A Study On Plant Based Dietary Patterns and Cancer Risk

Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res.
, 23(2), Nov Dec 2013; n 45, 265-278 ISSN 0976 044X

International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research
Available online at www.globalresearchonline.net

265

Nagarathna Purada Kattimani Matada, Mukumbayi Mulumba Philippe, Raju Koneri
Department of Pharmacology, Karnataka College of Pharmacy, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
*Correspondingauthors E-mail: nagarathna_pkm@yahoo.co.in

Accepted on: 04-10-2013; Finalized on: 30-11-2013.
ABSTRACT
This article reviews current evidence regarding the relationship between vegetarian eating patterns and cancer risk. Although plant-
based diets including vegetarian and vegan diets are generally considered to be cancer protective, very few studies have directly
addressed this question. Most large prospective observational studies show that vegetarian diets are at least modestly cancer
protective (10%12%reduction in overall cancer risk) although results for specific cancers are less clear. However, a broad body of
evidence links specific plant foods such as fruits and vegetables, plant constituents such as fiber, antioxidants and other
phytochemicals, and achieving and maintaining a healthy weight to reduced risk of cancer diagnosis and recurrence. Also, research
links the consumption of meat, especially red and processed meats, to increased risk of several types of cancer. Vegetarian and
vegan diets increase beneficial plant foods and plant constituents, eliminate the intake of red and processed meat, and aid in
achieving and maintaining a healthy weight. The direct and indirect evidence taken together suggests that vegetarian diets are a
useful strategy for reducing risk of cancer.
Keywords: Cancer, Diet, Vegan, Prevention.

INTRODUCTION
espite widespread research efforts and increasing
treatment options, cancer remains a leading cause
of death worldwide. In 2004, cancer accounted for
13% of deaths worldwide (~7.4 million people) with
projections estimating an increase to 12 million deaths in
2030.
1
Yet cancer is still considered a largely preventable
disease with estimates of up to 90%95%of the risk with
roots in environment and lifestyle.
2
Important lifestyle
factors include tobacco use, diet, alcohol, sun exposure,
environmental pollutants, infections, stress, obesity, and
physical inactivity. Dietary factors were estimated to be
responsible for 30%35%of all cancers in the US in 1981.
3

More recent estimates keep 35%as the overall impact of
suboptimal dietary choices, but more specifically note
that diet may be linked to as many as 70%of cases of
colorectal and prostate cancer, 50%of cases for breast,
endometrial, pancreatic, and gallbladder cancers, but only
to about 20% of cases of lung, bladder, mouth, and
esophageal cancers.
4

While it is clear that dietary patterns and choices are
important modulators of cancer risk, the question
remains just what dietary pattern is optimal for primary
prevention of cancer. The question remains just what
dietary pattern is optimal for primary prevention of
cancer. The purpose, then, of this study is to review
current evidence regarding the relationship between
vegetarian eating patterns and cancer risk.
Cancer
Cancer encompasses a group of diseases related to
malignant neoplasms. Known characteristics include: lack
of apoptotic expulsion of mutant cells, prolific cell division
with no inhibitor mechanisms; invasion of and nutrient
diversion from normal tissue cells, metastasis (blood and
lymph) and/or tumour formation.
4
In 2007, 13%of global
mortality (~7.9 million people) was attributed to cancer.
5,6

While recent reductions have occurred in affluent
countries (presumed due to technological advances
6-10

and/or education), an ageing population may elevate
mortality (~12 million by 2030).
5

While cancers can arise from genetic predisposition,
reduced immunity and adverse external environmental
factors (pollution, toxins, etc.
13,14
most are considered
preventable (e.g. ~1.5 million deaths linked to smoking).
6-
10
Diet (including cooking methods and alcohol
consumption, ingestion of carcinogenic-initiating or -
promoting foodstuffs and exclusion of anti-carcinogenic
foodstuffs) accounts for ~30%of cancers in developed
countries.
5,6,10,15-17

While some propose the tumorigenic role of diet is more
modifying than instigating
18
, the WHOs Global Burden
of Disease survey study
19
estimates (by way of
extrapolating observational data) that increasing fruit and
vegetable intake to a 600 g baseline could reduce the risk
of esophageal, stomach and lung cancer by 20%, 19%and
12%, respectively. Health authorities advocate diets
limited in animal-based foods, charring cooking methods,
dairy products, refined sugars, salt and hydrogenated and
saturated fats, and rich in a selection of plant-based foods
to protect against cancer.
13,16,17,20

This is not surprising the high quantity of non-nutritive
phytochemicals (including carotenoids, polyphenols,
flavenoids, isoflavones, catechins, phenolic compounds,
indoles, tocotrienols and tocophenols) that plants contain
possess well documented antioxidant, antineoplastic,
anti-inflammatory and/or anti-carcinogenic
A Study on Plant Based Dietary Patterns and Cancer Risk
D
Research Article
Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 23(2), Nov Dec 2013; n 45, 265-278 ISSN 0976 044X


266
properties.
10,18,21-27
Elevated quantities of protective
phytochemicals and fiber in vegan diets were confirmed
by Dewell et al.
28
, though use of soy protein supplements
may have enhanced results. Steinmetz and Potter
(1996)
26
conducted a journalistic review of 228 published
research studies (22 of which were animal studies, whose
results should be approached with caution) investigating
the protective effects of vegetables and fruit (including
tomatoes). They reported strong inverse correlations
between high consumption and cancer (especially
stomach, esophageal, lung and bladder). Conversely, a
significant number of the studies indicated positive
correlations between citrus fruit and breast and colon
cancers, and legumes and colon cancer.
Vegan diets, however, are not defined by what they
incorporate, but rather what they omit. Whereby any diet
can increase protective dietary components and limit
detrimental ones, on a molecular level the difference
between limiting and removing food groups is
significant. Vegans omit meat, fish and dairy, lending
conjecture toward protein, calcium and B12 deficiencies
and variations in essential fatty acid levels.
29,30

DIETARY PATTERNSAND CANCER RISK
Epidemiologic evidence from the CornellOxford China
Study conducted in the 1970s and 1980s demonstrated
important relationships between dietary patterns and
cancer risk and highlighted the importance of diets rich in
whole plant foods for cancer prevention.
31
The magnitude
of difference in cancer risk within China ranges by more
than a factor of 10 across the 65 counties studied.
Campbell and colleagues found that a group of diseases
(notably cancers of the colon, lung, breast, brain, as well
as leukemia, cardiovascular disease, diabetes) were all
associated with a diet of nutritional extravagance
meaning a diet that was associated with higher levels of
blood cholesterol and blood urea nitrogen. These risk
markers were directly associated with the intake of milk,
meat, eggs, dietary fat, and animal protein and inversely
associated with dietary fiber and legumes. In addition,
breast cancer mortality increased with increasing dietary
fat concentration and blood cholesterol levels. Higher
blood levels of vitamin C and beta carotene, antioxidants
provided by plant foods, were associated with lower rates
of several cancers.
31
In another report, Campbell and
Chen make the strong statement that there appears to
be no threshold of plant food enrichment or minimization
of fat intake beyond which further disease prevention
does not occur. And they add that in the context of diets
in China the addition of small amounts of foods from
animal sources is associated with increased risk of chronic
degenerative diseases including cancer.
32

Similarly, Carroll and colleagues observed a strong
relationship between animal fat intake and breast cancer
mortality across 38 countries and no relationship
between plant fat intake and breast cancer in these same
countries.
33
And in China during this time, where the
variations in fat intake were mostly from animal-based
foods and ranged from 6%24%percent (all within low-
fat ranges by US standards), breast cancer risk increased
as fat intake increased.
34

Evidence from migration studies in the 1980s also pointed
to the hypothesis that plant-based dietary patterns are
more cancer protective than standard Western dietary
patterns that tended to be higher in animal food, sugar,
and highly processed food products. For example, in one
study breast cancer incidence for Japanese women who
migrated to Hawaii increased nearly 3-fold in the first
generation and increased to 5-fold higher in the second
generation. Similarly, colorectal cancer incidence jumped
5-fold for first generation immigrants in this same study
population while stomach cancer incidence dropped by
about half.
35
Other migrant studies demonstrate dramatic
shifts in site-specific cancer incidence when groups of
people migrate to countries with different dietary and
other lifestyle patterns.
36
Worldwide nutrition transitions
in less developed countries continue to rapidly unfold and
are linked to cancer largely through their direct or indirect
effect on body weight. The key changes increasing body
weight and thereby increasing the risk of cancer are foods
from animal sources, caloric sweeteners, and highly
energy dense beverages and foods. This evidence clearly
points to the importance of environment, including food
availability and dietary patterns, for cancer risk.
Current interest in diets of hunter gatherers, both past
37-
40
(Palaeolithic) and present
41
(e.g. the Papua New
Guinean Samberigians and Kitavans and the Australian
Aboriginal tribes) is due to hypothesis that their intake of
wild meat, fish and shellfish, leafy vegetables, fruit, nuts,
insects and larvae
38,39
is causal of consistent findings of
low relative risk (RR) for diseases such as obesity,
hypertension, hyperinsulinaemia, ischaemic heart
disease, stroke and malnutrition.
39
Outside the hunter-
gatherer realms, significant dietary modifications from
farming (meat and fish), refinement (grains, sugars, fats)
and the inclusion of dairy, alcohol and salt are
hypothesized to have produced ever-increasing
occurrence of these maladies, thus affording them the
labels diseases of civilization or diseases of longevity.
38

At present, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer are
the most prevalent mortality causing non-communicable
diseases globally.
42
Vast amounts of time, money and
resources are utilized to identify risk reduction factors,
many of which are fashioned after dietary aspects.
The modern diet consists of three main groups:
omnivorous (consumption of all food groups); lacto-ovo-
vegetarian or vegetarian (consumption of all edible
plant-derived material, eggs, dairy, honey; though no
meat or fish) and vegan (sole consumption of edible
plant-derived material). There exist variations to these
(e.g. fructarian, pescatarian) as well as scope for
dominance of particular food group or nutrient
depending on the desired outcome (e.g. high animal
protein, low refined carbohydrate, low fat, high fibre,
etc).


267
Nutritional research has invariably found vegans to
consume less zinc, protein, calcium, fat (including
saturated fat), cholesterol and B12 and more
carbohydrate, fibre, vitamins A, C, B6 (folate), B9,
potassium, magnesium, manganese, copper and iron
(presumably plant-derived non-haeme iron, whose
bioavailability is inferior to haeme iron)
43-45
relative to
their omnivorous and vegetarian counterparts. One study
reported vegans to show more diversity in their nutrient
sources and to augment their B12, calcium, zinc, selenium
and vitamin D intake with supplements.
46

Non-dietary related aspects were found to include higher
socio-economic status, reduced alcohol and tobacco
consumption and greater levels of education and dietary
restraint (which reduced propensity toward obesity).
44, 47-
49
While these factors may contribute to cancer and CVD
risk reduction or promotion, only nutritional factors are
investigated herein.
Dietary Factors and Cancer Risk
Red and processed meats increase the risk of some types
of cancer. Diets rich in plant foods decrease the risk of
many types of cancer; specifically, beneficial effects have
been shown for fiber, fruits, vegetables, legumes
including soy foods, and whole grains. Obesity increases
the risk of some types of cancer. Many plant constituents,
some nutrients, and other non nutriuent phytochemicals
increase immune function. Each of these will be discussed
below and each one points to the potential use fullness of
vegetarian dietary patterns for reduction of cancer risk.
2,
50-59

Meat and Cancer
Higher levels of meat, especially red meat (egg, beef,
pork, lamb) and processed meat (egg, bacon, hotdogs,
luncheon meat, chicken nuggets, and other salted or
cured meats) have been linked to a variety of cancers in a
number of studies.
2,10

When meat is cooked at high temperatures through pan
frying, grilling, or barbequing potential carcinogenic
compounds, heterocyclic amines (HCAs), are formed.
60,61

These compounds and have been strongly linked with
increased risk of cancer at a number of sites.
62
A study of
grilled chicken dishes from popular chain restaurants in
California, found that all 100 samples contained some 2-
Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine (one
common HCA). The authors concluded that although
risks to the public have not been precisely calculated,
strategies to reduce exposure to these and other
carcinogens are warranted.
63
They also note that HCA
formation in plant based grillable foods such as veggie
burgers or mushrooms is highly unlikely.
63
By definition,
vegetarian diets are meat free. Even semi vegetarian diets
are usually devoid of red and processed meats. Studies
linking the consumption of red meat and the
consumption of HCAs to cancer risk highlight the
potential benefits of vegetarian eating styles to reduction
of cancer risk.
BODY WEIGHT AND CANCER
Convincing evidence links higher levels of body fatness to
increased risk of cancers of the esophagus, pancreas,
colorectum, breast (postmenopausally), endometrium,
and kidney.
36
Consistent evidence also indicates that
overweight and obesity are significant risk factors for
cancer recurrence and comorbidities including
cardiovascular disease and diabetes among cancer
survivors.
64
Adopting a physically active lifestyle can help
individuals achieve a healthy weight and has been found
to reduce the risk of colon and breast cancer.
64

Vegetarians on average weigh 3%20%less and have
lower rates of obesity than omnivores.
65
In addition, short
term studies of low-fat vegetarian and vegan diets have
been successfully utilized to reduce body weight.
65

For these reasons, adopting a low fat vegetarian diet and
regular physical activity will likely move individuals to a
healthy weight and therefore reduce cancer risk.
DIETARY PROTEIN MODULATES GLUCAGON/INSULIN
ACTIVITY
Dietary protein triggers release of both insulin and
glucagon. However, the pancreatic islets obviously do not
detect protein per se, but rather the postprandial
increase in circulating amino acids.
66-69
The mechanisms
whereby pancreatic and cells respond to amino acids
are clearly distinct, since their responses to individual
amino acids differ greatly. As a rough rule of thumb,
essential amino acids are relatively more effective for
releasing insulin, whereas non-essential amino acids
particularly arginine and pyruvate precursors
preferentially release glucagon. This makes sense
homeostatically. When essential amino acids are amply
available, it is appropriate to stimulate protein synthesis
and storage with an insulin burst. When the non-essential
amino acids used avidly for gluconeogenesis, as well as
arginine (a catalyst of the urea cycle), are present in
excess, it is reasonable for increased glucagon activity to
stimulate gluconeogenesis. The failure of branched-chain
amino acids to trigger glucagon release is understandable
in light of the fact that these amino acids are catabolized
primarily in skeletal muscle, which is not responsive to
glucagon.
In general, vegan proteins tend to contain a higher
fraction of non-essential amino acids than the main
animal-derived dietary proteins do.
70
(A notable
exception is gelatin.) For this reason, it is reasonable to
expect that, if total protein intake is kept invariant, a
vegan diet will promote greater net glucagon activity than
an omnivorous diet.
Presumably, the fasting amino acid profile is as crucial a
determinant of basal glucagon secretion as fasting
glucose is for insulin secretion. Conversely, even though
basal plasma levels of essential amino acids may not in
themselves have a potent impact on insulin secretion,
they can be expected to modulate beta cell response to
fasting or post-prandial glucose. Thus, when dietary


268
protein is relatively high in non-essential amino acids,
down-regulation of insulin and up-regulation of glucagon
is a logical consequence.
As compared to soy protein, casein is a relatively poor
source of non-essential amino acids; it is notably low in
arginine and glycine, which are excellent secretogogues
for glucagon. Sanchez and colleagues demonstrated that
addition of arginine and glycine to a casein-based liquid
meal resulted in a substantial increase of the postprandial
glucagon/insulin ratio.
71
(The fact that milk proteins are
relatively poor glucagon releasers is probably not
accidental milk protein is intended for the anabolic
needs of the growing infant, not as substrate for
gluconeogenesis).
Health Benefits of Increased Glucagon Activity
The liver appears to be the sole significant target for
glucagon activity. The action of glucagon on hepatocytes
is mediated by a stimulation of adenyl cyclase that raises
cAMP levels.
72
Insulin acts to antagonize hepatic glucagon
activity, by activating cAMP phosphodiesterases and by
additional mechanisms.
73,74
Thus, the ratio of circulating
glucagon to insulin is a crucial determinant of net
glucagon activity in hepatocytes.
cAMP and protein kinase A regulate the synthesis of a
wide range of hepatic proteins. In particular, cAMP
downregulates the synthesis of a number of enzymes
required for de novo lipogenesis and cholesterol synthesis
(including citrate lyase, acetyl CoA carboxylase, fatty acid
synthetase, and HMG-CoA reductase), while up-regulating
key gluconeogenic enzymes as well as the LDL receptor
and IGFBP-1.
75-85
cAMP also post-translationally
modulates the phosphorylation of key hepatic enzymes to
stimulate gluconeogenesis and fatty acid oxidation.
86-90

The actions of cAMP in hepatocytes are readily
rationalized when we realize that glucagon, as well as
epinephrine (which likewise increases hepatocyte cAMP),
are signals evoked by hypoglycemia. These hormones
suppress less urgent anabolic activities of hepatocytes
(such as fat or cholesterol synthesis) so that most
available free energy can be diverted to fuel
gluconeogenesis. Hepatic fatty acid oxidation accelerates
to meet the increased energy needs for gluconeogenesis
and to generate ketone bodies as ancillary fuel for the
central nervous system. The induction of IGFBP-1 a
short halflife protein that sequesters unbound IGF-I,
blocking its activity is likewise physiologically adaptive.
During hypoglycemia, the tonic insulin-like activity of the
circulating pool of IGF-I could worsen matters by pushing
serum glucose lower.
91-93
The cAMP-mediated
acceleration of IGFBP-1 synthesis minimizes this problem
by rapidly down-regulating IGF-I activity. Suppression of
serum somatomedin activity following glucagon
administration has in fact been documented in human
volunteers.
93
The effects of a chronic net increase in
hepatic glucagon activity are readily predicted:
a reduction in de novo lipogenesis, decreasing fat
storage in animals;
a reduction in cholesterol synthesis and in circulating
LDL cholesterol
an increase in hepatic lipid oxidation (in part owing to
lower malonyl-coA levels) that, in conjunction with
the decrease in lipogenesis, causes a reduction in
triglyceride synthesis and in serum triglycerides;
a decrease in effective IGF-I activity that can be
expected to retard cancer development and in some
instances slow cancer growth. (IGF-I, a crucial
progression growth factor, enhances the mitotic
rate of stem cells, pre-neoplastic lesions, and some
cancers, while inhibiting apoptosis.
94-98

These effects are precisely what are observed when
animals or humans are switched from omnivorous or
casein-based diets to comparable diets in which soy
protein is substituted for animal proteins. Soy-based diets
decrease weight gain in obesity-prone rats
99
, lower
elevated serum LDL cholesterol in cholesterol-fed rodents
and in hypercholesterolemic humans
99,100
, lower elevated
serum triglycerides, and often inhibit cancer induction
and/or slow cancer growth in various animal cancer
models.
101,102

WEIGHT REDUCTION WITH VEGAN DIETS
since hepatic fatty acid oxidation promotes appetite
control and lowers the respiratory quotient
103
, a relative
disinhibition of hepatic fatty acid oxidation in vegans may
play a role in the body weight reduction observed during
ad libitum vegan diets. Increased thermogenic activity
may also be involved; glucagon has thermogenic effects
that is part may reflect the uncoupled nature of hepatic
ketogenesis.
104-106
Additionally, Iritani et al. recently
reported that conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine
is catalyzed more efficiently by liver microsomes derived
from soy protein-fed rats (as compared to casein-fed
controls); this was paralleled by significantly higher
plasma T3 levels in the soy group.
99
Conveivably, this up-
regulation of 5-deiodinase activity may reflect increased
growth hormone produciton
107
a consequence of soy
feeding observed clinically.
71

Vegan diets may also impact adipocyte function. Kern et
al. report that human adipocytes express IGF-I receptors,
and that indeed the physiological activator of human
adipocyte lipoprotein lipase activity is IGF-I rather than
insulin.
108
This intriguing finding merits replication. The
implication is that IGF-I has an important anabolic impact
on adipocytes very reasonable in light of IGF-Is function
as a signal of abundance and that conversely, measures
(such as vegan diets) which down regulate IGF-I activity
should promote leanness. Analogously, some of the
weight loss on vegan regimens presumably is attributable
to loss of lean mass consequent to a decreased anabolic
impact of IGF-I on skeletal muscle.



269
Vegan Diets Vs Cancer
In a nutshell, the thesis presented here is that animal
protein precisely because it is high-quality protein, rich
in essential amino acids will up-regulate IGF-I activity
and thereby act as a cancer promoter; low-quality vegan
proteins can be expected to have the opposite effect. As
stated previously, IGF-I acts as a progression factor for
most normal and pre-neoplastic tissues; although often
not sufficient to induce mitosis by itself, IGF-I usually
works in tandem with competence growth factors to
promote cell turnover.
95
Induction of the IGF-I receptor is
often one of the essential roles of competence growth
factors. Recent studies also show that IGF-I can inhibit
apoptosis in many normal and neoplastic cell lines.
97,98,109

It is now believed that apoptosis of genetically damaged
cells is crucial to cancer prevention; cancer promotional
agents invariably demonstrate anti-apoptotic activity.
110-
115
Increased IGF-I activity can be expected to increase the
rate at which fixed mutations are accumulated in stem
cells by promoting stem cell turnover; by suppressing
apoptosis, it can be expected to increase the chance that
initiated cells will engender clinical cancer. In addition,
the mitotic and apoptotic rates of many cancers are
sensitive to IGF-I activity.
95
Dietary modulation of IGF-I
activity can therefore be expected to have profound
consequences for cancer risk and progression.
As noted above, reduction of IGF-I activity during a vegan
diet can be expected owing to up-regulation of IGFBP-1.
However, the possibility that such diets may also
modestly decrease hepatocyte synthesis of IGF-I should
be considered. In clinical or animal studies, low-protein
diets of adequate caloric content decrease the serum
level and hepatic synthesis of IGF-I
116-120
; this effect
appears to be attributable to a dietary deficit of certain
essential amino acids.
120-122
Low intake of these essential
amino acids markedly destabilizes the 7.5kb form of the
IGF-I mRNA, and may also impede translation of IGF-I
mRNAs.
122-124
Severe protein restriction may not be
required to evoke this effect.
Moreover, down-regulation of IGF-I activity in vegans is
often not solely attributable to the protein content of
vegan diets. To the extent that vegan diets, as compared
to omnivorous diets, tend to be relatively low in fat
(especially saturated fat), and high in fiber, these factors
should promote increased insulin sensitivity both
acutely, and by aiding prevention of obesity.
125,126
This
improved insulin sensitivity will down-regulate insulin
secretion, thus contributing to the protective increase in
glucagon/ insulin ratio and the resulting up-regulation of
IGFBP-1. Evidently, several independent mechanisms can
interact to reduce IGF-I activity in vegans. (Perversely, the
saturated fats featured in many animal products are the
most efficient at inducing insulin resistance, whereas
ingestion of monounsaturates found in such favorite
vegan foods as avocadoes, olives, and olive oil appear to
have little impact on insulin sensitivity in humans
127,128
;
perhaps this is a major reason why monosaturates
emerge blameless in much recent epidemiology.)
Hyperinsulinemia as A Risk Factor For Breast,
Endometrial, And Colon Cancers
Several authors have presented cogent evidence that
hyperinsulinemic insulin resistance is an important risk
factor for postmenopausal breast cancer, and that
hyperinsulinemia induces the increased testosterone
production, the reduction in serum SHBG, and the
increased free estradiol levels that characterize subjects
at high risk for this disorder.
129-132
It may be reasonable to
extend and clarify this hypothesis by proposing that the
fundamental risk factor is a high activity of insulin relative
to glucagon in hepatocytes, resulting in a suppression of
IGFBP-1 production. As suggested previously
130-132
, the
consequent increase in effective IGF-I activity can be
expected to potentiate the LH-induced production of
androgens by ovarian stroma,
133-135
while decreasing
hepatic production of SHBG. Peripheral aromatization of
these androgens will give rise to estrogens, an increased
proportion of which will remain unbound owing to the
decrease of circulating SHBG and the increased
competition by testosterone for binding to this SHBG. The
increased effective activities of both estrogen and IGF-I
will then synergize to stimulate mitosis and inhibit
apoptosis in pre-neoplastic breast tissue; this synergism
results, at least in part, from estrogen-mediated induction
of IGF-Ireceptors.
136,137

This formulation recognizes a countervailing protective
role for glucagon and, by implication, for vegan proteins
that preferentially promote glucagon release. It also
stresses the importance of insulin activity on hepatocytes.
The equivocal impact of diabetes on breast cancer risk
132

is rationalized by the realization that net insulin activity
on hepatocytes is decreased in diabetics even in type 2
diabetics who are hyperinsulinemic. Hepatocytes are
typically insulin resistant in type 2 diabetics; in type 1
diabetics and in type 2 diabetic with profound beta cell
failure, portal insulin concentrations are sub-normal. That
some studies nevertheless do see an increased breast
cancer risk associated with type 2 diabetes
138,139
may
reflect the fact that this type of diabetes is usually
preceded by a long period of compensated
hyperinsulinemic insulin resistance.
These considerations enable the prediction that a low fat
vegan diet will be profoundly protective with respect to
risk for postmenopausal breast cancer. The protein
content of this diet will preferentially support glucagon
activity and possibly decrease IGF-I synthesis. Other
aspects of the diet a low intake of fat, increased fiber,
decreased propensity to induce obesity will promote
good peripheral insulin sensitivity and thus down regulate
insulin secretion. Such diets are likely to be relatively high
in phytochemicals that may have anti-initiating activity,
and the possibility that phytoestrogens contribute some
protection does merit further evaluation.
140

Endometrial cancer is also associated with obesity (and,
by implication, insulin resistance), and the role of
increased unopposed estrogen activity in its etiology is


270
well known. A favorable impact of a low-fat vegan diet on
endometrial cancer risk is therefore readily predicted. As
in the breast, estrogen induces IGF-I receptor expression
in the uterus.
141

Risk of colon cancer has likewise been linked to
hyperinsulinemia.
142
That induction of this cancer may be
particularly sensitive to IGF-I activity is suggested by the
high-incidences of colon polyps and colon cancer
associated with acromegaly.
143,144
The normal colonic
mucosa, as well as many colon adenocarcinomas, are IGF-
I sensitive.
145-149

The puzzling fact that postmenopausal estrogen
replacement does not increase breast cancer risk as
greatly or consistently as might be expected, may reflect
the fact that orally-administered estrogens (but not
transdermal or endogenous estrogens) suppress hepatic
production of IGF-I.
150
This suggests that long-term
estrogen replacement therapy may reduce the risk of
colon cancer and perhaps of other cancers that are not
estrogen-dependent. In fact, decreased colon cancer risk
associated with estrogen replacement has recently been
demonstrated,
151-155
this effect is quite substantial 30
50%reduction in risk is seen in current or long-term
users.
A concurrent vegan diet and insulin-sensitizing lifestyle
should amplify this benefit, and also reduce the breast
cancer risk associated with estrogen replacement. Indeed,
the down-regulation of IGF-I activity achievable by oral
estrogen in conjunction with a vegan diet might be
sufficiently large to be useful in cancer therapy either as
a palliative regimen or as an adjuvant to apoptosis-
inducing measures. Tamoxifen, which is reported to
decrease IGF-I and/or up-regulate IGFBP-1
156,157
, might be
a useful alternative to estrogen in men or in women who
have estrogen-sensitive tumors. It will be interesting to
determine whether soy phytoestrogens can influence
hepatic IGF-I production. In light of the media frenzy
regarding hormone replacement therapys impact on
breast cancer risk, wouldnt it be ironic if such therapy
proves to have a neutral or even favorable impact on
overall cancer mortality?
Igf-I Activity and Prostate Cancer Risk
IGF-I is a potent growth factor for normal prostatic
epithelium, as well as for prostate adenocarcinoma cell
lines
158-164
. That IGF-I activity is crucial for prostate cancer
growth is suggested by studies showing that IGFBP-1 and
other IGF-1 antagonists suppress the proliferation of
cultured prostate cancer cells, that transfection of such
cells with antisense DNA to the IGF-I receptor inhibits
their growth and invasiveness in vivo, and that an
antagonist of GHRH (which decreases IGF-I levels)
suppresses the growth of human prostate cancer cell lines
in nude mice.
163-167
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), a
marker for prostate cancer prognosis, is a serine protease
that cleaves and inactivates IGFBP-3; it may therefore
serve to induce a local increase in IGF-I activity.
168
There is
evidence that IGF-I may activate the androgen receptor in
human prostate cancer cell lines, in the absence of
androgens.
169,170

Increased IGF-I activity can also up-regulate testosterone
availability. In addition to suppressing hepatic SHBG
production, IGF-I may promote GnRH secretion,
potentiate the LH response to GnRH in pituitary
gonadotrophs, and likewise potentiate the steroidogenic
response of Leydig cells to LH.
171-176
Reduced levels of free
testosterone reported in vegetarians may reflect these
effects.
177,178
It can be concluded that high IGFI activity
should have a potent growth promotional/antiapoptotic
impact on prostate epithelium, owing both to a direct
impact of IGF-I, as well as an increase in testosterone
availability.
Two other high-incidence cancers in Western society are
those of the ovary and pancreas. Both theca and
granulosa cells of the normal ovary are IGF-I
responsive.
133-135,179
Virtually all ovarian cancers and
cancer cell lines examined express IGF-I receptors, and
respond to IGF-I as a growth factor.
180,181
Estradiol
potentiates the response to IGF-I in some ovarian cancer
cell lines by up-regulating the IGF-I receptor.
182
Case-
control studies often but not invariably point to obesity as
a risk factor.
183-186
With regard to the pancreas, IGF-I
appears to be a progression factor for cells of the
exocrine pancreas, and many recent reports indicate that
pancreatic adenocarcinomas express IGF-I receptors and
are IGF-I responsive.
187-190
In some pancreatic cancer cell
lines, IGF-I functions as an autocrine growth factor, such
that antibodies to the IGF-I receptor, or antisense DNA to
this receptor, inhibit cell growth in vitro. An LHRH agonist,
which down-regulates IGF-I receptor expression in
carcinogen-induced autogenous pancreatic cancers in
hamsters, markedly retards the growth of these
cancers.
191
Some epidemiology links pancreatic cancer
risk to high BMI as well as to diabetes; the latter
correlation, however, declines with time, suggesting that
the associated diabetes is sometimes caused by the
nascent pancreatic cancer. Overall, these findings appear
consistent with the possibility that IGF-I activity
modulates the promotion and progression of both
ovarian and pancreatic cancer.
192-196

CHEMOPREVETION OF CANCER BY PLANT POLYPHENOLS
Epigallocatechin galate
EGCG induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, and exhibits
anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic potential in
hepatoma cells by modulating signal transduction
pathways. Paradoxically, EGCG may exert its cytostatic
effects against cancer cells through a pro-oxidant
activity
197
, although it has strong antioxidant properties.
In addition, a number of animal studies have shown that
EGCG prevents chemical-induced HCC. Moreover, a
number of studies with tea extracts rich in EGCG have
given very promising results for its chemopreventive
activity
198-202
, although there was not always an apparent
relationship between EGCG concentration and liver tumor
response.
203
So far, there are no clinical or


271
epidemiological studies available on EGCG
chemopreventive activity against HCC. However, use of
EGCG in clinical trials for other cancer types, such as
cervical cancer, has given optimistic results.
203

Quercetin
Quercetin seems to exert its chemoprevention potential
through inhibition and induction of survival and death
signaling pathways respectively in liver cancer cells.
Moreover, in animal studies, quercetin protects from
DEN- or AFB(1)-induced liver carcinogenesis due mainly to
its strong antioxidant activity and consequent prevention
of ROS-induced DNA mutations in critical genes for cell
cycle control, such as p53. Although there are concerns
about the toxicity and safety of quercetin, human studies
have not shown adverse effects associated with the oral
administration of quercetin in a single dose of up to 4 g or
after one month of 500 mg twice daily.
204

Luteolin
the mechanisms for the potential anticarcinogenic effects
of luteolin against HCC include mainly induction of
apoptosis and cell cycle arrest by action on critical
molecular targets for cell survival such as p53, p21, cyclin
dependent kinases and caspases in liver cancer cells.
205

Indeed, the induction of caspase-8 and -9 suggests that
luteolin may activate both molecular pathways for
capsases, the extrinsic and mitochondrial respectively.
Moreover, like other polyphenols, luteolins apoptosis
induction in cell culture studies seems to be mediated
through pro-oxidant effects.
206
There are limited data
regarding the in vivo chemopreventive activity of luteolin
against HCC, and thus to fully elucidate the molecular
mechanisms of its action and potential use in clinical
trials, more in-depth animal studies are needed.
Silymarin and Silibinin
The potential use of silymarin and its most active
constituent, silibinin, as chemopreventive agents against
HCC is based on their capability to induce pro-apoptotic
and reduce anti-apoptotic proteins in hepatoma cells. In
addition, they have been shown to possess anti-
metastatic and anti-angiogenic potential in cell culture
studies. Moreover, their pro-apoptotic effects on liver
cancer cells have been confirmed in in vivo experiments.
Interestingly, a number of clinical studies have been
performed with silymarin investigating its
hepatoprotective activity.
207

Acacetine
Acacetin inhibited cell growth, induced cell cycle arrest at
G1 phase and apoptosis through increase in levels of p53
protein and its downstream pro-apoptotic targets,
p21/WAFI and Bax proteins. In addition, the acacetin-
induced increase in Fas/APO-1 and its ligand FASL
suggested the involvement of FAS/FASL system in the
observed apoptosis.
208

Genistein
Genistein induces inhibition in hepatoma cells growth,
apoptosis and metastasis by modulating the expression of
antiapoptotic, pro-apoptotic and regulating motility
proteins, as well as the activity of cyclin dependent
kinases regulating cell cycle. These in vitro effects have
also been confirmed in animal studies, since genistein
induced apoptosis and inhibited metastasis of HCC
induced by either chemicals or implanted hepatoma
cells.
209

Daidzein
Daidzein inhibit hepatoma (i.e. HepG2, Hep3B, Huh7, PLC
and HA22T) cell growth, induce apoptosis through
caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage.
210
Daidzein was
also demonstrated to affect the redox status in hepatoma
cells although the data are conflicting since it induced
mRNA catalase expression but at the same time caused a
mild oxidative stress.
211
However, an in vivo study showed
that daidzein administration (50 mg/kg) to rats increased
antioxidant enzymes activity such as SOD, catalase, GPx,
GST, DT-diaphorase (DTD) and GSH levels in liver.
212

Stilbenes (trans-resveratrol)
The anticarcinogenic effects of trans-resveratrol against
HCC include apoptosis and cell cycle arrest by modulation
of the expression and activity of pro-apoptotic, anti-
apoptotic and cell cycle regulating proteins, and anti-
metastatic potential and anti-angiogenic potential by
modulation of the expression of pro-angiogenic
molecules.
210,213,214

Cucurmin
Curcumins suppression against HCC cells is largely due to
inhibition of abnormal cell proliferation and apoptosis
through modulation of relevant signaling pathways.
202,215-
217
. Curcumin has also been shown in vivo to inhibit HCC
induced by chemicals or implanted hepatoma cells.
Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo studies exhibited anti-
angiogenic and anti-metastatic properties of curcumin
against hepatocarcinogenesis.
Cafeic acid
Both in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that cafeic
acid and its derivative, cafeic acid phenyl ester (CAPE),
inhibit growth and metastasis of HCC through modulation
of expression of proteins involved mainly in NF-jB
molecular pathway.
218,219

Protocatechuic acid
Protocatechuic acid has been shown to inhibit HepG2 cell
growth through induction of JNK and p38 proteins.
220

Protocatechuic acid to induces apoptosis through
mitochondrial membrane disruption and caspase-3 and -8
activation, exhibit anti-metastatic potential by reducing
intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 level, and
possible anti-angiogenic and anti-inflamatory activity by
reducing VEGF, interleukin (IL)-6 and (IL)-8 levels.
221



272
Capsaisin
In vitro studies have shown capsaicin to induce apoptosis
in HepG2 cells.
222,223
In particular, capsaicin-induced
apoptosis in HepG2 cells is associated with increased
levels of ROS, intracellular Ca2+, p53 protein, cytochrome
c protein, an indicator of mitochondrial membrane
disruption, growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible 153
(GADD153) protein, and caspase-3 activity, and decreased
levels of the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bax.
224

Another study suggested that the capsaicin- induced
inhibition of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1)
enzyme activity leads to increased ROS levels in HepG2
cells
225
. The increased ROS levels, in turn, result in
activation of Akt and increased nuclear translocation of
NF-E2- related factor (Nrf2) that binds to the antioxidant
response element (ARE), thus causing the expression of
heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an enzyme conferring
cytoprotection against oxidative stress.
225

Also, capsaicin has been shown to induce apoptosis in SK-
Hep-1 HCC cells mediated through down-regulation of
anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein and upregulation of pro-
apoptotic protein Bax and caspase-3.
222

DISCUSSION
The complexity of factors impacting overall cancer risk,
the heterogeneity of cancer etiology, and the limitations
and the variation in dietary patterns may be responsible
in part for the lack of clarity regarding the relationship
between overall cancer risk and specific dietary factors. In
addition, specific constituents in these whole foods such
as soluble fiber, carotenoids, indoles, isoflavones, among
hundreds of others have been linked to protection against
specific cancers.
Vegetarian and vegan diets tend to be higher in these
protective plant foods and plant constituents than
omnivorous diets. Vegetarian and other diets built mainly
from plant foods would also be expected to support
higher immune function, largely because they tend to be
richer in cancer protective phytochemicals. The extent to
which a vegetarian diet is cancer protective likely
depends on how rich the dietary pattern is in these
protective whole plant foods.
Wide homogeneity of vegetarian diets exists such that
individuals choosing self reported vegetarian diets may
exclude only some types of meat to all animal products,
may include very large or very small amounts of highly
processed food, may include only raw foods, or may vary
widely with respect to cheese and other dairy product
consumption.
Some factors may even be protective for some types of
cancer and causal or promoting for other types of cancer.
For example, adequate vitamin D status is thought to be
protective against prostate cancer, but sun exposure (the
stimulus for vitamin D production in the human body) is a
major risk factor for skin cancer. Similarly higher calcium
intakes are associated with decreased risk of colon cancer
but increased risk of prostate cancer. Perhaps even more
problematic for nutrition and cancer research generally
and the question at hand specifically are the problems
inherent in measuring food intake and quantifying dietary
patterns.
Results for specific cancers are less clear although there is
some observational evidence that vegetarian diets may
reduce risk of prostate, breast, colon, stomach cancer,
bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, and cancers of the
lymphatic and hematopoietic tissues.
Choosing a vegetarian dietary pattern is an easy way to
follow the expert recommendations to eat mostly foods
of plant origin and limit intake of red meat and avoid
processed meat to reduce cancer risk.
The vegan diet typically differs from vegetarian and/or
omnivorous by: reduced protein, energy, saturated fat,
cholesterol, calcium, B12, phosphorous, zinc and sodium
levels; and increased carbohydrate, fiber, saturated fat;
vitamins A, C, B6, B9, magnesium and potassium levels.
Whilst aspects of this diet in reducing risk of cancer may
be obvious (e.g. increased phytochemicals), studies
assessing the efficacy or detriment of some nutrients
remain ambiguous and/or incomplete.
A vegan diet, aside from its deficit of vitamin B12 activity
(readily compensated by supplementation), is typically
more micronutrient-dense (per calorie) than the diets
favored by omnivores, higher in protective
phytochemicals and fiber, and usually somewhat lower in
fat especially saturated fat. Fears that a vegan diet may
be inadequate in protein quality or quantity are
unfounded. Advocates of veganism often cite the
remarkable fact that human breast milk presumably
designed to promote anabolism during a time of rapid
growth has a protein content that corresponds to only
5%of total calories. With the exception of fruit or refined
sugar or oils, the protein content of vegan foods is
considerably higher than this.
Clearly, vegan protein is not the only way to achieve a
favorable balance of glucagon/insulin activity. Measures
which promote the insulin sensitivity of skeletal muscle,
and thus down-regulate insulin secretion, should have
comparable benefit. A low-fat, fiber-rich diet, coupled
with regular exercise and avoidance of visceral obesity,
should be useful in this regard.
CONCLUSION
No diet or regimen can be expected to be free of any
drawback. The fact that a low-fat, fiber-rich vegan diet is
likely to reduce risk for most types of cancer, should be
sufficient to recommend it. Those who are willing to
make less striking changes in their lifestyle can be
encouraged to reduce their consumption of animal
products.



273
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A Study On Plant Based Dietary Patterns and Cancer Risk

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A Study On Plant Based Dietary Patterns and Cancer Risk

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Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res.

, 23(2), Nov Dec 2013; n 45, 265-278 ISSN 0976 044X

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