OPTIC FIBERS: FUNDAMENTAL

COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS (1
st
module)
Lecturer: Claudio Sacchi, Ph.D
University of Trento, International Master in
Telecommunications Enineerin, !cademic "ear #$%&'#$%(
!ssistant lecturer: Cosimo Stallo,
Ph.D
)isitin *rofessor: Prof. Luc
)andendor*e
PART 5: OPTICAL FIBER
TRANSMISSION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FUNDAMENTALS
+!SIC C,-CEPTS !+,UT ,PTIC!L .I+E/ T/!-SMISSI,-0
SI1-!L P/,P!1!TI,- T2/,U12 ,PTIC!L .I+E/S0
.I+E/ P!T2L,SS0
SINAL DISTORTIONS O!ER OPTICAL FIBERS
I-TE/M,D!L DISPE/SI,-0
C2/,M!TIC 3I-T/!M,D!L4 DISPE/SI,-0
./E5UE-C" /ESP,-SE ,. T2E ,PTIC!L .I+E/ C2!--EL0
P"OTODETECTION PROCESS
+!SIC P/I-CIPLES ,. P2,T,DETECTI,-0
PI- DI,DES0
!)!L!-C2E E..ECT: T2E !PD DI,DES0
5U!-TUM -,ISE0
E5UI)!LE-T CI/CUIT .,/ ! P2,T,DETECT,/
Telecommunication Systems University of Trento
#
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PERFORMANCES OF A FIBER LINE
PE/.,/M!-CE !-!L"SIS .,/ T2E DI1IT!L 3-!//,6+!-D4
,,7 C!SE0
C,MPUT!TI,- ,. SI1-!L'T,'T2E/M!L -,ISE /!TI, !-D
SI1-!L'T,'5U!-TUM -,ISE /!TI,0
SI1-!L'T,'-,ISE /!TI, ,PTIMI8!TI,-0
E5U!LI8!TI,- I- T2E 6IDE+!-D C!SE.
NUMERICAL DATA ABOUT OPTICAL FIBERS
&
OPTIC FIBERS: FUNDAMENTAL
(
BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT OPTICAL
FIBER TRANSMISSION
#"AT A OPTICAL FIBER IS $
It is su9stantially % &%'e(u)de m%de o* (l%ss that
*ro*aates a liht sinal 9y e:*loitin '%+)%t)o,s o* t-e
+e*+%.t)o, ),de/ of the ;aveuide material0
These variations determinate su..ess)'e +e*le.t)o,s %,d
+e*+%.t)o,s of the transmitted o*tical sinal throuh the
;aveuide0
Sinal *ro*aation over o*tic fi9er is due to t-ese su..ess)'e
+e*le.t)o,s %,d +e*+%.t)o,s. 6e can study sinal *ro*aation
9y considerin t&o d)**e+e,t %00+o%.-es:
eomet+).%l o0t). %00+o%.- 3sim*lified40
Fo+m%l %00+o%.- 1%sed o, M%/&ell2s e3u%t)o,.
<
FIBER TRANSMISSION
OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION
! ty*ical o*tical fi9er transmission system 9ased on O,4O**
5e6),( 3OO5) 1),%+6 modul%t)o, is sho;n in the fiure
9elo;:
=
FIBER TRANSMISSION
OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION MODALITY (IN
A NUTS"ELL)
The liht source is a *hotodiode 3LED, L!SE/4 that is
o0e+%ted %t t-e m%/)mum 0o&e+ 3,-'>?%?4 or
s&)t.-ed4o** 3,..'>?$?40
It is -,T transmitted an electric sinal, @UST a l)(-t s)(,%l0
The liht sinal is transmitted at a ()'e, &%'ele,(-t0
Therefore, the liht sinal is 0+o0%(%ted t-+ou(- t-e *)1e+
and athered at destination 9y an ),'e+sel640ol%+)7ed
0-otod)ode 3o*to'electronic conversion40
A, ele.t+). OO5 s)(,%l )s therefore reenerated and 9inary
data estimated.
A
FIBER TRANSMISSION
OPTICAL SINAL (PO#ER SPECTRAL
DENSITY)

()
[m]

0
()[W/m]
[m]
0
Ide%l8 mo,o.-+om%t). o0t).%l s)(,%l
(o0t).%l .%++)e+)
Pol6.-+om%t). o0t).%l s)(,%l (s0e.t+%ll64
e/te,ded %+ou,d % *u,d%me,t%l
&%'ele,(t-)
B
SINAL PROPAATION T"ROU"
OPTICAL FIBERS
EOMETRIC OPTICS PARAMETERS
In this course, ;e ;ill sCetch the *ro*aation of a liht sinal
throuh an o*tical fi9er 9y considerin the s)m0l)*)ed %00+o%.-
1%sed o, (eomet+). o0t).s0
The ty*ical *arameter of eometric o*tics is the +e*+%.t)o,
),de/0
Re*+%.t)o,
),de/
1 =
v
c
n
Dc E *ro*aation s*eed in the
vacuum 3liht s*eed c40
D E*ro*aation s*eed in the
medium.
E/%m0les: air n %
;ater n %.&
lass n %
diamond n %
F
OPTICAL FIBERS
REFRACTION AND REFLECTION OF T"E LI"T BEAM
6hen the liht 9eam a ;alCs across a surface interfacin t;o
*ro*aation means, characteriGed 9y a ste0 '%+)%t)o, of the
refraction inde: 3e.. lass'air4, the follo;in situation can 9e noted:
a E incident 9eam
aH E reflected 9eam 3medium %4
9 E refracted 9eam 3medium #4
1
E incident anle
2
= refraction anle
2 2 1 1
sin n sin n =
1 2 2 1
/ / n n sin sin =
SNELL2S
LA#:
1 2 2 1
sin sin if n n < <
%$
OPTICAL FIBERS
TOTAL REFLECTION OF T"E LI"T BEAM
+y increasin the incident anle, the refracted 9eam should
trend to 9ecome mo+e %,d mo+e d)st%,t from the normal
a:is of the fi9er0
The m%/)mum '%lue of the refraction anle is
2
EI#0
In such a last case, the +e*+%.ted 1e%m -%s ,ot 0+odu.ed
and ;e have the o'e+%ll l)(-t e,e+(6 +e*le.ted ),s)de t-e
med)um 10
This is the so'called tot%l +e*le.t)o, o* t-e l)(-t 1e%m0
The total reflection of the liht 9eam ha**ens ;hen )t )s
*ul*)lled t-e *ollo&),( .o,d)t)o,:
( )
1 2 1
arcsin
c
n n > =
C+)t).%l %,(le
%%
OPTICAL FIBERS
OPTICAL FIBER #IT" TOTAL REFLECTION
Core (n
2
<n
1
)
Cladding (n
2
)
1 c
>
1 c
<
The 9eam is tot%ll6 +e*le.ted in the core
3acce*ted 9y the fi9er4
The 9eam is 0%+t)%ll6 +e*+%.ted in the claddin
3reJected 9y the fi9er4
#r
#r
%#
OPTICAL FIBERS
ANLE OF ACCEPTANCE
The acce*tance cone is the ')+tu%l .o,e containin all the
1e%ms %..e0ted 16 t-e *)1e+0
The verte: of the cone lies o, t-e .o+e d)%mete+, the verte:
anle
a
is defined as %,(le o* %..e0t%,.e of the o*tical fi9er.
( )
2
2
2
1
n n arcsin
a
=
3com*lementary anle of
%
4
NOTE: all 9eams inside the
acce*tance cone *ro*aate
inside the o*tical fi9er 9y means
of successive 3total4 reflections.
2 2
1 2
sin
a
NA n n = =
Nume+).%l %0e+tu+e
%&
OPTICAL FIBERS
FIBER PROPAATION PAT"LOSS
The fi9er *ro*aation *athloss is e/0o,e,t)%l &)t-
t-e d)st%,.e 3as usual in ;ired lines4:
( )
L
out in
P L P e

=
( )
/ 10
10log 4.34
dB Km
e = =
( )
( ) ( )
/
dBW dBW
out in dB Km
P L P L =
5)lomet+). %tte,u%t)o, .o,st%,t 3de*ends on the *hysical
characteristics of the fi9er and on the sinal ;avelenth4
%(
OPTICAL FIBERS
OPTICAL FIBERS OPERATIONAL #INDO#S
M. Luise, 9S)stem) d) T+%sm)ss)o,e su *)1+% ott).%:8 EdiGioni ETS, Pisa: %FF=.
%<
SINAL DISTORTIONS O!ER
OPTICAL FIBERS
%=
INTERMODAL DISPERSION
#"AT INTERMODAL DISPERSION IS $
It is a distortion t60).%l o* old *)1e+s 3A$Hs and early B$Hs4
characteriGed 9y &)de d)%mete+ .o+e0
It is due to the fact that d)**e+e,t 1e%ms %..e0ted 16 t-e
*)1e+ can *ro*aate t-+ou(- d)**e+e,t 0%t-s inside the core0
Each *ath 3called Kfi9er mode?4 is characteriGed 9y )ts o&,
le,(t-: therefore d)**e+e,t 0+o0%(%t)o, del%6s are associated
to different modes0
S-o+test 0%t- 3=0, =/24
Lo,(est 0%t- 3=
a,
E
c
4
1
n
csin
v
g
=
Pro*aation velocity
associated to the
mode
%A
EFFECTS ON T"E TRANSMITTED SINAL
LetHs su**ose to transmit t;o sym9ols 3e.. ,,7 sym9ols4
%lo,( t&o d)**e+e,t 1e%ms, havin d)**e+e,t ),.)de,t
%,(les0
This im*lies that the t;o sym9ols ;ill *ro*aate throuh t&o
d)**e+e,t *)1e+ modes0
There ;ill 9e % d)**e+e,t)%l del%6 9et;een the t;o received
sym9ols 3see .iure 9elo;4:
T #T &T (T
% % $ $
%

#
% $ % $
%B
MA;IMUM DIFFERENTIAL DELAY
BET#EEN T#O FIBER MODES
The m%/)mum d)**e+e,t)%l del%6 9et;een t;o
fi9er modes is the differential delay 9et;een the
lonest *ath and the shortest *ath, i.e.:
( )
2
1 1 1
2 1
2 1 2 2
1
sin
c
Ln n Ln L L L L
v v v v c n cn

| | | |
= = = = =
| |
\ \
2
1
1 1
n
n
= < Rel%t)'e '%+)%t)o, o* t-e +e*+%.t)o, ),de/
T UNAVOIDABLE ISI >
%F
CAPACITY BOUND IMPOSED BY INTERMODAL
DISPERSION (1)
In order to avoid ISI ;e should transmit at a 9inary data rate
3,,7 modulation considered4 com*lyin ;ith the follo;in
constraint:
Therefore:
2
1
2
1
b
Ln
cn R

2
2
1
[ / ]
b
cn
R bit s
Ln
2
2
1
[ * / ]
cn
bit Km s
n

C%0%.)t6 1ou,d
C%0%.)t6 1ou,d ,o+m%l)7ed &<+<t
d)st%,.e (mo+e use*ul =)
E**).)e,.6 ),de/
#$
CAPACITY LIMIT IMPOSED BY
INTERMODAL DISPERSION (>)
The ca*acity limit im*osed 9y intermodal dis*ersion
de*ends on core and claddin refraction inde:es0
Usual values are n
%
E%.<$ and n
#
E%.(A0
+y su9stitutin them in the ca*acity limit e:*ression
;e o9tain a value of 1?M1@sA5m, that is 'e+6
0oo+0
In fact, o*tical fi9ers ;ith ;ide core diameter
3mult)mod%l *)1e+s4 have 9een tot%ll6 %1%,do,ed
since late HA$s0
In fact, it is *ossi9le to avoid intermodal dis*ersion 9y
usin s),(le4mode o0t).%l *)1e+s.
#%
C"ROMATIC (INTRAMODAL)
DISPERSION
SINLE4MODE OPTICAL FIBERS
The ca*acity achieva9le from mult)mode o0t).%l
*)1e+s is 'e+6 s.%+.e0
5uestion: Could multimode *ro*aation 9e avoided L
!ns;er: "ES, if s),(le4mode o0t).%l *)1e+s are
ado*ted0
Sinle'mode o*tical fi9ers have 9een ado*ted s),.e
m)d 2B?s and are currently the 9est'suited solution to
efficiently e:*loit the *ro*erties of liht ;ave
*ro*aation.
##
DISPERSION
SINLE4MODE PROPAATION CONDITION
It is *ossi9le to derive 39y the formal analysis 9ased on Ma:;ellHs
eMuations4 the sinle'mode *ro*aation condition for an o*tical
fi9er:
This condition im*lies a constraint a9out the core radius, that is:
The core radius should 9e sm%lle+ 3or Kalmost eMual?4 to the
s)(,%l &%'ele,(t- 3a9out %m4. .or this reason, ;e are
s*eaCin of o*tical fi9er ;ith ,%++o& .o+e.
0
2 2.405 rNA <
0 0
2.405
1.28
2
r
NA

< =
#&
DISPERSION
DISTORTIONS IN SINLE4MODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
Sinle'mode o*tical fi9ers tot%ll6 el)m),%te intermodal
distortion0
Is, therefore, sinle'mode o*tical fi9ers ca*acity infinite L
,f course, it isnHt. In fact, there is a 0+o0%(%t)o,
)m0%)+me,t also in sinle'mode o*tical fi9ers0
In eometric o*tics a**roach ;e considered the refraction
inde: as a .o,st%,t 0%+%mete+0
Truly, this is not so. /efraction inde: de*ends on the &%'e
le,(t- 3lass is a dis*ersive material4, i.e.:
( ) n n =
#(
DISPERSION
ROUP !ELOCITY IN T"E PRESENCE OF
MATERIAL DISPERSION
.rom Ma:;ellHs eMuations ;e can derive that the sinle'mode
o*tical fi9er *ro*aation eMuation is in the form 3Electric field4:
( ) ( )
1
1
( ) 2
g
d
v f
df n f dn f
f
c c df
| |
= =
|

\
+
`
)
P+o0%(%t)o, .o,st%,t
2 2 f
n n
c

= =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, ,z exp exp
m
E J j j z r
= <
0ol%+ .oo+d),%tes
G
+ou0 'elo.)t6
#<
DISPERSION
ROUP DELAY IN T"E PRESENCE OF MATERIAL
DISPERSION
Therefore, ;e can com*ute t-e (+ou0 del%6 in the *resence
of material dis*ersion as:
In the case of ,o,d)s0e+s)'e m%te+)%l 3ideal hy*othesis of
eometric o*tics4 ;e sim*ly have:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
g
g
L L Lf dn f
f n f
v f c c df
= = +
( )
g g
g
L Ln
f
v c
= =
#=
DISPERSION
PULSE BROADENIN (DISTORTION)
LetHs su**ose to send a liht *ulse of *),)te du+%t)o, T and
s0e.t+%l e/te,s)o, alon the fi9er0
The freMuency de*endence of the rou* velocity leads to 0ulse
1+o%de,),( sim*ly 9ecause d)**e+e,t s0e.t+%l .om0o,e,ts o*
t-e 0ulse dis*erse durin *ro*aation and do ,ot %++)'e
s)mult%,eousl6 %t t-e *)1e+ out0ut0
T-e 0ulse 1+o%de,),( for a fi9er of lenth L is iven 9y:
( ) ( )
1
g g
g
d L v d v
d
T L
d d d

= =
T #T &T (T
% % $ $ % % % $
T
#A
DISPERSION
DISPERSION (DISTORTION) PARAMETER
Chromatic dis*ersion is Muantified 9y the so'called d)s0e+s)o,
0%+%mete+, i.e.:
( )
[ ]
1
sec/
g
d v
D nm km
d
=
DD should 9e t-eo+et).%ll6 e3u%l
to ? in the #nd o*erational
;indo; 3;avelenth %.&m4 0
D/eally D )s ,e'e+ e3u%l to ?.
Its minimum eMuals 3in module4 to
10se.@CmA,m 3#nd ;indo;4
#B
DISPERSION
CAPACITY BOUND IMPOSED BY C"ROMATIC
DISPERSION IN SINLE4MODE FIBERS
LetHs su**ose to transmit ,n',ff 9inary sym9ols of duration T 9y
means of liht *ulses 3liht *ulse '>,-, darC '>,..40
T-e .o,d)t)o, ,eeded to %'o)d ISI is the same considered for
the multimode *ro*aation, therefore:
1 1
b b
T L D T R R L
L D D

< < = <

D
de*ends on the o*erational ;indo;

de*ends on the transmittin *hotodiode
D%t%: laser diode E%nm, DE%*secICmNnm
E**).)e,.6 ),de/:
#F
FREDUENCY RESPONSE OF T"E
OPTICAL FIBER C"ANNEL
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
Intermodal and intramodal 3chromatic4 dis*ersions
im*ly a lo&0%ss .-%+%.te+)st). of the o*tical fi9er0
In fact, the *ulse sha*e is m%de 1+o%de+ than the
oriinal one0
LetHs first consider the s),(le4mode .%se, after;ards
;e shall consider the multimodal fi9ers0
Therefore ;e are considerin no; the .-+om%t).
d)s0e+s)o,.
&$
C"ROMATIC DISPERSION EFFECTS
E:*erimental trials can *oint out that the *ulse 9roadenin involved 9y
the chromatic dis*ersion converts a D)+%.- 0ulse in a %uss)%, 0ulse.
h(t)
t
T L D
=
s(t)
t
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2 exp
2 2
1

t t h =
( ) ( ) { }
|
\
|
= =
2 2 2
2
1
exp f t h f H

T+%,s*e+ *u,.t)o,
&%
FIBER BAND#IDT"
It is reasona9le to e:*ress *ulse 9roadenin in such a
;ay:
6here:
6e can define the *)1e+ 1%,d&)dt- as the freMuency
at ;hich t-e t+%,s*e+ *u,.t)o, '%lue is reduced 9y
&d+, i.e.:
k L

=
( )
0
, k k

=
( ) (0) 1 2 H f H
=
&#
FIBER BAND#IDT" (>)
It is easy to com*ute the filter 9and;idth:
6here .
is the .-+om%t). d)s0e+s)o, .o,st%,t

3e:*ressed in 12GN7m40
.
is associated to the o0e+%t)o,%l &),do&, and to

the s0e.t+%l 1+o%de,),( o* t-e t+%,sm)tt),(
0-otod)ode.
log 4 log 4
e e
F
f
k L L

= = =
&&
FREDUENCY
RESPONSE AS A
FUNCTION OF T"E
FIBER BAND#IDT"
+y re*lacin
;ith f
in
the e:*ression of the
freMuency res*onse of the
fi9er, ;e can o9tain the
follo;in ne; e:*ression:
( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2
exp log 2
e
H f f f

=
F
f
L
=
+%0-). e/%m0le
(%m0l)tude d)sto+t)o,)
&(
INTERMODAL DISPERSION EFFECTS (1)
The introduction of the ),te+mod%l d)s0e+s)o, in the
freMuency res*onse of the fi9er is straithfor;ard0
In fact, the 0ulse 1+o%de,),( due to intermodal
dis*ersion can 9e 9ounded 9y:
Therefore, it is reasona9le to e:*ress it in the follo;in
form:
2
1
2
m
Ln
t
cn
=
m m
k L =
( )
0 m m
k k =
&<
INTERMODAL DISPERSION EFFECTS (>)
Therefore the (lo1%l *+e3ue,.6 +es0o,se of the o*tical fi9er
channel, accountin %ll d)s0e+s)o, e**e.ts can 9e com*uted as
follo;s:
6e can e:*ress the a9ove freMuency res*onse 9y usin the
notation already e:*loited in *revious slides:
( ) ( ) ( ) { } ( )
2 2 2 2
1
exp
2
T m m
H f h t h t f

| |
= = +
|
\
( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2
exp log 2
T e T
H f f f =
2
2
2
2
1
F
L
F
L
f
m
T
+
=
m
e
m
k
F
4 log
=
+ =
m
F
NOTE: In sinle'mode
fi9ers, ;e have:
&=
P"OTODECTION PROCESS
&A
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
P"OTODETECTION
BASIC SC"EME OF P"OTOCONDUCTI!E DETECTOR
The 9asic element of the *hotodetection *rocess is an ),'e+sel6
0ol%+)7ed 0-otod)ode that 0+odu.es % *lo& o* ele.t+). .u++e,t as
soon as )t %1so+1es l)(-t e,e+(60
In .iure 9elo;, an e:am*le of *hotoconductive detector is sho;n0
6
/
is the received liht *o;er, ) is the *olariGation voltae, / is an out*ut
im*edance convertin current in voltae0
i3t4 is called 0-oto.u++e,t0
fibra
-V
i(t) r(t) R
Filtro
amplificatore
w
R
&B
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
P"OTODETECTION
LI"T EMITTIN DE!ICES (T; SIDE)
The 9est'Cno; electronic devices em*loyed to transmit a liht
sinal across an o*tical fi9ers are:
LED DIODES 3Liht Emittin Diode4
LASER DIODES 3Liht !m*lification of Stimulated Emission of
/adiation4
LEDs are very chea* 9ut they are characteriGed 9y
0ol6.-+om%t). em)ss)o,s ;ith 1+o%d s0e.t+um e/te,s)o,
3they ;ere em*loyed ;ith old multimode fi9ers ;here chromatic
dis*ersion ;as nelii9le40
L!SE/s are more e:*ensive and sensi9le to tem*erature
variations, 9ut t-e)+ 9%lmost mo,o.-+om%t).: em)ss)o,s
maCe them very suita9le to reduce chromatic dis*ersion in s),(le4
mode *)1e+s0
Moreover, L!SE/s are a9le to emit a mu.- -)(-e+ l)(-t 0o&e+
than LEDs.
&F
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
P"OTODETECTION
P"OTODETECTION PROCESS (1)
Considerin the 5uantum Mechanics a**roach, ;e can say that
the liht 9eam is made 9y infinitesimal *articles ;ith MuantiGed
enery named 0-oto,s0
The incident 9eam consists of a num9er of arrivin *hotons *er
second that is iven 9y:
6here:
;
/
is the received liht *o;er 3E#F40
hE=.=#<%$
'&(
EG sF is the PlancCHs constant0
cE&%$
B
Em@sF is the liht s*eed in the vacuum0
is the incident ;avelenth 3EmF40
is the enery of a sinle incident *hoton 3EGF4.
R f
w
hc
n

=
f
hc =
($
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
P"OTODETECTION
P"OTODETECTION PROCESS (>)
The fundamental mechanism 9ehind the *hotodetection *rocess is
o0t).%l %1so+0t)o,0
If the enery of incident *hotons e/.eeds % ()'e, t-+es-old
3called 9anda* enery4 an ele.t+o,4-ole 0%)+ is enerated each
time a *hoton is a9sor9ed 9y the semiconductor0
U,de+ t-e ),*lue,.e o* %, ele.t+). *)eld set u* 9y an a**lied
voltae 3*olariGation voltae4, electrons and holes %+e s&e0t
%.+oss the semiconductor0
Therefore a *lo& o* ele.t+). .u++e,t is *roduced.
(%
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
P"OTODETECTION
OPTO4ELECTRONIC CON!ERTERS
(IN!ERSLY POLARIHED P"OTODIODES I R;
SIDE)
T;o 9asic ty*oloies of semiconductor'9ased o*to'
electronic converters are em*loyed at the receiver side:
PIN d)odesJ
A'%l%,.-es P-oto D)odes (APD).
The ;orCin modalities of these t;o devices are 9ased on
d)**e+e,t 0-6s).%l 0-e,ome,% related to the (e,e+%t)o, o*
ele.t+o,4-ole 0%)+s su9seMuent to the liht a9sor*tion0
The choice of a converter aainst another one can 9e motivated
16 l),C 1ud(et +e%so,s, involvin received liht *o;er, reMuired
*erformances and noise tradeoff. 6e ;ill consider all these facts
later on.
(#
PIN DIODES
PIN DIODE CONCEPT
! PI- diode is made 9y insertin
a layer of u,do0ed 3or lihtly
do*ed4 sem).o,du.to+
m%te+)%l 9et;een the P'-
Junction0
Since the middle layer consists
of ),t+),s). m%te+)%l, such a
structure is referred to as P'I'-
3PI-4 *hotodiode0
E**).)e,.6 %,d 1%,d&)dt- of
such Cind of devices is (+e%tl6
),.+e%sed ;ith res*ect to old
inversly'*olariGed P'- Junctions.
(&
PIN DIODES
OPTO4ELECTRICAL CON!ERSION #IT" PIN
PI- diodes are a9le at *roducin % s),(le ele.t+o,4-ole 0%)+ for
each incident *hoton0
Each electron'hole *air *roduces % 0ulse .u++e,t ;hose area is
eMual to the electron chare value 3%.=%$
'%F
OC9P4, i.e.:
Denotin ;ith the 0+o1%1)l)t6 t-%t %, ),.)de,t 0-oto,
0+odu.es %, ele.t+o,4-ole 0%)+ 3Kuseful *hoton?4, ;e can ;rite
the averae num9er of electron'hole *airs enerated 3*er sec.4:
R f
w
hc
n

= =
( ) ( )
q
q t rect t
=
( )
( )
i
i
i t q t
+
=
=
Time of arrival of
a Kuseful *hoton?
E$.% nsec
((
PIN DIODES
OPTO4ELECTRICAL CON!ERSION #IT" PIN (.o,t<)
The %'e+%(e '%lue o* t-e ele.t+). .u++e,t *roduced at the
out*ut of the *hotodiode can 9e ;ritten as:
is a constant namely: d)ode +es0o,s)')t6. It e:*resses the
*ro*ortional linC 9et;een out*ut current and a9sor9ed liht *o;er
and de*ends also on the o*erational ;indo; em*loyed for
transmission0
The most ty*ical value of is $.< O!I6P.
m R R
q q
i q w w
hc hc

= = = =
(<
A!ALANC"E EFFECT: T"E APD
DIODES
A!ALANC"E EFFECT
PI- diodes are characteriGed 9y the o,e4o4o,e %sso.)%t)o, of a sinle
*hoton ;ith a sinle electron'hole *air0
,ther *hotodiodes have the ca*a9ility of *roducin mult)0le ele.t+o,4
-ole 0%)+s 3and, therefore, multi*le current *ulses4 *er incident *hoton,
*rovided that the inverse *olariGation voltae is sufficiently hih0
Denoted ;ith
i
the arrival time of the i'th Kuseful *hoton?, ;e can
;rite:
;here
i
is a random varia9le, ;hose mean value is m
and the variance

is
#
. .or PI- diodes

i
E% for all values of inde: i0
This effect is claimed as 0-oto4mult)0l).%t)o, or %'%l%,.-e e**e.t.
The *hotodiodes a9le at e:*loitin this feature are called A'%l%,.-e
P-oto D)odes (APD).
( ) ( )
+
=
=
i
i i
t q g t i
(=
DUANTUM NOISE
OUTPUT CURRENT PRO!IDED BY A P"OTODIODE
The out*ut current *rovided as out*ut 9y a (e,e+). 0-otod)ode
can 9e e:*ressed as:
i
m
is the t)me me%, of i3t4, that coincides ;ith its st%t)st).%l
me%, 3in fact, i3t4 is an erodic *rocess40
i
M
3t4 is the so'called 3u%,tum4,o)se. It accounts the fluctuations
of i3t4 around its averae value.
5uantum noise )s % d)stu+1%,.e. In fact, in the a9sence of
thermal noise, a constant liht emission ;ouldnHt *roduce a
constant electric current 3as e:*ected4 due to Muantum noise.
( ) ( ) ( )
i i m q
i
i t g q t i i t
+
=
= = +
(A
DUANTUM NOISE
NOISE FACTOR OF APD
The me%, '%lue of the *roduced current at the out*ut of a
eneric diode is:
m
E% for PI- diodes, m
>% for !PD 3in such a last case, it is

tuna9le 9y inverse *olariGation voltae40
!valanche effect ),.+e%ses t-e d)ode +es0o,s)')t6, 9ut, as
tradeoff, it increases %lso 3u%,tum ,o)se0
.or, this reason, ;e define the ,o)se *%.to+ of an !PD, as:
( )
1 1
2
2
+ =
g
g g
g
m
m
F
2
0.2
a
g g
F m a =
m g R
i m w =
3ty*ical value for 1a!s !PDs4
(B
DUANTUM NOISE
PO#ER SPECTRAL DENSITY OF DUANTUM NOISE
5uantum noise can 9e a**ro:imated as a 1aussian 6SS *rocess0
! (e,e+). e/0+ess)o, of the PSD of Muantum noise, valid 9oth
for PI- diodes and for !PDs is the follo;in one:
+ein %I of the order of %$12G, ;e can assume that the Muantum
noise PSD is %lmost u,)*o+m0
6e can note that the PSD level increases as:
m
increases 3!PD4
.
increases 3!PD4
;
/
increases 3PI-4
2 2 2 2 2
( ) sinc ( ) sinc ( )
R
q g g g g R
f
w
P f F m q f F m q w f
= =
(F
EDUI!ALENT CIRCUIT FOR A
P"OTODETECTOR
USEFUL EDUI!ALENT CIRCUIT
It is useful to descri9e an eMuivalent circuit for a eneric
*hotodiode, liCe the one sho;n in fiure 9elo;.
( ) ( ) ( )
g R q n
r t R m w i t i t ( = + +

Du%,tum ,o)se
(e,e+%to+
T-e+m%l ,o)se
(e,e+%to+ (,o)se
*)(u+e F)
Res)du%l .%0%.)t6 due
to d)ode 0l%3ues
3nelectin C effects4
( ) ( )
n n
i t V t R =
0 0
2
2 2
( )
n
RFk Fk
P f
R R

= =
T-e+m%l ,o)se PSD
<$
FIBER LINE PERFORMANCES
<%
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS FOR
T"E DIITAL OO5 CASE
SYSTEM O!ER!IE# (NARRO#BAND "YPOT"ESIS)

m(t)
Mod
Emitting
source
V
T
(t) V
R
(t)
Photodetector H
R
(f) Mod
-1

d(t)
s(t)
H
C
(f) H
D
(f) H
R
(f)
V
T
(t) V
R
(t)
m
g

e
-L

G
T

i
q
(t) i
n
(t)
R
r(t)
Dec
1 1
0
...............
( ) ( )
sinc
R b b
H f T fT =
N%++o&1%,d -60ot-es)s
1
b T
T f <<
Interator filter 3rectanular *ulse
;aveform4
<#
T"E DIITAL OO5 CASE
T"E RECEI!ED SINAL SAMPLE (NARRO#BAND
"YPOT"ESIS)
LetHs com*ute no; the received sinal sam*le in the hy*othesis of
narro;9and sinal:
( )
2 2 2 2
max
2 2 2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( )
0
b b b b b b b b
b b b b b b b b
kT T kT T kT T kT T
b
R
k g q n
kT T kT T kT T kT T
d kT
w
d r t dt m dt i t dt i t dt
R R
+ + + +

= = = + +
`
)

2
max
2
ON
0 OFF
0
b b
b b
kT T
g on
R
k g
kT T
m
w
s m dt

= =
`
S)(,%l .o,t+)1ut)o,
2
2
( )
b b
b b
kT T
Q q
kT T
e i t dt
+
Du%,tum ,o)se
.o,t+)1ut)o,
2
2
( )
b b
b b
kT T
n n
kT T
e i t dt
+
T-e+m%l ,o)se
.o,t+)1ut)o,
Re.e)'ed l)(-t e,e+(6
0e+ 1)t (D)ode: ON)
max max
/ R T dB Km
w w L =
<&
T"E DIITAL OO5 CASE
BIT4ERROR PROBABILITY COMPUTATION
The 9it'error *ro9a9ility for the ,%++o&1%,d OO5
.%se can 9e com*uted as:
!ll terms in the a9ove e:*ression de*end on m
.
Therefore, there should 9e a value of m
%1le %t
m),)m)7),( t-e 1)t4e++o+4+%te0
This com*utation is very difficult. 6e shall com*ute m
that ma:imiGes the out0ut s)(,%l4to4,o)se +%t)o.

( )
( )
b g g
D
S
P m Q m
N
| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\
\
<(
COMPUTATION OF T"ERMAL SNR
AND DUANTUM SNR
LOBAL SINAL4TO4NOISE RATIO AT T"E
OUTPUT OF T"E FIBER
It is easy to o9serve that the lo9al S-/ at the destination can
9e e:*ressed as:
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1
1 1
k
D
Q n
q n
E s
S
N
E e E e
S N S N
| |
= =
|
+ \
+
Du%,tum SNR T-e+m%l SNR
NOTE: +oth S-/s de*end
on m
<<
AND DUANTUM SNR
T"ERMAL SNR COMPUTATION (1)
Thermal S-/ can 9e com*uted as follo;s:
6here:
Therefore:
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2
2
k g on
n n
n
E s m
S
N P
E e

| |
= =
|
\
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2 2
( ) ( ) sinc
b
n R n b b T b
Fk Fk Fk
P H f P f df T fT df rect t dt T
R R R

+ + +

= = = =

( )
( )
2
2 2 2
2
0
4
k
g on b
n
n
E s
R m r
S
N Fk
E e

| |
= =
|
\
A'e+%(e +e.e)'ed
e,e+(6 0e+ 1)t
(ON4OFF s)(,%l)
<=
AND DUANTUM SNR
T"ERMAL SNR COMPUTATION (>)
!**arently, fi:in the 9it'rate, the thermal S-/ could increase
9y increasin m
3this is e:*ected, 9ecause the diode

res*onsivity increases4 and 9y increasin / 3this is une:*ected40
Truly, an ar9itrary increase of / is ,ot %llo&ed, 9ecause the
residual ca*acity of *hotodiode can involve a 9RC4*)lte+4l)Ce:
9ehavior of the *hotodiode, ;ith .o,se3ue,t)%l s)(,%l
d)sto+t)o,0
The cutoff freMuency of a eneric /C filter is iven 9y:
1
2
RC
T
f
RC
=
<A
AND DUANTUM SNR
T"ERMAL SNR COMPUTATION (K)
Therefore, in order to avoid sinal distortion and ISI ;e need that:
The m%/)mum %llo&%1le value for / is iven 9y:
LetHs re*lace / ;ith /
ma:
in the thermal S-/ e:*ression. 6e o9tain:
1
2
RC
b T
r f
RC
= <
2 2 2 2 2
2
0 0
8 8
g on g
on
n
m m
S CF
Q
N FCk Qk

| |
= = =
|
\
F)(u+e o* me+)t o*
t-e 0-oto4
dete.t)o, .)+.u)t
b
Cr
R
2
max
=
<B
AND DUANTUM SNR
T"ERMAL SNR COMPUTATION (L)
T60).%l '%lues for commonly'used *hotodiodes are 5E%$
'%#
O.P
and E $.< O!I6P0
In LOARIT"MIC (dB) SCALE ;e can o9tain the follo;in
useful and sim*le e:*ressions:
10 ( / )
304 20log 2
ndB g on dBW Hz
SNR m = + +
max
10 ( ) 10 ( / )
304 20log 2 20log
ndB g R dBW b b s
SNR m w r = + +
(e3u)'%le,tl6)
<F
AND DUANTUM SNR
DUANTUM SNR COMPUTATION (1)
!s far as, 3u%,tum SNR .om0ut%t)o, is concerned, t-e
%'e+%(e 0o&e+ o* t-e 3u%,tum ,o)se at the out*ut of the
receiver filter can 9e com*uted as follo;s:
2
2 max 2 2 max 2 2
/
( ) sinc ( ) sinc( )sinc ( )
q ON R g g R g g R b b
P H f F m q w f df F m q w T fT f df
+ +

= =

2 max 2 2 max 2
/
sinc( )
q ON g g R b b g g R b g g on
P F m q w T fT df F m q w T F m q
+
= =
2
/
0
2
g g on
q OFF q
F m q
P P
= =
=$
AND DUANTUM SNR
DUANTUM SNR COMPUTATION (>)
The 3u%,tum SNR is, therefore, iven 9y:
6e can e:*ress it in LOARIT"MIC SCALE (dB), o9tainin
this formulation:
( )
2
2
k
a
on
g g
q q g
E s
S
F m
N P F q
| |
= = =
|
\
10 ( / )
185 2 log
qdB g on dBW Hz
SNR a m = +
max
10 ( ) 10 ( / )
185 2 log 10log
qdB g R dBW b b s
SNR a m w r = +
(e3u)'%le,tl6)
=%
AND DUANTUM SNR
REMAR5S ABOUT T"E PRE!IOUS COMPUTATION
6e can note that 1ot- t-e+m%l SNR %,d 3u%,tum SNR
increase as the received *o;er 3or eMuivalently the received
enery *er ,- 9it4 increases 3thermal S-/ increases faster40
T-e+m%l SNR increases as the *hoto'multi*lication factor m
increases 3it ;ould 9e 9etter to use an !DP40

Du%,tum SNR decreases as the *hoto'multi*lication factor m
increases 3it ;ould 9e 9etter to use a PI- diode40

In fe; ;ords, there is a t+%deo** that can allo; or *revent the
use of an !PD instead of a PI-0
.or this reason, ;e should com*ute m
that o0t)m)7es t-e

(lo1%l SNR.
=#
SINAL4TO4NOISE RATIO
OPTIMIHATION
T"E OPTIMIHATION PROCEDURE (1)
Su9stantially ;e have to m%/)m)7e the follo;in
cost'function:
6e o9tain the follo;in result:
2
0
2 2 2
1
max max
8
g g
a
m m
D g
on g on
S
m q N
Qk
m

| |
=
|
\
+
1
g
m
1 2(1 )
11
0 0
8 8
6.3 10 /
1
a
opt
on
g
on
Qk k Q
W Hz
m
a q q a
otherwise

(
< =
(
=

APD
PIN
=&
OPTIMIHATION
T"E OPTIMIHATION PROCEDURE (>)
6e should insert no; the o*timal value of m
in the e:*ression
of the lo9al S-/ at the out*ut of the fi9er, i.e.:
!nd ;e shall o9tain:
2 2 2
2( 1)
0
8
opt
g g
opt
g on
a
D on g
m m
m
S
N q m Qk

+
=
| |
=
|
+
\
1
1 2 1 2
1
1
1 1
0
1 1
1 8
a
a a
a
a
opt
a a
D on
a
SNR
a aq QkT

+ +
+
+
+ +
( | |
=
( |
+
\
opt
D q on
SNR SNR
q
=
0
8
on
k Q
q a

<
0
8
on
k Q
q a

APD
PIN
=(
OPTIMIHATION
T"E OPTIMIHATION PROCEDURE (K)
6e can introduce t&o mo+e use*ul e/0+ess)o,s of S-/ in
loarithmic scale, i.e.:
,r, as alternative:
( ) ( / )
203 1.17
D dB on dBW Hz
SNR = +
( ) ( ) ( / )
185
D dB q dB on dBW Hz
SNR SNR = = +
112 /
on
dBW Hz <
112 /
on
dBW Hz
APD
PIN
( )
max
( ) 10 ( / )
203 1.17 11.7log
R dBW
D dB b b s
SNR w r = +
112 /
on
dBW Hz <
max
( ) ( ) 10 ( / )
185 10log
D dB R dBW b b s
SNR w r = +
112 /
on
dBW Hz
=<
OPTIMIHATION
NOTES ABOUT T"E PROCEDURE
Practically, a condition has 9een im*osed on the utiliGation of
APD or PIN diode0
If the received K,-? 9it enery is lo&e+ t-%, t-e ()'e,
t-+es-old, the avalanche effect of the !PD can 9e fruitfully
e:*loited to increase the lo9al sinal'to'noise ratio0
If the received 9it enery is -)(-e+ t-%, t-e ()'e, t-+es-old,
the avalanche effect doesnHt *rovide any S-/ im*rovement. .or
this reason, it is 9etter to use PI- diodes0
The decision to use an !PD or a PI- as *hoto'detector de*ends
on the received enery *er 9it that must 1e e'%lu%ted *)+st0
The threshold value of '%%# d+6I2G is conseMuential to the
attri9uted constant values 3aE$.#, E$.<, 5E%$
'%#
4.
==
EDUALIHATION IN T"E #IDEBAND
CASE
EDUALIHATION (STANDARD CASE)
If the transmission is ;ide9and 3r
9
is com*ara9le to f
T
4, ;e must
eMualiGe the linear distortion0
The st%,d%+d e3u%l)7%t)o, .%se is considered here 3i.e.:
eMualiGation filter *ut at /Q side40
The distortion eMualiGation ;ill involve a su00leme,t%+6
%tte,u%t)o, 3liCe in ca9le lines4 that is st+%)(-t*o+&%+dl6
%dded to the linC 9udet.
( )
( )
( )
2
ln2
( )
( )
T
f f
EQ
R
R R
D
H f
H f H f e
H f
= =
=A
EDUALIHATION IN T"E #IDEBAND
CASE
SNR LOSS DUE EDUALIHATION
Startin from the same analysis carried on for ca9le lines, ;e
can derive the follo;in result:
2
2
2 ln2
2ln2
0
1
1
b
T
b
T
r
f
D
f
r
f
b
SNR e
e df
r
| |
|
\
| |
|
\
=
2
( )
6.02 6
b
D dB b T
T
r
SNR dB if r f
f
| |
= =
|
\
=B
NUMERICAL DATA ABOUT OPTICAL
FIBERS (UPDATE: YEAR 1MMN)

1
%
&),do&
(mult)mode)
>
%
&),do&
(mult)mode)
>
%
&),do&
(s),(le4mode)
K
%
&),do&
(mult)mode)
K
%
&),do&
(s),(le4mode)
Atte,u%t)o,
(dB@Cm)
& $.( $.&< $.#< $.#
F
m
("7 Cm) $.F $.F $.F
F ("7 Cm)
LED
$.%$ %.# %.# $.% $.%<
F ("7 Cm)
ELED
$.%= (.$ (.$ $.# $.#<
F ("7 Cm)
LASER
#.$ =.< &A< =.& =.&
T+%,sm)tted
0o&e+ (ON)
(dBm) LED
'%< '%A '&( '%B '&<
T+%,sm)tted
0o&e+ (ON)
(dBm) ELED
'F '%% '## '%# '#&
T+%,sm)tted
0o&e+ (ON)
(dBm) LASER
B < & ( #

=F

OPTIC FIBERS: FUNDAMENTAL

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COMMUNICATION

is the .-+om%t). d)s0e+s)o, .o,st%,t

is associated to the o0e+%t)o,%l &),do&, and to

and the variance

. .or PI- diodes

E% for PI- diodes, m

>% for !PD 3in such a last case, it is

that ma:imiGes the out0ut s)(,%l4to4,o)se +%t)o.

3this is e:*ected, 9ecause the diode

increases 3it ;ould 9e 9etter to use an !DP40

increases 3it ;ould 9e 9etter to use a PI- diode40

that o0t)m)7es t-e

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