1

Chapter -1
Introduction
1.1 Artificial Intelligence

Instead of trying to produce a programme to simulate the adult mind, why not rather try
to produce one which simulates the child's? If this were then subjected to an
appropriate course of education one would obtain the adult brain. ALAN TURING

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the human-like intelligence exhibited by machines or software.
The AI field is interdisciplinary, in which a number of sciences and professions converge,
science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy and neuroscience, as well as other specialized
fields such as artificial psychology. Major AI researchers and textbooks define the field as
"the study and design of intelligent agents",
[1]
where an intelligent agent is a system that
perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.
[2]
John
McCarthy, who coined the term in 1955,
[3]
defines it as "the science and engineering of
making intelligent machines".
Russell and Norvig go on to quote a few definitions and classify them in mainly two
dimensions. The ones on top in Fig1 are concerned with thought processes and reasoning,
whereas the ones on the bottom address behaviour. In the same figure, definitions on the left
measure success in terms of human performance whereas the ones on the right measure
against an ideal concept of intelligence, which we call rationality.









2


Thinking Humanly

"The exciting new effort to make
computers think ... mad7ines with minds,
in the full and literal sense."
(Moorland, 1985)

"The automation 04 activities that we
associate with human thinking, activities
such as decision-making, problem
solving, learning ..." (Hellman, 1978)
Thinking Rationally

"The study of mental faculties through
the use of computational models."
(Ourniok and McDermott, 1985)



"The study of the computations that make
it possible to perceive, reason, and act."
(Winston, 1992)
Acting Humanly

"The art of creating machines that per-
form functions that require intelligence
when performed by people."
(Kurzweil, 1990)

"The study of how to make computers do
things at Which, at the moment, people
22C better." (Rich and Knight, 1991)
Acting Rationally

"Computational Intelligence is the study
of the design of intelligent agents."
(Poole el al, 1998)



"Al is concerned with intelligent
behaviour in artifacts." (Nilsson, 1998)
Fig1.1 Definitions of artificial intelligence categorized


The main advances over the past sixty years have been advances in search algorithms,
machine learning algorithms, and integrating statistical analysis into understanding the world
at large. However most of the breakthroughs in AI arent noticeable to most people. Rather
than talking machines, AI is used in more subtle ways such as examining purchase histories
and influence marketing decisions.









3

1.2 Evolution of Artificial Intelligence
384BC: Aristotle described the syllogism, a method of formal, mechanical thought.
1st century: Heron of Alexandria created mechanical men and other automatons
1600s: Hobbes, who has been described by Haugeland (1985),[4] as the "Grandfather
of AI," believed that thinking was symbolic reasoning like talking out loud or
working out an answer with pen and paper.
1800s: The first general-purpose computer was the Analytical Engine by Babbage
Early 1900s: Church-Turing thesis
1950s: Samuel built a checkers program and implemented it, which learnt to play
checkers. Newell and Simon (1956) built a program, Logic Theorist that
discovers proofs in propositional logic.
1956: The field of AI research was founded at a conference on the campus
of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. The attendees, including John
McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, became the
leaders of AI research for many decades
1950s: McCulloch and Pitts showed how a simple thresholding "formal neuron" could
be the basis for a Turing-complete machine. The first learning for these neural
networks was described by Minsky (1952). One of the early significant works
was the Perceptron of Rosenblatt (1958).
1970-80s: A period when AI reasoning became widespread in languages such as Prolog.
1997: Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning
world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.
2011: In Jeopardy! Quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering
system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy champions, Brad
Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.






4

1.3 Turing Test
The test was introduced by Alan Turing in his 1950 paper "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence," which opens with the words: "I propose to consider the question, 'Can
machines think?'" Because "thinking" is difficult to define, Turing chooses to "replace the
question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous
words." Turing's new question is: "Are there imaginable digital computers which would do
well in the imitation game?"
[5]
This question, Turing believed, is one that can actually be
answered.
The Turing test is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to, or
indistinguishable from, that of a human. In the original illustrative example, a human judge
engages in natural language conversations with a human and a machine designed to generate
performance indistinguishable from that of a human being. All participants are separated
from one another. If the judge cannot reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine
is said to have passed the test. The test does not check the ability to give the correct answer to
questions; it checks how closely the answer resembles typical human answers. The paper
itself was built on ideas proposed by Kurt Godel that there are statements about computing
numbers that are true, but that cant be proven. Alan Turing worked on the problem in an
effort to help define a system for identifying which statements could be proven. In the
process he proposed the Turing Machine. The paper defines a computing machine with the
ability to read and write symbols to a tape using those symbols to execute an algorithm. This
paper and the Turing machine provided that basis for the theory of computation.
The idea of such a long term, difficult problem was a key to defining the field of AI because
it cuts to the heart of the matter rather than solving a small problem it defines an end goal
that can pull research down many paths. Without a vision of what AI could achieve, the field
itself might never have formed or simply remained a branch of math or philosophy. The fact
that the Turing test is still discussed and researchers attempt to produce software capable of
passing it are indications that Alan Turing and the proposed test provided a strong and useful
vision to the field of AI. Its relevance to this day seems to indicate that it will be a goal for
the field for many years to come and a necessary marker in tracking the progress of the AI
field as a whole.





5

Chapter -2
Virtual Reality
2.1 What is Virtual Reality?
Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. Arthur Clarke

Many people take "virtual" to mean fake or unreal, and "reality" to refer to the real world.
This results in an oxymoron. The actual definition of virtual, however, is "to have the effect
of being such without actually being such". The definition of "reality" is "the property of
being real", and one of the definitions of "real" is "to have concrete existence". Using these
definitions "virtual reality" means "to have the effect of concrete existence without actually
having concrete existence", which is exactly the effect achieved in a good virtual reality
system. There is no requirement that the virtual environment match the real world. Inspired
by these considerations we adapt the following definition:


Virtual reality is the use of computer technology to create the effect of an interactive
three-dimensional world in which the objects have a sense of spatial presence.

VR (VIRTUALREALITY) is a term that describes computer-simulated environments
which mimic actual physical presences within locations in the real world (or in fantasy
worlds). Typically, experiences are visual only. They are comprised of info that is displayed
via a computer monitor or via stereoscopic displays. VR, sometimes referred to as immersive
multimedia, is a computer-simulated environment that can simulate physical presence in
places in the real world or imagined worlds. Most current virtual reality environments are
primarily visual experiences, displayed either on a computer screen or through
special stereoscopic displays, but some simulations include additional sensory information,
such as sound through speakers or headphones. Some advanced haptic systems now include
tactile information, generally known as force feedback in medical, gaming and military
applications. Furthermore, virtual reality covers remote communication environments which
provide virtual presence of users with the concept of telepresence and telexistence or a virtual
artefact either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse,
devices such as a wired glove. The simulated environment can be similar to the real world in
order to create a lifelike experiencefor example, in simulations for pilot or combat training.



6

2.2 Evolution of Virtual Reality
The inception of VR began in the 50s. At this point in time, computers were huge
behemoths. They had to be housed in air-conditioned rooms. These computers were utilized
by experts only. In most peoples eyes, early computers were little more than outsized
calculators. However, there was one person who realized the full potential of computers, as
they related to the concept of VR . This was Douglas Engelbart - a radar technician. He was
also a true visionary in the field of VR. Because of his experience with radar, he was able to
envision digital displays that came from computers, rather than seeing computers as giant
adding machines. By connecting a computer to a screen, Engelbart knew it would be
possible to take things further


Fig2. A product of the vision of Engelbart
We can take a look at the evolution of VR in the fashion of a timeline
1950s: Morton Heilig wrote in the 1950s of an "Experience Theatre" that could
encompass all the senses in an effective manner, thus drawing the viewer into the
onscreen activity. He built a prototype of his vision dubbed the Sensorama in 1962, along
with five short films to be displayed in it while engaging multiple senses (sight, sound,
smell, and touch). Predating digital computing, the Sensorama was a mechanical device,
which reportedly still functions today. Around this time, Douglas Englebart uses
computer screens as both input and output devices.
1966: Thomas A. Furness III introduces a visual flight stimulator for the Air Force.
1968: Ivan Sutherland created what is widely considered to be the first virtual reality
and augmented reality (AR) head-mounted display (HMD) system. It was primitive both
in terms of user interface and realism, and the HMD to be worn by the user was so heavy
it had to be suspended from the ceiling. The graphics comprising the virtual environment
were simple wire-frame model rooms.
1980s: The term "virtual reality" was popularized by Jaron Lanier, one of the modern
pioneers of the field. Lanier had founded the company VPL Research.
2012: Oculus VR, a virtual reality technology company is founded by Brendan Iribe and
Palmer Luckey
2014 : Facebook purchases Oculus VR for $2 billion

7


2.3 Types of VR
Virtual Reality worlds may be grouped into two classifications depending upon the effects
their viewers can exert upon the world. They may be classified as either
PASSIVE or INTERACTIVE.
PASSIVE:
In a passive VR world, the viewer can observe and experience, but he cannot alter it. A
common example is a typical movie. The viewer may become very immersed, or lost, in the
world of the movie, its locations and actions. But no matter how real this appears to the
viewer, he can have absolutely no effect on the outcome. Such worlds can provide sense
inputs to any of the senses to increase the realism of the experience. We have seen a number
of moves in this direction in the history of movies.
INTERACTIVE:
In interactive virtual worlds the viewer can interact with his virtual surroundings. Here, the
viewer not only can observe a created world but can cause things to happen in it, change the
scene by moving objects, or even affect the action. The degree to which the user can interact
with the virtual world can vary widely from one system to another. The interaction can be
either single or multi-sense. For example, in a house tour you open a drawer. In one system
you may move your hand and see the drawer open. In another, more advanced, system you
not only see the virtual hand open the drawer, but you also feel the touch of the virtual drawer
on your real hand. Obviously, such a system would require much more complex design than a
single sense system.
It can also be classified in this manner:
Immersive
Distributed
Augmented
Telepresence







8

2.3.1 Immersive:
Immersion into virtual reality is a perception of being physically present in a non-physical
world. The perception is created by surrounding the user of the VR system in images, sound
or other stimuli that provide an engrossing total environment. The name is a metaphoric use
of the experience of submersion applied to representation, fiction or simulation. Immersion
can also be defined as the state of consciousness where a "visitors" or "immersants"
awareness of physical self is transformed by being surrounded in an artificial environment;
used for describing partial or complete suspension of disbelief, enabling action or reaction to
stimulations encountered in a virtual or artistic environment. The degree to which the virtual
or artistic environment faithfully reproduces reality determines the degree of suspension of
disbelief. The greater the suspension of disbelief, the greater the degree of presence achieved.
Example: Head mounted displays such as Oculus Rift and CAVE (Cave Automated Virtual
Environment)


Fig2.3a) Oculus Rift DK1 Fig2.3b) Persons experiencing VR in CAVE

2.3.2 Distributed:
The idea behind distributed VR is very simple; a simulated world runs not on one computer
system, but on several. The computers are connected over a network (possibly the global
Internet) and people using those computers are able to interact in real time, sharing the same
virtual world. In theory, people can be sitting at home in various cities around the world, all
interacting in a meaningful way in VR. The environment in which a DVE user is immersed is
three-dimensional to the eye and ear. Moving in the environment changes the users visual
and auditory perspective. Unlike a video conferencing system (where an attendees screen
shows other attendees in their own video- conferencing rooms), DVE users assemble in a
virtual world - they are all seen, for example, seated together around a conference table in one
room, or walking together in a virtual building. Every user of a DVE appears in the computer
environment as an avatar - either a customized graphical representation, a video of the user,
or some combination of both - which he or she controls.
9

2.3.3 Augmented Reality:
Augmented reality (AR) is a live direct or indirect view of a physical, real-world environment
whose elements are augmented (or supplemented) by computer-generated sensory input such
as sound, video, graphics or GPS data. As a result, the technology functions by enhancing
ones current perception of reality
[6]
. Augmentation is conventionally in real-time and in
semantic context with environmental elements, such as sports scores on TV during a match.
With the help of advanced AR technology (e.g. adding computer vision and object
recognition) the information about the surrounding real world of the user
becomes interactive and digitally manipulable.
Example: Google Glass and Layar app





Fig2.3c) Google Glass Fig2.3d) Layar App showing Abbey Road



















10

2.3.4 Telepresence:
It is the use of VR to enter a shared cyberspace graphic environment for the purposes of
human communication and interaction, or to become electronically present in a distant
real-world environment for the purposes of remote-controlled action and/or observation. A
variation of visualizing complete computer generated worlds. It links remote sensors in the
real world with the senses of a human operator. The remote sensors might be located on a
robot. It is useful for performing operations in dangerous environments.
Example: Telepresence in medicine




Fig2.3e) The idea of tele-operator

















11


2.4 Applications of VR
Architecture
Training
Medicine
E-commerce
Entertainment
Manufacturing and Design
2.4.1 Architecture:
Architecture is probably one of the best real applications for VR. It can effectively be used to
enhance the experience of walking inside or around a structure that does not exist. Blueprints
only give a 2D representation of the building and 3D renderings on an ordinary computer
screen convey the spatial relation of a building in a very crude manner. VR enables us to
experience the building in an immersive way that gives an almost real-life representation. The
advantages of such a visualization system are convincing it is clear that using this
technology, the design process of complicated shapes of e.g., an aircraft, does not require the
building of expensive wooden models anymore. It makes the design phase much shorter and
cheaper.


Fig2.4a) Outside view of NASAs Virtual Wind Tunnel Fig2.4b) Inside view of the same









12

2.4.2 Training:
Some of the most effective applications of VR are in the field of education and training.
Different kinds of VR simulators have been developed to safely train people for real-life
situations. Airplane pilots train extensively on VR simulators before they take the controls of
a real plane. In addition to flight simulators virtual reality is also used to simulate combat
situations, sea navigation, space exploration, truck driving, fire fighting, medical surgeries
etc. Simulators used for education and training provide a more detailed virtual environment
and are more complex than those used for entertainment purposes. This also makes training
simulators a lot more expensive.

Fig2.4c) Flight simulator using VR

2.4.3 Medicine:
There are several practical VR applications in the medical industry including training,
surgery, diagnostics and rehabilitation. VR visualization particularly creates new possibilities
for future doctors to perfect their life-saving skills. VR is also in tele-surgery where a robot is
used to operate upon a subject to reduce human error and also achieve high precision when
minuteness and acuteness are of the main priority.












13

2.4.4 E-commerce:

The field of e-commerce uses VR purely for the purpose of visualisation of products a
company or seller has devised. The product is visualised in a particular area of interest using
VR so that the consumer can get the look and feel of it. This particular application makes use
of augmented reality which can place the product wherever necessary.
Example a furniture company has made a chair for consumers usage and wants them to
visualise the same in their living room so that they can decide easily on buying the product.




2.4.5 Entertainment:

The entertainment industry was one of the first to utilize virtual reality technology in real-
world applications and it has probably produced the most hype about the technology. The
idea of entering an immersive virtual environment where anything is possible gives game
designers a whole new dimension to work with. It can make games look and feel more like
the real thing which is for many gamers the ultimate goal.
Example theme parks having video games which have feedback using hydraulics etc


Fig2.4d) A user playing game (wearing HMD etc) in a theme park







14

2.4.6 Manufacturing and Design:
It is helpful for interior designers who can visualize their sketches. They can change colours,
textures and positions of objects, observing instantaneously how the whole surrounding
would look like. VR was also successfully applied in the field of surface design where the
designer could see the creation for himself and could alter it according to the needs. This also
helps speed up the process of design and the need of making wooden or clay models can also
be neglected.
VR is extensively used in manufacturing to visualize and prototype different types of objects
for one simple reason it is a lot cheaper to test a machine e.g. a plane or a car in a virtual
environment instead of building a real prototype. This of course does not eliminate the need
for real prototypes but it does enable the manufacturer to construct more complete prototypes.
The automotive industry for example has adapted Virtual Reality into its development cycle
and uses it to test the aerodynamic design and ergonomic elements of a car.


Fig2.4e) Designers visualising the design of car (left), inside of a car (right)











15

2.5 Components of VR
VR requires more resources than standard desktop systems do. A VR system is made up of 2
major subsystems, the hardware and software. The hardware can be further divided into
computer or VR engine and I/O devices, while the software can be divided into application
software and database as illustrated below.



Fig2.5a) Components


The components can also be visualised as shown in the following figure


Fig2.5b) Visualisation of the components of VR



16

Fig2.5b depicts the most important parts of human-computer-human interaction loop
fundamental to every immersive system. The user is equipped with a head mounted display,
tracker and optionally a manipulation device (e.g., three-dimensional mouse, data glove etc).
As the human performs actions like walking, head rotating (i.e. changing the point of view),
data describing his/her behaviour is fed to the computer from the input devices. The computer
processes the information in real-time and generates appropriate feedback that is passed back
to the user by means of output displays. In general: input devices are responsible for
interaction, output devices for the feeling of immersion and software for a proper control and
synchronization of the whole environment.

2.5.1 Input devices
The input devices are the means by which the user interacts with the virtual world.They send
signals to the system about the action of the user, so as to provide appropriate reactions back
to the user through the output devices in real time. They can be classified into tracking
device, point input device, bio-controllers and voice device. Tracking devices sometimes
referred to as position sensors, are used in tracking the position of the user , and they include,
electromagnetic, ultrasonic, optical, mechanical and gyroscopic sensors, data gloves, neural
and bio or muscular controllers.
Voice communication is a common way of interaction among humans. So it feels natural to
incorporate it into a VR system. Voice recognition or processing software can be used in
accomplishing this. But this field is in nascent stages.
2.5.2 VR Engine
In VR systems, the VR engine or computer system has to be selected according to the
requirement of the application. Graphic display and image generation are some of the most
important factors and time consuming task in a VR system. The choice of the VE engine
depends on the application field, user, I/O devices, level of immersion and the graphic output
required, since it is responsible for calculating and generating graphical models, object
rendering, lighting, mapping, texturing, simulation and display in real-time. The computer
also handles the interaction with users and serves as an interface with the I/O devices.
2.5.3 Output Devices
Output devices are responsible for the presentation of the virtual environment and its
phenomena to the user they contribute to the generation of an immersive feeling at most.
These include visual, auditory or haptic displays. As it is the case with input, the output
devices are also underdeveloped. The current state of technology does not allow to stimulate
human senses in a perfect manner, because VR output devices are far from ideal: they are
heavy, low quality and low-resolution. In fact most systems support visual feedback, and only
some of them enhance it by audio or haptic information.


17

2.6 Various devices in VR
2.6.1 Tracking devices
The absolute minimum of information that immersive VR requires, is the position and
orientation of the viewers head, needed for the proper rendering of images. Additionally
other parts of body may be tracked e.g., hands to allow interaction, chest or legs to allow
the graphical user representation etc.
Example magnetic, optical, acoustic, mechanical trackers

The field of tracking device includes tracking of the movement made by the eye. Since it is a
bit more complicated as it involves the line of sight and field of vision it requires different set
of devices for tracking the movement.

2.6.2 Data gloves

Gloves are 3D input devices that can detect the joint angles of fingers. The measurement of
finger flexion is done with the help of fiber-optic sensors (e.g., VPL Data Glove), foil-strain
technology (e.g., Virtex Cyber Glove) or resistive sensors (e.g., Mattel Power Glove). The
use of gloves allows the user richer interaction than the 3D mouse, because hand gestures
may be recognized and translated into proper actions [Mine95a]. Additionally gloves are
equipped with a tracker that is attached to the users wrist to measure its position and
orientation.


Figure 2.6 Gloves: (a) VPL Data Glove, (b) Virtex Cyber Glove

2.6.3 Other devices
Lots of other devices are also used for data input in VR such as optical data gloves, 3D mice,
acquisition devices, stylus, joystick and microphone. These are included as and when
necessary.

18

Chapter -3
Virtual Reality Challenges and Concerns

The big challenges in the field of virtual reality are developing better tracking systems,
finding more natural ways to allow users to interact within a virtual environment and
decreasing the time it takes to build virtual spaces. There are not many companies which
work for the development of tracking devices or other input devices specifically for the use of
VR. Most VR developers have to rely on and adapt technology originally meant for another
discipline, and they have to hope that the company producing the technology stays in
business.
Another challenge for VE system developers is creating a system that avoids bad ergonomics.
Many systems rely on hardware that encumbers a user or limits his options through physical
tethers. Without well-designed hardware, a user could have trouble with his sense of balance
or inertia with a decrease in the sense of telepresence, or he could experience cybersickness,
with symptoms that can include disorientation and nausea. Not all users seem to be at risk for
cybersickness -- some people can explore a virtual environment for hours with no ill effects,
while others may feel uneasy after just a few minutes. These drawbacks pose a question to
the engineers as they are detrimental and provide a roadblock in widespread usage and
acceptance of the technology.
A number of possible items of technology that could solve these issues:
1. Head mounted displays that are the same size and shape as traditional eyewear.
2. High level of computation and graphics within a single handheld device.
3. Universal networking to allow the user to reduce the processing power they have to carry.
4. Lightweight wireless display panels that are either carried or ubiquitously placed in the
environment.
5. Better tracking devices which are able to track the movement of the subject easily and
accurately hence reducing the lag and saving time.




19

Proposed work
Since the data gloves available with us are very bulky and also slow response times. I
propose development of a better tracking device namely glove which is not bulky and is more
efficient in tracking. The idea will incorporate devices from the field of sensors and also
make use of some programming to keep the generated data in sync. The main idea behind the
proposed glove is the delegation of computing to a central location away from body hence
providing a lot of benefits simultaneously.

















20

References
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2. Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 27, 3258, 968972
3. John Mcarthy C|Net Interview 2006
4. Haugeland J. (1985) Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea. MIT Press, Cambridge
5. Turing 1950, p. 442
6. Graham, M., Zook, M., and Boulton, A. "Augmented reality in urban places"
7. Oculus Rift, White paper, Oculus VR Inc.
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and Michael Gervautz, Institute of Computer Graphics Vienna University of
Technology, Austria
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