeolithic tools might have been lying around
314
. Te research in this cave was hindered by the
existence of a thick layer of rocks fallen from the cave ceiling and covering the deposits of the Upper
Pleistocene
315
. It was mentioned
316
that down the depth of 3.20 m only Postpalaeolithic materials
were uncovered while Palaeolithic fnds occured at a depth of 3.20 m
317
. Among the lithic materials
discovered here and stored in the Banat Museum of Timioara, Vasile Boronean identifed several
pieces he considered to be Palaeolithic
318
.
II.5.2.24 Sadova Veche (village of Slatina Timi, Cara-Severin County). Heinz Feichter
discovered a macrolithic piece (L = 30 cm, lH= 14 cm, T = 6 cm) in the Timi Valley, within the
area of Sadova Veche which he assigned to the Lower Palaeolithic
319
. As it was shown in the feld
literature, this piece is, based on its size, the result of natural processes.
310
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 61.
311
CATIN, M. I. 1992: 3542.
312
CRCIUMARU, M. 1978: 9097; 1980: 190196; 1985: 19; 1993: 229.
313
CRCIUMARU, M. 1987: 101; 1999b: 138139, Fig. 88, Tab. 3.
314
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 15.
315
MOGOANU, F. & STRTAN, I. 1966: 335; MOGOANU, F. 1978: 15; ROGOZEA, P. 1994: 155, Pl. III.
316
Marius Moga, Field notes, 1948.
317
318
V. Cedic, personal communication.
319
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 14; JUNGBERT, B. 19851986: 389390.
II.5.2.25 Bones Cave (Petera cu Oase, village of SteierdofAnina, Cara-Severin County). It lies
in the carstic system of the Mini Valley, on the right slope, thereof practically enclosed in the under-
ground between Petera Plopa and Ponor (N. 45
o
01; E. 21
o
50).
Summerizing, we mention 3 important sectors: 1. Petera Plopa the lower sector (from
the entrance of the cave to the Syphon), 2. Puul (the Well) (from the Syphon to the upper level),
3.Petera cu Oase (the upper sector). Petera cu Oase has about 12 galleries, but we discuss here the
gallery called Galeria Culcuurilor (the Lairs Gallery) (between the gate and the topo 7 station),
Panta Strmoilor (Te Ancestors Slope (between topo 7 station and 7a) and Sala Mandibulei (the
Mandible Hall, afer Panta Strmoilor). Te human bones were found in Sala Mandibulei (Oase/
Bones 1 lower jaw) and Panta Strmoilor (Oase/Bones 2).
Te grid system (1 m
2
) is linked to the topo 7a7 station, point 0 (the horizontal plane)
being determined with a water level Laser Mark Magna Pro Level. If we consider topography of the
area, we see the distance from the gate to the topo-station 7a (30 m): squares numberings begins at
31, increasing towards station 7, while the other axis is marked with leters MO. Each square was
subdivided into 4 quadrants (AD) from lef to right and from top to botom.
In the period 20042005 excavations were carried out, in the area overlaying the place where
the human bones were found in the previous years.
Te archaeological situation does not difer from that presented following the 2004
campaign
320
; practically, no anthropic activity was remarked in the cave (artefacts, coal, parietal art or
others). Tus, with the 2005 campaign, the research at this point ended, but in order to understand
the context in which the human bones ended in the underground, our atention should be focussed
on the upper levels of the Carstic system, especially on those galleries with Pleistocene fauna and
sedimental deposits which seem undisturbed.
Chronologically, the deposit succession from the cave Petera cu Oase is the following one:
Level 2, a succession of diferent torrential events, the latest occuring around approx.
47ka cal BP ago;
Level 1 about 46 ka cal BP similar to material in the whole area from the Oase/Bones.
Te surface material from the sector Panta Strmoilor is made up of:
bone material from Level 1 (bear, deer, wolf );
late human remains OIS3 (< 42 ka cal BP);
ibex remains OIS2 (< 30 ka cal BP).
Until recently, the presence and biological nature of the Southeastern European early modern
humans has remained largely hypothetical, based on palaeogeography and unsubstantiated assump-
tions of associations between archaeological complexes and human biology, accompanied by a few
poorly dated and/or undiagnostic human remains. However, the 2002, 2003 and 2004 discoveries
of early modern human remains in a palaeontological context (without archaeological evidence)
in the Petera cu Oase, in the Banat Mountains of Cara-Severin, has provided a window on the
biology of these earliest modern humans in Europe
321
.
Because these materials were the subject of more numerous scientifc publications in the
last few years, we will not repeat the same descriptive discussions regarding the anthropological
features of these human bones
322
. In the present article we are referring only to the conditions
in which the remains were found, and to their age. Tey were discovered in a secondary strati-
graphical position at the surface of a palaeontological deposit without an archaeological context.
Teir presence in the cave is explained through an accidental fall from the exterior. Due to this fact,
we can presume the existence of a contemporaneous archaeological horizon located in one of the
caves from this karstic system.
320
321
TRINKUS, E. et alii 2005a.
322
TRINKUS, E. et alii 2003; 2003a; 2005a; 2005b; ROUGIER, H. et alii 2007; RICHARDS,M.P. et alii 2008.
As the Oase 1 mandible was a surface fnd, a bone sample of 350 mg was removed from the
broken edge of its inferior right ramus and submited for AMS radiocarbon dating to the Oxford
Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORU). Te second sample provided a
13
C of 19.0, a C:N ratio
of 2.6, and an organic yield weight of 28.5 mg. Te resulted age is 34,290
14
C years BP +970870
(GrA22810). Combining the
14
C activity ratios from the two analyzes yielded a combined age of
34,950
14
C years BP, +990, 890 (38,561 ca1025 cal. years BP)
323
.
II.5.2.26 La Hou Cave (village of Steierdorf Anina, Cara-Severin County). Petera La Hou
or Hoilor (Tieves Cave, speological code 2233/6)
324
lies in the karstic system of the Mini Valley,
on its right slope, at an approximate height of 600m (N. 45
o
01; E. 21
o
49).
Geologic context general famework
Te Mini Valley has been hollowed out in massive limestone, Barremian reefs, of Plopa and
Mini, and is part of the limestone from the Southwestern Carpathians, which represent the largest
carstic area of Romania. Te karstic hyporelief from the basin of the Mini is made up of several
small and middle-size caves, with relatively widely gaping openings to the outside, which were once
part of one or more underground complexes, whose communication is silted up to a large extent.
Given the intense degree of fragmentation of this carstic system, supported by numerous
cave-ins sink holes, of big dimensions, we draw the atention to the fact that the understanding of
the anthropic presence in this karstic system in the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene cannot be done
without an analysis going into two directions, a vertical analysis (underneath Petera cu Oase and the
at surfacce cave-ins sink holes, fossile foors, partially caved-in galleries) and one horizontal analysis
(intercorrelation of undisturbed stratigraphic sequences of some cave-galleries with natural access
Petera cu Abri (quasi-silted up), Petera din Dolin (3 galleries with Pleistocene), Petera La Hou.
In this context the excavations in Hou cave and Petera cu Abri (20042007) are very
important for the understanding of the palaeoclimatic changes and also for understanding the
prehistoric human presence in Plopa-Ponor sector. It is also very important to continue excavations
in these caves, so that we can beter understand the chronology, the palaeoclimatic and cultural
changes from the Upper Palaeolithic until the modern age.
Te sector of the karstic system where our research is located is defned by the following
geographic coordinate in national reference system STEREO 70:
Y: 249360 X: 396307 | Y: 249360 X: 398307 | Y: 251360 X: 398307 | Y. 251360 X: 396307
Archaeological occupation levels and structures
325
:
- modern level (Level. 1.1) (black sediment);
- medieval level (Level. 1.2) (brown-black sediment);
- roman level(Level. 2) (brown sediment with rocks);
- Coofeni level (Levels. 3.13.5) (grey sediment);
- Neolithic level (Level. 4.1);
- Starevo-Cri level (Level. 4.2) (yellow-brownish sediment)
326
;
323
TRINKUS, E. et alii 2003a; 2003b; 2005a.
324
GORN, C. 1982: 156.
325
LAZAROVICI, G. et alii 2005; 2006; PETRESCU, S. M. et alii 2007; 2008.
326
A very important freplace discovered at a depth of 261/263271/275 cm was investigated in 20042005 and
appears to be from the IIb-IIIa phase of the Starevo-Cri complex (LAZAROVICI, G. 1979; BIAGI, P. &
SPATARO, M. 2004). Te freplace had a quasi-oval stone arrangement, developed around a big limestone block,
well pegged in the cave sediment at the moment when the Starevo-Cri inhabitants were using the cave. Te charcoal
in this Starevo-Cri context was entirely made up of thin branches of Fagus sylvatica, whence a sample submited
to the Lisbon Radiocarbon laboratory yielded a conventional date of 671080 BP (SAC2001). Associated with
this structure we found more potery fragments, lithic and bone tools dated to the Starevo-Cri cultural complex
(LAZAROVICI, G. 1979; 1984; 1998; LAZAROVICI, G. & MAXIM, Z., 1995).
- Mesolithic level (Level. 5.1) (reddish loam);
- Mesolithic level (Level. 5.2) (yellow-reddish loam);
- archaeological sterile level (Level. 6.1) (yellow-reddish loam with clastic material);
- 1 archaeological sterile level (Level. 6.2) (yellow-reddish matrices with clastic material);
- sediment fne, grey with clastic material (Level. 7.1);
- greyish-yellow sediment with rocks, charcoal and burned bones (Level. 7.2);
- white-yellow sediment very fne with charcoal and bones (Level. 7.3).
At the 280285 cm below datum, two charcoal samples were collected: the frst, from
squares 4A4B and in association with a microlithic backed point, was entirely made up of charcoal
from a single xylomorphological type, either Fagus or Prunus; the second, collected from the entire
thickness of the hearth in square 4B, was also made up of a single xylomorphological type belonging
to a species of Quercus. Radiocarbon dates are: 7590100 BP (Sac2104) and 761060 BP
(OxA15067) (see below calibrated plot).
Atmospher|c data from ke|mer et a|. (2004), CxCa|
9300 Cal8 9000 Cal8 8300 Cal8
CallbraLed daLe
8000 Cal8
Sac-2104 7390 1008
Cxa-13967 7610 608
At 311330cm depth below datum, a thin, extensive charcoal scater was identifed in square
4A, in grey sediments some 25cm below the base of the Mesolithic layers; however, no diagnostic
artifacts were associated with it (only bones fragments with postdepositional mechanical traces). Te
charcoal was identifed as Pinus, with features suggestive of the group P. cemba/P. peuce/P. strobus.
Radiocarbon age: 1371060 BP (OxA15992).
During the last research campaign of (2006), in square 3B at a depth of 420428cm from
point 0 , was discovered an archaeological level with 3 atypical fint pieces, burnt bone fragments
and charcoal was discovered. From these materials were taken two samples for
14
C AMS dating. We
can also refer to a freplace in the proximity of square 3B, from the Upper Palaeolithic, but anterior to
LMG. In support of this we have in mind also the date of 23.97 (+2.52; 2.48) ka (U-series, sample
#3059) preserved from a calcite crust in 2005 (the lower part 7 mm).
Separatly, a small test pit was opened in 2007 in Petera cu Abri (located near by Hou Cave)
where there is a stratigraphic sequence of 6 occupational levels, marked by many freplace struc-
tures associated with potery fragments, fint tools and bones, characteristic of modern/medieval
and prehistoric time (Bronze Age, Coofeni, Neolithic). Very important is the discovery of a burnt
archaeological complex in level 3, which continues in levels 4.14.2, 6.16.2 (the notation for these
levels is preliminary).
Te stratigraphic sequence from Hou Cave and from Petera cu Abri, corroborated with the
palaeoclimatic and anthropological information from Oase Cave, gives us a consistent understanding
of the prehistoric, medieval and modern presence in Mini karstic system.
Even if the direct association between the human bones and an Aurignacian horizon (similar
to the discoveries from Tincova and Romneti) cannot be unequivocally sustained at present,
we think that future researches in this sector will bring new archaeological evidence for the early
modern human presence in this area
327
.
327
MOGOANU, F. 1978; PUNESCU, A. 2002.
Another important feature of this archaeological assemblage is the presence of the Late
Mesolithic levels (and Epipalaeolihic levels), unknown until now in the Banat area; it is almost
impossible to correlate them, from a cultural point of view, with the Schela-Cladovei Lepenski Vir
horizons
328
or with the Tardenoisian
329
and is sure anterior to frst Starevo-Cri horizons.
9300 Cal8 9000 Cal8 8300 Cal8
CallbraLed daLe
8000 Cal8 7300 Cal8
CrA-24113 (uuv) 6920 808
CrA-23621 (lCZ) 6923 438
Crn-28113 (uuv) 6930 308
Crn-28111 (uuv) 6990 308
Crn-28434 (lSn) 7080 308
Sac-2104 7390 1008
Cxa-13967 7610 608
Calibration plot of Late Mesolithic ages vs. Carpathian Early Neolithic ages
At the same time, the Epipalaeolithic horizons, through their stratigraphic position and their
dating, are situated in a stratigraphic hiatus between Romneti Dumbrvia VICoava II levels and
the Epipalaeolithic freplaces from Bile Herculane and Cuina Turcului
330
.
8ln-802 (CL2) 101232008
Crn-11490 (8P) 11490 73 8
Crn-12663 (C11) 11960 60 8
8ln-804 (C11) 120300 120 8
CxA-13992 (PC1) 13710 60 8
20000 Cal8 18000 Cal8 16000 Cal8 14000 Cal8 12000 Cal8 10000 Cal8
CallbraLed daLe
Calibration plot of Epipalaeolithic age vs. Tardigravetian ages
Tis chronological succession is very important for this area of the Banat Mountains,
revealing that the post-Palaeolithic levels consistently show a seasonal habitation, which is consist-
ently repeated until the medieval-modern period.
328
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a; 1996b; PUNESCU, A. 1990; 1996; BORONEAN, V. 1996.
329
PUNESCU, A. 2002.
330
PUNESCU, A. 1989; 1990; 2001; BORONEAN, V. 2000.
In conclusion is very important to continue excavations in these caves in order to develop
a beter understanding of the human habitation, and also for understanding the palaeoclimatic,
environmental and geomorphologic evolution of the Plopa-Ponor sector.
II.5.2.27 TincovaSlite (village of Sacu, Cara-Severin County). Te Palaeolithic setlement
(Aurignacian) from Slite was discovered in 1958. It is located on a dejection cone at a relative
altitude of 60m above the Timi river, on the western edge of the mountain range of Poiana Rusc
331

(Fig. 29).
Te Mousterian setlement. In the series of the Palaeolithic discoveries from Tincova one
should frst mention several pieces from the 1967 campaign brought to light at about 200m south
of the Aurignacian setlement or in the summer of 1966at about 200m north
332
on a small
sampling of only 3 2 m
333
. Tere were 15 quartzite pieces found in the grey-yellowish sediment
of degraded loess (lying at the foot of the vegetal layer), at a depth of 4030cm. Together with the
similar materials found at Bile Herculane and Romneti, they raise interesting issues concerning
the Banat Palaeolithic. Te pieces discovered at Tincova have an atypical character (Fig. 30/15;
Fig. 35/12) as we can typologically distinguish the following
334
:
- simple side-straight scraper;
- simple convex side-scraper ;
- double slightly biconvex side-scraper;
- simple straight side-scraper with semi-Quina retouch;
- denticulated side-scraper;
- denticulated pieces.
Tese materials in spite of their uncertain stratigraphic position were traced back, afer a
typological study, to a late non-Levallois Mousterian facies, apparently rich in side-scrapers like the
one from Petera Livadiei or Petera Hoilor
335
.
Te Aurignacian setlement. Florea Mogoanu is of the opinion that afer the 4 campaigns
carried out here, the Palaeolithic setlement has been exhaustively dug up, the total excavated surface
amounting to about 280 m
2
.
336
As far as we are concerned, we consider that we should have reserves
as to this claim, proof thereof being the materials yielded by the surface research in the summer of
2000. As one did at the other discussed setlements, at Tincova, too the maximum depth ran to 3m,
obtained in order to determine the geological deposits.
Te materials of archaeological interest were found in the lower part of deposit 5 at a depth
ranging between 120 and 80 cm. Quantitatively, this stratum yielded approx. 2494 pieces, of which
110 are typical
337
. Although we are dealing with just one occupational level, the Tincova setlement
is beyond doubt one of the most important Palaeolithic sites from the Banat.
Te typological analysis of the lithic inventory of Tincova sheds light on the existence of the
following piece types
338
(Fig. 30/610; 3134):
331
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. & STRTAN, I. 1961: 29; STRTAN, I. 1962: 123; 1970: 8; MOGOANU, F.
1972: 10; 1973: 22; 1978: 37.
332
MOGOANU, F. 1968a: 303; 1972: 11.
333
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 4849.
334
335
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3; 2002.
336
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 37.
337
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 38.
338
MOGOANU, F. 1972: 1112; 1978: 50; CHIRICA, V. 1996a: 128129.
Ord. no. Types of pieces No. %
1a. End-scraper on blade 10 9.09
2. Atypical end-scraper on blade 2 1.82
5. End-scraper on retouched blade 4 3.64
8. End-scraper on fake 3 2.73
11. Carinated end-scraper 3 2.73
12. Atypical carinated end-scraper 1 0.91
13. Nosed end-scraper 1 0.91
14. Atypical nosed end-scraper 1 0.91
15. Core-like end-scraper 4 3.64
16. Rabot 2 1.82
17. End-scraper-burin 1 0.91
21. Piercer-end-scraper 1 0.91
27. Dihedral straight burin 1 0.91
29. Dihedral angle burin 2 1.82
30. Burin along the break angle 2 1.82
34. Burin on straight retouched truncation 2 1.82
43. Core-like burin 1 0.91
52. Font-Yves point 3 2.73
60. Piece with straight retouched truncation 1 0.91
65. Blade with continuous retouchings on one side 6 5.45
66. Bade with continuous retouchings on both sides 10 9.09
67. Aurignacian blade 9 8.18
74. Notched piece 7 6.36
75. Denticulated piece 2 1.82
77. Side-scraper 6 5.45
84. Truncated fake 2 1.82
89. Flake coche 1 0.91
90. Dufour bladelets 22 20.00
Total number of tools 110
Simple blades 359
Cores 10
Atypical fakes 2015
Overall total 2494
According to the compiled table, the following typological indices were calculated:
IG 26.36%
IB 7.27%
IGA 5.45%
IBd 4.55%
IBt 1.82%
ILD+FY 22,73%
From the typological table results a numerical prevalence of the end-scrapers group and of the
group of the blades retouched either on one side or on both sides, to which one adds the Aurignacian
blades (3 are of the pointed type) characterized by a typical scalar retouch
339
. Te end-scrapers group
is made up of the common types of end-scraper on blade ends, end-scraper on retouched blade
end (Fig. 30/610) or end-scraper on fake, but the distinct note is given by the pieces that make
up the Aurignacian end-scraper group. Te carinated end-scrapers (Fig.31/16) are usually made
on core-like, pyramidal supports, through a direct fake retouchings, be they convergent or not. Te
339
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 43.
nosed end-scrapers, although numerically few, are important because as they provide clues pointing
to the cultural assignation of the Tincova site.
Tese pieces are made, one on a massive point ad one on a rejuvenation tablet, but they evince
a less typical character
340
. To the pieces typical of the Aurignacian belong the Dufour bladelets, too
(Fig. 32/16, 910), which together with the points of the Font-Yves type (Fig. 32/78) stand for
it within the Tincova setlement 22.73%
341
. Te Dufour bladelets are defned as small sized pieces
with edges that are retouched abruptly or semi-abruptly
342
(Fig. 33b) ofen alternately, suggesting the
cultural assignment to a certain technical complex. Another important group is the burins group
seen thought its relation with the end-scrapers group (Fig. 31/711). Inside the burins group a high
rate is hold by the dihedral burins, but there are two pieces on straight retouched truncation, too.
A relatively important weight within the tools from this setlement is held by the notched pieces
(Fig. 32/1416; Fig. 33a) accounting for 6.36%. Tey are made on fake supports through direct
retouches. Te side-scrapprs generally have an atypical character, but a double biconvex piece stands
out showing a Mousterian character.
Te raw material is quantitatively dominated by atypical points (knapping debris), which is
a natural fact if we consider the invoked character of a workshop-setlement. We do not know what
the weight of the cortical points, of the crested blades, of the rejuvenation tablet type is but our
atention was drawn by the very small number of cores that account for only 0.40% of all the imple-
ments (situation explained out by Florea Mogoanu through the re-use of the cores as supports for
the core-like end-scrapers or the carinated ones). Most of these pieces are of globular type
343
, but
one can come across cores of prismatic type (2) or conic type (1). Tehnologically speaking, from
the published material results that most of the pieces stem from the phase of pleine dbitage; the
anarhical knapping brought out by the sinousity of the margins and edges is caused by the poor
quality of the raw material. It is illustrated by various cracks that break of the normal knapping
procedure, thus resulting in many knapping accidents of the rfchi type or outrepass type, which
would explain the presence of the many atypical points.
Altough the material displays a fragmentary character, we do not know what the frequency
of the diferent parts of the piece, a similar situation being valid for the but types of which we
only know
344
that the plain (sometimes wide) and the faceted types (with a well developed bulb
suggesting the use of indirect percussion with hard percussor or punctiform percussor).
Afer the surface survey done in 2001, more than 30 lithic pieces were gathered of which we
mention 2 end-scrapers (one on retouched point and one on a blade end with a plain but, with
convex active part, being oblique against the percussion axis, manufactured through non-convergent
fake retouching), a double angle burin along the break made on retouched blade, a blade with direct
retouches in the median area, on one side, a macrolithic core, blades and fragmented fakes (especially
median parts, some with edge wear retouches). Te presence of these pieces in a somewhat eccentric
position compared to the systematically researched area made us believe that the setlement was
larger than we were able to ascertain at the moment of the excavations.
Unfortunately, no other elements were identifed that would allow us to complete the data on
the Palaeolithic man. To this efect, one tried to carry out palinological tests or beter said the testing
of one profle, which was encountered for that mater at the other stations in question
345
. Following
these tests, the dating set forth by Florea Mogoanu was not altered (interstadium W
2
W
3
) only
340
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 42.
341
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 4548.
342
BRZILLON, M. 1983: 114, 262.
343
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 48.
344
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 48.
345
CRCIUMARU, M. 1978: 97101; 1980: 196200; 1985: 20.
mentioning (if the test is deemed to be relevant) that the Aurignacian habitation took place in the
last part of this interstadium
346
.
II.5.2.28 Viag (village of Victor Vlad Delamarina, Timi County). In 1956, at about 1 km south-
east of the village, at the confuence of the Bogarul Mare and Prul Satului brooks, one found a folia-
ceous, bifacial (szeletian style) piece made of black-grey opal was found (but lacking a stratigraphic
position and, consequently, special scientifc interest)
347
. Te feld research from the summer of 2001
did not lead to the discovery of any other siliceous artefacts
348
.
II.5.2.29 Zvoi (Cara-Severin County), while construction works were being carried out within
the limits of the railway station, several fint pieces were found, some of them likely Palaeolithic
349
.
Obviously, in the present state of the research, these materials could not be seen as evidence for the
existence of a Palaeolithic setlement at Zvoi.
As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, many of the places mentioned in the
archaeologic literature as places where Palaeolithic discoveries were made, should be treated with
some reserve since, in most cases, the materials disappeared before they were analyzed (also isolated
lithic pieces found do not represent a piece of evidence for a Palaeolithic occupation; for that mater
we all know the beauty of the pieces created by nature). Many of these discoveries were made at
random, and lack a precise stratigraphic context.
II.6 Geochronological elements of the Upper Pleistocene
from southwest Romania
II.6.1 Introductive issues. Several palaeoclimatical
and chronological landmarks
According to the research results of the past 30 years carried out by Marin Crciumaru
350
, it was
considered that the oldest Pleistocene sequence exists in the CioareiBoroteni cave (also called the
warming complex of Boroteni). From a sedimentological point of view seems to be older than the age
yielded by the
14
C dates (about 50000 BP). From the fora point of view, one retained for this period
frst a steppe, cold and dry episode, than an episode with coniferous trees and cold and wet climate
and fnally another cold and dry episode, to which one adds the temperate stage, characterized by
coniferous and decidous trees. From the fauna standpoint, one noticed the following association:
Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus, Sus scrofa, Megaceros giganteus, Bos Primigenius
351
.
Afer a cooling (stadial) came a warmer climate again called the Nandru interstadial complex,
including the climatic oscillations Nandru A and B (with the stages Nandru 1, 2 respectively 3,
4). Variation Nandru A (45000 +1400/1200 BP, 49300+3200/1100 BP) has been equalized
to interstadia Amersfoort and Brrup. A date for the fnal sequence of stage Nandru 4 gave the
result of 37750+950 BP, which seems to be the end of this interstadial complex and practically
the beginning of a new glacial stadium, contemporary chronologically to the Upper Palaeolithic in
Western Europe
352
.
346
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 102.
347
STRTAN, I. 1970: 8, Pl. I/Foto 1; MOGOANU, F. 1978: 15; JUNGBERT, B. 19851986: 399; MOROZ-POP,
M. 1983, 481.
348
349
JUNGBERT, B. 19851986: 399.
350
CRCIUMARU, M. 1980; 1985; 1987; 1993; 1995.
351
CRCIUMARU, M. 1999: 57.
352
Tis cooling period is followed by the Ohaba interstadial complex, with the variations OhabaA
(warmer) and Ohaba B, ending around 28780290 BP
353
. It involved, in general, a massive afores-
tation, especially through the spread of the decidous trees in the western region
354
. Until approx.
25,00024,000 BP another stadial type period took place, followed by the climatic variation
Herculane I (23450+2000/1450 BP, Bistricioara). Te next glacial state, which set in right afer
Herculane I variation, saw a short climate amelioration period called Mitoc I (22,16090 BP Gura
Cheii-Rnov/Rnov gorge mouth). Te forest returned during the next two climatic variations
Herculane II (about 20,000 BP) and respectively, Romneti (about 16,000 BP), but a decrease of the
forest can be noticed, in a period of slight climatic improvement, between these two variations, dated
at Bistricioara in about 188001200 BP
355
. At Romneti-Dumbrvia, during Herculane II variation,
the landscape remains of moderate silvo-steppe, with slightly higher temperatures, followed by
steppe landscape , opening the way for the Romneti climatic variation.
Afer the Romneti variation followed another period with a harsher climate, interrupted by
the Mitoc II variation. Towards 12600120 BP a climatic variation Erbiceni started, followed by a
short cold period, halted by the Erbiceni B variation.
Te palinologic and palaeoclimatic records from the Alpine areas point out, afer variation
Romneti, to a cold period characterized by the prevalence of the pine (stage of the pine) that can be
paralleled at the continental level with Dryas IBlling (Erbiceni A)Dryas IIAllerd (ErbiceniB)
Dryas III
356
.
Since the climatic reconstruction of the Upper Pleistocene in the Carpathian space was based
on the pollinic tests sampled from caves, but also from outdoors sites, this new geochronological
schema should be looked upon with caution until new interdisciplinary takes place. We support the
idea that la reconstitution paloclimatique est obtenue par la corrlation de squences de grotes carpa-
tiques lacunaires cales chronologiquement essentiellement partir des dates
14
C de niveaux moustriens
dmarche particulirement fagile pour les raisons voques plus haut. Cete courbe paloclimatique est
en contradiction avec les courbes connues pour lEurope, obtenues partir de carotes de calote glaciaire,
de carotes de lacs glaciaires et de carotes de mer Mditerrane. En conclusion, les dernires rsultats
connus Mitoc (fouilles Chirica), tendent remmener le Palolithique suprieur et moyen de Roumanie
un schma identique celui des territoires avoisinants, en contradiction avec le schma chrono-clima-
tologique propos, dont les faiblesses sont dues la trop grande confance dans les datations
14
C surtout
anciennes et la fagilit des corrlations des squences lacunaires de grotes, et qui est reprendre avec de
nouvelles dates
14
C A.M.S. et des enregistrements paloclimatiques continus
357
.
II.6.2 Chrono-climatic context of the Banat Palaeolithic levels
As we lack all absolute dating elements for the Palaeolithic occupational levels in the Banat, the only
methods that were available to the researchers were the comparative techno-typological analysis
of the materials, the stratigraphic position of the pieces corroborated with some pedological and
granulometrical observations, to which one adds pollinic tests carried out during the seventies.
Tus, Fl. Mogoanu chose a Wrmian chronology with three stadia and two interstadia making the
specialized terminology purely speculative, as such research ended in the eighties while comple-
mentary multidisciplinary information is lacking.
Te quartzite complex from the southwest of Romania (Herculane I, Romneti I, Tincova)
is very poorly documented, showing a quantitatively reduced material and uncertain stratigraphic
context (the exception is Herculane I), ofen in a disturbed sediment. It seems to develop during the
353
354
CRCIUMARU, M. 1999: 65
355
CRCIUMARU, M. 1999: 119120.
356
CRCIUMARU, M. 1999: 124125.
357
DJINDJIAN, F. 2000, 311312.
Interpleniglacial, isotopic stadium 3a (the interstadia Hengelo-Arcy). In support of this observation
we bring some pedological arguments and, as far as we consider them correct and relevant for some
of the sites the pollinic tests carried out by M. Crciumaru in the Banat Palaeolithic sites
358
. LevelI
from Petera Hoilor, from Bile Herculane through its stratigraphic position and the discovered
faunla remains enable us to assign the quartzite lithic tools to a Mousterian, considered to be late,
developing at the beginning of W
2
359
.
Te latest archaeological discovery that contains quartzite pieces is the workshop of
RomnetiDumbrvia (II). Its stratigraphic position, places it at the end of W
3
, thus being a much
later expression of the quartzite Upper Palaeolithic. According to Florea Mogoanu, this survival
of the quartzite Upper Palaeolithic might form the base for the later development of the Schela
CladoveiLepenski Vir culture
360
, with the quartzite, present to a large extent during the Mesolithic
in the Iron Gates region of the Danube
361
.
According to the granulometrical tests mentioned in the previous chapter, level I from
RomnetiDumbrvia belongs to stadium W
2
, levels IIIV fall under interstadium W
2
W
3
, level V
covers the transition from interstadium W
2
W
3
to stadium W
3
, level VI covers the end period of W
3
362
.
At Tincova, paleoclimatic data was needed and last, but not least, a relative chronology, so
it was tried to carry out palinological tests, or beter said one test for one profle. Tis situation
occurred also in other sites. Still, the date put forward by Florea Mogoanu (interstadium W
2
W
3
)
did not change with the provision that, if the test will be considered relevant, then the Aurignacian
habitation might have evolved during the last part of this stadium
363
.
At Gornea, both at Pzrite and Cunia, one can notice that the position of lithic materials
is uncertain, as they were assigned to the upper part of stratum 2, or at a certain level to the Eolian
stratum (which disappeared afer an intense erosion process)
364
, so that this archaeologic horizon
may be hypothetically assigned to the end of stadium W
3
also.
II.7 Conclusions
II.7.1 Lithic industries using quartz/quartzite raw materials
from southwest Romania
Considering all the above mentioned archaeological materials, we notice that the situation of the
discoveries from the caves in the Middle Carpathians is not a clear one. Neither is the one of similar
discoveries in the Banat Mountains. Tus several hypotheses concerning the origin and the place of
this facies within the Palaeolithic from the Carpathians region can be launched.
Florea Mogoanu defned the Quartzite Upper Palaeolithic as the result of the Charentinian
+ Pontinian + Quartzite
365
and was seen as a culture belonging to the Upper Palaeolithic, separated
from the Aurignacian that developed in parallel and lasted until the Holocene
366
.
358
CRCIUMARU, M. 1978: 97101; 1980: 196200; 1985: 20.
359
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3; MOGOANU, F. 1968: 309; 1972: 910; 1973: 1417; 1978: 29, 102.
360
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 138, 139.
361
BORONEAN, V. 1970b: 2, 12, 1819; 1996: 6568; 2000a: 97212; MOGOANU, F. 1978a:, 342343, 347;
PUNESCU, A. 1990: 130134; 1996: 136141; 2001: 4952, 421427, 444445; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a:
225252.
362
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 102103.
363
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 102.
364
MOGOANU, F. 1970: 535; 1978: 36; LAZAROVICI, G. et alii 1993: 300.
365
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 134.
366
MOGOANU, F. 1968: 309; 1978: 133.
Vasile Chirica believes too that the stratigraphic situation and the lithic assemblages from
Bile Herculane and RomnetiDumbrvia I, level I show that the quartzite Upper Palaeolithic
comes before the Aurignacian and that it survived among isolated groups until the Tardiglacial and
even later into the Holocene
367
.
Stratigraphically, the earliest level of this culture in the Banat was revealed in Petera Hoilor
from Bile Herculane in a sediment traced back to W
2
, followed by level I from Romneti.
Te discovery of level I in Petera Hoilor from Bile Herculane made possible a cultural
connection to the Mousterian from the Carpathian Caves (Petera Curat, Petera Spurcat, Petera
Muierilor, Petera Cioarei, Petera Bordu Mare, Petera Gura Cheii), seen as a regional variant of
the Charentinian. Chronologically, this Mousterian facies develops between 49,5003200/2100
BP (GrN 13002), data obtained for level II of Petera Cioarei, 43,6002800/2100 BP (GrN
12676) for level IIIb from Petera Bordu Mare and 33300900 BP (GrN 13009) for level IIa and
297001700/1400 BP for level IIb from Petera Gura CheiiRnov
368
. We would like to mention
within this context other two dates obtained recently, the one from Petera Mare at Cioclovina (a skull
fragment of Homo sapiens) 29,000700 BP (LuA 5229), respectively the one from Petera Muierilor
in Baia de Fier (skull, lower jaw, shoulder blade, tibia diaphysis of Homo sapiens) 30,150800 BP
(LuA 5228)
369
, dates that fall within the limits of the Aurignacian.
In general lines, the industries from the above mentioned caves are characterized, the same
as the one from Petera Hoilor, by non-Levallois knapping, a great number of end-scrapers, denticu-
lated pieces, notched pieces, and a small numer of bifacials. Another common element is represented
by the use of quartzite as raw material, 90%. Within this context one should mention the materials
discovered in the Petera Climente I (lev. III)
370
or in the Alpine caves from Slovenia, dated to the
end of W
1
(Mornova Zijialka, pehovka, Jama, Beralov Spodmol), characterized by the prevalence
of a quartzite of low quality, making them less expressive typologically
371
.
Within a wider framework, the industries from the Meridional Carpathians were paralleled to
the Mousterian levels from Erd (Hungary), where quartz/quartzite is used in a proportion of 75%.
Considering the archaeological materials from here, one considered that this cultural manifestation
on nodules, employing the so-called Pontinian knapping technique, represents the Charentinian of
Southeastern Europe
372
. In what the position and role played by these materials within the Romanian
Palaeolithic are concerned, other opinions existed: Marin Crciumaru, suggests that these indus-
tries represent the transition from Middle Palaeolithic to the Upper Palaeolithic forming a so called
Carpathian facies
373
. Tis atempt at defning a transition period as being represented by a certain
Mousterian facies was rejected by many researchers
374
. At the same time, M. Crciumaru makes the
distinction between the caves with only one habitation level and the ones with two habitation levels,
separated by an archaeologically sterile level and which developing prior to the Ohaba interstadial
375
.
It remains problematic the setlement with a Mousterian character from Tincova, whose
stratigraphic position is uncertain and we cannot determine if the sediment in which the quartzite
pieces were found was disturbed or not
376
. Florea Mogoanu considered these materials to be part
of another evolution stage of the Quartzite Upper Palaeolithic, to which the quartzite knapping
367
CHIRICA, V. 1996a: 137138.
368
PUNESCU, A. 1984: 246; 1988: 7576; 1989: 135136; 1991: 17; HONEA, K. 1991: 1920; 1993: 6672.
369
PUNESCU, A. 2002, 86.
370
PUNESCU, A. 2000: 362363, 366367.
371
OSOLE, F. 1971: 248; BRODAR, S. 1971: 201203.
372
DOBOSI, V. T. 1991: 93; PUNESCU, A. 1988: 77; 1989: 136; 2000a: 43.
373
CRCIUMARU, M. 1999: 112113; 1995: 101103.
374
PUNESCU, A. 2000: 280, 284; ALEXANDRESCU, E. 2002; DJINDJIAN, F. 2000: 312.
375
CRCIUMARU, M. 1999: 109111; 1985: 734, 1988: 5051.
376
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3; 2002: 170.
workshop from RomnetiDumbrvia could also be assigned to. Tis stage developed around the
area of the Balta Cald spring
377
, dated to the end of W
3
, being thus a much later expression of the
Quartzite Upper Palaeolithic.
Also, from point of view of the history of the research, we must note here another Florea
Mogoanus opinion: the survival of the Quartzite Upper Palaeolithic might underlie the development
of the Schela CladoveiLepenski Vir culture
378
, with a high occurrence of the quartzite, present
there to high proportions during the Mesolithic in the area of the Iron Gates of the Danube
379
.
Te survival into the Holocene of the Quartzite Upper Palaeolithic is actually a hypothesis put
forth by Florea Mogoanu, still needing to be proved through interdisciplinary archaeologic research.
Lacking clear data, we cannot rule out the fact that the late Mousterian from Bile Herculane, Gornea,
Romneti, Tincova etc. could have paralleled the evolution of the Aurignacian
380
, from which
it seems isolated in space
381
. But if we accept such a situation one can naturally ask the following
question: anthropologically speaking, who are the creators of this culture?
Obviously, the present state of the Palaeolithic research in the Banat, and not only, does not
allow us an immediate answer to the question. Starting from here, we consider that only multidis-
ciplinary archaeological research can answer many of the problems set forth today in the special
feld literature.
Summing up, the quartzite Palaeolithic is characterized by lithic tools with an arcahic
Mousteroid aspect, made on quartzite supports, a raw material most probably gathered from places
near the setlement as its choice probably answered some preferences yielded by a possible tradition
of the group (e.g. Petera Cioarei Boroteni).
From the technological point of view, the nodule morphology was used, most of the times
without a special prior preparation; surely this happened because the cortex did not call for it and
the knapping was based on puting to good use of nodule volume through a centripetal approach
or entrecrois approach on more percussion planes, as uni- and bipolar cores were also found. Te
supports, generally splinter-like, sometimes fake-like, are of average size, rarely macrolithic, with
a neocortical but, frequently fractured during the knapping along some diaclases, which explains
the high number of knapping accidents of the Burin de Siret type (ex. Por). Broad buts facilitate
the visibility of the impact point to which we add the existence of so-called metal loss percussors,
suggesting direct percussion with hard percussor. On the other hand, the variability of the opera-
tional chain cannot be but presupposed, speculated upon as no lithic assemblage in question has
ever been subjected to a refting; in order to bring out continuity or variability of technical gestures
in a given space and within a given chronological span, the refting as an experimental study is
absolutely necessary
382
.
From the typological point of view, the lateral or transversal scrapers (racloirs) are prevalent.
Tey are made on fakes, sometimes of Levallois type, through a slim edge retouch, on supports with
suitable morphology, as the retouch is superfcial and does not alter the shape of the fake (ex. Por,
Petera Cioarei). On the other hand, many tools were obtained a posteriori through the mere use of
supports in a raw state, and the so-called retouching appears as a reuse retouching, ofen as mousse
retouching (ex. Por). Te character of bifacial pieces, numerically reduced, is somewhat atypical
with the exception of the pieces found at Cladova.
377
PUNESCU, A. 2002: 200201.
378
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 138, 139.
379
BORONEAN, V. 1970b: 2, 12, 1819; 1996: 6568; 2000a: 97212; MOGOANU, F. 1978a: 342343, 347;
PUNESCU, A. 1990: 130134; 1996: 136141; 2000: 4952, 421427, 444445; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a:
225252.
380
PUNESCU, A. 1992: 3; 2002: 52, 170; CHIRICA, V. 1995: 105109; 1996, 137.
381
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 131, 132.
382
BODA, E. 1994: 2745; 1995: 5772; PASTY, J. P. 2000: 165190.
From the data available to us, the lithic indistries with quartz/quartzite tools belong to a lithic
techno-complex deemed to be of non-Levallois knapping, rich in scrapers (racloirs), notched pieces
in general globular, prismatic or most ofen shapeless cores, without ones being able to remark that
the Levallois technique is absent.
Te pieces of the backed knife type, with or without neocortex, the pieces in the shape of a
lemon slice and the inside splinters, most ofen fragmentary are also frequent.
Te quartzite complex of the Upper Palaeolithic from southwest Romania seems to develop in
the Interpleniglacial, isotopic stage 3a (interstadial HengeloArcy).
II.7.2 The Banat Aurignacian industries.
Characterization and chronologic position
Te Aurignacian is the frst compact civilization of the Superior Palaeolithic of whose
origins, geographic location and chronology engaged numerous pre-historians in searching an
Aurignacian 0 horizon stratigraphical located below, and diferent from typology perspective,
from the standard Aurignacian
383
. In general, we can say that the lithic industry of the Aurignacian
is characterized by the supremacy of the scrapers, a group that holds a high index of Aurignacian
scrapers, in comparison to the burins, where the dihedral burins prevail over those on truncation
384
.
As it has been noticed above, the Aurignacian is observed through systematic archaeological
research within several sites with the most important ones being those at RomnetiDumbrvia,
Tincova and Coava. One of the frst tools used by Florea Mogoanu in establishing connections with
the Aurignacian from the neighbouring territories are the Dufour bladelets and the Font-Yves type
points in the Banat area Palaeolithic setlements
385
occuring in percentages of 22.73% at Tincova and
7.02% at RomnetiDumbrvia, level III. To this we add the group of Aurignacian scrapers (16.36% at
Coava, level I, 14.04% at Romneti, level III and 5.45% at Tincova) and the group of burins (22.80%
at Romneti level III, 8.18% at Coava level I, 7.27% at Tincova). Te statistical assessments conducted
by Florea Mogoanu highlighted the existing propinquity between the setlements from Tincova and
that from KremsHundssteig (Austria), RomnetiDumbrvia, level III and that from Breitenbach
(Germany), Coava level I and those from Willendorf I (layers IIIV), Getzersdorf (Austria) and
Vogelheard (Germany). From such perspective emerges the fact that the Aurignacian represented by
those three Banat setlements belongs to the same cultural area developed in Central-Eastern Europe
386
.
In comparison to the discoveries of Aurignacian 0 in Europe
387
, the Aurignacian discoveries
from the above mentioned setlements seem a bit later, presenting the characteristics of an advanced
Aurignacian, dated in the Arcy oscillation
388
.
Without geting into much detail, we can say that, in the Central-Eastern European area, the
beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic is characterized by the existence of several techno-complexes,
considered of transition, which seem to develop, at least in some cases, in parallel with the horizon
named Aurignacian 0 and basically, with the frst arrived Homo sapiens
389
.
Transition industries at Central-Eastern European level:
Bohunician and SzeletianBrno-Bohunice and Strnska skla 3643 kyr BP
390
.
BachokirianBacho Kiro, Cultural Horizon I, level 11 and Temnata, level VI, Sector TD-II.
14C old dating are over 43 kyr, but the AMS ages for level 11/11a are 38.51.7, 37.71.5, 34.81.2
383
DJINDJIAN, F. 1993: 136142.
384
BANESZ,L. 1993: 135136.
385
MOGOANU, F. 1967b: 141146; 1968b: 643647; 1978: 122.
386
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 125126, 128; PUNESCU, A. 1984: 258259; 1992, 4.
387
DJINDJIAN, F. 1993, 142149.
388
DJINDJIAN, F. 1993: 137.
389
ZILHAO, J. & DERRICO, F. 2003.
390
BOLUS, M. & CONARD, N. 2001: 2930.
and 33.80.9 kyr BP. At Temnata, level 4, Sector TD-I was dated at 38.2, 38.8, 39.1 kyr BP. Te upper
part of the sequence has the age of 33.90.9, 31.91.6kyr BP
391
.
In the Vindija cave from Croatia, level G1 was dated at 330.4 kyr BP and 2829 kyr BP.
Te main raw material is the quartz. Te Neanderthalian presence in this cave is documented afer
the occurrence of the Aurignacian and Homo sapiens in other parts of the Central Europe
392
.
In the same context, we are also reminding about the techno-complex
393
:
Streletian (Kostienki 12, level III 36280 360 BP);
Spitsyan (Kostienki 17, level II 36400 1700/1400 BP);
Jerzmanovician (Nietoperzowa, level 6 38500 1240 BP).
Aurignacian 0
Castillo Cave: 38500 1300 BP (level 18b2)
Arbreda Cave: 37700 1000 BP (level E2BE111)
Willendorf II: 37930 750 BP (level 3-C8)
Aurignacian 2
Willendorf II: 31210 260 BP (level 4-C4)
Oblazowa Cave: 32400 650 BP (level VIII)
Mitoc: 32730 220 BP (level 12b)
Kostienki I: 32600400 BP (level 3)
Te next progress phase of the Aurignacian in Banat could be represented, according to the
opinion of Florea Mogoanu, by the level IV from Romneti
394
. Perhaps we could also place the
occupations from GorneaVodneac, GorneaPzrite and Petera Hoilor (Tieves Cave) at this
chronologic level
395
but we also subscribe to the observations of Vasile Chirica according to which
en labsence de certains lments de chronologie absolue il est dif cile de raliser un encadrement certe de
ces canpements dans une volution des tapes du Palolithique suprieur
396
.
Te last two occupational levels with Aurignacian elements discovered in Banat are those
observed at Romneti, level V and at Coava, level II. Te current status of the research, the scarcity
of the material and especially their unusual character determine the impossibility of having a more
nuanced discussion regarding these setlements. Te last horizons from Romneti and Coava, as
shown above, are characterized by the existence of the frst tools used for engraving, represented by
the backed bladelets, La Gravete points and pieces standard for Epipalaeolithic (circular, thumb-nail
scrapers, obsidian pieces). It is to be noticed that Aurignacoide items such as streamlined scrapers
and even Dufour bladelets are also present.
Naturally, the issues concerning the Aurignacian horizons and the use of the frst engraving
items must be studied thoroughly, and we can only hope this will be the aim of future research.
In a larger area, the Aurignacian from Banat represents a later phase in comparison to some
Aurignacian occupations from Moldova
397
.
In the Romanian Plain it is assumed that the beginning of the frst evolution phase of the
Aurignacian techno-complex is placed before the commencement of the Wrmx III being repre-
sented by the setlements from CiuperceniLa Tir and Vdastra, level I
398
. For the Aurignacian level
from Giurgiu Malu-Rou two radiocarbon dates were obtained, indicating the age of 22790130 BP
391
ZILHAO, J. & DERRICO, F. 2000, 36, 3940.
392
BOLUS, M. & CONARD, N. 2001: 31.
393
DJINDJIAN, F. et alii 1999: 158159, 179180.
394
MOGOANU, F. 1978: 129.
395
396
CHIRICA, V. 1996a: 132133.
397
PUNESCU, A. 1984: 247248, 1989: 136139; 1993: 131140; 1998: 39, 6869; 1999: 2930, 33, 59;
CHIRICA,V. & BORZIAK, I. 1996: 99121.
398
ALEXANDRESCU, E. 1997: 17, Pl. 15; PUNESCU, A. 2000b: 2831.
(GrA6037) and 21140120 (GrA5094). We can thus conclude that in this area, the Aurigancian
lasts longer, developing in parallel with the Gravetian from Moldova and Dobrogea
399
. Te lithics
industry from Giurgiu Malu-Rou consists of carinated scrapers, core-like, dihedral burins, burins on
truncation, strangled blades, Dufour bladelets, side-scrapers
400
showing many similarities with the
fnds from Banat, to which is was genetically linked (hypothetically) especially afer the discovery of
a workshop specialized in Dufour bladelets.
In the same time, for the chronologic interval 2300017000 BP over large areas, a series of
Aurignacoide industries were recorded. Tey were given various names: Aurignacian, inter-graveto-
solutren industries, Epi-Aurignacian, Epi-gravetian-aurignacoid. Te territory of Banat can not be
excluded from such a context taking into consideration especially levels IVV from Romneti and
II from Coava
401
.
Under the circumstances, we believe it is a necessity to resume the Palaeolithic research in
Banat, as the hypothetically rhythm of transformations can no longer be supported by the materials
assessed at the limit of statistics method (typological indexes and cumulative charts). New research
is needed which could highlight the technological particularities of the Aurignacian techno-complex
from Banat.
7.3 Lithic industries from south-west Romania
assigned to the Tardigravetian horizon
Te last Palaeolitic inhabiting from the discussed area is Petera Hoilor (Tieves Cave) from Bile
Herculane assigned to the Mediterranean Tardigravetian type.
Te frst evolution phase of this cultural manifestation is represented in the region of Porile
de Fier (Iron Gates) by Climente I Cave; the second phase is represented by the fnds from Climente
II cave, and the third phase consists of the inhabiting of layer I from Cuina Turcului, dated between
12600120 BP (Bln 803) and 1196060 BP (Gr N 12665), the fourth phase is illustrated by
levels I and II from Ostrovul Banului, the ffh phase relates to layer II from Cuina Turcului, dated
10125200 BP (Bln 802), and the last phase could be illustrated by the fnds from Veteraniterrace
(level I), OgradenaIcoana (level I), OgradenaRzvrata (level I) and Schela Cladovei (levelI)
402
.
In this chronological-evolution scheme, the inhabiting from Bile Herculane could be placed in the
fourth phase of Mediterranean type Tardigravetian evolution
403
.
Te technical-typological assessment of the lithic material enables us to establish certain links
to the fnal Epigravetian from the Italian Peninsula, especially with the sites from the Adriatic coast.
Te imbuing of the fnal Epigravetian from the Italian Peninsula happened in several waves, two
ways, a maritime one crossing the Adriatic sea and a terrestrial one along the Northern and Western
side of Adriatic sea, following the fow of Sava and Drava Rivers up to the Danube
404
.
399
PUNESCU, A. 1999: 5960; ALEXANDRESCU, E. 1997: 16.
400
PUNESCU, A. & ALEXANDRESCU, E. 1996: 4448; 1997a: 1923; 1997b: 1926; ALEXANDRESCU, E.
1998a: 3352; 1998b: 5967; ALEXANDRESCU, E. & POPA, I. 2000, 4145; PUNESCU, A. 2001, 249284.
401
DJINDJIAN, F. 1996: 4154; BAZILE, F. 1996: 5567; OLIVA, M. 1996: 6981; 1991: 111, 114115;
KOZOWSKI, J. 1996: 8398; BOSSELIN, B. & DJINDJIAN, F. 1997: 107125; DJINDJIAN, F. et alii 1999: 241.
402
PUNESCU, A. 1984: 251; 1989: 146150; 2001: 4849; 6869, 338360, 366367, 376379, CHIRICA, V.
1996b: 8081; BORONEAN, V. 1996: 6364.
403
404
PUNESCU, A. 1989: 151.
Te lack of recent research leads to the fact that the end of this cultural manifestation becomes
a contradictory subject for the experts, concerning the existing transfer or technological-typological
hiatus in Tardigravetian and the Schela CladoveiLepenski Vir Mesolithic cultural manifestation
405
.
Overall, the Upper Palaeolithic from Banat, as its currently understood, seems to be formed
by cultural manifestations located at the outskirts of the great Central European techno-complex.
From such a perspective, we believe that the data of the issues raised in relation to the discoveries
from Banat should be re-assessed (Quartzitic Palaeolithic, belay Aurignacian, the late Gravetian
infuences, stratigraphical issues and chronology, raw material supply sources, technology of lithics
industry), but this is not possible only by resuming the research for the purpose of obtaining as many
information as possible about the humans from Palaeolithic.
405
SREJOVI, D. et alii 1980: 195205; KOZOWSKI, J. & KOZOWSKI, S. 1982: 11109; 1983: 259278;
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a: 225252, 286287; BORONEAN, V. 2000a: 156183.
III.1 Natural environment
Te geological substructure of the south part of the Pannonian basin consists of
deeply sunken ground similar in origin to the modern Rhodope mass consisting of
schists and igneous rocks
406
. On top of this substructure are deep marine deposits
of the Tetis and Parathetis seas, and on top of them thick layers of loess had been
deposited in the Neogene period. Te elevations constituting the mountain fringe
the Fruka Gora and Vrac Mountains are the remains of the ancient ground. Fruka
Gora are composed of schists, phyllites, serpentinites, granites, basalts, peridotites,
andesites and dacites, as well as Mesozoic limestones and basal conglomerates, and
the Vrac Mountains are composed of Paleozoic schists, which represent the north-
ernmost exposure of the ancient Serbian-Macedonian mass
407
.
Vojvodina is geographically divided into Srem, Baka and south Banat. Srem
encompasses the area between the rivers Danube and Sava, Baka includes the area
between the rivers Tisza and Danube, and the south Banat includes an area from
the Tisza River to the southwestern Carpathians. Te geomorphological structure
of these regions is quite similar but there are still certain diferences. Loess deposits
are very frequent in Srem and Baka and they are most prominent on the Srem loess
plateau, the Titel Breg, middle Baka loess plateau and south Banat loess plateau.
Tese plateaus are intersected by the Danube and the Tisza river basins, and in
406
BUKUROV, B. 1975; KUKIN, A. 1984.
407
ZEREMSKI, M. 1985.
I
n the Serbian part of Banat, in contrast to the Romanian Banat, a very small
number of the Palaeolithic sites have been confrmed. Not one of them has
been systematically excavated so the Palaeolithic period in this part of Banat
can be discussed only within its wider regional context. Tere are, however, also
other reasons for the regional approach in these investigations. South Banat could
be considered from a climatic, ecological and geomorphologic point of view as an
integral part of the south Pannonian area, which mostly also includes the low hilly
terrain to the south of the rivers Sava and Danube. In this treatise we will therefore
discuss the Palaeolithic of northern Serbia in a similar way as the Palaeolithic of
the southwestern Romania has been treated. In recent years a few Palaeolithic sites
ofering an entirely new insight into the early prehistory of this part of Europe have
been investigated in this region. So, we are going to present here, in detail, the results
of these recent investigations, and we will try to document the distinct role of the
Carpathian-Danubian region in the diferent phases of the Palaeolithic period.
80 | Duan Mihailovic
northern and eastern sections sand areas were formed in contact with loess, such as near Ludo
Lake on the fringes of which Mesolithic and Neolithic sites have been discovered, and at Deliblatska
Peara (Deliblato Sands) in the area of the south Banat.
Te relief of the Serbian Banat difers to a certain extent from the relief of Baka and Srem. It
is well known that until recently many parts of Vojvodina were covered with marshes, which were
drained only in the 19th and the 20th centuries.
Te marshy-lake zone was particularly prominent in the north of the Serbian Banat so it must
be emphasized that, despite the fact that this area had been inhabited in the past, the northern Banat
was unsuitable for setlement during most of the prehistoric period. Te situation is somewhat
diferent in the central and south Banat where the sediments had been deposited mostly in a dry
environment. Te loess deposits are not so prominent in the central Banat while in the south is the
South Banat loess plateau where the deposits are up to 10 metres thick.
In the eastern Banat there are two depressions. Tese are Alibunar and Vrac depressions
at the foot of the Vrac Mountains on the very border with Romania. It is thought that the Vrac
depression was formed during the maximum of the last glacial and the Alibunar depression in
much earlier times
408
. Tese two depressions are separated by the elevated plateau called At where
numerous fnds from the early Upper Palaeolithic have been discovered.
Mava and Donja Kolubara to the south of the Sava represent the botom of the Pannonian
plain and the segment of the Srem-Mava basin extending from Fruka Gora in the north to the Sava
fault-erosive section in the south
409
. In the Sava Valley occur large fuvio-denudational zones and in
Podrinje and Podgorina are island mountains composed of schist, limestone and serpentine. In the
Leli and Valjevo karst and in the Pocerski merokarst appear many karst forms, while in alitrena
Cave situated in Gornja Kolubara were discovered many fnds dating from the Upper Palaeolithic.
Because of diferences in the quantity of precipitation the area closer to the Sava is characterized by the
steppic-continental climate while temperate continental climate prevails in Podrinje and Podgorina.
Central Serbia as well as northern Bosnia belongs to the fringes of the Pannonian basin, i.e.
to the peri-Pannonian region extending to the Jastrebac Mountains and the Starovlake Mountains
in the south. In umadija, which includes the territory from Velika to Zapadna Morava hilly relief is
prevalent, while karst forms are few: they appear in the Belgrade merokarst and in rather small zones
around the Bukulja Mountains. Te climate nowadays in this area is of a distinctively temperate-
continental type.
Te east part of northern Serbia, from the Danube to the Niava river basin, belongs to the
Carpathian-Balkan geotectonic unit
410
. Isolated limestone areas appear, separated by the neogenic
basins and rocks refecting Tertiary volcanism. Tis area is inseparably connected with the south-
western Carpathians not only on the basis of geologic structure but also based on climatic and
ecological characteristics. Te single distinct entity within this unit is the Iron Gates gorge, which
was in the past the refugium for many plants and animal species
411
. In this area a few Palaeolithic and
many Mesolithic sites have been investigated.
In contrast to the Romanian Banat where much information had been gathered in the course
of archaeological investigations, most of the palaeoecological data in Vojvodina were obtained by
investigating the loess deposits. Te Middle Pleistocene deposits were studied in the loess profles
of ot at Stari Slankamen, Batajnica-Kapela and Netin
412
, while Late Pleistocene sediments have
been investigated at many locations in Srem and Baka
413
. On the basis of sedimentological and
408
ZEREMSKI, M. 1985.
409
MARKOVI, J. D. 1970.
410
IRI, B. 1996.
411
MII, V. 1981.
412
ZEREMSKI, M. et alii 1991.
413
MARKOVI, S. 2001; MARKOVI, S. et alii 2004.
The Palaeolithic in Northern Serbia | 81
malacological investigations and the study of magnetic susceptibility a correlation has been estab-
lished between the south Pannonian and Chinese loess deposits
414
. Tese investigations confrmed
the assumptions that somewhat more mild (and weter) climate prevailed in south Pannonia during
the Late Pleistocene and that forest vegetation existed not only in the interglacials but also in the
glacial refugiums
415
.
In the caves in eastern Serbia has been confrmed the association of the Pleistocene
mammals characteristic of the north Balkans
416
. Large faunal species inhabiting the steppe
and open areas (horses, bisons and even rhinoceroses), forest areas (deers, roe deers, etc.) and
mountain areas (ibexes and chamoises) were identifed, as well as various types of carnivores and
animals living in caves (hyenas, wolves, cave bears). Because of the limited investigation results
it is still unknown what the incidence of species from diferent biomes was in diferent phases of
the Middle and Late Pleistocene.
III.2 History of researches
Te investigations of the Palaeolithic in the territory of present-day Serbia were belated in relation
to the study of the later prehistoric periods, despite the fact that frst Palaeolithic artifacts had been
discovered already by the end of the 19th century. In 1891 J. Cviji and . Jovanovi found one stone
blade in the Pleistocene layer of Prekonoka cave
417
, while F. Mileker gathered quite a lot of chipped
stone artifacts from the Zapadna strana (modern At), Mesi kanal and Kozluk sites near Vrac
between 1888 and 1919
418
. Unfortunately, investigations of the Palaeolithic did not gain currency
in Serbia afer these frst discoveries. In the 1920s H. Breuil mentions the Palaeolithic sites in the
vicinity of Belgrade and some of these caves (where just the faunal remains were recorded) were
identifed by Gavela in 1955
419
.
In the beginning of the 1950s B. Gavela started investigations in Peina pod Jerininim brdom
near Kragujevac and in Risovaa Cave near Arandjelovac. Both caves yielded large quantities of
remains of Pleistocene fauna and smaller number of stone artifacts. Te artifacts from the Upper
and Middle Palaeolithic were found in Peina pod Jerininim brdom, while in Risovaa an industry
was recorded, which, because of the leaf-like points, was associated with the Szeletian
420
and later
with the Middle Palaeolithic facies Muselievo-Samuilitsa
421
.
Just when it seemed that investigations of the Palaeolithic would gain momentum everything
came to a standstill once again. Te end of the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s were characterized
by gathering activity, which continued also in the 1980s. R. Raajski gathered many thousands
of Aurignacian artifacts at the Crvenka-At site near Vrac and Aurignacian fnds were gathered at
the Balata site
422
. P. Medovi found one Middle Palaeolithic artifact at the Cigan site near Irig
423

while J.ari gathered considerable numbers of artifacts from various periods at the Beljarica and
Ekonomija 13. maj in Zemun sites in the beginning of the 1980s
424
.
414
MARKOVI, S. et alii 2004.
415
JANKOVI, M. 1984; MARKOVI, S. et alii 2004.
416
DIMITRIJEVI, V. 1997.
417
CVIJI, J. 1891.
418
MILLEKER, F. 1937.
419
GAVELA, B. 1988.
420
GAVELA, B. 1988.
421
KLUEROVI, Z. 1991.
422
MIHAILOVI, D. 1992a; 1992b.
423
MEDOVI, P. 1970.
424
ARI, J. 1984; ARI, J. 2009.
Te decisive step forward came in the 1980s when I. Radovanovi started to apply modern
methods of investigation to the Palaeolithic sites and to analyses of their chipped stone artifacts.
Tese investigations were focused on Montenegro where D. Srejovi organized excavations of a few
rich and multilayered Palaeolithic sites: Maliina Stijena, Medena Stijena, Trebaki Kr, and Bioe
425
.
Te excavations in Serbia continued but on a limited scale. Z. Kaludjerovi carried out test-trench
excavations in many caves fnding just a few artifacts in many of them, while more signifcant results
were achieved in Smoluka and alitrena caves
426
. Te Middle Palaeolithic horizons, which yielded
around two hundred artifacts, were investigated in Smoluka Cave, while many hundreds of artifacts
were found in alitrena Cave near Mionica. Te artifacts from this site have been ascribed to the
Middle and Late Upper Palaeolithic.
Tese investigative activities decreased once again during 1990s due to the unfavorable social
circumstances, and small-scale excavations have been carried out at just a few Palaeolithic sites
(Mirilovska Cave, Baranica, and Peurski kamen)
427
. Only with the beginning of this millennium
did the investigations of Palaeolithic sites start to yield more tangible results. First, three Middle
Palaeolithic and one Upper Palaeolithic horizons were investigated in Hadi Prodanova Cave near
Ivanjica in 2003
428
and many fnds from the Middle Palaeolithic were discovered in the same year
at the Petrovaradin fortress
429
. In the same year a rich Gravetian horizon was reached in alitrena
Cave
430
, while many layers with the Middle Palaeolithic fnds have been recorded in Balanica Cave in
southeast Serbia
431
. Te investigations continued also in the following years: layers with Aurignacian
and Middle Palaeolithic fnds were investigated in alitrena Cave while in the Balanica Cave complex
human remains had been encountered beside the Mousterian artifacts
432
. Te results of these inves-
tigations, along with already known facts, made it possible for the frst time to understand in general
terms the beginning of human setlement in the central Balkans.
III.3 Palaeolithic sites
We included in this survey excavated sites, sites for which the context of fnds is known and also
any homogeneous assemblages. As there is no clear border between the north and middle part
of the central Balkans we presented only the sites in the area to the north of the rivers Niava
and Zapadna Morava which we think to be relevant for the study of these phenomena in south
Pannonia (Fig.37).
III.3.1 Crvenka-At, Balata and other Palaeolithic sites
in the vicinity of Vrac
Appearance, investigation results and stratigraphy
Almost all artifacts gathered at the sites in the vicinity of Vrac were obtained by purchase from
communal works and work on sand exploitation. Te material from Kozluk, Zapadna strana and
Mesi kanal were gathered by F. Mileker at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century
433
,
425
RDOVANOVI, I. 1986b; SREJOVI, D. 1996.
426
KLUEROVI, Z. 1991.
427
MIHAILOVI, D. et alii 1997.
428
MIHAILOVI, D. 2003a.
429
MIHAILOVI, D. 2003b.
430
MIHAILOVI, B. 2008.
431
MIHAILOVI, D. 2008a; 2009a.
432
ROKSANDI, M. et alii in press.
433
MILLEKER, F. 1937; BRODAR, S. 1955.
while the fnds from At, Crvenka and Balata were gathered by R. Raajski between 1952 and 1978.
I.Radovanovi also conducted test-trench excavations of the Pleistocene layers at At
434
.
All sites are situated on the fringes of the Vrac depression at the foot of the Vrac Mountains
Kozluk is located on the east side of the depression, on the bank of the Kozluk brook and the site
Crvenka is just across from it at Zapadna strana. Terefore it is assumed that Milekers site Zapadna
strana is in fact the Crvenka site. Tis site was reidentifed only in the 1950s when R. Raajski
noticed there were chipped stone artifacts in the sand exploited at that location (Fig. 38). Te
archaeological sites Crvenka and At belong geomorphologically to the At plateau (Crvenka is the
fossil valley crossing the plateau in the north) but the southeastern part of the plateau is marked as
Crvenka on the topographic maps. Terefore, the archaeological site is also known by that name.
Balata and Mesi kanal are located on the surface of the lake-loess terrace near the terminal end of
the plateau
435
.
Te At plateau was created, according to Zeremski (1985), as a result of tectonic movements
afer formation of the Vrac depression. Tis is confrmed, according to this author, by the fact that
at its base appear layers of sand deposited there before the formation of the depression, in the time
of intensive denudation of the quartz material from the northern slopes of the Vrac Mountains.
Tanks to the data of R. Raajski, who recorded the fnding context for most of the artifacts, and the
stratigraphic observations of D. Rukavina
436
, it has been established that the stratigraphy of deposits
in diferent sand mines in this area corresponds to a great extent. In all sand mines under the humus
loess up to 4 metres thick appears, whose upper segment is darker in color and more compact, and
lighter in the lower segment. Upper and lower levels of loess are separated in some places by greenish
to gray-brown sediment containing many small quartz pebbles
437
. Under the loess are layers of sand,
and at the botom is clay. Te top layer of sand is of yellowish color and rather thin and is followed
by layers of fne sand, coarse sand and fne sand again resting on the clay layer. Tere is also a layer of
sand under the clay, at the relative depth of 8.30 m. Te chipped stone artifacts were found in all sand
layers. Te largest number of fnds were located in the lower segment of the stratigraphic sequence
(in the coarse sand and the layer immediately beneath).
Structure of raw materials and products of knapping
A detailed analysis was performed in the early 1990s in order to establish whether the industry
is homogeneous and whether there are diferences in spatial and stratigraphic distribution of the
artifacts and their atributes
438
. It was concluded that at both locations the artifacts were made of
the same raw materials: quartz and quartzite, jasper and diferent sorts of the good quality fint. At
Crvenka and At alike the most frequent is a fint of heterogeneous structure sometimes with black
spots (so-called Banat fint), green, red and brown fint of homogeneous structure and polychro-
matic reddish-yellow and brown fint, which is dif cult to defne macroscopically. Artifacts covered
with patina and burnt are considerably more frequent at At.
Te cores (Fig. 39) appear in the structure of the industry in very small quantity (under
2% in all layers) and in the lower layers, there are 6580% unretouched artifacts and 30% tools
(Table1). Te cortical fakes and fakes with traces of cortex do not exceed 15% at Crvenka while
there are 2530% of them in the lower layers at At. Considering that very small numbers of discoid
and irregular cores have been recorded at both sites it might be assumed that most of the fakes
with multidirectional scars originate from preparation and rejuvenation of the single-platform cores,
434
RDOVANOVI, I. 1986a.
435
ZEREMSKI, M. 1985.
436
RUKVINA, D. 1984.
437
RUKVINA, D. 1984.
438
which are signifcantly more common. Besides these cores, which ofen have cortex and traces of
lateral preparation, were also found cores on smaller pieces of fint without traces of preparation.
Burin-like cores as well as the cores for microbladelets were also recorded.
Te structure of striking platform is similar to the structure of the dorsal side but the specimens
with cortical platforms are even less frequent than the specimens with cortex on the dorsal side. Te
specimens with plain platforms prevail, the faceted platform is less frequent and edge platforms
are rather frequent on the blades. A certain percentage of specimens (ca 10%) at At have the broad
platform of the chapeau de gendarme type while a few fakes could be ascribed to the fakes of the
Levallois type with certain reservations (as there are no elements allowing complete reconstruction
of the technological process).
When, however, the products of knapping are concerned it should be emphasized that the
most common specimens among the blades are those of 2.55 cm in size. Te larger pieces have
been found only in the lower layers, while specimens of smaller size (under 2.5 cm) at Crvenka as
well as at At have been encountered only in the coarse sand in the middle segment of the sequence.
Tool structure
Endscrapers are the most commonly encountered tools (3050%) followed by retouched
blades (1025%), which are somewhat more frequent near the botom than in the middle segment
of the sequence (Table 2). Burins are more frequent than retouched blades at At, while the situation
is reversed at Crvenka. Te endscrapers are also more frequent at At, in part because of a higher
incidence of denticulated and notched tools.
Distinct typological variability has been noticed within these three categories of tools
(Fig.40). Te various variants of multiple burins on retouched truncations of thick blades and fakes
are confrmed at Crvenka, while dihedral burins are characteristic of the lowest horizon at At. Besides
plain endscrapers on retouched and unretouched blades and fakes, the fan-shaped endscrapers are
characteristic of both sites for Crvenka the endscrapers on cortical fakes and conical-core-like
endscrapers, and for At the carinated endscrapers on fakes. Plain shallow retouched blades are well
represented both at Crvenka and at At, while the blades retouched by invasive Aurignacian retouch
are more frequent at Crvenka. Strangled blades have been also found at this site.
Most frequent among the sidescrapers are lateral specimens, and a couple of specimens with
undoubtedly Middle Palaeolithic characteristics have been also encountered at At. Retouched
truncations and borers are not particularly frequent. Te same situation is found with notched tools
and splintered pieces but they are signifcantly more numerous. Lateral denticulated sidescrapers of
larger size are characteristic of Crvenka; transversal specimens were recorded at At, while one semi-
abruptly retouched segment was found at Crvenka.
Assemblage fom Balata
Te Balata site where 173 artifacts have been found is in the immediate vicinity of Crvenka
and At
439
. Tis assemblage greatly resembles the assemblages from Crvenka and At in terms of raw
materials, technological products and tools. Te structure of raw materials is identical and good
quality fint of heterogeneous structure prevails as is also the case at Crvenka and At. Te same patina,
roundness, gloss and traces of burning were identifed on some specimens. In contrast to the material
from Crvenka and At among the fnds from Balata were typical Levallois specimens: one Levallois
core and fve Levallois fakes. In all other elements, however, the industry exhibits Upper Palaeolithic
characteristics. Typical Upper Palaeolithic cores, blades and rejuvenation fakes have been recorded
and among the retouched tools there were no identifed Middle Palaeolithic tool types apart from
a few sidescrapers. Considering the structure of industry and stylistic traits of tools there are many
439
parallels with the industry from Crvenka and At. Te endscrapers, retouched blades and burins are
the most frequent tool categories, denticulated and notched tools are also present in considerable
quantity and many tool types documented at Crvenka and particularly at At (fan-shaped, carinated
and nosed endscrapers etc.) have also been found. As at At there are no Aurignacian blades but
bladelets were found, which have not been found at the two neighboring sites.
Summary for the sites around Vrac
Te analyzes revealed that industries from Crvenka, At and Balata are rather homogeneous.
Many correlations between the assemblages from Crvenka and At originating from approximately
the same level have been noticed. It is obvious that structure of the assemblages could be explained
by cultural factors and activities of the communities rather than as a result of the post-depositional
disturbances. Te distribution of sites on the fringes of the depression indicates that this area
had been setled probably afer the depression formation. Although the inventory of the assem-
blages from these sites is rather similar, certain diferences were still encountered. Te Levallois
component is most frequent at Balata where distinct association of the Middle Palaeolithic and
Upper Palaeolithic elements has been perceived. Te Middle Palaeolithic elements are also present
at At, situated in the north, and the industry is characterized by the presence of dihedral burins,
pointed and carinated endscrapers and large-sized sidescrapers. At Crvenka, which perhaps could
be most closely related to the Aurignacian of the Krems type (documented at the sites in Romanian
Banat
440
) the Middle Palaeolithic artifacts are least common and the industry includes carinated-
conical endscrapers, Aurignacian blades, nosed endscrapers on blades and various types of burins
on truncations. All in all, the investigations of the material from the Vrac sites carried out so far
have raise many unanswered questions concerning the time and character of setling of the northern
slopes of the Vrac Mountains.
III.3.2 Petrovaradin Fortress
Investigation results and stratigraphy
Te Petrovaradin fortress is situated on a dominant elevation above the right Danube bank near Novi
Sad. Palaeolithic artifacts were discovered in the course of rescue excavations at the fortress in 2002,
and already by 2003, systematic excavations of the Pleistocene layers at the site had been organized.
An area of 38 square metres (sector I) was explored at the highest section of the plateau, and in
the following year excavations were extended to sector II (parallel to sector I) covering 54 square
metres. More than one thousand artifacts have been discovered during two campaigns and additional
Palaeolithic fnds have also been encountered in other trenches in the course of rescue excavations.
In contrast to the surrounding terrain where the Pleistocene layers and virgin rock are much
deeper, at the top of the plateau they appear just under the surface. Under the Holocene layer, which
contains a variety of remains from prehistory, antiquity and the Middle Ages, there is a somewhat
darker loess denoted as layer 2a. Near the botom of this layer a horizon with rock fragments was
recorded, while the lower layer consists of somewhat lighter loess sediment resting on the virgin
rock. Te contact zone between layers 2a and 2b is considerably disturbed as the strips of sediment
from the upper layer penetrate deeply in the lower layer. Te character of this disturbance has not
yet been explained.
It was assumed afer preliminary observations that the upper layer is the palaeosoil in the
initial phase of formation while the lower layer dates from the phase L1L2 (i.e. MIS4) afer the
Chinese stratigraphic system
441
. However, as the material of the Middle Pleistocene date that could
440
MOGOANU, F. 1978.
441
MARKOVI, S.B. et alii 2004.
correspond to OIS6 has also been recorded in the lowest layer
442
the question could be asked whether
the fnds from layer 2a (which are most frequent) belong to OIS3 or to some of the interstadial
phases within OIS5 from which the sediment is not preserved and when the erosion of the terrain
could had occured.
Material analysis results
Detailed analysis of the material from the Petrovaradin fortress has recently been published
443
.
Te analysis included over one thousand artifacts from layer 2a, horizon of disturbance (2a/2b)
and layer 2b. Te assemblage from layer 2a contains the largest number of fnds, which are mostly
distributed in the lower segment of the layer.
Most of the artifacts are made of white fint, from deposits which were recently discovered
about 15 kilometres from the site, and of quartz pebbles which were probably gathered on the river
bank. Only small numbers of artifacts were made of other raw materials: black and green and yellow
fint, mat fint, etc. Tese raw materials were mostly used for tool production, so it could be assumed
that at least some of them had been brought to the setlement.
In general structure the incidence of cores is 33.5%, fakes 6773% and tools 1823%
(Table3). Terefore, as at Crvenka and At, the structure of the industry corresponds to the setlement
activities and a somewhat longer occupation of the setlement. Tis is also confrmed by the fact that
a rather high proportion of burnt pieces (around 9%) appear in the assemblages, although it should
be emphasized that neither hearths nor animal bones have been encountered during excavations.
Analysis of cores and products of knapping revealed that diferent knapping techniques were
used. Te use of the preferential (lineal) Levallois method is confrmed by small numbers of cores
and fakes with a central scar on the dorsal side. Products of knapping indicating the use of recurrent
technique were also recorded, but much more abundant are artifacts which could be related to some
sort of simplifed Levallois technique adapted to the small dimensions of cores and the low quality
of raw materials. Many fakes have a broad and prepared platform of the chapeau de gendarme
type, and rejuvenation fakes of the clat debordant type were also recorded, although there is lack
of agreement regarding whether they should be associated with Levallois technology or with the
technology of knapping discoid and centripetal cores. It is interesting that only a few retouched tools
had been made on Levallois fakes.
Most of the quartz artifacts were struck from pieces of raw material where only one or two scars
are discernible, and also the Kombewa technique was used with fakes being struck from the edge of
other, larger fakes. Special techniques were used for the production of backed tools. Te cores of this
type have not been found but it is clear on some massive fakes that, before their striking, a series of
smaller fakes had been struck from the former core platform (preserved on the back of the fake).
Te products of knapping from various raw materials and produced using diferent techniques
are of surprisingly uniform size. Tus an average length of artifacts in sector I in layer 2a is 25.5
mm and 25.2 mm in sector II, while their average width in sector I is 24.0 mm and 23.4 mm in
sector II. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that there are diferences between the technique
of knapping the cores of fint and those of quartz. Among the artifacts made of quartz there is
somewhat greater incidence of cortical fakes (29.4%), and platform preparation was recorded on
just 7.9% of specimens, in contrast to the fint artifacts where a prepared platform appears on 28.6%
of specimens.
Te most frequent tools in layer 2a and in both sectors are sidescrapers, and denticulated
and notched tools are also rather frequent (Fig. 41; Table 45). Te most common sidescrapers
are straight and arched lateral sidescrapers but transversal sidescrapers (Fig. 45, 46), sidescrapers
442
T. Gaudenyi, personal communication.
443
of djet type and massive backed sidescrapers have also been found (Fig. 42, 43, 44). Tools of the
Upper Palaeolithic type are relatively frequent but they are not standardized, and they obviously had
an ad hoc purpose (many of them were made of quartz). Te denticulated tools, though frequent, are
not characteristic. Mousterian points have not been recorded.
Te small quantity of artifacts from layer 2a were found only in sector I and based on the
structure of raw materials, technological products and tools do not difer substantially from the
material from the upper layer. In that regard it could actually be concluded that the industry from
the Petrovaradin fortress is homogeneous and includes the fnds from the upper as well as from
the lower layer. Nevertheless, it has been noted that a small number of artifacts of yellow fint,
Charentian elements and bifacial backed sidescrapers were grouped in the lower horizon of layer 2a,
in the contact zone and in layer 2b. For that mater it is quite probable that this location was setled
in diferent phases, which are impossible to distinguish stratigraphically at this moment.
Te spatial analysis of artifacts revealed that the center of the setlement was on top of the
plateau, under the present building of the City Museum of Novi Sad. Separate zones of activities
are not clearly distinguished. Higher concentration of cores, notched pieces and endscrapers and
sidescrapers were recorded in the squares of the western section of sector II, while the sidescrapers
and burins appear in somewhat larger quantity in the eastern section of the same sector. Tese were
perhaps associated with a working area in the western section of sector I (where a higher incidence
of artifacts was also recorded) some ten metres away.
Based on the high incidence of sidescrapers and low Levallois index, the industry from the
Petrovaradin fortress corresponds to the non-Levalloisian facies of typical Mousterian and the
taxonomic status of the assemblage is compromised at least formally only by the high incidence
of denticulated tools (Table 6). It is, however, evident that three components are combined in the
material from the fortress. Te Taubahian-Charentian component is manifested in the tradition of
producing tools on asymmetrical fakes, the use of quartz and transversal sidescrapers (although it
should be emphasized that there is no typical Quina retouch on tools); the Levallois technology
is rather infrequent while a middle European component is evident in the fact that production
technology of bifacial sidescrapers from the fortress corresponds closely with the method of
production in the Micoquian and the earlier industries in the northwest of the Carpathian basin.
III.3.3 Baranica Cave and Tabula Traiana Cave
Many site surveying campaigns and test-trench excavations of the prehistoric cave sites have been
undertaken in northeastern Serbia. Yet, only a few artifacts have been discovered at many sites: thus
only two Middle Palaeolithic artifacts were recorded in the cave of Peurski Kamen near Sokobanja,
and one backed implement was found in Mirilovska Cave in the vicinity of Senje. Somewhat beter
results were achieved in the excavations of two caves: Baranica near Knjaevac where two Upper
Palaeolithic and one Middle Palaeolithic horizons have been investigated and Tabula Traiana Cave
where a small number of artifacts from the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic were recorded.
Baranica
Baranica Cave is situated 5 km to the southeast of Knjaevac, about ten metres above the
right bank of the Trgoviki Timok River. It has a rock shelter entrance and three rather small inner
rooms (Fig. 47). Te Palaeolithic artifacts were found in the course of test-trenching in 1994 and
most of the fnds were collected from systematic excavations, conducted in 1995, 1997 and 2004
444
.
In the upper layer, consisting of lighter brown sediment with eboulis (geological layer 2), only three
Palaeolithic artifacts were recorded: one laterally retouched sidescraper, one blade and one bladelet.
444
MIHAILOVI, D. et alii 1997.
Two horizons of loose gray (layer 3a) and light brown sediment (layer 3b) with no artifacts
were encountered under that layer and under these two layers were confrmed two geological layers
with cultural remains. In the geological layer 4b (rather dark brown sediment with eboulis) have
been found: two larger and three smaller fakes, three blades (distal fragment of a regular blade, an
asymmetrical cortical blade and a thick rejuvenation blade with traces of rejuvenation on its central
ridge), an endscraper on a retouched thick blade and an atypical carinated endscraper on a massive
retouched fake, which was broken but could be reft (Fig. 48). In layer 4c (reddish sediment with
eboulis), investigated only within an area of few square metres, only a couple of irregular quartz
fakes (two of which with traces of cortex) and one fragment of asymmetrical blade were recorded.
It is obvious that Baranica Cave was just transitory campsite for the communities inhabiting
this region. In considering the archaeological material this is indicated not only by small number
of artifacts but also the fact that almost all artifacts were made of diverse, mostly good quality raw
materials (chalcedony, bluish and grayish good quality fint, yellowish fint, greenish chert, etc.) and
also by the fact that most artifacts are fnished products (blades, tools) and not the by-products of
knapping. Besides, analyzes revealed that this cave was a hyena den at the time of the formation of
layer 2. Tis is confrmed by many remains of the hyenas and their prey with recognizable traces of
gnawing. Polished bone fragments indicating water transport were also found. However, it could be
assumed that post-depositional factors did not have too much impact on the spatial distribution of
the material as fragments of a broken carinated endscraper from layer 4a/4b have been found in two
adjacent squares (G9 and H9).
It is dif cult at this point to determine which faunal remains are the remains of human-
hunted prey and which could be associated with the activity of hyenas and other carnivores
445
. Large
quantities of animal species have been recorded in Baranica including rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus
sp.), bovines (Bos/Bison), cervines (Cervus elaphus, Megaloceros), caprines (Capra ibex) equides
(Equus caballus), cave lion (Panthera spelaea) and cave hyena (Crocuta spelaea).
Te lower layer (4b) at Baranica is dated in 35780 +/ 320 BP (OxA13828) while the date
obtained for the upper layer is 23520 +/ 110 BP (OxA13827) (Dimitrijevi, forthcoming). Te
lowest horizon with artifacts (4c) has not been dated. Judging by the dates, layer 2 belongs probably
to the Gravetian (although the diagnostic tool types were not recorded), while the material from
layer 4b belongs without doubt to the initial Upper Palaeolithic. Te artifacts from layer 4c are impos-
sible to assign for the time being; the fragment of asymmetrical blade is not characteristic and could
not be related to the Upper Palaeolithic with any certainty. On the other hand, although the inves-
tigations conducted so far reveal that many quartz artifacts do appear at many Middle Palaeolithic
sites in Serbia, there is no confrmation thus far that material from the lowest layer at Baranica date
from that particular period.
Tabula Traiana Cave
Tis cave is situated on the right Danube bank in the Iron Gates, above the Trajans table, and
investigations there began in 2005. At least two Palaeolithic horizons were recorded in the cave
446
.
Te remains of a hearth with many animal bones were found in the upper layer. Te bones of ibexes
predominate, but sturgeon bones were also found. Te recorded artifacts include one endscraper
on a bilaterally retouched thick blade and a distal fragment of a retouched bladelet. Quartz artifacts
and Levallois fakes of low quality chert have been recorded in the lower layer. Te investigators
dated the fnds from the upper layer to the early Aurignacian and material from the lower layer to the
Middle Palaeolithic.
445
DIMITRIJEVI, V. 1997.
446
BORI, B. 2005; 2008.
III.3.4 alitrena Cave
alitrena Cave is, thus far, the richest Palaeolithic site in Serbia and the only site where layers with
Gravetian, Aurignacian and Middle Palaeolithic artifacts have been encountered
447
. Te cave
is situated about ten metres above the bank of Ribnica River (Fig. 49) in the village Bredje near
Mionica (western Serbia). It has been investigated, with pauses, since 1983.
In alitrena Cave trench EG, covering an area of around 49 square metres, was excavated at
the cave entrance (Fig. 50), and many trenches were also excavated in the cave interior. Te following
stratigraphy was confrmed at the cave entrance: grayish surface sediment (layer 1), grayish-brown
sediment (layer 2), yellowish sediment with large eboulis and rock fragments (layer3), dark brown
sediment with admixture of soot (layer 4) and brown sediment with eboulis (layer 5) Tese layers
appear in the upper section of the stratigraphic sequence and their total thickness does not exceed
1.20 m. Te fnds from later prehistory and historical periods were recorded in layer1, in layer 2 the
remains of the Starevo culture were found, in layers 3 and 4 were Gravetian artifacts and in layer5
the Aurignacian fnds. Under these layers are the horizons with the Middle Palaeolithic fnds, but
their investigation begun.
Te stratigraphy in the cave interior is somewhat diferent. Te humus layer is considerably
thicker (because of accumulation of guano), the Gravetian horizon has not been confrmed so far
and the layer with the Aurignacian artifacts, although eroded to a considerable extent, covers the
larger part of the cave interior, while the Middle Palaeolithic artifacts appear in sandy sediment on
top of the rocky foor. All layers were dated but the dates have not yet been published. It is only known
that Gravetian dates from the 24th and 25th millennia, Aurignacian from the 32nd millennium and
the very end of the Middle Palaeolithic dates from the 38th millennium BP. Te archaeozoological,
macrobotanical and sedimentological analyzes are still in progress.
Two preliminary reports concerning the Gravetian industry from layer 4 in alitrena cave
have been published so far. It was concluded that various sorts of good quality fint, some of which
were possibly obtained from considerable distances, occur among the raw materials but there was
also the so-called light white stone, which was used for knapping even in the Neolithic period
448
. Also
various core types have been encountered: massive single-platform cores, atypical double-platform
cores, burin-like cores and cores for microbladelets. A rather exhaustive survey of types and variants
of tools was presented but without data regarding their statistical frequency.
Among the burins were identifed burins on truncation and dihedral burins as well as angle
and carinated burins. Te endscrapers include specimens made on laterally or bilaterally semi-
abruptly retouched blades, nosed endscrapers on blades, endscrapers on fakes over 25 mm in size,
fan-shaped endscrapers and double endscrapers. Pointed blades retouched by lateral or bilateral
raised retouch were also found (Fig. 51).
Te sidescrapers, borers, splintered pieces and denticulated and notched tools are not partic-
ularly characteristic, but on the other hand various types of composite tools are frequent and very
distinctive including endscraper-points, endscraper-burins and point-burins. One projectile of
fechete type has also been recorded. Tis specimen is inverse retouched on one edge and alter-
nating semi-abrupt retouched on the other.
Te Gravetian industry from layer 4 is characterized by a high degree of variability and by
standardization of the backed tools (Fig. 52). Among these tools were recorded backed points of
larger size and with retouched base, laterally and bilaterally backed bladelets and microbladelets
with top and base tapered by shallow surface retouch, atypical shouldered points of larger size and
double tools on truncation (similar to the rectangles). Te double tools on truncation are generally
447
MIHAILOVI, B. 2008; MIHAILOVI, D. & MIHAILOVI, B. 2009.
448
ANTONOVI, D. 1997.
retouched by inverse retouch on the ends and on one (rarely on both) edges by semi-abrupt and
deep retouch.
From the technological and typological point of view the industry from layer 4 could be
related to the Gravetian industries in central Europe (Willendorfan and Pavlovian), but that will be
discussed later. It is essential, however, to mention that the structure of the assemblage of artifacts
from layer 3, which was created only a thousand years later, difers substantially from the industry
from layer 4. Te geometrized forms of microliths or many other tool types, which occur in layer4,
were not recorded in the assemblage from this layer and there just simple backed points and bladelets,
endscrapers on fakes and other not particularly characteristic tools were recorded. But it will be
possible to compare these two assemblages in detail once the full analysis of material is completed.
Te fnds from the Aurignacian layer, which has been excavated since 2006, are not published
in detail. We know at the moment that artifacts from this layer are signifcantly specifc and that they
do not correspond to the assemblages from the neighboring Aurignacian sites in the Sava valley.
First, the carinated endscrapers and burins, which are not easily distinguishable even formally from
the cores, are very frequent in this assemblage. Second, the bladelet component is very prominent, as
is confrmed by the fact that bladelets and points retouched by semi-abrupt, ofen marginal retouch
have also been found. Finally (and of particular importance), it has been noticed that the structure of
the industry and stylistic characteristics of the tools from diferent parts of the cave difer, although
they date (by all appearances) from the same period. Tus the artifacts made of low quality raw
materials and the cores are most frequent at the cave entrance (trench E-G), the carinated endscrapers
and burins and other tool types were found in the trench near the cave entrance, while the tools on
blades of rather large size were recorded among the fnds from the trench in the cave interior (trench
H). All this forewarns that the structure of the assemblages for not only the Middle Palaeolithic (that
is widely known) but also the Aurignacian may refect more the character of setling in the habita-
tions than the cultural identity of the populations.
III.3.5 Other Palaeolithic Sites
In order to complete the picture of Palaeolithic investigations in northern Serbia we are going to
present here the available data from incompletely published sites, the sites with small numbers of
fnds and concerning assemblages containing artifacts found out of the stratigraphic context.
Most important among these sites are Peina pod Jerininim brdom near Kragujevac and
Risovaa Cave near Arandjelovac
449
. In Risovaa a leaf-point was found together with Middle
Palaeolithic tool types, while Peina pod Jerininim brdom defnitely yielded Upper Palaeolithic
types of artifacts (some of which are housed in the National Museum in Belgrade). Unfortunately,
most of the archaeological material from these caves is lost and the fnds have not been published in
detail, so it is unknown what else these assemblages originally contained.
Similar sites with sparse archaeological remains and rich fauna have also been encountered at
other locations in the northern part of western and eastern Serbia. Palaeolithic sites in western Serbia
are confrmed in the vicinity of Valjevo, in Drenaika ave (known in the literature also as Peina u
crvenim stenama and Medvednika Cave) and in Visoka Cave in the canyon of the Gradac River
450
. It
could be assumed on the basis of photographs of the artifacts that Middle Palaeolithic artifacts were
found in Visoka cave
451
. Besides in Tabula Traiana Cave and Baranica Cave, Palaeolithic materials
were recorded in eastern Serbia, also in Mirilovska Cave near Senje, in Peurski kamen and Markova
Cave near Sokobanja
452
. One backed point and one bone projectile were found in Mirilovska Cave,
449
GAVELA, B. 1988.
450
KLUEROVI, Z. & JE, Z., 1996.
451
MILOEVI, N. 1985.
452
KLUEROVI, Z., 1996; MIHAILOVI, D. et alii 1997.
one fake and one typical Middle Palaeolithic sidescraper were found in Peurski kamen, while in
Markova Cave one core which the author of the excavations report believes to date from the late
Upper Palaeolithic was recovered
453
.
Sites in the open have not been systematically excavated. One transversal sidescraper dated to
the Middle Palaeolithic was found at Ruanj near Belgrade
454
, while a rather large quantity of artifacts
were found at the Beljarica and Ekonomija 13. Maj sites near Zemun. Tese artifacts have been
gathered on the Danube river bank under the profle of the Zemun loess plateau
455
. Te fnds were
classifed according to their technological and typological characteristics as: a) artifacts of the Middle
Palaeolithic type (Mousterian points, tools of cleaver type, sidescrapers, Levallois fakes), b) fnds
that could be related to Gravetian or Epigravetian (abruptly retouched points, short endscrapers,
etc.); and c) tools, which could be dated to the Mesolithic period (trapezes and truncated bladelets).
Te data about the sites in Vojvodina (except those already described) do not provide much
information. Te artifact from Irig in the Fruka Gora Mountains was found in the sand and gravel
mine in the vicinity of the mammoth remains
456
; a few loess profles with traces of hearths have been
recorded and as we already mentioned the Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic tool types have
been recorded in the impoverished assemblages from Kozluk and Mesi kanal in the vicinity of Vrac
457
.
III.4 Palaeolithic of northern Serbia in its regional context
III.4.1 Middle Palaeolithic
As we already mentioned we can discuss the Palaeolithic in the Balkans as well as in the entirety
of northern Serbia only in a broader regional context because of the limited investigation results.
Tis approach is particularly signifcant if we discuss the very beginning of setlement of the south
Pannoniannorth Balkan region.
Te issue of the so-called quartzite Palaeolithic and the Carpathian Mousterian has been
raised by Romanian archaeologists, and with reason considering that Palaeolithic industries with
quartz and quartzite artifacts are only documented in the south Carpathians
458
. It is entirely justifed
to mention in that context the material from Betalov Spodmol
459
and other sites in the westernmost
areas of the Pannonian-Slavonic region as well as the Erd site in Hungary
460
. We believe in that
context that recent investigations of the Palaeolithic in Serbia and southern Romania contribute
to the completion of the fragmentary picture of the quartz industries, which in many parts of the
Carpathian basin have been recognized as geographically limited cultural phenomenon, and also
make possible its reconsideration as a regional technological tradition.
It is well-known that there are similarities between Taubahian industries of the Carpathian
basin (Tata, Kulna 11, Predmost II, Oblazowa XXbXVI) and microlithizied industries with tools
on pebbles and fakes from Vrtesszlls and Bilcingsleben
461
. Small-sized fakes had been struck
from the cores regardless of whether smaller or larger pebbles were used as raw material. Most of the
pebbles were just roughly knapped. It has been noticed that the chaine operatoire is similar in many
453
KLUEROVI, Z., 1996.
454
KLUEROVI, Z., 1991.
455
ARI, J. 1984; ARI, J. 2009.
456
MEDOVI, P. 1970.
457
BRODAR, S. 1955; RDOVANOVI, I. 1984.
458
MOGOANU, F. 1968a; PAUNESCU, A. 1989; CARCIUMARU, M. & ANGHELINU, M. 2000.
459
OSOLE, F. 1991.
460
GBORI-CSNK, V. 1968.
461
MONCEL, M. E. 2003.
elements and that two faking surfaces ofen appear on the cores. Te knapping technology at Erd
deviates slightly from this standard because somewhat larger pebbles had been used.
Te succession of Taubahian and Charentian has been confrmed at a few sites in the northern
Carpathians. For example, at the site of Oblazowa in Poland the Charentian layer was encountered
under the Taubahian layer and under the Charentian layer was recorded an industry with a larger
quantity of denticulated tools
462
. Te Levallois technology is not signifcantly represented at this site,
as the most of the Taubahian sites, and a small number of the bifacially retouched tools were also
recorded. Similarly, in the area eastward of the Carpathians, the eastern Taubahian is followed by
the late Taubahian and Stinkovian, which also has the traits of the denticulated Mousterian
463
. Te
industry from the Petrovaradin fortress has parallels with all mentioned facies: the tools on irregular
fakes are prevailing, quartz was used to a considerable extent, denticulated tools are abundant,
microlithization is prominent and the Levallois technique and bifacially chipped sidescrapers were
recorded in small quantity.
Te Charentian and quartz component in the material from the Petrovaradin fortress is
somewhat unexpected phenomenon, considering that Charentian sites situated to the north (Erd),
west (Betalov Spodmol, Krapina, Vindija) and east of Petrovaradin fortress are at a considerable
distance. Even though the Charentoid character had been at one time ascribed to the Balkan
Mousterian
464
, that facies has not been confrmed until recently at any sites to the south of the Sava
and the Danube. Te only exception is the industry of the Pontinian type in layers XXII, XXI and
XVIII at Crvena Stijena
465
.
Signifcant progress has been made in recent years in comprehending the Charentian in
southeast Europe. Te rich Charentian industry has been recorded in the cave complex at Balanica
near Ni (in Mala Balanica of the Quina type) and the Middle Palaeolithic quartz industry has been
encountered also at the site of Golema Pesht in the vicinity of Skopje
466
. It has become apparent
that the territory within which Charentian and quartz industries do appear reaches to the southern
fringes of the Pannonian basin and that penetrate deep into the Balkan interior along the Morava-
Vardar route. It is still impossible to conclude whether this refects the problem of mutually connected
phenomena, chronological or regional facies, or a distinct method of adaptation to the environment.
In contrast to western Europe where most of the Charentian sites are dated in OIS4, the Charentian
in central and southeast Europe and in Anatolia covers a long time span: the proto-Charentian in
Karain is generally dated to 330300 ka
467
, the date obtained for Krapina is 130 ka
468
and industries
from Betalov Spodmol and Erd continued until the end of OIS4 and the beginning of OIS3
469
.
Typical Mousterian is a common phenomenon in many parts of the Carpathian basin and the
Balkan peninsula, but due to circumstances it is not well documented in Serbia. Levallois artifacts
have been encountered at Petrovaradin fortress and many other sites including Hadi Prodanova
Cave, Smoluka Cave, Tabula Traiana Cave, Beljarica and Ekonomija 13. maj. Te preferential
technique had been mostly used but specimens confrming the use of the recurrent method have also
been recorded. Rejuvenation fakes of the clat debordant type were also found, which are dif cult
to relate to either the centripetal recurrent Levallois technique or the discoid technique.
Industries with leaf-points confrmed at many sites in Bulgaria have not been documented
in Serbia. Still, bifacially retouched tools occur at sites in the north of the Balkans even in the early
462
VALDE-NOWAK, P. 2009.
463
COHEN, V. & STEPANCHUK, V. N. 1999.
464
KOZOWSKI, J. 1992.
465
BASLER, D. 1975.
466
MIHAILOVI, D. 2008a; 2009a; SALAMANOV-KOROBAR, L.J., 2008.
467
KOZOWSKI, J. 2002.
468
SIMEK, J. F., SMITH, F. H. 1997.
469
GBORI-CSNK, V. 1968; OSOLE, F. 1991.
phase of the Middle Palaeolithic. Te backed sidescrapers from the Petrovaradin fortress could not
be directly related to the Micoquian of central Europe either technologically, stylistically or according
to size and context
470
but they certainly confrm that communities inhabiting south Pannonia had
similar concepts of biface production. Leaf-points were recorded at a few sites in the Sava valley and
in the western Balkans (Kamen, Vindija)
471
and in Risovaa they were found together with artifacts
of the Middle Palaeolithic type
472
.
Middle Palaeolithic sites with impoverished assemblages, which could not be taxonomically
determined, are rather numerous in northern Serbia and in the neighboring regions. Te artifacts of
quartz (made on the spot) generally prevail at these sites and a small quantity of (ofen worn-out)
tools of fint and some Levallois fakes mostly brought from other locations are also recorded.
Because of the dominance of quartz these assemblages were once ascribed to the cave or quartz
Mousterian
473
. However, it should be pointed out that means of procurement and use of quartz in
the temporary cave habitations (obtaining it on the way along with other activities) probably difers
substantially from the means of procurement of this raw material during longer occupations at base
camps. And while technological tradition may have played an important role in the pebble-fake
industries in central Europe, the appearance of quartz in temporary camps was certainly decisively
infuenced by functional factors.
III.4.2 Upper Palaeolithic
Te question of the emergence of the Upper Palaeolithic techno-complexes is inseparable from the
question of their bearers, and the North BalkanSouth Carpathian region ofers great opportunities
to study this topic. Te oldest remains of Homo sapiens in Europe are 36000 years old (in the case of
Petera cu Oase) and were found in the caves of southwestern Romania
474
, while in the westernmost
parts of the south Pannonian region (in Vindija) very well-known Neanderthal remains dated to
the 32nd33rd millennia BP have been documented
475
. Te earliest Upper Palaeolithic sites in this
part of Europe (Kozarnika, Temnata, Bacho Kiro) were discovered in this area and they, according
to some scholars, suggest the expansion of Upper Palaeolithic and modern humans from the east
or southeast towards central Europe, while according to the others this is evidence of technological
transformation within the Mousterian techno-complex. Tese investigations posed many questions:
how to explain the morphological variability of populations inhabiting south Pannonia and the
northern Balkans before around 40 ka, whether certain facies could be associated with distinct kinds
of hominids, along which routes, when and how the Upper Palaeolithic expanded, and what was the
character of interactions between the Neanderthals and modern humans?
Te key for understanding the transition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic in the eastern
Balkans are the remains from Bacho Kiro and Temnata caves in northern Bulgaria. Te fnds from
layer 11 at Bacho Kiro were initially dated to the period before 43000 BP, atributed to the Upper
Palaeolithic and defned as Bachokirien
476
. In the same layer a fragment of human mandible which
was assumed to belong to a primitive type of modern man transitional between the Neanderthal
and Homo sapiens was found. In Temnata, however, in layer VI in trench TDII an industry of transi-
tional type dated to the period before 38700 BP
477
is confrmed, while the Bachokirien was also
470
BOSINSKI, G. 1967.
471
IVANOVA, S. 1979.
472
GAVELA, B. 1988.
473
PUNESCU, A. 1989.
474
475
HIGHAM, T. et alii 2006.
476
KOZOWSKI, J. et alii 1982.
477
DROBNIEWICZ, B. et alii 2000a.
encountered in layer 4 in trench TD-I dated to 3820039100 BP
478
. It has been assumed that Bacho
Kiro and Temnata were on the path to the west of Upper Palaeolithic communities, which had
inhabited Europe, and that the transitional industry from Temnata only confrms that a process of
leptolithization (elongation) of the artifacts and technological transformations from the Levallois
technology towards the production of blades from the volumetric cores had started but had not
been completed
479
.
Te 1990s witnessed the reinterpretation of fnds from the Bulgarian sites. It has been
pointed out that new dates for Bacho Kiro are somewhat later and that they correspond to the
38th 39th millennium BP. Tere were also opinions that fossil remains from layer 11 should
be related more to the Neanderthals than to modern humans, and many authors suggested
that Bachokirien, i.e. pre-Aurignacian industries from Bacho Kiro and Temnata, are of Middle
Palaeolithic character and that they represent the fnal phase in the evolution of the transitional
industries
480
. Te so-called Protoaurignacian was identifed as the earliest representative of the
Upper Palaeolithic, while early Aurignacian with carinated endscrapers and split-based points was
ascribed to a somewhat later period
481
. On the basis of the material from layer VII at Kozarnika a
distinct facies (Kozarnikien) has been distinguished and dated to the 36th38th millennium BP.
Tis industry was associated with the Protoaurignacian as well as with the Ahmarien from the
Near East because of its lamellar character
482
.
In contrast to Bulgaria and the Czech Republic, industries of transitional type have not been
discovered in south Pannonia and in the central Balkans, with the only exceptions being Vindija
(where the remains of the Neanderthals and a split-based point were found in layer G1), Maliina
Stijena (where Upper Palaeolithic artifacts occur in a Middle Palaeolithic context) and previously
described assemblages from Balata. It turns out, however, that the stratigraphic context of the fnds
from Vindija is not entirely certain
483
, that the industry from Maliina Stijena probably does not go
beyond the frameworks customary for the Middle Palaeolithic
484
, and the artifacts from Balata are
neither obtained from regular excavations nor are there any transitional forms, which are recorded
at Temnata and at Bohunician sites
485
. Terefore it must be concluded that for the time being there
are no reliable indications that the process of transformation documented in Bulgaria ever took place
here. In contrast to that, an almost monotonous succession of the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic
appears at most sites in this area.
Te artifacts from Baranica and (probably) Tabula Traiana Cave date, judging by the absolute
dates and the characteristics of the fnds, from the early Upper Palaeolithic. Unfortunately these
assemblages are too impoverished to be meaningfully related to some Aurignacian facies. On the
other hand, there is no question that Aurignacian fnds from Tincova, Coava and Romneti
Dumbrvia in the Romanian Banat
486
and Crvenka and At on the Serbian side belong to the same
cultural complex, and the same catchment area connected the Begej (Bega) and the Tami (Timi)
river basins. Tese industries have been at one time atributed to the Aurignacian of the Krems type,
and dated generally to Arcy-Stillfried B times. However, the industry from Tincova has recently
been atributed to the Protoaurignacian. It is important to emphasize here that almost all elements
478
DROBNIEWICZ, B. et alii 2000b.
479
DROBNIEWICZ, B. et alii 2000a.
480
CHURCHILL, S. E. & SMITH, F. H., 2000; TSANOVA, T. & BORDES, J-G., 2003; RIGAUD, J-P. & LUCAS,P.,
2006; TSANOVA, T. 2008.
481
TEYSSANDIER, N. 2003; 2008.
482
TSANOVA, T. 2008.
483
DERICCO, F. et alii 1998; KRVANI, I. & SMITH, F. H., 2000; KRVANI, I. 2000.
484
RDOVANOVI, I. 1986b; MIHAILOVI, D. 2009b.
485
486
MOGOANU, F. 1978.
of the Protoaurignacian
487
like pyramidal cores, carinated core scrapers and plain retouched blades
(sometimes of strangled type) rarely with typical Aurignacian retouch, actually do appear at Crvenka
and At as well as at Tincova (and also at two other Romanian sites). Simple endscrapers on blades are
also prevalent, nosed and carinated endscrapers are rather infrequent, and the points of the Krems
type and Dufour bladelets were also found at sites in Romania (in contrast to Crvenka and At, which
have not been systematically investigated). It should be borne in mind, however, that the chronology
of these sites has not yet been established with certainty, so their atribution to the Protoaurignacian
remains open to discussion.
As we can see, the existing material ofers the potential for diferent interpretations. We
consider it, however, not debatable that investigations conducted so far revealed that dates for the
earliest Upper Palaeolithic and the latest Middle Palaeolithic sites decrease from the east to the west
of the Balkans. It is also obvious that the Aurignacian sites do not appear in the interior of the Balkans,
outside the Sava-Danube corridor. Terefore, it seems at the moment that the Upper Palaeolithic
cultures advanced along the Danube route but that advance was of a difusional character and that it
encompassed a rather large territory. But it still remains to be established whether other communi-
cations (Morava-Vardar route, valleys of the rivers Strumica and Niava) have also been employed in
areas where more wide-ranging investigations have not yet been conducted.
Tere still remains an open question whether the expansion of the Upper Palaeolithic followed
the retreat of Neanderthal communities in the inaccessible mountainous regions of the Balkans
(for which there are certain indications), or the retreat had been in the face of the direct advance of
Upper Palaeolithic populations. Despite the fact that the Neanderthals and the bearers of the Upper
Palaeolithic cultures had been coexisting in the Balkans for many thousand years (as evidenced by the
fnds from Vindija), and even though the Neanderthals took over many innovations usually associated
with the Upper Palaeolithic and modern humans, it has not been established with any certainty that
members of these two species inhabited some of the smaller geographic regions concurrently. Tis
suggests that strong social and ecological competition existed between the Neanderthals and modern
humans, that social interactions were of low intensity and that modern humans probably did not
perceive Neanderthals as members of their own species. In that context it is not very probable that
hybridization between these two populations took place to any considerable extent.
Te Aurignacian entirely replaced the Middle Palaeolithic in the south Pannonian region
afer 35000BP. In that period this culture had the traits of typical Balkan Aurignacian but it should
be pointed out that the industry from alitrena Cave (which has yet to be published) difers consid-
erably on the basis of distinct association of carinated and nosed endscrapers and burins, straight
semi-abruptly retouched lamellae and points and pointed blades, from all Aurignacian industries,
which have been encountered in this part of the Balkans so far.
Te Gravetian was, until recently, insuf ciently studied in central and southern regions of
the Carpathian basin. Only a few sites dating from that period have been confrmed in Hungary,
northern Bosnia, northern Croatia and Slovenia and the situation was similar in northern Serbia,
where outside of a couple of artifacts discovered in the course of regular excavations (Baranica) and a
small quantity of artifacts collected out of context, there were no traces of its presence. Investigations
in Bulgaria and northern Serbia have shed more more light on this problem. In alitrena Cave an
industry has been found which corresponds in many elements to the industry from layers 8 and 9
at Willendorf II
488
: the backed truncations are frequent, there were also recorded pointed blades,
and two (not so typical) shouldered points have been also found. Parallels could also be drawn with
the industries from Temnata and particularly Kozarnika (layer IVb) where, as in alitrena Cave,
laterally and bilaterally retouched points (including the points of Kozarnika type), micropoints with
487
TEYSSANDIER, N. 2008.
488
OTE, M. et alii 1996; VALOCH, K. 1996.
retouched base and backed truncations have been encountered
489
. All these sites except Temnata
(which covers a somewhat longer time span) date from the 26th and 25th millennia BP.
Bearing in mind the fact that Gravetian sites in the north of the Balkans are grouped in the
Sava-Danube corridor, and considering that elements which occur somewhat earlier in the north of
central Europe (in Pavlovian) also appear at these sites, it is not out of the question that shifing of
human communities from central Europe towards the Balkans took place in the beginning of the
Upper Pleniglacial (2600020000 BP)
490
. Nevertheless, it remains unclear why Gravetian sites have
not been encountered so far in the central parts of the Balkans, which are considered a refugium in
that period. Te reason why typical (central European) Gravetian does not appear in this area lays
perhaps in the fact that with the advance of the maximum of the last glacial the industries in the
Balkans lost Gravetian traits and acquired more and more the characteristics of the undiferentiated
early Epigravetian
491
. It has been established that these industries are characterized by a restricted
repertoire of endscrapers, burins, retouched blades, retouched truncations and backed tools. Tis
change is quite noticeable in Temnata, it is conspicuous in the Climente I Cave in the Iron Gates
492

and it is also suggested by the fnds from alitrena Cave, but that will be clearer afer completion of
the analysis of this material. Te lack of Gravetian characteristics could be the result of a breaking
with tradition (in the technological sphere) but may also refect diferent hunting activities related
to the use of shouldered points
493
.
An entirely diferent process of spreading the technological innovations that could be more
closely related to cultural change than population movements took place in the late glacial, and
it is confrmed by the appearance of Mediterranean elements in the south Pannonian and south
Carpathian Epigravetian. In contrast to the coastal region, the fnal Epigravetian is insuf ciently
known in the northern Balkans but it is, on the other hand, very well studied in the south Carpathians,
at the Climente II and Cuina Turcului sites in the Iron Gates
494
.
Almost all elements characteristic of the fnal Epigravetian of the Adriatic-Ionian zone
including microlithization of artifacts, thumbnail and circular endscrapers, geometric microliths
(segments and triangles) and arched backed points, have been recorded in the industry from Cuina
Turcului
495
. Tat period is characterized by complex specialization in various felds of human activity,
the eclectic obtaining of resources from diferent biomes and the introduction of fshing which had
already been practiced in the earlier period as the fnds from Tabula Traiana Cave and Climente I
confrm
496
. Te cold spell in Younger Dryas could have forced these communities to more inten-
sively inhabit the sheltered area of the Iron Gates gorge and to intensify hunting the ibexes (which in
association with bison and other steppic species represent 60% of total remains)
497
.
Te hunter-gatherer communities in the Iron Gates established an entire network of setle-
ments in the beginning of the Holocene. Whether because of af uence, diversity and/or reduced
seasonality of resources, or because the fshing could have had the role of the key resource for
the survival of the communities, (regardless of whether it was really the case), social and cultural
integration took place at this time in the Iron Gates, and setlements with formal interment areas
also emerged
498
. In the Balkans a tendency toward general technological decline, manifested in
489
DROBNIEWICZ, B. et alii 1992; TSANOVA, T. 2003.
490
KOZLOWSKI, J. 1996.
491
MIHAILOVI, D. & MIHAILOVI, B. 2007.
492
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
493
KOZLOWSKI, J. 1999.
494
PUNESCU, A. 1978; BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
495
PUNESCU, A. 1978.
496
BORONEAN, V. 2000a; BORI, D. 2005.
497
498
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996.
the technological sphere by a decrease in the quality of raw materials used for knapping, in the use
of expedient technology, in the decrease in quantity of the Epigravetian tool types, and in use of
asymmetrical tools on fakes, is noticeable during this period
499
. Similar tendencies in economy and
technology have been encountered in all three regions where Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic sites
have been investigated: in the Iron Gates, in Montenegro and in Greece. Tese tendencies could be
traced from the earliest phase (Cuina Turcului II, Ostrovul Banului III, Padina A) and reached a
climax with the appearance of the quartz industries in the Lower Gorge (Razvrata, Icoana, Schela
Cladovei). From these foundations originated the Lepenski Vir culture in the beginning of the 7th
millennium cal BC.
499
MIHAILOVI, D. 2001.
T
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6
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9
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7
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9
Table 3. Petrovaradin fortress general structure of the main artifact categories: cores, blades, fakes, chunks,
tools, products of the secondary tools modifcation, chips and small undeterminable fragments ( 15 mm)
Sector I Sector II
Layer 2a 2a/2b 2b Total 2a 2a/2b
Cores 6
3,5%
3
5,4%
1
7,1%
10
4,2%
8
3,2%
1
5,0%
9
3,3%
Blades 5
2,9%
2
3,6%
0
0,0%
7
2,9%
10
4,0%
0
0,0%
10
3,7%
Flakes 125
73,1%
38
69,1%
10
71,4%
173
72,1%
173
68,6%
14
70%
187
68,7%
Chunks 3
1,8%
1
1,8%
0
0,0%
4
1,7%
3
1,2%
0
0,0%
3
1,1%
Tools 31
18,1%
10
18,2%
3
21,4%
44
18,3%
57
22,6%
5
25,0%
62
22,8%
Sec.m. 1
0,6%
1
1,8%
0
0,0%
2
0,8%
1
0,4
0
0,0%
1
0,4%
Total 171
100,0%
55
99,9%
14
99,9%
240
100,0%
252
100,0%
20
100%
272
100,0%
+ Chips 79 37 7 123 168 14 182
+ Frg. 74 14 6 94 98 10 108
Table 4. Petrovaradin fortress general strucure of the retouched tool categories
Sector I Sector II
Layer 2a 2a/2b 2b Total 2a 2a/2b Total
Endscrapers 5 1 1 7 5 0 5
Burins 1 1 0 2 6 0 6
Retouched blades 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Retouched fakes 5 1 0 6 11 1 12
Sidescrapers 6 4 2 12 12 2 14
Denticulated tools 4 0 0 4 3 1 4
Notched tools 6 0 0 6 10 0 10
Splintered pieces 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
Racletes 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Perforators 0 1 0 1 2 0 2
Truncations 1 1 0 2 2 0 2
Fragments of tools 3 1 0 4 3 0 3
Total 31 10 3 44 57 5 62
Table 5. Petrovaradin fortress occurrence of types according to F. Bordes list, by layers
Sector I Sector II
Layer 2a 2a/2b 2b 2a 2a/2b
1 2 2 6
2 5 1 1
5 4 2 4
8
9 3 5
10 1 2 4
15 1
21 1
22 1
23 2 1 1
24 1
25 1
28 2 1
30 1 1
31 4 1 1 3
33 1 1 6
34 1
35 1 1
37 1
38 2
39 1
40 1 1 2
42 6 10
43 4 3 1
45
4649 5 1 11 1
56 1
62 3 1 5
Total 43 (31) 14 (11) 4 (3) 70 (52) 5 (4)
Table 6. Petrovaradin fortress typological and technological indices according to F. Bordes
Sector I Sector II Both sectors
Layer 2a 2a/2b Average (2a+2a/2b) 2a Average (2a+2a/2b) Average (2a+2a/2b)
IL 4,09 3,63 3,98 2,77 2,57 3,21
IF (l) 20,45 20,00 20,33 23,61 24,34 22,59
IF (ess) 5,68 20,00 9,32 9,02 9,21 9,25
ILam* 4,67 5,45 4,86 5,55 5,14 5,02
ILty (l) 16,27 14,28 15,78 10,00 9,33 12,12
IR (l) 13,95 28,57 17,54 18,57 20,00 18,93
IC (l) 4,65 28,57 10,52 8,57 9,33 9,84
I (l) 16,27 14,28 15,78 10,0 9,33 12,12
II (l) 23,25 42,85 28,07 24,28 25,33 26,51
III (l) 18,60 28,57 21,05 20,00 18,66 19,69
IV (l) 23,25 0 17,54 18,57 18,66 18,18
IR (ess) 19,35 36,36 23,80 25,00 26,78 25,51
IC (ess) 6,45 36,36 14,28 11,53 12,50 13,26
II (ess) 32,25 54,54 38,09 32,69 33,92 35,71
III (ess) 25,80 36,36 28,57 26,92 25,00 26,53
IV (ess) 32,25 0 23,80 25,00 25,00 24,48
IV.1 Introduction Mesolithic studies in Romania
H
ow can we summarize the Mesolithic age? Was it the glorious fnale to hunter-gatherer
adaptations in Europe or the prelude to the social and economic systems of later prehistory?
Or, was it a play within itself, requiring reference neither to what went before, nor afer, for
its identity? Perhaps we should try to see it as all three: a period with many complex threads which we
are just beginning to unravel and understand. If we need a single image to characterize the Mesolithic we
cannot choose a particular environmental type, setlement system or socio-economic organization. Tese
all varied markedly across Mesolithic Europe and through time. Te only constant we have is at the level
of the individual forager making decisions about which tools to produce, which resources to exploit, and
which alliances to form. Such decisions were made on the basis of imperfect information about the options
available, under the infuence of the societys traditions, and with the creativity that is inherent to the human
mind. It was fom such decisions, fom the many intended and unintended consequences that the social and
economic structures of the Mesolithic emerged. It was these day-to-day, indeed minute-minute, decisions
made as Mesolithic foragers went about their daily business that created one of the most critical periods
of transformation in European prehistory. (S. Mithen)
500
In South-East Europe, the general perception of the role and importance of
the Mesolithic has always been acutely variable, function of its presence/absence
within diferent areas, or the archaeological traditions of the region.
Romanian archaeologists started to pay atention to the Mesolithic age at the
beginning of the XX century. In many cases it was quoted just as just a period of
transition, a bridge between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic the two bright stars
of Prehistory
501
, or as simply the surviving remains of the Palaeolithic.
502
It was very
rarely seen as a time of deep changes of the material and the spiritual, of transformations
and adaptations to new ways of life.
503
Te second half of the XX
th
century saw the atempt by C. S. Nicolescu-
Plopor
504
to eliminate the term Mesolithic altogether, as it was lacking substance,
and the Proto-Neolithic is naturally and directly linked to the Epipalaeolithic, with no
other intermediary period between them.
505
Te same authors stressed that there is a
direct transition fom the Upper Palaeolithic to the Early Neolithic, developing on a late
500
MITHEN, S. 1994: 133.
501
MOROAN, N. N. 1932: 12; BERCIU, D. 1939: 11.
502
BERCIU, D. 1939:11, NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. 1941.
503
BERCIU, D. 1941: 14.
504
Te irony is the same archaeologist was the frst one to introduce the term in Romanian archaeology
(NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. 1929, 1931).
505
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. 1954: 69; 1965.
106 | Adina Boronean
microlithic Magdalenian background, with tight connections in the East.
506
Te idea was pushed forward
again and again
507
and echoed until the 1980s.
508
Afer the death of C. S. Nicolescu-Plopor, a fraction of the Romanian archaeologists
reintroduced the Mesolithic in the early 1970s, but never explaining its meaning. Its characteristics
were rather blurred, diferences between the Mesolithic and the Epipalaeolithic were never substan-
tiated and sometimes the two were used as interchangeable terms.
509
With the discovery of the Iron Gates sites, terminology became even more complicated and
more controversies appeared. For reasons that will be explained further on, the present author has
chosen to use (for the Iron Gates area only) the term Mesolithic even when dealing with sites previ-
ously identifed as Epipalaeolithic.
IV.2 Mesolithic in the Banat area
Te Mesolithic of Banat is represented, with a couple of exceptions, by sites located in the Iron Gates
region of the Danube (Fig. 53). Te frst exception is Hou Cave, near Steierdorf (Cara Severin
county)
510
. Te second one is the Petera Hoilor Cave, at Bile Herculane
511
. Both are just 5060km
north from the Danube, but not within the Iron Gates proper. Whether this situation refects only
the present state of research, time will tell.
Until now, no direct link (other than chronological) can be made between Hou Cave and the
Iron Gates sites. Tus, the former will be presented separately.
IV.2.1 The Hou Cave
512
(Fig. 55/13)
Te cave, part of a karstic system dug in BarremianAptian limstones, is located in the Mini valley,
in the south-western part of Romania, not far away from the town of Anina (Cara Severin county).
Te local karst consists of a series of small and medium sized caves, once upon a time forming an
impressive subterranean system. Nowadays communication among caves is blocked.
Excavations started in 2004, in the hope the cave would ofer a cultural context for the human
remains found in Oase Cave (Petera cu Oase), dated ca 38.500 cal BP
513
. Research continued until
2008.
17 occupation layers were identifed:
Level. 1.1: black sediment, modern period;
Level. 1.2: brownish-black sediment, Medieval age;
Level. 2: brown sediments with medium and large clasts;
Levels 3.1 to 3.5: grey sediment, Bronze Age (Coofeni culture);
Level. 4.1: yellowish-brown sediment, rich in clastic material, Early Neolithic;
Level. 4.2: yellowish-brown sediment, Early Neolithic;
Level. 5.1: reddish clay, Final Mesolithic;
506
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S.1954: 70: 1965.
507
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. 1957: 56; NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. et alii 1959: 63; MOGOANU, FL.
1960: 128; PUNESCU, A. 1966.
508
BRUDIU, M. 1971:363; 1974:7; CRCIUMARU, M. & PUNESCU, A. 1975: 317; IST.MIL 1984: 8; CHIRICA,
V. & ENACHE, GH. 1984: 317.
509
PUNESCU, A. 1978: 280; 1979a: 239; 1979b: 507; DUMITRESCU, V. 1971: 88; BORONEAN, V. 1970a: 28.
510
BLTEAN, I. et alii 2011a, in press.
511
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. & PUNESCU, A. 1962; PUNESCU, A. 2000.
512
BLTEAN, I. et alii, in press; PETRESCU, S. M. et alii 2009: 202204.
513
The Mesolithic in Banat | 107
Level. 5.2: yellowish-reddish clay, Mesolithic;
Level. 6.1: yellowish-reddish clay with clastic material, Epipalaeolithic;
Level. 6.2: yellowish-redish matrix with clastic material, Epipalaeolithic;
Level. 7.1: grey fne sediment fn, with clastic material;
Level. 7.2 grey-yellowish sediment with pebbles, charcoal and burnt bones,
Level. 7.3 very fne white-yellowish sediment with charcoal and bones.
In Level 5.1 the excavation exposed a hearth (Fig. 55b) and a few lithic artefacts (among which a
backed microlithic point made of fint (Fig. 55c). Two samples from the hearth (Fagus and/or Pru-
nus, Quercus) yielded the dates of 7590100 BP (Sac2104) (66336244 cal BC OxCal 4.1) and
761060 BP (OxA15067), 65966378 cal BC.
Charcoal from the grey sediment underlying the Mesolithic (where two atypical fint piec-
es and some bone fragments afected by post-depositional processes appeared) gave the date of
13.71060 BP (OxA15992) (15 07514 718 cal BC).
Given the small number of Mesolithic fnds and features it is impossible at this point to make
any correlation other than chronological between the Mesolithic of this cave and the sites in the
Danube Gorge.
IV.2.2 The Iron Gates
IV.2.2.1 The environmental context of the Iron Gates sites
In geographical terms, the Iron Gates used to designate only a part of the Danube gorges, a short area
of approx. 3 km in length, between the villages of Vrciorova and Gura Vii. With the construction of
the frst hydro-electric power station at Gura Vii, the term of Iron Gates was extended to the whole
Danube valley between Bazia and Gura Vii. With the building of the second dam further down,
on the Ostrovul Mare island, the term of Iron Gates region extended further down, reaching the
village of Gogou, Mehedini county.
Morphologically speaking, the Iron Gates region is composed from three geographically
distinct elements: the Danube valley, the mountain ranges bordering it and the Turnu Severin
depression.
Te Danube Gorges area stretches for 144 km between the localities of Bazia and Gura Vii,
featuring a dramatic narrowness of the valley and a continuous change on the general east-west fowing
direction of the Danube.
514
It is formed of a series of smaller gorges, separated by depressionary ba-
sins (Fig. 54): the Gura NereiValea Rilii gorge, the Moldova Veche depression, the PescariAlibeg
gorge, the Liubcova basin, the BerzascaGreben gorge, a widening of the valley between Greben and
Plavievia, the Milanova basin, Cazanele Mari (the Big Cauldrons), the Dubova basin, Cazanele
Mici (the Litle Cauldrons), the OgradenaOrova basin, and fnally, the Iron Gates region proper.
Exiting the later, the Danube leaves the Carpathian area and enters the Turnu Severin depression.
515
Te changes in the river direction and the alternation of gorges and basins led to the
development of a variety of meso and micro-climates, thus of various types of habitat
516
with, as it shall
be seen below, a great impact on the evolution of the human communities in the area. Apart from
the Mesolithic sites, Early Neolithic sites will also be mentioned, as they bear importance on the
Mesolithic-Early Neolithic transition.
* * *
514
ROU, A. 1973: 278.
515
GHINEA, D. 1997: 353, GEOGRFIA 1969: 277278.
516
MISI, V. 1981: 6567.
When entering the PescariAlibeg gorge, the Danube meets the Moldova Veche island. For
almost 6 km, the valley narrows down to 420450 m in width, fowing through steep rocky walls
reaching heights of approx. 100120 m.
517
In this area, the river cuts through Jurassic and Cretaceous
deposits, and downstream Sichevia (Early Neolithic) also through some crystalline schists.
518
At the
point where the Alibeg river fows into the Danube, on a small dejection cone, the Pescari-Alibeg site
was located (Mesolithic and Early Neolithic). Not far away was the Early Neolithic site of Sf.Elena.
519
Between the confuences of the Danube with the Camenia, respectively the Berzasca river,
the Danube fows through the post-tectonic depression of Liubcova. Te main valleys in the area
(Valea Mare, Orevia, Camenia) exhibit erosion and accumulation basins, both along the valleys
themselves and at their confuence with the Danube, resulting in a large number of dejection cones
(Valea Mare, Orevia, Camenia and Liborajdea) associated with Early Neolithic sites (Gornea,
Liubcova-Ornia, Berzasca-sat).
Te second gorge follows between Berzasca/Drencova and Greben, with an average width
of the valley of 700750m. Te Danube cuts here through Jurassic limestones, Cretaceous shales
and limestones, Permian conglomerates and gritstones.
520
Te only wider area (approx. 850 m),
where a small meadow developed, was at Cozla (with two Early Neolithic sites: CozlaSirina,
CozlaPiatra Iliovei).
Along the 25 km long V-shaped sector of Greben-Plavievia, the Danube fows through
metamorphic, eruptive and sedimentary formations. During the frst 11 km, in the vinia depression
quite a few Mesolithic and Early Neolithic sites were discovered: Iliova, vinia-Izlaz, on the
right bank of the Danube corresponding on the lef bank to the sites of Padina (Mesolithic, Early
Neolithic), Donji Milanovac, Stubica (Early Neolithic), Lepenski Vir, Vlasac (Mesolithic, Early
Neolithic), Aria Babi (Early Neolithic). Te vinia valley is also considered to be one of the main
sources for prehistoric fint and silicious schists.
521
Te third gorge is made up of two parts, Cazanele Mari (the Big Cauldrons 3.8 km long) and
Cazanele Mici (the Litle Cauldrons 3.6 km long), separated by the tectonic basin of Dubova.
522
Te Big Cauldrons is Danubes narrowest gorge, with a width never exceeding 150170m and
a water depth of 2530m (before the rise in the water level). Te sediments are Jurassic limestones
and crystalline rocks, rising up to 300m above the water level. On the lef bank, the archaeological
sites were caves located in the Ciucaru Mare massif: Climente I and II Caves (Mesolithic, Early
Neolithic), Gura Ponicovei Cave (Early Neolithic), Veterani Cave (Mesolithic?, Early Neolithic),
Cuina Turcului rockshelter (Mesolithic, Early Neolithic) or open air sites: Veterani Teras
(Mesolithic, Early Neolithic) and Sacovitea Mare (Early Neolithic).
Te Litle Cauldrons stretches between the Ciucarul Mic and Mali Strbac, an area of steep
slopes with gravels at the base.
Only open air sites were identifed at the time of research: on the lef bank Rzvrata (on the
east side of the dejection cone of the Mraconia river Mesolithic), La Balon (Early Neolithic, at the
confuence of the Mraconia with the Danube) and Icoana (Mesolithic, Early Neolithic), with only
Hajduka Vodenica (Mesolithic, Early Neolithic) on the lef bank.
Separated from the above-mentioned gorge by the OgradenaOrova depression, follows the
Orova-Bahna depression (where the valley widens and the terraces are well contoured) and the
Iron Gates gorge (around the present day Iron Gates I powerplant), stretching from the mouth of the
Bahna river to Drobeta Turnu Severin.
517
GEOGRFIA 1969: 280.
518
GEOGRFIA 1969: 31.
519
LAZAROVICI, G. 1974.
520
GEOGRFIA 1969: 31.
521
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a: 19.
522
GEOGRFIA 1969: 289290.
Te Ada-Kaleh island, in the OgradenaOrova depression, with a possible Mesolithic
occupation, was covered by the waters of the artifcial lake. In this area, sites were located both on
islands (Ostrovul Banului Mesolithic, Early Neolithic) and the open air (Schela Cladovei Pichet
Mesolithic, Early Neolithic, Schela Cladovei Canton Mesolithic, Early Neolithic, Drobeta-Turnu
Severin Fabrica de Celuloz, Early Neolithic)
Other sites, both Mesolithic (Ostrovul Corbului, Ostrovul Mare km 873, Ostrovul Mare km
875), but mainly Early Neolithic (Fig. 53), were located downstream of Drobeta-Turnu Severin.
Tey are not presented in detail in the following pages, since they do not fall within the historical
boundaries of the Banat.
IV.2.2.2 The Iron Gates climate
With its series of micro-climates, the Iron Gates are rather special in the general context of the region,
particularity explained by the interaction of the local, physical and geographical factors (orientation
of the slopes, sandy/limestony soils, agricultural and wooded lands) with the dynamic and reactive
ones (waters, athmospherical circulation, sun radiation).
523
Te area also shows perceptible diferences from the temperate continental climate of
Romania and Serbia. Te average annual temperatures are 0.50.8 lower when compared to the
surrounding areas. Te average temperatures in July are also 23 C lower, and those in January,
0,11,2 higher. Tere is 20% more rain than the average annual percentage in Romania.
Four types of microclimates were established for the Iron Gates (with a number of local
variants), two of them activating in areas where archaeological sites were identifed and possibly
playing a major part in location choice of the respective prehistoric communities:
the microclimatic complex of the islands (bearing signifcance for the sites of Moldova
Veche, Ostrovul Banului, Ostrovul imian, Ostrovul Corbului, Ostrovul Mare), charac-
terized by average thermal indicators controlled by the caloric regime of the Danube;
the microclimatic complex of meadows and lower terraces, afecting the sites at Pescari-
Alibeg, Icoana, Rzvrata, Ieelnia, Schela Cladovei, Veterani Teras, Pojejena, uca,
Gornea, Liubcova, Cozla, vinia, Cuina Turcului;
the microclimatic complex of middle terraces (IIIV), with a colder climate compared to
that of the meadows, with less sunny days on the western and northern slopes, with daily
average temperatures 12 C lower compared to the meadows;
the microclimatic complex of the higher terraces (VVII), characterized by accentuated
dynamics of the air, more nebulosity, and a further reduction of sunny days.
During the Pleistocene, the topographical confguration of the land, the altitude, soil and subsoil
types, made the climatic oscillations less harsh in the Iron Gates area compared to the mainland.
At the end of the Younger Dryas (ca 10 0009000 BC) the climate throughout Europe was
warming up. Using pollen analysis, the study of varves and the ice cores, the reconstruction of the
European climate during the Holocene was possible, showing a succession of diferent climatic
periods: the Pre-Boreal, Boreal and the frst part of the Atlantic were associated with the Mesolithic,
while the Atlantic saw the development of the Neolithic.
During the Pre-Boreal (ca 83007500 BC) temperatures got substantially higher, summers
were comparable to the ones today but winters remained quite cold, as huge glaciers still existed.
Vegetation took the form, in most cases, of beech and pine forests, with local occurrences of oak,
elm, linden and hazel.
During the Boreal (ca 75006200 BC) the same climate amelioration persisted, with
summers warmer than today but extremely cold winters. Precipitations were low. Vegetation saw the
appearance of the deciduous forests.
523
ATLASUL 1973: 141.
Te Atlantic (ca 62003000 BC) was the warmest period, also called of climatic optimum,
with extremely mild winters. Te last ice sheets disappeared in Europe, followed by an extremely
humid period at the end of the period. Vegetation diversifed, with mixed forests taking over in the
largest part of the areas, while the pine confned itself to the higher regions.
Consequently, hunters no longer followed the herds over vast territory. Due to the new
environmental conditions, territorial game such as deer and wild pig colonized the new forests. In
the Iron Gates, there is evidence for hunting of deer, aurochs, brown bear, chamois, wild cat, brown
hare, wolf, wild pig, beaver.
524
Forests also contained many edible plants that could be easily gathered, such as nuts, tubers,
berries, fruits, leaves, herbs. Fish, shellfsh and snails completed the diet.
At the onset of the Atlantic, the period of 63006000 cal BC is associated with the most drastic
cooling period of the Holocene, also known as 8.2 ka cold event, determined it seems by the melting of
the Laurentide icesheet and the fowing of this vast amount of cold water into the North Atlantic.
525
Tis
cooling phase was detected in various Northern Hemisphere marine and terrestrial climatic records
526
.
During the 8.2 ka cold event Europe went through a climatic period characterized by a drop
of 23 C in the average temperatures, correlated to a change in the atmospheric circulation, and,
on a regional scale, to a change in the precipitation regime (Fig. 56a): the area between 4350 N
latitude (covering also the Iron Gates) saw a climate far weter than before and afer, while in the
southern areas the climate become drier.
527
It is this cooler and weter period that is associated with
the end of the foraging economy in the Iron Gates and the arrival of frst agriculturalists.
IV.3 Short history of the research
In November 1963, the Socialist Republic of Romania and the Socialist Federative Republic of
Yugoslavia signed an agreement regarding the construction of a frst hydro-electric power system
in the Gura Vii Sip km 943 area (Iron Gates I), to be followed by a second one, downstream, in
the area of the 865860 river km, called Iron Gates II. Te frst stage of the project (Iron GatesI)
developed between 19651971, while the second one (Iron Gates II) began in 1977 and was fnished
in general lines in 1985.

I. Te Iron Gates I
Te rise in the Danube level with as much as 34 m at the dam and 12 m at the end of the
artifcial lake, was going to food both banks, afecting not only the human communities but also
the archaeological sites. Under the circumstances, the Romanian Academy created the Iron Gates
Complex Research Group, aiming to study the afected area in all its cultural and environmental
aspects. Archaeological research was to take place along the whole lef bank of the river, an area
stretching for more than 125 km, from Moldova Veche to the village of imian.
During this frst stage a series of sites, designated then as Epi-Palaeolithic were identifed
and some, partially excavated:
Climente I Cave 1965, 19681969, Climente II Cave 1969, Veterani Cave 19641969,
Cuina Turcului Rockshelter 19661969, Schela Cladovei 1965, 19671968, Ostrovul Banului
1966, Rzvrata 1967, 1968, Icoana 19671969, Veterani Terasa 1969, Alibeg 1971. All of them,
apart from Schela Cladovei are nowadays submerged.
524
525
MAGNY, M. et alii 2003.
526
GRONENBORN, D. 2009.
527
BONSALL, C. 2007: 56.
In many cases, possible sites were spoted without the option of being excavated, mostly
because of the short interval lef. It is the case of the Mesolithic fnds on the alluvial plain at Vrciorova,
another two locations on the Ada-Kaleh island (sites that had already been afected by the Vauban
fortress built on the top of them), Iealnia (further upstream from the Roman fortress of Dierna),
Dubova (on the banks of the local rivulet springing from Tul lui Mila pond)
528
, Pzrite
529
,
Vodneac, Iliova, Islaz
530
, Tiovia (further up from the road ramifcation leading to the Eibenthal
mine), Cozla, Drencova, vinia km 1004, Plavievia (near the border police headquarters, at the
entrance in the Big Cauldrons)
531
, Varnia (PescariCoronini village), Moldova Veche, Pojejena
532
.
On the right bank of the Danube
533
, archaeological excavations took place at Lepenski Vir
(19651970), Hajduka Vodenica (19661967, 1969) Padina (19681969 and two campaigns in
1970). Te last site to be excavated on the right bank during this stage was Vlasac (1970 1971).
534

II. Te Iron Gates II (19771984)
Te second stage of the project, with a maximum rise in the Danube waters of 12m at the Iron
Gates II dam included rescue excavations at Schela Cladovei, Ostrovul Mare (km 873, km 875 and
Schela), Ostrovul Corbului (Botul Cliuci) on the lef bank, and Ajmana, Velesnica, and Kula on the
right bank of the Danube.
As in the case of the Iron Gates I, certain sites were spoted with no time for further investiga-
tions, such as the Mesolithic ones on imian island (on the northern bank of the island, upstream
from the former pier, with a second location on the same bank but towards the middle area of the
island), imian village (La Isvoare south of the local springs, and a second possible location between
the villages of imian and Hinova), Batoi (north of the village), Izvorul Frumos and Vrancea
535
.
Afer the above mentioned sites were fooded, Schela Cladovei was the only place where
archaeological excavations continued until 1997 (19921996 within a joint RomanianBritish
project), and with the exception of a small trench excavated in 20012002, research was not resumed
until 2007, again within a RomanianBritish joint project.
IV.4 Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic in the Iron Gates
First feld surveys on the lef bank
536
started in 1961, followed by excavations, from 1964
537
and
ending in 1971 when the banks were completely fooded. Given the purpose of the research (salvage
as much from the food threatened sites), only the areas in the nearby vicinity of the river were
surveyed, thus explaining the apparent lack of Mesolithic sites on the higher terraces and also along
the valleys of the small tributary rivers.
528
V. Boronean, personal communication.
529
COMORI 1978: 29.
530
531
532
533
Tere was a diference in the method of the research between the lef and the right banks of the Danube. While the
Romanian archaeologists tried to cover as large an area and identify as many sites as possible, on the right bank the
accent fell on the intensive and systematic study of the already located ones (RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a: 4).
534
535
536
Previous archaeological research took place on the lef bank at the beginning of the 1920-ies. Al. Brccil collected
prehistoric items from the areas of Schela Cladovei, Gura Vii, Ostrovul Banului and Ostrovul Corbului, items
considered at the time to be Neolithic (BRCCIL, A. 1924: 280296). Many of them were later reinterpreted as
part of the Schela Cladovei culture (BORONEAN, V. 1973a: 11).
537
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. et alii 1968: 8.
From early 1961, following soundings in Climente II Cave and Cuina Turcului rockshelter,
human habitations dated to the end of Pleistocene were identifed. Two separate stages seen
as cultural layers within the sites were postulated and assigned to the Epipalaeolithic. With the
progress of the research, this local Epipalaeolithic facies was described as Clisurean
538
(afer the local
name given to the Iron Gates Gorge, Clisura in Romanian), Romanellian
539
, Romanello-Azillian
540
,
Epigravetian and eventually Tardigravetian of Mediteraneean origin
541
.
On the lef bank, a second cultural aspect was uncovered by V. Boronean and Miu
Davidescu, frst at Schela Cladovei and later on in many of the upstream sites. Its features were
defned as very diferent from those of the earlier Epipalaeolithic (the new facies had a poorer
typology of the lithic industry based mainly on quartz and quartzite, but a very rich bone and
antler industry, distinctive hearths and houses, and, at Schela Cladovei, a signifcant number of
human burials). Tis new aspects was named by V. Boronean as the Schela Cladovei culture, and was
seen as a natural continuation of the Clisurean, with possible infuences of the quarzitic Palaeolithic.
542

Fl. Mogoanu, on the other hand, the main excavator of the Upper Palaeolithic sites in Banat, saw
Schela Cladovei culture as the direct descendant of Palaeolithic traditions from Hoilor Cave (Bile
Herculane) and the Banat mountains.
543
During the following years, various researchers assigned the discoveries in the Iron Gates sites
to the Protoneolithic
544
, Epipalaeolithic
545
, Epipalaeolithic in its earlier phase and Protoneolithic in the
fnal one
546
, Epipalaeolithic for the earlier sites (Cuina Turcului, Climente II) and Mesolithic for the
later ones
547
, Mesolithic and Early Neolithic
548
, Epipalaeolithic/Mesolithic
549
.
Given the scarcity of absolute
14
C dates (at least for the lef bank) the chronological
distinction between the Epipalaeolithic and the Mesolithic was at times studied merely based on
diferences in the lithic typology and use of raw materials, suggesting perhaps the existence of an
early Epipalaeolithic layer (not noticed at the time of the excavations) on most of the sites on the lef
bank (Icoana, Rzvrata, Veterani Teras, Schela Cladovei)
550
.
Initially, discoveries on the two banks of the river were seen as uncorrelated, and Schela
Cladovei and Lepenski Vir were defned as cultural groups with parallel evolutions
551
, with some of
the Romanian archaeologists considering the site of Lepenski Vir as an isolated phenomenon within
the archaeology of the Iron Gates
552
.
Te very frst to formulate the hypothesis of a common ground between the two banks were
the Serbian archaeologists. Te suggestion was received with some reluctance by their Romanian
counterparts, reluctance explained both by the lack of monumental architecture and carved boulders
on the lef banks sites, and also by the chronological diferences suggested at the time by the very few
14
C dates.
Tus, local chronologies were put forward for each of the individual sites, based mostly on the
stratigraphic sequences observed by the respective authors. Correlations and cultural parallels were
538
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. 1965, BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
539
MOGOANU, F. 1968.
540
PUNESCU, A. 1970b.
541
PUNESCU, A. 2000.
542
BORONEAN, V. 1973a, 1973b.
543
MOGOANU, F. 1973; 1978.
544
SREJOVI, D. 1968.
545
BORONEAN, V. 1969, 1970; LETICA, Z. 1971; PUNESCU, A. 1970b; 1978.
546
SREJOVI, D. 1971; 1979.
547
MOGOANU, FL. 1978a; PRINZ, B. 1987; PUNESCU, A. 1984; SREJOVI, D. 1988; 1989.
548
JOVANOVI, B. 1972; 1973; 1974.
549
BORONEAN, V. 2000.
550
PUNESCU, A. 1989; 1996; 2000.
551
BORONEAN, V. 1972, 1973a; SREJOVI, D. 1970.
552
PUNESCU, A. 1980; 1984; 1996; 2000.
sought among the various sites based on architectural features, lithic typologies, bone and antler
industries. But as was observed elsewhere
553
, very few of these proposed chronologies (Fig. 57)
were at the time backed by reliable series of
14
C dates. Many more
14
C dates (see Table 7) have
been published since, showing (at least for the sites of Lepenski Vir, Vlasac and Schela Cladovei),
major chronological inconsistencies between the initial subdivisions in phases, on one hand, and the
results of the
14
C dating, on the other hand
554
.
With the availability of new
14
C dates, a provisional chronology of the sites was suggested, and
is illustrated in the table below
555
:
Period (cal BC) Age Representative sites with calibrated
14
C)
13 0007200 Early Mesolithic
(the former Clisurean/Azillian,
Tardigravetian)
Cuina Turcului, Lepenski Vir, Padina, Vlasac
72006300 Late Mesolithic
(Schela CladoveiLepenski Vir culture)
Hajduka Vodenica, Icoana, Ostrovul Corbului,
Ostrovul Banului, Schela Cladovei, Vlasac
63006000 Final Mesolithic
(Schela CladoveiLepenski Vir culture )
Lepenski Vir, Alibeg?
60005500 Early Neolithic Cuina Turcului, Lepenski Vir, Padina, Schela
Cladovei, Vlasac
IV.4.1 The Early Mesolithic (13 2007 200 cal BC)
Based mainly on the typological analysis of the respective lithic industries, on the lef bank, fve
sites were traditionally associated with this period: Climente II Cave, Cuina Turcului rockshelter,
Veterani Cave, Ostrovul Banului (in the Iron Gates) and Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave, some 60 km
up north, on the Cerna river valley (a major tributary of the Danube).
Radiocarbon dates (see Table 7) also suggest an Early Mesolithic occupation for the sites at
Vlasac, Lepenski Vir and Padina, although the duration and character of these occupations remain
rather obscure
556
. Location wise, apart from Ostrovul Banului, all Iron Gates sites seem to cluster in
the upper area of the Gorges.
Te scarcity of sites during the Late Glacial could be explained by the climatic instability
during the respective period: Te factionation of nitrogen and argon isotopes at the end of the
Younger Dryas cold interval, recorded in Greenland ice, demonstrates that warming at this time was
abrupt. Tis warming coincides with the onset of a prominent rise in atmospheric methane concen-
tration, indicating that the climate change was synchronous (within a few decades) over a region of
at least hemispheric extent
557
. Tis indicates that the Danube level fuctuated a lot from season
to season, caused by the melting of snows and glaciers, presumably forcing the communities of
hunter-gatherers to occupy the higher terraces, an area that had not been surveyed during the
19601970. It is not impossible that the banks of the river were inhabited during the nice seasons,
but the fooding and erosion during Younger Dryas and later have distroyed any trace of evidence
from the very beginning.
558

553
BONSALL, C. 2008.
554
BONSALL, C. et alii 1997; 2000; 2002; BONSALL, C. 2008; BORONEAN, V. et alii 1999.
555
Only sites with
14
C dates are listed in the table. Adapted afer BONSALL, C. 2008.
556
BONSALL, C. 2008.
557
SEVERINGHAUS, J. P. et alii 1998: 141.
558
BONSALL, C. 2008.
IV.4.1.1 Cuina Turcului Rockshelter (Fig. 58)
Te site was located half a kilometre upstream from the entrance of the Danube in the Big Cauldrons.
Formed in the Ciucaru Mare Mountain, the site was, like Climente II Cave, at a relative altitude of
12m, and an absolute one of 60 m. Reasonable in size, it was 40m long, 10m wide and 25m high.
Prior to its research (19641969) the site had already been afected by road building late in the
XVIIIth century a road that cut through the terrace in front of the shelter and probably elimi-
nated a large part of the archaeological deposits. Te research in the 1960s focused on the impressive
Early Mesolithic remains, and thus, the Early Neolithic, although equally spectacular, did not receive
proper atention.
559
Te internal chronology of the cave, based on the observed stratigraphy, was established in
1965 and refned later on
560
:
1. Light greyish soil, poor in archaeological remains (La Tne, Late Roman, Early and Late
Medieval);
2. Dark greyish soil, Early Hallstat remains;
3. Fine yellow-greyish soil, Coofeni remains;
4. Fine yellow-greyish soil, Starevo-Cri layer III;
5. Fine yellow-greyish soil, Starevo-Cri layer II;
6. Dark greyish sediment with limestone boulders, Starevo-Cri layer I;
7. Brown-reddish sediment with large limestone boulders, archaeologically sterile;
8. Brown-reddish sediment with pebbles Early Mesolithic (Tardigravetian IIb);
9. Yellow sediment, sterile;
10. Brown-reddish sediment with pebbles Early Mesolithic (Tardigravetian IIa);
11. Reddish-yellowish sediment with large boulders of limestone, archaeologically sterile
12. Dark yellow-greyish sediment (sometime overlapping the rock) Early Mesolithic
(Tardigravetian I);
13. Layer of compact yellow-brown clay, archaeologically sterile, laying in most cases directly
on the bedrock.
Two Early Mesolithic layers (the most recent one with two horizons) were identifed based
on the geological stratigraphy, the lithic typology and the presence of medium sized boulders
with traces of ochre. Tere are two
14
C dates for the earlier layer: 12 600 120 BP (Bln803) and
12050120 BP (Bln804) the time of the Late Glacial Interstadial and they match Al. Bolomeys
faunal determinations
561
. For the second layer there is only one
14
C date, 10 250200 BP (Bln802),
seting it at the end of the Glacial or beginning of the Holocene. Te avifauna and the pollen
spectrum suggest temperate conditions such as those at the beginning of the Holocene, while
the faunal remains indicate a forested temperate habitat. It is thus possible that part of the human
activity on the site took place at the beginning of the Holocene, when the Iron Gates was a mosaic
of small habitates.
562
It is equally possible that human occupation stretched in fact over a longer
time interval (not meaning continuous occupation) until the Late Mesolithic (Schela Cladovei
culture). Tis later hypothesis had been suggested earlier on, based on the diferentiation between
the decorative styles of the bone implements from layers I (parallel zig-zag lines) and II (network
and latice paterns) that occurred also at Schela Cladovei and Lepenski Vir
563
. Te only way of
setling this mater is dating the artefacts directly.
559
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
560
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, C. S. 1965; PUNESCU, A. 1970b; 1978; 2000.
561
BOLOMEY, A. 1970; 1973.
562
PUNESCU, A. 1970b; BONSALL, C. 2008.
563
SREJOVI, D. 1969.
Te Mesolithic remains from the rockshelter consisted of hearths, human and faunal remains,
lithics (fint, jasper, quartzite and obsidian), bone and antler tools (some decorated), small fragments
of ochre and graphite
564
.
As in all Palaeolithic/Epipalaeolithic research, the lithic industry (Fig. 66) was given the
greatest care, with the development of a very detailed and rather thick typology, later on used for
drawing parallels and establishing chronological correlations with other sites in the Gorges
565
. Te
predominant types were the endscrapers, followed by retouched blades, backed bladelets, and
La Gravete points. Geometric implements and burins were rather rare. A total of 72 614 lithics
were reported from both layers, with some 3700 of them being tools or weapons. Over 96.80% of
the assemblage was made of fint, with obsidian holding 3%. Among the stone artefacts, plaques of
siltstone with traces of ochre were mentioned.
A carved boulder (Fig. 68, 2a2b), similar to those of Padina and Lepenski Vir, singled out
Cuina Turcului among the sites on the Romanian bank. Unfortunately, this rather special fnd seems
to have occurred in a post-Neolithic pit. A second boulder, with a circular depression on one of the
faces is also mentioned found in the same archaeological context. It is dif cult to argue for an Early
Mesolithic context for the beautifully carved boulder its occurrence at Cuina Turcului should
be rather seen connected to a possible Final Mesolithic/Early Neolithic occupation of the shelter,
hypothesis suggested also by the presence of the second type of boulder, a lot more common in the
Late/Final Mesolithic on the lef bank
Based on the typological lithic analysis, Cuina Turcului I was paralelled to Climente II
and Bile Herculane
566
while Cuina Turcului II showed analogies to Padina A1A2 and Ostrovul
BanuluiI and Bile Herculane
567
.
Bone and antler tools appeared in much larger numbers than in other Early Mesolithic sites.
Among them awls, projectile points, chisels, a small harpoon fragment, presumably of the same type
as the one from Climente II. Tere was no typological distinction among the two layers. 15 pierced
teeth (deer, wolf, wild boar, ruminants) used as pendants were recovered. Two pierced fsh vertebras
are also mentioned although they look conspicuously similar to those in the Early Neolithic layers.
A rectangular pendant, made of bone, showing traces of ochre, has good parallels at Lepenski Vir.
Pierced snails and Mediterannean shells occurred in both layers, some possibly originating from the
fossilized deposits in the area.
It is the number of decorated bone fragments (19) and the complexity of the paterns on the
decorated wild horse phalanx that also plead for Cuina Turcului as an Early Mesolithic site (Fig.71).
Decorations seem to have been a characteristic reserved for the bone, as only two antler fragments
bear traces of decoration. Most of them are small incised irregular lines, isolated or in groups,
hachures framed in between two parallel lines, wavy lines, meanders. Medium sized (1520cm in
length) river boulders with a shallower or deeper depression were observed, a rather frequent occur-
rence in all the sites in the area. Tey were interpreted by Al. Punescu as a strong argument for an
earlier occupation on certain sites, and played a part on his determination of an Early Mesolithic
horizon at Icoana, Rzvrata and Schela Cladovei
568
.
Tere were 5 hearths atributed to the frst Mesolithic layer, mostly oval in shape, and
variable in size. Te 6 hearths of the second layer were in a poorer state of preservation. All hearths
lack detailed descriptions but for some of them the presence of ashes and fragments of charcoal
was mentioned
569
.
564
PUNESCU, A. 2000.
565
PUNESCU, A. 1970b; 1978; 2000.
566
BORONEAN, V. 2000a; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a.
567
BORONEAN, V. 2000a; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a.
568
PUNESCU, A. 2000; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
569
PUNESCU, A. 1970b; 2000.
Among the faunal remains, in both strata were mentioned chamois, ibex, wild pig, bison,
elk, roe deer, wild horse, wolf, fox, wild cat, brown bear, beaver, together with bird bones (grouse,
jackdaw) and fsh. Te large number of fsh bones recovered from the cave (bream, carp, pike, and
Stizostedion lucioperca) suggest strong fsh consumption by the inhabitants of the cave.
570
Te human remains from Cuina Turcului were never acknowledged as formal burials by the
excavator. Te frst Mesolithic layer contained two molars of an adult male, while in the second layer
the remains of four individuals were found three adults (among which a female? and a male? were
identifed) and a foetus
571
. Still, from the anthropological report
572
, at least in three cases (male, female,
foetus) the bone fragments found represented bone fragments from the entire skeleton, suggesting,
the presence of the complete skeleton originally. And with the rather frequent of occupation of the
cave (11 hearths) and no animal teeth marks on the bones, theres a strong probability that those
individuals were intentionally buried inside the rockshelter.
IV.4.1.2 Climente II Cave (Fig. 59)
Nowadays covered by the Danube, the cave was located in the Big Cauldrons area, at the feet of the
Ciucarul Mare Mountain, approximately half a kilometre downstream from the entrance of the river
into the straits. It was situated at a relative altitude of 12m and an absolute one of 60 m. Relatively
small in size (47 m
2
), it ofered a sheltered environment, warm but rather humid. Daylight only
penetrated to the front of the cave.
Explored in 1964 by C. S. Nicolescu-Plopor and V. Boronean, archaeological excavations
took place in 1968 and 1969, while previous speleological and faunal research was undertaken by
Alexandrina and tefan Negrea in 1956 and 1957.
573
A general stratigraphy of the cave was established based on the information gathered from all
8 excavated trenches. Te thickness of the deposits rarely surpassed 1 m
574
.
1. Post-Palaeolithic depositions (Coofeni, Hallstat, IIIIV centuries AD, Early and Late
Medieval)
2. Layer rich in clastic material (sometimes overlapping the rock directly) contained the
Mesolithic remains; this layer was strongly disturbed by pits dug by the treasure hunters
3. Layer of gravel mixed with sand and faunal remains
4. Layer of sand overlapping the rocky foor of the cave, archaeologically sterile
Te Early Mesolithic fnds were scatered within a layer 6070cm thick that was noticed only
in certain areas of the cave (trenches SI, SII, SIII, SVI, SVII)
575
. Tey comprised a relatively large
number of lithics, a few bone and antler tools (awls, needles, spatulas, projectile points, fragment of
a harpoon, perforated pendants), small fragments of ochre and hematite, worked river boulders
some with traces of red ochre, faunal remains (beaver, fox, brown bear, wild boar, red deer, hedgehog,
birds, fsh) and two decorated bone fragments
576
(Fig. 71).
No results were obtained from pollen analysis.
Te assignation to the Early Mesolithic was made based on the typological study of the lithics.
Although the two available studies ofer diferent percentages for similar typological categories,
both archaeologists
577
agree on the main features of the lithic assemblages: high percentages for the
570
BOLOMEY, A. 1970; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
571
PUNESCU, A. 1970b; 2000.
572
NICOLESCU-PLOPOR, D. 1970.
573
NEGREA, A. & NEGREA, T. 1979.
574
BORONEAN, V. 1978.
575
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
576
BORONEAN, V. 1978; 2000a.
577
BORONEAN, V. 2000a; PUNESCU, A. 2000.
endscrapers, followed by backed bladelets, sidescrapers, points. Over 90% of the tools are micro-
lithic. Te predominant raw material is fint of various textures and colours (brown, yellowish, grey,
greenish) of local origin the area of the Cauldrons and vinia
578
. Radiolarite and quartzite occurred
in much smaller percentages, with a very rare presence of rock crystal.
Based on typological analogies, the industry was paralleled to those of Cuina Turcului I and
Tincova
579
, Bile Herculane, Veterani Cave
580
.
Early Mesolithic human occupation of the cave was also documented through the presence
of a hearth, of approximately circular shape. It had been built around a natural depression in the cave
foor and bordered with stones. Size: 90cm in diametre and a depth of 10 cm.
Two human burials were also uncovered, an adult (Fig. 59b) and perhaps a child (in a very poor
state of preservation)
581
. Te adult skeleton was lying in a natural depression of the cave foor (1.60
0.80m, 0.50m deep), lying on its lef side on a bed of red ochre, with the hands brought up towards
the head. Legs were fexed. Traces of red ochre were also noted on the bones. Te skull, the cervical
vertebras, the clavicles and scapulas had been carried away by a small torrent of water springing from
the cave wall. Te mandible was found nearby, together with a number of scatered teeth. Within the
perimeter of the grave a fragment of an endscraper, two crescent shaped implements and a point
were found, but it is dif cult to say whether they were grave goods or part of the pit infll.
Te child skeleton was found a few metres away. It was oriented EW, probably lying on the
back but the very poor state of bone preservation did not allow for for its prelevation
582
. Scatered
human remains were also recovered from the very back of the cave
583
.
Although the frst skeleton has been sampled for
14
C dating, the results are not yet available.
IV.4.1.3 Veterani Cave (Fig. 60)
Te cave is located in the Ciucarul Mare Mountain, at the foot of the slope called Pnza Curii, 800m
east of Climente II Cave, at an absolute altitude of 7375 m
584
.
Veterani Cave has been used during historical times for various purposes (even functioned as
an Austrian garrison for a while), thus explaining the disturbed stratigraphy of the site. Archaeological
excavations took place from 1964 to 1969 both inside the cave and in front of it. Poor illumination led
to the abandonment of excavations in the central hall despite several atempts in the diferent years.
Some trenches going down to 4.20m in depth were excavated to the lef of the entrance and at the
very back of the cave, revealing a very disturbed stratigraphy, with very mixed cultural fnds. Eforts
concentrated in the trenches from the entrance gallery revealed the following cultural sequence
585

(with the caveat that excavations never reached the cave bedrock:
Finds from the XIX, XVIIXVIII, XIIIXVI centuries
Roman times (IIIV centuries)
Iron Age
Transition to Bronze Age (Coofeni Kostolac Vuedol cultures)
Starevo-Cri Early Neolithic
Te above-mentioned cultural sequence shows that a Mesolithic layer or Mesolithic features
were never identifed inside the cave. Still, some lithic implements (2023 pieces) from excavations
taking place both in front of, and inside the cave were typologically identifed as Early Mesolithic
578
579
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
580
581
BORONEAN, V. 1970a; 1978; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
582
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
583
BORONEAN, V. 1970a, 2000.
584
BORONEAN, V. 1970a, 2000.
585
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
(Clisurean) and consequently published as such: circular endscrapers on blades, segments, retouched
fakes
586
. From the same collection, Al. Punescu, selected some 146(?) lithic pieces (mostly micro-
lithic) and atributed them to the Mesolithic. It should mentioned that in both cases the artefacts
came from various contexts, containing also potery and other habitation remains
587
, thus making
their atribution to the Early Mesolithic questionable.
IV.4.1.4 Bile HerculaneHoilor Cave (Cara Severin county)
Te Hoilor Cave is located 0.5 km north of Bile Herculane, on the right bank of the Cerna river, at
a relative altitude of 50 m and an absolute one of 257 m. Te cave was studied starting with the late
XIX century, with archaeological excavations in 1904, 1916, 1929, 19541955, 19601961, 1965,
19681970, 1972.
588
Te stratigraphy of the cave will not be discussed here as it has been presented in the chapter
dealing with the Palaeolithic research.
Te Mesolithic layer here was compared to Cuina Turcului III, based on the typology of
lithic industry. Tere is a
14
C date
589
: Gr16978, reading 11 49075BP (11 55911 215 Cal BC).
Te main raw materials for the lithics were the local rocks: fint (90%), radiolarite (9%), shales
(1%). Te lithic industry was microlithic (96%), with endscrapers, burins, geometric segments,
backed bladelets and Azillian points. No bone or antler tools were recovered.
Faunal remains belonged to mammals (bear, deer, badger), micro-mammals and a smaller
quantity of bird and fsh bones.
Te three archaeological features (complexes usually meaning habitation areas) observed
were described as oval patches of darker soil with traces of burning and ashes. A large number of
lithics was collected from the surface of two of the features. Around them were noted many bone
fragments, some calcined.
Tere are two hearths mentioned in the feld reports also surrounded by faunal remains.
Tere are no details about the possible links between the complexes and the hearths.
IV.4.1.5 Ostrovul Banului (Fig. 61)
Ostrovul Banului island is located approx. 1 km downstream from the present-day Iron Gates I
dam. During the construction of the power station, research on the island was triggered more by
the local exploitation of sand and gravels used for building the dam, than the threat of fooding. Te
Mesolithic site, located at the downstream end of the island, on the beach facing the mainland, was
submerged, while the other sites on the island (Early Neolithic, Hallstat, Byzantine, Medieval) were
covered by tons of gravel.
Excavations started in 1965 at the Byzantine fortress, bringing to light Hallstat and Early
Neolithic remains (sectors A, B, C) with research on the Mesolithic site (sector D) commencing
in 1966
590
.
In fact, very litle is known on the excavations in sector D, other than brief summaries given by
the author of the research
591
. Te site appears to have stretched along the shore. Te 8 trenches (four
586
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
587
PUNESCU, A. 2002.
588
PUNESCU, A. 2002: 136137.
589
PUNESCU, A. 2002: 146.
590
ROMAN, P. & BORONEAN, V. 1974.
591
BORONEAN, V. 1970b; 1973; 2000.
along the river bank on the northern side of the island and four towards the centre of the island)
pointed to the following general stratigraphy:
1. Layer of brown soil containing Medieval remains (variable thickness of 00.85m);
2. Layer of brown-yellow soil containing the Hallstat remains (variable thickness of
0.901.4m);
3. Layer of light brown soil, containing remains of the Early Neolithic, variable thickness of
1560cm;
4. Layer of alluvial sand containing horizon III, further subdivided in two sub-horizons: IIIa
(lower, greyish yellow, dark brown, variable thickness 2090cm) and IIIb (upper, reddish
brown, variable thickness of 2090cm);
5. Alluvial sand (containing Mesolithic horizons I and II). In places the two horizons were
separated by dark yellow clay;
6. Layer of dark yellow sandy clay, archaeologically sterile;
7. Layer of gravel.
Initially, V. Boronean atributed the frst two horizons (I and II) to the Early Mesolithic
(Clisurean) while the third horizon (further divided into IIIa and IIIb) was atributed to the Late
Mesolithic (the Schela Cladovei culture)
592
. In his most recent work (2000) he assigned sub-horizon
IIIa to the Early Mesolithic also, leaving only IIIb as part of the Late Mesolithic, but without further
explanations. Tere are no
14
C dates to support the Early Mesolithic dating of these horizons.
Reported archaeological remains from the Early Mesolithic layers comprised a large number
of lithics (their typology dictated the Early Mesolithic assignation Fig. 66), very few bone tools
and very litle fauna. It is dif cult to tell whether this is an accurate refection of the degree of
occupation, as only a very small part (85 m
2
) of the site was excavated, partly because of the lack of
time, partly because the largest part of it had already been covered/destroyed by waters at the time
of the discovery.
Te study of lithic industry
593
(mainly on local fint from Svineac and Vrtop hills in vinia
area, with rare occurrences of quarztite, radiolarite and obsidian) show diferent typologies in
the two diferent studies, triggered by the diferent methods of separating the lithics among the
diferent cultural layers. While the author of the excavation (V. Boronean) analyzed lithics based
on a contextual and stratigraphic criterion, Al. Punescu, analyzed the lithic collection following
particular tool types and raw materials. Still, both typologies saw endscrapers as diagnostic tools,
followed by backed bladelets and splintered pieces.
Tus, it was said that the lithic typology links Ostrovul Banului I to Cuina Turcului I and
Padina A1A2
594
, while the second horizon shows similarities to Veterani Terrace
595
.
Apart from their rather rare occurrence, bone implements in Early Mesolithic layers do not
bear any diferences to those found in the Late Mesolithic contexts: bone points and awls, spatulas.
Tere seem to be no antler in horizons I or II and only one boar tusk piece
596
.
Decorated objects are few: a bone object ornamented with three small horizontal hollows
and a bone spatula (anthropomorphic?). Te presence of medium sized river boulders with traces
of ochre was also noted in both horizons.
New analyzes of the faunal remains indicate as the main hunted wild species, deer, red deer,
wild boar, badger, Bos primigenius and Equus hydruntinus. Dog was also noted
597
.
592
BORONEAN, V. 1970b; 1973a.
593
PUNESCU, A. 2000; BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
594
595
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
596
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
597
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
Published information on habitation structures mentions a hut with a large boulder on its
center and traces of burning and charcoal in the south-east corner. Te large boulder was surrounded
by quartz/quartzite and fint blades, fakes and chips, perhaps the remains of a knapping workshop.
Among the lithics there were four endscrapers (one of obsidian) and two fint points. Other remains
included snail shell beads (pierced), a pierced mussel shell, animal teeth (badger, Canis) and many
bone fakes
598
.
Further study of the feld notes and the excavation plans showed that other archaeological
complexes were also identifed, but lacking chronological landmarks, and also exhibiting features
ressembling closer those of the Late Mesolithic, will be presented later on.
IV.4.1.6 The Early Mesolithic a summary
Te sites were located in the near vicinity of the Danube bank (or the Cerna river in the case of Bile
Herculane), in caves and rockshelters. Lithic typology appears homogenous (endscrapers, backed
bladelets, splintered fakes) with a predominance of local fint as the main raw material. Medium
sized rock boulders, with small circular depressions and at times painted with red ochre were
documented in most of the sites and were seen as a link to the Epipalaeolithic groups to the south,
in the Italian peninsula. Tey were also used at times as diagnostic fnds when claiming proof for
earlier occupations of certain sites. Te bone industry is mainly represented by awls and projectile
points, with very few occurrences of tusk and antler. Decorated pieces exhibited the fshnet patern
(crosshatching), parallel incisions and meanders.
Te human population of the Early Mesolithic is well documented through burials and good
14
C for sites on the right bank of the Danube (Padina, Vlasac, Lepenski Vir). Formal disposal areas
occur within the setlements. Position in the grave varies: extended on the back with arms and legs
stretched, on one side with legs slightly fexed, lying on the back with fexed legs splayed on both
sides and soles touching, or siting in the Turkish position. Initially, based on stratigraphic observa-
tions, some of these burials had been atributed to the Lepenski Vir Schela Cladovei culture (Late
and? Final Mesolithic) but the
14
C dates showed diferently.
As far as the lef bank is concerned, burials were found at Climente II Cave and probably
Cuina Turcului. Stratigraphic and contextual information was the decisive factor for their cultural
determination but no
14
C dates are yet available for the human remains.
It is even more dif cult to talk in general terms about the architecture, as most such features
are very poorly dated and documented if at all, on both banks of the Danube. In most cases we still
rely heavily on the initial local stratigraphies and suggested house/hearth-shape typologies. Apart
from being largely subjective, these make incorporating new data from unpublished documen-
tation rather dif cult and raise questions over faunal and archeobotanical determinations, at times
originating from unclear chronological contexts. Still, stable isotope studies for the sites of Vlasac,
Lepenski Vir and Padina, suggest that at the beginning of the Holocene, local communities relied
heavily on the resources of the river, but signifcantly less than those of the Late Mesolithic, afer
7200 cal BC. Diet analyses show that fsh was eaten throughout the year, despite the fact that fshing
might have taken place on a seasonal basis. Tis also pointed to the existence of some means of
preserving the fsh for later consumption, indicating a certain degree of sedentarization of the Early
Mesolithic communities.
599
598
BORONEAN, V. 2000a, BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
599
BONSALL, C. 2008.
IV.4.2 The Late Mesolithic (72006300 cal BC)
(the Schela CladoveiLepenski Vir culture)
Based on newer or older (recalibrated)
14
C dates there are nine sites where human activities are
documented during the Late Mesolithic: Hajduka Vodenica, Lepenski Vir, Rzvrata, Icoana,
Padina, Vlasac, Schela Cladovei, Ostrovul Banului, Ostrovul Corbului. Other two Veterani Teras
(Veterani Terrace) and Ostrovul Mare, are likely candidates, when considering various architectural
features similar to above listed ones.
IV.4.2.1 Veterani Teras (Veterani Terrace) (Fig. 60b)
Te site was discovered by V. Boronean in 1968, and excavated the following year. Located on the
dejection cone of a former rivulet at the foot of Ciucarul Mare mountain, Veterani Terrace site had
already been afected by various factors, such as river erosion, construction of medieval fortifcations
(XVIIXVIII centuries) and road building (end of XVIII century)
Four trenches were cut, with the following general stratigraphy
600
:
1. Fallen rock boulders;
2. Discontinuous patches of soil, various structures and colours, in areas among the fallen rocks;
3. Dark soil with Roman and Medieval remains;
4. Yellowish-grey soil with Late NeolithicBronze Age remains (Slcua Coofeni IV);
5. Yellowish soil, archaeologically sterile;
6. Yellow sand, poor in Mesolithic remains (Schela Cladovei culture);
7. Late Mesolithic (Schela Cladovei culture) in two horizons: the lower one in a light brown
soil, the upper one in a dark brown one;
8. River bed covered by alluvial sand or a mixture of alluvial sand and gravel.
When studying the lithic material from Veterani Terrace, Al. Punescu atributed the
two horizons in the brown soil to the Tardigravetian
601
, while the layer poorer in artefacts was
atributed to the Schela Cladovei culture. V. Boronean saw in Veterani Teras chronological parallels
to Ostrovul Banului IIIa while others
602
classifed it as Early Mesolithic, with parallels at Vlasac I,
Ostrovul Banului IIIa, Rzvrata I, Icoana I, Schela Cladovei I and Veterani Cave.
Te lithic industry at Veterani Teras was diagnosed as earlier than those of other sites in the
area, based on a higher percentage of fint in the assemblage (37.70%), but still a lot lower when
compared to those of the Early Mesolithic. Svineac and Vrtop hills (vinia area) were considered
the areas for fint procurement. Among fint tool-types were mentioned endscapers, burins, notched
tools, segments, retouched blades and bladelets, microlithic fakes fnely retouched. A workshop
for tool manufacturing was also uncovered
603
. Quartz holds 62.23% of the raw material, with tools
such as endscrapers, borers, splintered pieces, and racletes.
604

Te average-sized river boulders with a circular depression were also present. One had three
such depressions, a second one was fred and had traces of red ochre while a third one had only traces
of ochre
605
.
Te bone and antler tools displayed the usual array of types (bone: awls/daggers, spatulas;
antler: adzes, hoes, awls), with the remark that they appear to show a high degree of use.
606
Boar
600
601
PUNESCU, A. 2000: 377.
602
VOYTEK, B. & TRINGHAM, R. 1989.
603
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
604
605
BORONEAN , V. 2000a: 187.
606
tusks seemed to appear more frequently in horizon II. Also, the presence of some areas for manufac-
turing tools was observed, consisting of bone/antler fakes and debris but no fnished implements.
607
Te only artistic manifestation at Veterani Terrace was a spatula ornamented with the fshnet
patern combined with the triangle one (Fig. 72).
Te site provided a large number of faunal remains but poorly preserved. Species identifed
included Castor fber, Ursus arctos, Martes cf. martes, Sus scrofa, Alces alces, Cervus elaphus, Canis Lupus,
Ovis sp., showing food consumption relying heavily on deer and wild boar. Fish bones are frequently
mentioned in the feldnotes.
608
According to A. Bolomey
609
from the faunal point of view taken alone, the site of Veterani, did
not present a special interest. But corroborating these results with those from Rzvrata and Icoana,
the three faunal assemblages appear very similar. One cannot determine the habitation duration
of the Veterani Teras site (seen shorter than that at Icoana) or determine the size of the human
community. Certain indications on the possible timing for site habitation are the deer remains
pointing to the period of MayJune
610
.
A sunken hut was uncovered in the lower Mesolithic horizon. It was oval in shape, with a
rectangular hearth (partially destroyed) and three postholes. V. Boronean thought the hut had two
stages of occupation. On the foor of the hut, and mainly around the hearth were scatered bone and
antler fragments, fint tools, many fsh bones, an average-sized boulder (used as a hammer?) with
symmetrical circular depressions on opposite faces. Pits were noticed on the foor of the house and
were interpreted as storage facilities for raw materials (they contained large fragments of deer antler,
and some contained fint). A human mandible was also collected from the foor of the hut
611
.
IV.4.2.2 Rzvrata (Fig. 62)
Te site of Rzvrata was located in the Litle Cauldrons, on the lef side of the dejection cone
of the Mraconia river. From there to Icoana is a distance of approximately 200 m. Discovered and
excavated in 1967 (when it was already partly fooded) the time lef allowed for excavating only 5
(rather small) trenches.
612
A general stratigraphy of the site was published, with the reservation that no trench showed
the complete stratigraphical sequence
613
:
1. Alluvial sand containing scatered Dacian remains
2. Black-brownish soil
3. Yellow-brown soil, archaeologically sterile
4. Black-brownish soil, Early Neolithic remains
5. Yellow-grey soil, Late Mesolithic (horizon Rzvrata I)
6. Yellowish sandy soil, in its upper part with Late Mesolithic remains (horizon Rzvrata II)
7. Yellow-brownish soil, steril
As in the case of Veterani Teras, based on the depths marked on the lithics but mainly on the
techno-typology of the lithic assemblage and the preference of diferent communities for certain types of
raw materials, and also on the size of the tools
614
, Al. Punescu saw Rzvratas earliest horizon (I) as
Tardigravetian while Rzvrata II (Schela Cladovei culture) was compared to Veterani Terrace II,
Icoana II, Ostrovul Banului III, Schela Cladovei II, and Ostrovul Mare III.
607
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
608
BORONEAN, V. 2000a: 104; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
609
BORONEAN, A. 2010a quoting A. Bolomey, unpublished manuscript.
610
BORONEAN, A. 2010a; BOLOMEY, A. 1973.
611
612
BORONEAN, V. 2000a: 99100; 1973: 8; 1970b: 18.
613
BORONEAN, V. 1973: 9; 2000a: 99.
614
PUNESCU, A. 2000a: 393.
Tere is one
14
C date for Rzvrata (Bln1057) 769070BP (66456434 cal BC), on a charcoal
sample of the hearth in a hut in Rzvrata I horizon, falling within the limits of the Late Mesolithic.
Te number of lithic pieces is relatively small when compared to other sites (1541 from the
Late Mesolithic Schela Cladovei culture
615
or 90 from the Tardigravetian and 1340 from Schela
Cladovei culture
616
) but this might just be a refection on the size of the excavated area. Te lithic
assemblage was mostly debitage, with few tools (mostly endscrapers). Te main raw material was
quartzite and quartzitic rocks (99.43%), use of fint having diminished drastically (to only 0.57%
91 pieces)
617
.
Te relatively small number of bone and antler tools (faunal remains also) was blamed on the
poor preservation state of the site. Quite a number of the fragments were badly afected by waters
and in most cases tool type determination was not possible. Still, among the identifed types were
fragments of awls, a spatula and a fragment of a dagger. Antler tools included hoes, adzes, picks,
shaf-holes. Boar tusk was very scarce only 7 fragments. It must be noted that nearly all bone and
antler was concentrated in trench SI.
618

V. Boronean also mentioned a rock boulder (chance fnd from the beach) painted with ochre
and partly worked (polished?)
619
.
Te excavation documented one semi-sunken hut (fond de cabane), probably of an oval shape
and a circular hearth in the centre. An oval/circular hearth, made of stones was uncovered nearby,
east of the hut. Flooding prevented the hut and the hearth from being completely exposed during
excavation. Many deer antler fragments were scatered on the foor, mainly the inedible parts of the
carcass. Antler tools were also noticed. Other bones on the foor were identifed as wild boar, badger,
fsh, and a small number of mussel and snail shells were collected as well
620
.
IV.4.2.3 Icoana (Fig. 63a)
Te site was located at the foot of the Ciucaru Mic Mountain, in the Litle Cauldrons, 200 m
downstream from Rzvrata.
Excavations were carried out between 1967 and 1969, but they all amounted to only 31 days
and 91 m
2
excavated in 8 diferent trenches. At the time of the excavations the site had already been
afected by river erosion and road construction (at the end of XVIII century). Excavations were
possible only during the days when the Danube level was low.
Te present volume presents for the frst time the correct profle plan
621
(Fig. 63c), as it origi-
nally appeared in the manuscript of V. Boroneans 1973a paper, and also in his PhD thesis. Te
plan shows no archaeologically sterile sediment between the two Mesolithic horizons, proves the
excavation reached the archaeologically sterile bedrock.
Tus, the general stratigraphy of site is given below:
1. Large sized rock boulders (Hallstat and Medieval remains);
2. Light brown soil (Early Neolithic Starevo-Cri remains);
615
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
616
PUNESCU, A. 2000.
617
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
618
BORONEAN, V. 2000a: 128129, 155; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
619
BORONEAN, V. 1973; 2000.
620
621
Unfortunately, there was a mistake in the initially publication of the only profle plan ever published (trench SII, western
profle in BORONEAN, V. 1973: 9, Fig.3; 2000a: 295). Due to a printing error, layer no. 4, was lef without explanation,
layer 5 was said to be sterile (although the presence of an antler tool no. 7 was marked on the plan) and no. 6 is presented
as an Epipalaeolithic layer. (Fig. 63 b). Tis is probably what made Al. Punescu when republishing the plan, to introduce a
Tardigravetian horizon (also accounted for by his lithic analyzes), and to split layer II (and not I as originally explained by
V. Boronean) in the two horizons a and b (PUNESCU, A. 2000: 395, Pl. 14).
3. Black-grey soil (Schela Cladovei culture horizon II);
4. Dark coloured soil (Schela Cladovei culture horizon Ib);
5. Lighter coloured soil (Schela Cladovei culture horizon Ia);
6. Alluvial sand overlapping the river bedrock.
V. Boronean saw Icoana I as part of phase II of the Schela Cladovei culture (with parallels in
Schela Cladovei I, Ostrovul Banului IIIb), D. Srejovi saw it as Early Mesolithic (parallels in Proto-
Lepenski Vir, Vlasac I, Padina A, Schela Cladovei I, Ostrovul Banului IIIa) while others, although
defning it as Early Mesolithic, paralleled it to Vlasac I, Ostrovul Banului IIIa, Veterani Cave, and
Schela Cladovei I
622
.
Te second horizon, Icoana II seen as Late Mesolithic, was paralleled to Vlasac II and III,
Lepenski Vir I and II, Padina A, Ostrovul Corbului III, Rzvrata II, Schela Cladovei II, Ostrovul
Banului IIIb, or to Lepenski Vir I and II, Vlasac II and III, Padina B1, Hajduka Vodenica, Schela
Cladovei II, Ostrovul Banului IIIb.
623
As far as the absolute chronology is concerned, there are six conventional radiocarbon dates
on charcoal samples:
1. Bln1077: 8265100BP (75187070 cal BC) charcoal from a hearth in horizont Ib,
SIV, 2,10 m;
2. Bln 1078: 8605250BP (82877075 cal BC), charcoal sample from SIV, 0,50 m;
3. 8070130BP (74486647 cal BC), Bonn sample 2, level Ia, SII, 1,60m, type of sample
unknown;
4. 7660110BP (67506247 cal BC) , Bonn sample 4, level Ib, SII, 2 m);
5. 5830120 BP (49934402 cal BC), Bonn sample 1, level II, SIII, 1m;
6. 8010120 BP (73066610 cal BC), Bonn sample 3, level Ib, SII, 1,20 m, type of sample
unknown.
Five of them suggest that human activity at Icoana took place during the Late Mesolithic. Te
ffh date is conspicuous, and there is always the issue of the sample type (perhaps a mixed sample of
bones and ashes) that might account for the very late result.
Te main raw material for lithics was quartzite (98.52%), with endscrapers as the main type.
Flint implements were rare, constituing the rest of 1.48 % of the total assemblage (Fig. 67). Te
main tool types determined were endscrapers, sidescrapers, burins, retouched blades, splintered
pieces, micro-cores. Te medium-sized boulders, burned or ochre-painted were also quiet frequent
(Fig.70).
624
Extremely abundant at Icoana was the bone and mainly antler industry, with a remarkable
number of fnished tools (hoes, matocks, picks, awls), but also debris and implements in the process
of being manufactured (cut at both ends sockets?).
Bone implements (mainly projectile points) were more frequent in horizon II, while the
antler implements seemed to dominate in horizon I (Fig. 69). Te number of tusk tools and debris
is also impressive.
Icoana provided some of the nicest decorated implements in the Iron Gates: 10 decorated
bone fragments and 4 decorated antler pieces. Te main decorative paterns are zigzagged lines,
hachures inside two parallel lines, and incised short lines (Fig. 72).
Analyses of the rich faunal assemblage showed the domination of Suidae and Cervidae,
followed by wildcat, badger, wolf, brown bear, and hare. Te presence of dog bones was noted.
Te large number of fsh bones (sterlet, beluga, Leuciscus cephalus, bream, carp) is a good
indicator of high intensity fsh consumption but also of successful fshing. Strangely enough, among
622
BORONEAN, V. 1973; 2000a; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a; VOYTEK, R. & TRINGHAM, B. 1989.
623
624
BORONEAN, V. 1973; 2000a.
the bone and antler tools mentioned above, the fshing gear is missing, an important fact especially
as the fsh remains (mainly vertebrae) show them as being extremely large.
Te architectural structures of the frst Late Mesolithic horizon were described as the fond
de cabane type, oval in shape, with no observed postholes. In horizon Ib was documented a circular
hearth made of blocks of limestone of irregular shape, with a few ash traces
625
.
Also to the earlier horizon were atributed (at the time of the excavation) the following
features
626
:
A simple circular hearth (0.40 m diameter) found at the base of layer II, with a scater of
fsh bones, quartzite fakes and a fint endscraper on its surface.
Pit feature (possible hut), trapeze in shape, having in its immediate vicinity the remains of
a rectangular stone hearth.
Sunken hut, rectangular (?) in shape, only partially excavated. A simple hearth was
observed in the NW corner (diameter approx. 1 m). On the hearth there was a deer antler
tool. Probably associated with the hut and the hearth, nearby, in a patch of soil mixed with
lots of ashes, appeared 15 round or oval river boulders with a circular depression. Tey
were either fred and/or had traces of ochre on them.
Pit (approx. diameter 40 cm) containing a large number of deer antler fragments, inter-
preted as a raw material storage pit
Te habitation structures of horizon II were reported as being semi-sunken huts, trapeze in
shape, with a simple circular hearth in the interior. It is with this type of hut that the Icoana burials
were associated (Fig. 73). Scatered on its foor there were numerous fint and quartzite tools, bone
and antler implements
627
.
A few other structures were also identifed within horizon II
628
:
Sunken hut, probably circular, approx. 1m deep, diameter 21.10 m at the botom. From
the foor of the house many quartzite fakes, burnt animal bones, fint and bone tools
were collected. At a later date, following the abandonment of the hut, afer a partial fll
of the pit, a circular hearth bordered with stones was built, with the base made of yellow
batered soil,
Circular? sunken hut with a circular hearth (diameter 0.550.70 m); it was only partly
excavated.
Te burials discovered on the site were seen as directly linked with the trapeze house in
horizon II: underneath the hearth level/house foor, two complete skeletons and an isolated skull
were excavated. Te skeletons were lying on the back having the hands on the pelvis/along the body.
Te contours of the graves could be observed, showing them to be rectangular, and slightly larger
than the skeleton size. Both skeletons were ochre powdered. In the vicinity of one of them, ochre
fragments were also found, together with a tusk tool
629
. Various disarticulated human remains were
collected from other contexts.
Te isolated skull was dated 65306390 cal BC (AA 66368)
630
but without having been
corrected for the freshwater reservoir efect
631
, and thus the date should be disregarded.
625
BORONEAN, V. 1973: 17, 2000a.
626
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
627
BORONEAN 1973: 18; 2000a: 108.
628
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
629
BORONEAN, V. 1970b: 18; BORONEAN, A. et alii 2008.
630
DINU, A. et alii 2007: 32, 39; COOK, G. T. et alii 2002.
631
COOK, G. T. et alii 2002.
IV.4.2.4 Ostrovul Banului
Te location and stratigraphy of the site were presented above, together with some of the fnds, seen
as part of the Early Mesolithic horizons (I and II).
Relative chronology parallels horizon IIIa with Veterani Terrace, Proto-Lepenski Vir, Vlasac
I, Padina A, Schela Cladovei I, Rzvrata I, Veterani Cave. Horizon IIIb fnds itself grouped with
Icoana I, Schela Cladovei IIIII, Lepenski Vir I and II, Vlasac II-III, Padina B1, Icoana II, Hajduka
Vodenica, Ostrovul Corbului III, Rzvrata II
632
.
For the entire horizon III (no distinction between a or b horizons) there are two old radio-
carbon dates: the frst, Bln 1079: 7565 100 BP, ca 65306285 cal BC falls at the very end of Late
Mesolithic interval. Te second sample, Bln 1080, 8040160 BP, ca 72206720 cal BC, consisted of
a mixture of charcoal and calcinated bone and thus should be dismissed.
Te use of fint as a raw material saw a dramatic drop in horizon IIIa to only 10.81%, with
an increase to 22.10% in horizon IIIb. Te rest of the assemblage was made of quartzitic rocks. Te
main tool types were the same in both horizons: endscrapers, burins and splintered pieces for fint,
and endscrapers and splintered pieces for quartz (Fig. 67)
633
.
Te bone industry comprised awls, chisels, projectiles, perforated bone fakes, numerous
antler tools (hoes, adzes, picks, awls) and numerous tusk tools.
Published information mentions an oval semi-sunken hut structure. Te pit of the hut was
dug in the yellowish sandy soil, and two postholes, flled with river boulders were observed. With a
rectangular hearth in the centre, the hut was relatively small. Tis type of hearth had a stone recipient
and its foundation layer was made of sand and batered earth. It was partially covered by a stone
slab. When sectioned, the hearth appeared to overlap an earlier one, built during an alleged earlier
habitation stage. Te foor was covered with scatered lithic implements, antler tools, mammal and
fsh bones, mussel and snail shells. One of the altar type large stones (with a circular depression in
the middle of it, at times described as grindstone) was found nearby the hearth
634
.
A second hut had similar features (oval in shape, a reactangular hearth bordered with stones)
and possibly, posthole pits. Its size remained unknown, part of it having been eroded by the Danube.
Two other oval huts were partially excavated, perhaps with hearths in the unexplored areas. Te
exposed parts showed also scaters of lithics, bones, antler and shells on the foor
635
.
No formal burials were found at Ostrovul Banului. However, the presence of two human
mandibles (one with traces of ochre) was mentioned in the feld notes
636
.
IV.4.2.5 Schela Cladovei (Fig. 64a)
Schela CladoveiCanton is located some 7 km below the exit of the Danube from the Gorges, on
the frst river terrace, nowadays 68 m above the original river level
637
. Traditionally, the site was
described as stretching for almost 1.5 kilometres along the river, and is preserved nowadays in the
area between the dammed river bank and the railway line. Originally, the site area was divided in
two sectors, A and B, west and east of a former rivulet, nowadays a canal (Fig. 64b). According to
V. Boronean
638
, Mesolithic fnds only occurred west of the canal, with rare occurrences to the east,
mostly containing a dense Early Neolithic habitation. Still, human burials assigned to the Mesolithic
632
BORONEAN, V. 2000a; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a; VOYTEK, B. & TRINGHAM, R. 1989.
633
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
634
BORONEAN, V. 1973: Fig. 9; 2000a: 108, pl. 20; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
635
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
636
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
637
BORONEAN, A. et alii 1996: 386.
638
BORONEAN, V. 1973a, 2000a.
had been recovered from the western side, unfortunately not during archaeological excavation but
as chance fnds, in the eroded bank of the Danube.
A possible location for a second Mesolithic site was identifed in 1967 in the area known
as Schela CladoveiPichet/Karaula (Border police headquarters). During a feld survey various
Mesolithic artefacts were collected, but there was no time for archaeological excavations prior to the
fooding of the area
639
.
A third location, dif cult to pin down nowadays, was said to have existed in the area of the old
Byzantine port. It was covered by waters most of the time even prior to the fooding.
Excavations at Schela CladoveiCanton started in 1965, were resumed in 19671868, and
as the site was not threatened by fooding but rather by river erosion, litle was done prior the
construction of the Iron Gates II dam. Tis triggered the second stage of excavations starting in 1982.
Tey continued until 1991, when a joint Romanian-British project (co-directed by V. Boronean and
C. Bonsall) started, ending in 1996. Soundings were conducted in 2001 and 2002 by A. Boronean,
while a new RomanianBritish project (A. Boronean, C. Bonsall) started in 2006 and is continuing
to this day.
Despite the fact that excavations extended over quite a number of years, few detailed feld
reports were published, with a lot more known on the earlier excavations (1965, 19671968) than
the later ones
640
.
Stratigraphy
641
Danubes frst terrace consists of silty early Holocene river alluvium (1.52 m thick),
overlapping fuvial gravels, deposited in a periglacial environment. Sedimentary stratigraphy is
inexistent, and the soil has been decalcifeld through leaching to a depth of 3435 cm:
To the surface, an Ap horizon, darker in colour and non-calcareous, afected by ploughing.
It contains mixed archaeological artefacts
An Ah2 horizon, anthropically overdeepened, equally dark coloured reaches a depth of
5560 cm. It contains artefacts and features from modern times to Early Neolithic.
Te B horizon (Bk) has a prismatic structure and was strongly afected by the illuviation
of calcium carbonate in the form of irregular tubular nodules. It contains the Mesolithic
fnds.
Te gravel is covered by a fne, humic dark lentil with a thickness of up to 3 cm. Te gravel
stops at a depth of 1.401.55 cm. Some of the Mesolithic or Early Neolithic features
reached down into the gravel.
V. Boronean identifed at Schela Cladovei three diferent cultural stages, but in none of the
excavated trenches were present all three. In most of the cases, two stages were noticed: the earliest
one was characterized by the presence of fint micro-cores together with small fint and quartzite
fakes. Te upper layer was characterized by cores with irregular fake debitage, as well as many
quartz and quartzite implements
642
.
In his study of the site, Al. Punescu, based on the typology of the lithic industry and
the raw materials, selected a number of fint implements that he assigned typologically to the
Tardigravetian
643
.
Te results of the RomanianBritish research (19921996, 20062010) confrmed the
existence of the Meolithic and Early Neolithic cultural horizons, but the stratigraphic data and
639
BORONEAN. V. 2000a; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
640
BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2009.
641
BORONEAN, V. et alii 1996: 386387.
642
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
643
PUNESCU, A. 2000: 440.
the 45
14
C dates (see Table 7) did not suggest the existence of a Tardigravetian/Early Mesolithic
occupation (the earliest date at Schela is OxA 9140: 810560 BP, 73126830 cal BC) or further
sub-divisions of the Mesolithic occupation into chronologically discrete stages
644
.
Te bone industry (Fig. 69) was represented by various types of awls and projectiles, while
antler tools are represented by adzes, hoes, picks, awls, shaf-holes, fsh bone awls, with rare occur-
rences of tusk tools. Fauna included deer, Bos, boar, ovi-caprids, fox, turtle, dog, birds, and a large
number of fsh bones.
Quartz seems to be the preferred raw material for the lithics (95.82%) (splintered pieces,
blades) while fint tools are represented by endscrapers, burins, trapezes and splintered pieces
(Fig. 67). Still, this information should be taken cautiously, as it refers mainly to the very early-
excavations of the 1960s.
Rectangular or trapeze house platforms were identifed, made not of plaster like the ones
on the right bank but of a mixture of stones and bones. Hearths were documented both inside and
outside the platforms: either circular, paved with stones, or rectangular in shape, bordered with
stones and plastered in the interior with batered clay
645
.
Te 19671968 house was rectangular, of the semi-sunken type, with the botom of the pit
paved with stones (Fig. 74). A trapeze-shaped hearth bordered with stones was located in its centre.
No postholes were noticed. From the foor of the hut were collected a large number of animal bones
(fsh, deer, dog) and shells
646
.
To the north, east and west, the hearth was surrounded by burials (Fig. 75). Burials might
have existed south of the house, but that area was been later disturbed by two Early Neolithic pits
and a Dacian one. Te house foor was ca 30cm above the gravel layer while the graves had been dug
into the later. On the other hand, some of the burials appear to have been located right under the
house foor (the eastern side of it), but there were no signs of the house foor having been disturbed,
pointing to the deposition of the dead in the area prior to the building of the house.
Out of the 13 burials, 12 were more or less complete skeletons. 10 were in extended
position, head pointing to the Danube. Te only infant burial was oriented with the head pointing
in opposite direction. One skeleton was lying on the right side, hands and legs slightly fexed and
was somehow singled-out on the northern side of the house. Ochre traces were noted on the
chest and head areas of two skeletons lying in overlapping graves. One skeleton had fve arrow-
points found on the chest area and an isolated skull lying on his pelvis. Quite a few other skeletons
had arrowpoints either embedded in their bones or found inside the grave limits, having probably
hit the sof tissue
647
.
Grave goods are generally dif cult to discuss, as their position inside the grave is not always
clear. In most cases they might have been part of the infll of the pit, especially when talking about
fint fakes or shell fragments.
Te house and burials described above has a parallel in Area III, excavated during the
RomanianBritish joint project (Fig. 76). Te later was described as a dense concentration of stones
ca2.5m across with a hearth (trapezoidal seting of stones) reminescent of stone-lined hearths at Lepenski
Vir and Vlasac. No postholes were observed. It was suggested that the stone concentration and hearth were
lying in a pit. Skeletons were found to the north and south of the house.
648
It must be observed that the
area to the east of the house was never excavated while the area to the west of the house had been
disturbed by two large pit-features. Red ochre occurred with the burials (two cases) while fragments
644
BONSALL, C. 2008; BORONEAN, A. 2010b.
645
646
647
648
of (or complete) arrowheads were found with three skeletons. Grave goods could have been repre-
sented by shells of freshwater molluscs (some with artifcial perforation).
649
During the research years approx. 100 burials were uncovered throughout the site but their
study is not yet complete. Most of them were said to have occurred grouped around or under house
platforms, but old plans also show isolated burials. It is dif cult to discuss their distribution (or
that of the house/hearths) within the site, mainly because all trenches (apart from the 20012001,
20062010) concentrated on a narrow 34m strip along the edge of the river bank, in the efort of
keeping up with the river erosion.
650
Apart from the (more or less) complete graves, the occurrence
of isolated mandibles, in some cases with traces of ochre, was noted.
Te size of the Mesolithic community at Schela Cladovei is dif cult to estimate only from
the number of excavated burials. For example, Area III provided 8 articulated skeletons but over 25
individuals were determined in the bone assemblage
651
.
Summary
Te Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherer communities in the Iron Gates were almost always
associated to sedentism, house building, intensive exploitation of the local resources, food storage,
exchange and social complexity.
652
It is clear that sites in the Iron Gates appear to be diverse and hard to classify. Part of the
problem is the bias introduced by excavations themselves (size and intensity of excavation, excava-
tions means, authors of the excavations, etc). A second factor might be site preservation issues
limiting the research at the time (Ostrovul Banului was already partly under water, Icoana was
covered by the Austrian road, river erosion was present almost everywhere) making dif cult to tell
how much of the sites was afected and how. In many cases, information on site size and organization
is impossible to infer.
Chronology of the sites (see Table 7)
Tere are 45 date AMS
14
C for Schela Cladovei, all from secure contexts. 36 of them span
between 81007450 BP (71006300 cal BC), and all dated burials (12) fall within this time frame.
Vlasac also has a large number of AMS dates. In the light of these new dates, some of the features
initially atributed to the Mesolithic, fall within the chronology of the Early Neolithic. Moreover, there
are new
14
C dates sugesting (as seen above), the occupation of the site during the Early Mesolithic as
well. Lepenski Vir, despite the fact that it has some
14
C falling within the earlier occupation phases,
seems to point mostly for an intense activity of the site afer 6300 BC.
653
Te rest of the sites are poorly dated, making a refned chronology of the area dif cult. Tere
are fve dates for Icoana, two for Hajduka Vodenica, one for Rzvrata and only two for Padina that
fall within this time period. Ostrovul Corbului, on the lef bank, has 5 dates, with four of them falling
within the limits of Late Mesolithic.
Architecture
From publications, houses were of the single room, semi-sunken hut type, oval or trapeze
shaped. Te oval ones were noted at Veterani Terrace, Icoana, Ostrovul Banului. Te trapeze shaped
ones had the entrance on the large side and were dug at variable depths (0.32m at Schela, 0.40m at
Icoana, 0.82m at Vlasac)
654
. Te foor of the house was a scatered mixture of rocks, bone, antler
649
BORONEAN et alii 1996, 388.
650
651
652
VOYTEK, B. & TRINGHAM, R. 1989; BONSALL, C. 2008.
653
BONSALL, C. 2008.
654
BONSALL, C. 2008.
(tools included), lithics, at times disarticulated human remains (mandibles Veterani, Ostrovul
Mare, Schela Cladovei).
Te rectangular hearths, with the border made of worked stones appear less frequent on the
lef bank, and mainly on the lower part of the Gorges (Schela Cladovei, Ostrovul Banului, Ostrovul
Mare, Ostrovul Corbului). Te simple round hearths seem to be a lot more common, with examples
in all sites. On the lef bank, presence of the hearths inside the house was almost always documented.
Sometimes they occurred outside houses, but no clear connection between the two could be
established.
Postholes were observed at Vlasac, VeteraniTeras, Ostrovul Banului. Small pits dug into the
foor of the house/outside the house might have been used for the storage of raw materials (antler,
fint). In the exterior of the houses, similar small pits but containing a large number of fsh bones
perhaps for storage purposes, were documented
655
.
At Vlasac, out of the 43 excavated houses, some fell chronologically into the time frame of the
Early Neolithic (60005500 cal BC). Tese are in fact the larger houses, with a trapeze shape and
facing the Danube, with analogies at Lepenski Vir and Padina B.
Burials
An impressive number of burials were assigned to this period at Lepenski Vir, Vlasac, Padina
on the right bank, and at Schela Cladovei on the lef one. Burials were also documented at Icoana,
Ostrovul Corbului, Kula
656
, but in much smaller numbers, with size of the excavation explaining
perhaps the small number of skeletons.
In most cases the burial rite is inhumation, although claims for cremation have been made for
Schela Cladovei and Vlasac
657
. Skeletons were generally found in extended position on their back,
hands along the body or on the pelvis/chest. Lying on one side with arms and legs slightly fexed
was also reported. Te presence of disarticulated bones was explained either as extraction of certain
bones and their separate re-inhumation at an ulterior moment or as remains of disturbed burials.
658
Both at Schela Cladovei and Vlasac skulls were found buried separately, as a group or as a
single item.
659
Again, this suggestes the extraction of the skull from the grave, afer the sof tissue was
gone, an argument also supported by the lack of cut-marks on the bones. Such practices were noted
in the Natufan sites in Levant, as a characteristic of the PPNA (c. 95008800 cal BC), in connection
with worshipping of the ancestors and the preservation of the social memory of the community.
660
It is debatable though whether the chronological overlapping of the funerary space and the
living space is real. In most of the sites, feld reports talk about the dead being buried under the foor
of houses or around hearths. In the case of the Schela Cladovei, within the frst group of burials
presented, the skeletons appeared under the level of the foor, and around the hearth, but there is no
indication that they were introduced afer the house was built
661
. It is thus possible, that the living
and the dead occupied indeed the same space but at diferent times.
662

In some cases the funerary space had been used for a rather long period of time: at Padina, the
12 skeletons found in the funerary chamber (and covered with stones), provided dates starting from
the Early Mesolithic to the Late one
663
. Te funerary practice of covering the body with stones, was
655
BONSALL, C. 2008; BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2009.
656
BORONEAN, A. 2010; BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2009; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a.
657
BORONEAN, V. 2000a; BORI, D. et alii 2009.
658
BONSALL, C. 2008; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
659
BORONEAN, V. et alii 1999; BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2009.
660
BONSALL, C. 2008.
661
BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2009; BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
662
BONSALL, C. 2007; 2008.
663
BONSALL, C. 2008: 258; JOVANOVI, B. 2008.
also documented at Lepenski Vir, both during the Early and the Late Mesolithic.
664
Te practice of
using stones to cover the skeletons was also noted on the lef bank at Schela Cladovei and Ostrovul
Corbului, but lack of
14
C dates makes impossible to say when this practice started
665
.
Social status although suggested by the presence in some graves of shell beads (at times in
impressive numbers like at Ostrovul Banului and Schela Cladovei
666
) is dif cult to discuss. Traces
of red ochre on skeletons were reported in most of the sites with burials. Other items reported as
associated to burials were fint and bone/antler implements but in most cases it was impossible to
tell whether they were part of the grave goods or part of the infll of the pit. Although a systematic
study was never undertaken most of the published data being fragmentary there does not seem
to exist a status diferentiation based on sex or age.
Presence of the domestic dog in the area was documented from the Early Mesolithic (Cuina
Turcului, Ostrovul Banului), but the Vlasac dog burial so far appears as a singular case, although it
occurred in other parts of Europe.
667
Subsistence
Hunting has always been seen as one of the major sources for food and raw materials in the
Iron Gates. Hunted game included deer, roe, wild boar but perhaps also animals hunted for fur,
such as brown bear, wolf, oter, badger. Te presence of bird bones explained their hunting both for
meat and feathers. Large fsh was caught, together with fresh water mussels and snail, completing
the riverine diet. Te large quantities of fsh bone found, and their size mainly, raise the question of
storage. With at least a semi-sedentary population, food storage was an important issue, and although
the Iron Gates area was rich in resources, providing for food during winters must have been dif cult.
Fishing is abundant on the Danube during March/April and September/October. Catfsh is less
active in winter while sturgeon can be easily caught only during their migration period
668
.
Unfortunately, no features that could be safely associated with food storage have been
reported. Still, it was suggested that the so called rectangular hearths (with no traces of burning
on the inside) might have been used as storage recipients
669
. Small pits flled with fsh bones were
reported on the lef bank at Schela Cladovei and Ostrovul Corbului.
670
On the other hand, storage
containers made of hide, tree bark, wood or other materials are likely not to have survived
671
.
Plant remains are rare in the archaeological record. Even at Schela Cladovei where fotation
was employed during 19921996 excavations, their presence was scarce
672
. Undoubtedly, although
gathering fruit and berries would not have been dif cult in a habitat such as the Iron Gates, it is rather
a time and energy consuming activity, and needs a specialized gear. Analysis of the Mesolithic diet (on
the Vlasac population) suggested that 6080% of the food was of aquatic origin, probably mostly fsh,
considering the number and the size of the fsh bones. As for the rest of 2040% of food of terrestrial
origin, it is impossible at this point to discern between the meat or plant/vegetable consumption.
673
It was suggested that the living animals themselves were the means of storing food. A possible
later Mesolithic occupation was sugested in the present paper for Cuina Turcului. Studying the
faunal assemblage from this site, Al. Bolomey observed the unusually large number of dog remains,
664
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996: fg. 4.2, 4.6.
665
BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2009; MOGOANU, F. 1978a; BORONEAN, A. 2010.
666
BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
667
BORONEAN, A. 2010a; RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a; BONSALL, C. 2008.
668
BONSALL, C. 2008.
669
670
BONSALL, C. et alii 1997; BORONEAN, A. 2010a; BORONEAN, A. 2010b.
671
BONSALL, C. 2008.
672
MASON, S. et alii 1996.
673
BONSALL, C. 2008.
pointing to dog consumption
674
. Dog bones are also very numerous at Vlasac (the second important
animal (20%) afer deer (68%), wild boar coming only to 12%). Tey have high percentages at
Schela Cladovei also.
675
Te number of broken and disarticulated bones, the breakage paterns of the
long bones and skull also might point to dogs as a possible food source.
676
For Padina, A. T. Clason
suggested the same thing
677
. Also, a change in the dog size for the Iron Gates sites from Mesolithic to
Neolithic (larger in the former period and smaller in the second) could be an indicator of a change
in the utilitarian use of the dog.
678
Exchange perhaps occurred between the Iron Gates communities and other groups, as
suggested by the presence of shells of Adriatic or Mediterannean origin
679
. Exchange implies
contacts with other groups, and it is hard to believe they could only be of a trading nature. Afer
C. Bonsall
680
, such communties (of tens of individuals perhaps) would not have been viable unless
they functioned within a larger social network, providing for an exchange of goods and information,
religious ceremonies and even mating.
Such contacts might have been at times violent, as suggested by the number of trauma cases
within the Schela Cladovei (15%) and Ostrovul Corbului population, causing in many cases the
death of the individual.
681
Such manifestions, although more seldom, occurred on the right bank of
the river also.
682
IV.4.3 The Final Mesolithic, 63006000 cal BC
(Schela CladoveiLepenski Vir culture)
Te only site that has a good series of radiocarbon dates for the 63006000 cal BC is Lepenski Vir. At
Schela Cladovei and Vlasac a conspicuous gap in the radiocarbon list was noted (Fig. 56b), suggesting
either a decrease in the site activity or a major change in the nature of the activity of the site
683
.
During this time period, the west and central Europe knew a colder and weter climate,
possibly causing in the area of the Iron Gates frequent and severe foodings of the banks and leading
to the relocation of the local communities on the higher terraces.
684
Two or three sites from the lef
bank of Danube are possible candidates for human occupation during the Final Mesolithic, based
on old
14
C dates and some of their cultural features: Alibeg, Ostrovul Corbului and Ostrovul Mare.
Only the frst one, falling within the limits of historical Banat, will be presented below in more detail.

IV.4.3.1 Alibeg (Fig. 65)
Te site of Alibeg was located in the alluvial plain of the Danube, at the foot of the hill upstream fom
the stream of Alibeg, at the entrance of the Upper Gorges
685
. As it was the farthest site from the dam, it
was the last to be excavated on the lef bank (1971). When the site was frst located, various types of
artefacts (animal bones, fint and quarzite pieces, remains of a hearth) were already visible scatered
on the beach. Because of the short time granted to, excavations never reached the sterile riverbed.
674
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
675
BONSALL, C. 2008.
676
BKNY, S. 1975: 168.
677
CLASON, A. T. 1978.
678
BKNYI, S. 1975: 168; BONSALL, C. 2008.
679
SREJOVI, D. & LETICA, Z. 1978; BORONEAN, V. et alii 1999.
680
BONSALL, C. 2008: 263.
681
BONSALL, C. 2008; MOGOANU, F. 1978a.
682
ROKSANDI, M. 2000; 2008; BONSALL, C. 2008.
683
BONSALL, C. 2008.
684
BONSALL, C et alii 2002; MAGNY, M. et alii 2003; BONSALL, C. 2007, 2008.
685
General stratigraphy of the site
686
:
1. Humus (archaeologically sterile);
2. Yellow sandy soil with limestone concretions (archaeologically sterile);
3. Black-brownish soil Schela Cladovei culture, and scatered Early Neolithic artefacts in
its upper part;
4. Yellow-brownish soil (archaeologically sterile).
V. Boronean (who saw Alibeg as the fnal stage of the Schela Cladovei culture) suggested that
Alibeg illustrated best, for the lef bank, the transition from the Mesolithic to the Early Neolithic:
together with the deer antler tools and the tusk, with quartzite and fint knapping, there are also small
axes-chisels, showing the same technique and typology as the Neolithic ones of Starevo and Cri types. Tus,
it is only this fnal stage that comprises features specifc to the Neolithic together with the Epipalaeolithic
ones, which are still predominant
687
.
Te presence of potery fragments in the upper part of the black-brownish soil made
Al. Punescu, suggest the existence of a compact Starevo-Cri layer also
688
. In his atempt to
separate the Mesolithic material from the Neolithic one, he used the techno-typological criteria
(for both the lithic and bone/antler industries), corroborating them with the depths marked on the
artefacts. He claimed that there are two culturally distinct layers, separated chronologically by at least
a few hundred years
689
.
Voytek and Tringham
690
saw Alibeg as a transitional phase from the Late Mesolithic to the
Early Neolithic, together with Ostrovul Mare III, Lepenski Vir IIIa and Padina B. D. Srejovi also
saw the site as one of transition, with parallels at Kula, Padina B2 and Ostrovul Mare.
691
Alibeg has an old
14
C date, on a charcoal sample from a hearth in trench SII, Bln 1193
7195100BP (ca 61506000 cal BC). Tis would situate it at the limit between the Final Mesolithic
and the Early Neolithic. While we still lack a series of new
14
C dates, some evidence supports the
hypothesis that part of the human occupation at Alibeg would fall within this time frame.
Te lithic industry shows the same small percentages of fint (5.15%) of the Final Mesolithic,
with an overwhelming predominance of quartz and quartzite as the main raw materials. Together
with this, from contexts associated to the Mesolithic, were recovered miniature chisel-axes, a small
plaque of sandstone channelled on one side, probably polished on the other side
692
.
A semi-sunken hut (2.4 m 1.5 m), oval in shape, dug in a relatively shallow pit and the
entrace to the north was noticed in trenches SIISIII. A freplace was located in the centre of the
hut, surrounded by six large boulders. Te pit of the hearth was flled with lots of ashes, charcoal and
fsh bones
693
.
A second excavated structure was a semi-sunken hut, possibly rebuilt afer a temporary
abandoment (Fig. 77). Te initial hut was oval in shape, with a rectangular hearth bordered by
stone slabs. Postholes were observed at its extremities. It was suggested that the structure had been
damaged by fre and rebuilt. Te shape of the rebuilt hut was trapeze, the remains of the walls (?)
were calcined and its interior yielded a large quantity of bones, many also calcinated. Te hearth in
the centre was restored to the same type as the frst one. Te foor of the second hearth was made of
a well-fred mixture of sand and limy clay, having the composition of a mortar. Adjacent to it there
were potery sherds and a couple of beads (raw material unknown bone was suggested in the feld
686
BORONEAN , V. 1973: 11.
687
688
PUNESCU, A. 2000: 156.
689
PUNESCU, A. 2000: 159.
690
691
692
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996a; BORONEAN, V. 2000a.
693
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
notes), together with fragments of bone, deer antler, tusk. To the western part of the hut some fred
slab stones seen as fragments of the initial hearth- were discovered. On the hut foor, not far from
the hearth, there were three large stone boulders, all worked. One of them had a circular depression
on it while the side facing the ground was fatened and polished.
694
Under the foor of the rebuilt hut, a small pit was observed, containing a fint axe and two
almost complete deer antlers
695
. A second pit contained an almost complete deer antler also. Both
pits were seen by V. Boronean as raw material storage pits
696
. Similar fnds (deer antler fragments in
pits) were reported on the lef bank at Lepenski Vir and Vlasac
697
.
Te presence of potery has been noted in other Mesolithic contexts in the Iron Gates also
698
.
* * *
Te 63006000 cal BC period when the gap in the
14
C dates occurred on most sites is the
time when Lepenski Vir site fourished and when houses with plastered foors and burials around
the houses or under their foors are mostly documented on this particular site. Te frequency of
the decorated objects increased (among them the sculpted boulders associated also to the Late
Mesolithic but in smaller numbers), as well as the deposition of animal parts inside the houses.
699

One explanation for the continuing occupation at Lepenski Vir might be the very special character
of the site, perhaps a ritual centre.
700
Despite the appearance of new elements (questionable potery fragments, polished stones)
old traditions still persist. Te type of burial does not change. Diet remains almost the same as
indicated by stable isotope analyzes: Lepenski Vir people had a diet similar to those of the Schela
Cladovei and Vlasac people during the Late Mesolithic, with a heavy reliance on aquatic resources,
perhaps even a bit more so during the Final Mesolithic.
701
Te most straightforward explanation for the gap observed in the
14
C dates is the 8200 BP
cooling event, the most dramatic climatic oscillation of the Holocene.
702
For 3400 years the whole
Europe experienced a cooling of the climate of 23 C compared to the previous period, with
temperatures during the winter even lower than that, and major changes in the precipitation system.
Mesolithic sites were afected, with sites probably being moved up the terrace. Teir absence in the
archaeological record during this period might be the result of the archaeological eforts having
concentrated on the foodable areas of the Danube valley during the building of the two dams and not
on the higher terraces. It is rather unlikely that the communities lef the river banks for good, given
the fact the river was an excellent food source. At least fshing camps must have existed on its banks.

IV.3.2 Final MesolithicEarly Neolithic contacts?
Most Neolithic specialists accept nowadays the idea that Early Neolithic spread from the area of
Tessaly and Marmara Sea up north, following the valleys of the main rivers. Tere is a Blagotin
(Morava valley) radiocarbon date of ca 6200 cal BC, thus situating Early Neolithic at this time only
125 km from the Danube.
703
Early Neolithic dates from the Pannonian Plain, from southern Romania
694
695
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
696
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
697
DIMITRIJEVI, V. 2000; 2008.
698
GARANIN, M. & RDOVANOVI, I. 2001; RDOVANOVI, I. 2008; BONSALL, C. 2008.
699
BKNY, S. 1972; DIMITRIJEVI, V. 2000; 2008; BONSALL, C. 2008.
700
SREJOVI, D. 1972; GIMBUTAS, M. 1991.
701
BONSALL, C. 2008: 266.
702
BONSALL, C. et alii 2002; MAGNY, M. et alii 2003; BONSALL, C. 2008.
703
WHITLE, A. et alii 2002; BONSALL, C. 2008.
(Mgura) or southwestern Romania (Schela Cladovei), as well from Transylvania are statistically
inseparable, situating the beginning of Neolithic in the area around 6000 cal BC
704
. Te contact was
thus possible. Was it also probable?
We chose to follow below some of the main points, as proposed by C. Bonsall
705
when
discussing the posibility of MesolithicEarly Neolithic contacts, backed by more data from the sites
on the lef bank of the Danube:
Discrepancies of old stratigraphies
Recent research on the potery in problematic contexts
706
, showed that at least part of the
unwanted potery fragments associated to some of the houses really belonged there (contrary to
the idea of D. Srejovi). Tey also seem to range between 708369BP (ca 5950 to 5700 cal BC)
707
.
At Padina, B. Jovanovi
708
observed that the trapeze houses associated (by. D. Srejovi) to the
Mesolithic, were frequently associated to Early Neolithic potery
At Alibeg, V. Boronean observed the occurrence of potery fragments inside Mesolithic
huts while at Ostrovul Corbului, Fl. Mogoanu also identifed some Early Neolithic potery in a
burial considered indubitably Epipalaeolithic
709
.
Correlating the feld documentation with new
14
C dates on contexts seen as secure, D. Bori
and V. Dimitrijevi
710
suggested that in fact potery was present at Lepenski Vir around 6300 cal
BC, thus, chronologically, during the Final Mesolithic. On the other hand, an atempt to seriate the
trapeze shaped buildings based on their
14
C buildings seen as characteristic to the Late Mesolithic
period situated them at the earliest at 708373 uncal BP (ca 5950 cal BC) Consequently, a division
for the trapeze houses time of use, in an earlier phase with no potery, and a later one when the
potery was present, was advanced.
711

At Vlasac, C. Bonsall and D. Bori
712
observed a discrepancy between the new radiocarbon
dates and the old chronology (Vlasac I(a, b), II, III) proposed by D. Srejovi & Z. Letica
713
based
mainly on stratigraphic observations, stressing the fact that stratigraphic layers are useful when
establishing a cultural succesion at a feature or a trench level, but this should not be easily gener-
alized to the entire site.
At Padina also, from the radiocarbon dates obtained on faunal remains, it was suggested that
the trapeze houses associated with potery occurred earlier than 6000 cal BC
714
. Te hypothesis was
later contested by C.Bonsall who invoked the unsecure context of the samples.
715
Infant burials
D. Bori and S. Stefanovi suggested that the practice of burying neonates under the foor
of the buildings (occurring at Lepenski Vir) is an element that spread from the Epipalaeolithic and
Neolithic sites in the Eastern Mediteranean, and thus a proof of contact between the two types of
populations
716
. But, as observed
717
, none of these burials was dated, and thus their Late Mesolithic
704
ANDREESCU, R. & MIREA, P. 2008; WHITLE, A. et alii 2002; BIAGI, P. et alii 2005; BONSALL, C. 2008.
705
BONSALL, C. 2008.
706
GARANIN, M. & RDOVANOVI, I. 2001.
707
BONSALL, C. 2008: 270.
708
JOVANOVI B. 1987; 2008.
709
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
710
BORI, D. & DIMITRIJEVI, V. 2007.
711
BONSALL, C. 2007; 2008.
712
BONSALL, C. et alii 1997; BORI, D. 2008.
713
SREJOVI, D. & LETICA, Z. 1978.
714
BORI, D. & MIRCLE, P. 2004.
715
BONSALL, C. 2007: 58.
716
BORI, D. & STEFANOVI, S. 2004.
717
BONSALL, C. 2008.
date is doubtful. Tis specifc type of burial could as well be another special feature of the Lepenski
Vir site.
Diet studies
Presence of carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the human collagen allows the determination of
the diet type the individual of a certain community had. In the Lepenski Vir population from 6300
to 6000 cal BC (Final Mesolithic), two types of diets were noticed: a predominantly aquatic one
(fsh and shells, with high values of N
15
and C
13,
present on other sites during the Late Mesolithic in
the Iron Gates), and a second, showing a very important terrestrial component. Tis later diet was
determined only in three individuals, making them perfect candidates for individuals of a Mesolithic
community who lived their lives in a Neolithic community and were brought back to be buried in
their place of origin
718
or who were perhaps individuals with special diet requirements.
Other evidence also indicates that some Mesolithic traditions survived in the Iron Gates area
afer 6000 cal BC: buildings with a trapezoidal ground plan continued to be erected on sites such as
Lepenski Vir, Padina and Vlasac, together with the deposition of the sculpted river boulders.
Other suggested arguments for a contact between the two types of populations were the
appearance in Mesolithic contexts of exotic goods such as the Mediteranean mussel and snail
shells occurring on some sites, as well as the pyrotechnology of the lime plaster foors, a technique
unknown in the European Mesolithic, but present in the Early Neolithic of Greece.
719
IV.4.4 Conclusions
Te Mesolithic sites on the lef bank of the Danube were presented in general lines within a proposed
chronological framework. Te short time allocated for excavations and the dif cult working condi-
tions had infuenced the outcome of the excavations. Quite a number of feld surveys took place,
with results still waiting for publication. When comparing sites, the quantity of the available infor-
mation is highly variable, both between the right and the lef bank, but also within the lef bank
itself. Variation is given not so much by the amount of published information but by the excavation
methodology and professional interests on the part of the authors of the research. Lithic analyzes
played the major part, as the main excavators of the Mesolithic sites (Fl. Mogoanu, Al. Punescu,
V. Boronean) were all specialists of the Palaeolithic. Less importance was given to architectural
structures and burials, as indicators of change within human communities. On the other hand,
Mesolithic and Early Neolithic in the Iron Gates were always studied separately, as two diferent
ages that had nothing in common. Each of them was diagnosed taking as a starting point the type of
most common archaeological fnds for the respective age, e.g. lithic industry for the Mesolithic and
potery for the Early Neolithic.
With new available data, no longer relying just on stratigraphies and typologies, the image
of the Iron Gates Mesolithic is starting to change, as we must distance ourselves from the tradi-
tional view:
Te prevailing view of the Iron Gates Mesolithic, based on excavations conducted in the 1960s, is of
a foraging society, which, in the course of its long development fom the Late Glacial to the mid-Holocene,
exhibited an increasing degree of social complexity and sedentism. In this scenario, there was an initial
period of cave occupation when people followed a nomadic lifestyle based on hunting terrestrial herbi-
vores. Ten, around 7600 cal BC, the foragers began to intensify their exploitation of aquatic resources,
which made possible a reduction in residential mobility leading to the establishment of semipermanent or
718
BONSALL, C. 2007: 62, Fig. 5; BONSALL, C. 2008: 274.
719
PERLES, C. 2001; BONSALL, C. 2008.
permanent setlements on the banks of the Danube. According to some archaeologists, so successful was
this foraging adaptation that the Mesolithic inhabitants of the Iron Gates were able to resist the adoption
of agriculture for centuries afer it became established in the surrounding regions, even though they traded
with neighbouring farmers for potery and other goods.
720

Although most of the sites are nowadays submerged, the old collections are a valuable source
of information. Further feld research on the upper terraces of the Danube can bring new data on
what the patern of the human occupations might have been at the beginning of the Holocene.
Te study of the faunal remains can yield information on seasonality, group mobility or function
of a certain site. AMS dating and stable isotope analyzes already suggested some changes in the
chronology of the area and in certain aspects of the MesolithicNeolithic transition, while tracking
population movements in and out of the Gorges.
Some of the issues that have been addressed recently are still highly speculative: food storage,
social complexity, long-distance exchanges. It has been said that it is not complexity that charac-
terized these Iron Gates Mesolithic communities, but rather stability
721
. Between 95006300 cal
BC there seemed to be very few changes in subsistence, architecture, lithic and bone/antler assem-
bleges. It is only afer 6300 cal BC that new features are seen in the Iron Gates: the carved boulders,
burials under the foor of the houses, plastered foors, potery fragments (?), polished stone artefacts.
Tis coincides with a cooling of the climate, triggering frequent and severe foodings of the Danube
banks, forcing human communties to relocate their setlements on the higher terrace of the Danube.
As shown previously, these terraces never made the subject of research. It is also possible that this
cooling event stopped the advance of Neolithic communities only approximately 100 km from the
Iron Gates. And during this period (63006000 cal BC) the two types of communities came into
contact as the stable istope analyzes suggested for the site of Lepenski Vir. A contact that perhaps
involved a change of population, goods and ideas.
If we have a look at the map in Fig. 53, along the Danube bank between Bazia and the dam at
Iron Gates II, there are at least 50 Mesolithic and/or Early Neolithic archaeological sites
722
. Mesolithic
fnds were reported in 17 of them, and in each one of these 17, an Early Neolithic occupation was also
documented. Coincidence? In some of the remaining 33 Early Neolithic sites, Mesolithic presence
was at times suspected. Either way, with all the rediscovered sites along the lef river bank, the image
of the Iron Gates area around 6000 cal BC looks a lot more dynamic than previously thought.
720
BONSALL, C. 2008: 275.
721
BONSALL, C. 2008.
722
BORONEAN, A. 2010a.
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2
is of great importance for understanding cultural changes and population
movement in central and southeast Europe. In this summary we shall try to recapit-
ulate conclusions reached by individual authors and to present a short survey of
the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods in the entire Banat region. Our intention is
to both highlight points of contact and open questions, but also to emphasize the
signifcance and potential of investigations of the earliest remains of the human
past in this area.
Te Palaeolithic
Despite the fact that large numbers of Palaeolithic sites have been recorded
in southwest Romania, very few of them have been investigated systematically.
Te most complete data were obtained by excavations at Coava, Tincova and
Romneti-Dumbravia, Hoilor cave and sites in the Iron Gates (Climente I and
II, Cuina Turcului) where remains from the end of Pleistocene and the beginning
of Holocene have been found. In Serbian areas of the Banat, on the other hand,
only sites in the vicinity of Vrac that provided huge quantities of material but
have never been systematically excavated have been recorded, while the results of
more recent investigations at most other sites (such as alitrena Cave, Baranica,
and Tabula Traiana Cave) are, with the exception of Petrovaradin fortress, only
partially published.
Not a single Lower Palaeolithic site has been identifed with certainty in Banat,
in contrast to Dobrugea, where their existence is at least mentioned
723
although not
yet confrmed
724
. It still remains to be seen whether these sites produce pebble and
fake tool industries as in central Europe or the fake industries similar to those at
Kozarnika. In any case it must be emphasized that the occurrence of Acheulean has
not been confrmed with certainty either in Romania or in other countries in central
and southeast Europe. Te appearance of bifacially faked tools could be rather linked
to technologically diverse industries of early Micoquian whose occurrence has been
recorded in the border areas of the Carpathian basin. One such industry is that from
Petrovaradin fortress where Taubachian/Charentian and Levallois elements appear
together with bifacial tools
725
.
Te interpretation of Charentian has also evolved. Tis facies was once
atributed to the so-called Charentian of southeast Europe that was dated to the late
723
PUNESCU, A. 1989; 2000.
724
DOBO 2008.
725
MIHAILOVI, D. 2009.
W
e hope that we have demonstrated in the previous chapters that, despite
relatively low levels of investigation of the region and a lack of absolute
dates for some of the sites, the study of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Banat
146 | Continuity and future research
phase of the Middle Palaeolithic.
726
Nevertheless, afer re-dating the remains from Krapina and other
recent investigations it is now clear that industries of this type appear in much earlier periods and
that, at least in Serbia, they probably precede and perhaps partially coincide with the appearance of
the Levallois technique in the Balkans.
727
Tis confusion resulted, among other things, from the fact
that this facies had been related to the late quartz/quartzite industries, which are confrmed not only
in southwest Romania (Eastern Charentian or Cave Mousterian) but also in Slovenia, Croatia and
even Serbia.
728
Authors of this book agree, however, that the quartz character of the industry should
not be strictly connected to distinct Mousterian facies but perhaps rather refects the setlement
patern and technology of knapping the quartz pebbles.
Levallois artifacts have been found at many sites in Banat (Crvenka-At, Balata, Gornea,
Romaneti-Dumbravia). For the time being everything indicates a long and complex history of use
of this technique, which appears in both early and late phases of the Middle Palaeolithic in various
Mousterian facies. It is interesting that Middle Palaeolithic industries with leaf points (where the
Levallois component is also very prominent) have not been confrmed, but just single specimens
of this tool type. Tis is rather surprising because industries of this type have been encountered at
many sites in the Pannonian basin, in north Romania and north Bulgaria.
Early Upper Palaeolithic in western, central and eastern parts of the Carpathian basin is repre-
sented by great numbers of sites and considerable variability in the transitional industries, which are,
however, ofen in uncertain stratigraphic position or poorly dated. Tey roughly cover the lengthy
time-span between 40-25ka BP (afer 30ka BP) and comprise Mousterian-based units (Mitoc facies,
Brynzenian, Szeletian, Prut culture and Corpaci facies), which contain diferent frequencies of
Levallois debitage and/or sidescrapers, denticulates and notches and a tool in common, the bifacial
leaf point.
729
Still, some recent studies/results are in line with general arguments in the Romanian liter-
ature suggesting the long coexistence of MP and EUP industries and their uniform evolution without
rapid population replacement, which should be verifed by the application of new geoarchaeological
methods and techniques, and by undertaking new analyses and especially feld investigations
730
.
Something that is not controversial is the fact that anatomically modern humans appeared in
this area before ca. 36 ka. Te 2002, 2003 and 2004 discoveries of early modern human remains in
a paleontological context (but without archaeological evidence) in the Petera cu Oase caves in the
Banat Mountains (Cara-Severin County), has provided a window on the biology of these earliest
modern humans in Europe
731
. Te initial discovery led to systematic study of Petera cu Oase
732
,
followed by diferent analyses
733
and have spurred several scientifc projects: a palaeoanthropological
project re-examining forgoten human fossils from Romanian caves (old fossil discoveries) and
their direct dating
734
and new research in Banat,
735
thus bringing the Romanian record into broader
Afro-Eurasian discussions of the origins and dispersal of anatomical modern humans
736
.
Te question of the bearers of early Upper Palaeolithic culture has, however, not yet been
solved as human remains at the sites in Romanian caves have not been found in association with
artifacts. Most authors think that the appearance of Homo sapiens could be related to the Aurignacian
726
GBORI, V. 1976.
727
SIMEK, J. F. & SMITH, F. H. 1997.
728
OSOLE, F. 1971; PUNESCU, A. 1989; AHERN, J. C. M. et alii 2004.
729
ANGHELINU, M. et alii 2011.
730
HORVATH, I. 2009.
731
TRINKUS, E et alii 2005.
732
LAZAROVICI, G. et alii 2005; BLTEAN, I. C. et alii 2008.
733
RICHARDS, M. P. et alii 2008.
734
SOFICARU, A. et alii 2006; 2007; ALEXANDRESCU, E. et alii 2010.
735
BLTEAN, I. C. et alii 2008.
736
TRINKUS, E. et alii 2006.
Continuity and future research | 147
0 or proto-Aurignacian industries within the wider region of the Carpathian basin. Te earliest dated
Aurignacian sites (Tabula Traiana Cave, Baranica) are dated to 36-35 ka but a very small quantity
of fnds has been discovered that do not allow drawing of wider conclusions
737
. A rich Aurignacian
layer has been recently confrmed in alitrena cave but absolute dates and results of the analyses of
material have not yet been published
738
.
Many Aurignacian sites were encountered in the Romanian and Serbian part of Banat, the
most important being Coava, Tincova and Romneti-Dumbravia in the Romanian Banat
739
and
Crvenka, At and Balata in the vicinity of Vrac
740
in the Serbian Banat. Tese setlements probably
belong to the same setlement patern and the material found at them is very similar. Te raw
materials are identical, knapping technology is the same or similar and the structure and stylistic-
typological characteristics of tools are almost identical. At most of the mentioned sites conical
cores for bladelets, carinated, nosed and conical endscrapers, Aurignacian blades, dihedral burins,
strangled blades and (at Romanian sites) Dufour bladelets and Font-Yves points were recorded. As a
result these sites could be identifed as the Banat group of the Krems type Aurignacian.
Te frst Aurignacian stage of the Romanian Banat (Coava lower layer, the single layer
in Tincova) was atributed to the last, Wrm IIIII, interstadial. Pollen-based geochronological
estimations in Romneti suggested a much later Tardiglacial chronology. Te general typological
structure of the toolkits (carinated, nosed end-scrapers, dihedral burins and burins on truncation,
Aurignacian blades, as well as Dufour bladelets and Font-Yves points) suggested direct connection
to Central Europe, especially Krems type Aurignacian. In a typical culture-historical vein, Mogoanu
viewed the Banat Aurignacian as a late echo of the Krems Aurignacian groups, retreating into the
Banat refuge in favor of the Central European Gravetian
741
. Its late survival and degeneration
explained the less and less characteristic toolkits from the upper layers in Coava and Romneti
742
.
In recent times, however, some Romanian sites such as Tincova have been related to the
proto-Aurignacian
743
. Authors of this text, although not denying that possibility, agree that this
assumption has yet to be confrmed. Te new comparative analyses of the lithic industries show
many similarities and at the same time some diferences (raw material exploitation, core compo-
sition, debitage structure, blade production, toolkit structure) between the lithic assemblages from
Coava, Romaneti-Dumbravia
744
and Tincova
745
. In that light the re-evaluation of the Aurignacian
in Banat requires more detailed technological and typological studies
746
.
As a consequence of these new results, the new approaches on the Palaeolithic in Romanian
Banat are focused on:
a) re-evaluating the lithic assemblages from the old excavations at Tincova (studies in
20072008 )
747
, Romneti-Dumbravia and Coava (20092010); and
b) resuming excavations in all above mentioned Romanian sites, within the CRC project
Our Way to Europe, aiming for a detailed chronological framework
748
.
Te three sites (Romneti-Dumbrvia and Coava in 2009 and Tincova in 2010) were
selected for complete stratigraphical, chronological and archaeological re-evaluation. Tis was to
737
MIHAILOVI, D. et alii 1997; BORI 2008.
738
MIHAILOVI, D., MIHAILOVI, D. 2009.
739
MOGOANU, F. 1972; 1976; 1978; 1983; HAHN, J. 1970; 1977.
740
MIHAILOVI, D. 1992.
741
SITLIVY, V. et alii 2011.
742
MOGOANU, F. 1978; 1983.
743
TEYSSANDIER, N. 2003; 2008; ZILHO, J. 2006.
744
SITLIVY, V. et alii 2011.
745
BLTEAN, I. C. 2011.
746
BLTEAN, I. C. 2011.
747
BLTEAN, I. C. 2011.
748
Unpublished data/research in progress.
include test pits, TL, OSL, pollen analyses, sedimentological and tephra sampling, all correlated
to the study of both old and new archaeological collections. It should be noted that recent debates
on the defnition of the Banat Aurignacian usually involved Tincova and Oase Cave early modern
human fossils.
In the current understanding, the re-evaluation of the old collections together with new results
from the recent excavations (TL, OSL and tephra sampling, biology of the Early Modern Humans
from Oase Cave) will ofer us a new image on the signifcance of the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic
of the Banat region in a regional context the Carpathian area and the Danube corridor
749
.
Te richest and probably among the earliest Gravetian sites in north Serbia and southwest
Romania is alitrena Cave. A broad repertoire of technological and typological elements which relate
this site to the central European Gravetian, particularly to the Willendorfan, has been encountered
in the very rich industry from this site
750
. However there are also parallels with the industries from
Temnata and Kozarnika (layer IVb) in Bulgaria
751
. It is still unclear whether the fnds from this cave
bear witness to the shifing of Gravetian communities from the Carpathian basin toward the south at
the beginning of last glacial maximum. Early and middle phases of the Epigravetian are characterized
by uniform industries with straight-back bladelets and a rather restricted tool repertoire. Te indus-
tries of that type were confrmed in the Climente I Cave and dated to the Last Glacial Maximum
752
.
Similar phenomena as in the fnal Epigravetian in the Mediterranean were confrmed in the
fnal Epigravetian in Banat, coinciding with the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene.
Te microlithization of artifacts took place in that period and thumbnail and circular endscrapers,
geometric microliths (segments and triangles) and arched backed points also appeared. According
to some authors these phenomena could indicate migration of the bearers of the Epigravetian
techno-complex from the Mediterranean zone toward the Balkan hinterland
753
. According to others,
however, these elements could be instead related to technological changes and changes in the
setlement patern and economy that have been recorded in this period across a much larger area
754
.
Tere is, however, almost unanimous agreement that these changes had a decisive impact on the
beginning of the evolution of the Mesolithic in the Iron Gates.
Te Mesolithic
Despite the fact that the information presented in this volume on the Iron Gates Mesolithic is
somehow incomplete, lacking a detailed presentation of the sites on the right bank of the Danube and
also of the two Romanian sites on the lef bank located outside the boundaries of the historical Banat,
the authors hope they have managed to ofer a comprehensive overview of the main characteristics
of the hunter-gatherer communities, and their possible interactions with the Early Neolithic ones.
Te chronology proposed for the Iron Gates sites is a provisional one, based on the
14
C dates
available at the present moment: Early Mesolithic (132007200 cal BC), Late Mesolithic (7200
6300 cal BC), Final Mesolithic (63006000 cal BC).
Within the chronological limits of the Early Mesolithic fall
14
C dates from sites in caves
(Climente II, Veterani and Hoilor), rockshelters (Cuina Turcului), islands (Ostrovul Banului)
or open air sites (Vlasac, Lepenski Vir, Padina). Te economy was based on hunting, but with an
important fshing component
755
. Te fint industry shows techno-typological characteristics similar
to the Epigravetian, while displaying a strong use of local raw materials, especially local fint.
749
SITLIVY, V. et alii 2011; BLTEAN, I. C. 2011.
750
MIHAILOVI, D. 2008.
751
DROBNIEWICZ 1992; TSANOVA, T. 2003.
752
BORONEAN, V. 2000.
753
BORONEAN, V. 2000.
754
MIHAILOVI, D. 2007.
755
BONSALL, C. 2008.
Continuity and future research | 149
Presence of obsidian was noted on some sites. Bone artifacts appear a lot more ofen than their antler
or tusk counterparts, with awls and projectile points among the most frequent types. Decorated
bone tools (the fshnet patern), pierced animal teeth and medium sized boulders with small circular
depressions were seen by some archaeologists as the diagnostic tools of this period. Burials are
documented, at times within formal disposal areas, mainly on the right bank of the Danube
756
.
Te sites of the Late Mesolithic appear to have been established mainly in the open air:
Rzvrata, Icoana, Veterani Teras, Schela Cladovei, Vlasac, Lepenski Vir, Hajduka Vodenica, and
Kula. Architectural features become more numerous, with oval or trapezoid shaped habitations,
circular or rectangular hearths made of stones, some of them worked. Te largest quantity of fnds in
the setlements dates from this period. Quartz started to prevail among the chipped stone artifacts
particularly in the Lower Gorges while fint use decreases dramatically on some of the sites and
obsidian disappears. Bone assemblages are extremely abundant and diversifed. Antler becomes an
important resource for tool manufacturing.
Judging by the faunal remains and isotopic analyses, aquatic food sources predominate over
the terrestrial ones. Domestic dog remains (possibly domesticated during the earlier period) were
encountered on most sites, with a suggestion of the dog itself being a possible food source. Food
storage was possible, although defnite evidence is still missing
757
. Opinions on the social complexity
of the communities vary greatly
758
. Te number of burials seems to have increased dramatically, still
with a higher prevalence on the right bank
759
. Presence of art items was unevenly noticed among
the sites, some with many beautifully decorated bone/antler/tusk artifacts (Icoana) whereas others
yielded just a few pieces or none. Shells originating from the Adriatic and the Mediterranean areas
suggest the existence of complex exchange networks
760
. Evidence of violent death and injuries is
dif cult to interpret at a large scale, given the fact they were observed in a signifcant number of cases
only at Schela Cladovei
761
.
It appears that with the time of 8.2 ka cold event
762
occupation came to an end at most setle-
ments of the Late Mesolithic. Tere is ample evidence of continuation on the right bank at Lepenski
Vir while on the lef bank a possible candidate (but needing to be confrmed by further research and
14
C dates) is Alibeg, in the Upper Gorges. Archaeological evidence (types of habitations, hearths
and burials
763
suggests Ostrovul Corbului and Ostrovul Mare as likely candidates too, but again,
more
14
C dates are needed.
Te Final Mesolithic fourishes at Lepenski Vir, with its renowned trapezoid houses and
sculptured boulders. Together with the burials between and underneath houses they point towards
a distinct, probably sacred character of this particular setlement
764
. Burial practices are similar to
those of the Final Mesolithic but in the funerary rite, as well as in other aspects, new elements also
appear (burying the dead lying on one side with legs and arms fexed, the presence of potery and
ground stone tools within the setlements)
765
. Reliance on aquatic sources becomes even stronger
766
.
One of the directions to be followed in future research is that of Mesolithic-Early Neolithic
contacts, as suggested by the presence of the above-mentioned Early Neolithic elements in Mesolithic
756
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996.
757
BONSALL, C. 2008.
758
VOYTEK, B. & TRINGHAM, R. 1989; RDOVANOVI, I. & VOYTEK, B. 1997; BONSALL, C. 2008.
759
RDOVANOVI, I. 1996; BORONEAN, A. 2009; BORONEAN, A. & BORONEAN, V. 2010.
760
SREJOVI, D. & LETICA, Z. 1978; BORONEAN, V. et alii 1999.
761
ROKSANDI, M. 2000; 2008; BONSALL, C. 2008.
762
MAGNY, M. et alii 2003.
763
BORONEAN, A. 2010a; 2010b.
764
SREJOVI, D. 1969.
765
GARANIN, M. & RDOVANOVI, I. 2001; RDOVANOVI, I. 2008; BONSALL, C. 2008.
766
BONSALL, C. 2008.
contexts. One possible method is through a thorough study of the existing collection of fnds and feld
documentation of the earlier excavations. Also, the past few years have seen excavation and publi-
cation of interesting new data from recent feld research at Vlasac, Aria Babi, and Schela Cladovei.
Other than excavations on the few sites that survived the fooding, feld surveys are necessary both on
the higher terraces of the Danube (previously unexplored at least on the lef bank) and in the area
further downstream of the Iron Gates II dam. Tere is no reason that Mesolithic occupations of the
river banks should have been confned only to the area suggested by the present state of the research.
* **
We hope that we have managed to show in this book that the importance of understanding
the Banat far exceeds its regional limits, even though almost all we know about its early prehistory
is based on the results of older excavations, and despite the fact that many essential elements for the
reconstruction of cultural, social and economic change are still missing. We therefore hope that this
book will encourage further regional as well as international collaboration in solving the many open
questions remaining in the study of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures of this area.
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The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Periods of Banat (Romania)

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The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Periods of Banat (Romania)

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THE PREHISTORY OF BANAT

I. The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic

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