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INTRODUCTION
In her article on Motivation: What Teachers Need to Know, Ames quoted Terrell H. Bell by
saying that there are three things to remember about education. The first one is motivation. The
second one is motivation. The third one is motivation.
Certainly, in life, one needs some intelligence, knowledge base, study skills, and time
management skills, but if one doesn't have motivation, one won't get far. Let us think about this
analogy: You have a car with a full tank of gas, a well-tuned engine, good set of tires,
quadraphonic CD system, and a sleek polished exterior. There it sits. This car has incredible
potential. However, until a driver sits behind the wheel, puts the key in the ignition, and cranks it
up, the car doesn't function. The KEY here is MOTIVATION.
Motivation explained
Motivation is derived from the Latin word movere which means to move. It can be
considered a psychological state that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For
example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat (Wikipedia).
The Merian Webster Dictionary defines motivation as something (a need or desire) that causes a
person to act while motivate is the object influencing the choice or prompting an action. From
this definition, it can be deduced that behaviour is purposive rather than random people exhibit
both positive (doing class assignment) and negative (refusal to perform a task) behavior for a
reason. Motivation arouses people to do something. This is to say that people are unlikely to
change behaviour or do something different unless they are motivated to do so. In order words,
motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal. Motivation fuels the
persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task.
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To explain further, motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction,
intensity, persistence, and quality of behaviour, especially goal-directed behavior (Maehr &
Meyer, 1997). Again, motivation is the driving force that causes the flux from desire to will in
life. For example: a flower with no water still desires for water to sustain life; however, due to its
incapability to move and get water, the flower cannot will for water, hence, suffering from a
break in the driving force of motivation; it is not to say, however, that, necessarily, the flower
lacks the driving force; therefore, all life can said to have, at its very minimal, the igniting spark
of motivation. It can be considered a psychological state that compels or reinforces an action
towards a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to eat
(Wikipedia).
In the classroom context, the concept of student motivation is used to explain the degree to
which students invest attention and effort in various pursuits, which may or may not be the ones
desired by their teachers. Student motivation is rooted in students subjective experiences,
especially those connected to their willingness to engage in lessons and learning activities and
their reasons for doing so (Brophy, 2004).
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Basically, there are two broad types of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.
Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is what we are most familiar with in education; it is motivation to act that
comes from the external environment, outside of the person. When we are motivated
extrinsically, we act with the anticipation of rewards grades, praise, money, time off from
work, or some other incentive. These incentives are all external, in that they are separate from
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the individual and the task. In other words, they refer to rewards that are obtained not from the
activity, but as a consequence of the activity, (Morris & Maisto, 2002). For instance, teachers
motivate students to come to class regularly and join in discussions through the use of
participation grades. When used wisely and thoughtfully, extrinsic motivation can be quite
helpful in furthering student learning. We can use extrinsic motivation to our advantage as
educators if we know what motivates students, but we need to do so carefully. For example,
many students are concerned about their grades, either because of a desire to continue on in
school or due to pressure from their parents, and they will do what it takes to earn good grades.
So, if we know that grades are important, we can use tests and papers to motivate students to
build the skills and knowledge we expect them to have. For instance, if students can succeed
simply by memorizing, then they will memorize. However, if tests and papers require analysis
and integration of ideas, then students will learn these higher-order skills.
Intrinsic Motivation
If extrinsic motivation comes from without, then intrinsic motivation comes from within.
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task
itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for
reward. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental
studies of animal behavior. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in
playful and curiosity driven behaviors in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural
motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development.
Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as
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work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. (Wikipedia). Intrinsic
motivation arises from internal factors (drives) such as a childs natural feeling of curiosity,
exigent, confidence and satisfaction when performing a task. People who are involved in a task
because of intrinsic motivation appear to be engaged and even consumed, since they are
motivated by the activity itself and not some goal that is achieved at the end or as a result of the
activity. Intrinsic motivation does not mean, however, that a person will not seek rewards. It just
means that such external rewards are not enough to keep a person motivated. An intrinsically
motivated student, for example, may want to get a good grade on an assignment, but if the
assignment does not interest that student, the possibility of a good grade is not enough to
maintain that student's motivation to put any effort into the project.
Intrinsically motivated learners, therefore, want to learn because they are curious, they want to
improve, they seek knowledge, and learning gives them satisfaction. McKeachie, (1999) notes
that this form of motivation nurtures and encourages the habit of lifelong learning. As students
leave school, external motivators for learning, such as grades and praise, are replaced by long-
term goals and less immediate rewards. Intrinsic motivation encourages us to continue learning
regardless of what rewards come our way.
MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES IN THE CLASSROOM
The technique to motivate learners in the classroom can be developed in both intrinsic and
extrinsic components (Ausubel, 1983)
Intrinsically, the teacher presents his/her lesson orderly and systematically. He/she cites relevant
examples to support semantic knowledge and presents students with surprising or novel stimulus
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such as stories, plays etc. He/she provides details about the relevance of piece of learning task for
future use and building new learning task on what has been learnt previously. To add to that, the
teacher capitalizes on arousal value of suspense-discovery, curiosity and exploration and teaches
from available materials to unavailable materials. It is necessary to note that rewards in intrinsic
motivation are conceptualized as inherent in the activity itself thereby making one feels satisfied
after solving a problem or undertaking an action.
Extrinsically, the teacher uses verbal praises to motivate his/her to perform well. He/she uses test
grades and marks judiciously. He/she makes use of motivational contracts and token economy
such as giving monies to best students. Whetting the appetite of students such as giving them
biscuits for immediate consumption in the classroom is another way the teacher motivates
students extrinsically. Rewards provide encouragement and show the students that the teacher is
interested in what they are doing and they also point to the learner that he/she is on the right path.
However, getting students or pupils to learn by using extraneous rewards can be sometimes
morally dubious since such rewards are capable of controlling behaviour as if the person had no
choice or autonomy of his own. Rewards can therefore devalue what they are learning and act
merely as a bribe and this will eventually draw their attention from what is being learnt to
something irrelevant to the content. Also, absence of reward results in absence of behaviour.
Some techniques for increasing the level of motivation of students as identified by Crowl,
Kaminksy & Podell(1997) are that; one must use praise wisely: praise students work when it
warrants commendation and help students to develop their own standards for success. One must
also include students purpose and interest in development of class learning goals and make sure
that students know the best strategies for achieving their learning goals especially in the case of
low-achieving students. Also, teachers should minimise anxiety in their classrooms and
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recognise differences in student abilities and set standards for performance that are in line with
what students can accomplish. They should also minimise comparison among students and make
their critical responses to students work.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Theories to be discussed here include the Behavioral approach, the Historical approach, the
Cognitive approach and the Humanistic approach to motivation.
Behaviourist theory
According to this school of thought, motivation is the result of responses to reinforcement. This
is a model of human behaviour suggesting that behaviour is learned and that motivations and
behaviour can be changed by manipulating rewards and punishment. Skinner (1971) is perhaps
the person most closely identified with this idea. His work focused on operant behaviour or
behaviour that is controlled by the individual. He suggested four approaches which are: Positive
reinforcement, Negative reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction.
Behaviorism is usually associated with the giving of reinforcement or the use of reinforces. A
reinforcer is something that is given or a consequence that adds to the frequency or duration of
a behaviour. Common reinforcers include food, teacher praise, grades, free time, class positions,
and responsibilities. Use of reinforcers are generally ineffective for middle and high schools and
for underachieving students. Reinforcer potency is variable.
As implication to the teacher and librarian, using reinforcers may decrease intrinsic motivation,
narrow students focus, creates logistical problems and ignores students cognitions.
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Cognitive Theory
According to this theory, motivation results from individuals attempting to maintain order or
balance and an understanding of the world. It believes that individual behaviour is influenced by
the way people perceive themselves and their environment as they seek to maintain order and
understanding.
Some concepts or principles associated with this approach are: Equilibration (Piaget, 1952)
which refers to the process of searching for order or balance and, in doing so, testing ones
understanding of the real world. Expectation x value theory: here, students are motivated to
engage in learning tasks to the extent that they expect to succeed and the degree to which they
value the achievement of the task.
Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive theory (social learning theory; self-efficacy theory)
which refers to an individuals belief that they are capable of performing a task. This self
efficacy theory can be increased in four ways and these are:
1. Enactive mastery if youve performed task in the past, you can do it again.
2. Vicarious modeling you become more confident because you see someone else do the task.
3. Verbal persuasion you become more confident because someone convinces you that you
have the skills necessary to perform task.
4. Arousal if you get psyched up then you perform better.
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The implications of cognitive theory for Teachers/ Librarians are summed up as follows:
1. Students are naturally motivated to learn when they encounter experiences that are
inconsistent with their current understandings.
2. Some disequilibrium is necessary to motivate students.
3. Too much disequilibrium can be counterproductive, creating excessive frustration and
overwhelming anxiety.
4. Teachers must create learning experiences in which students can be successful and the success
must be in activities that students see value in attaining.
5. When students are successful on tasks they value, they develop greater self- efficacy.
Historical Approach
Among historical explanations of motivation are instinct theory which states that people are
motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionary programmed to do so. The
theory says that complex, unlearned patterns of behaviours that are common to an entire species
account for behaviour. Another is the psychological hedonism. This motivational theory
explains that people seek pleasure. It is a form of psychological egoism that assumes that the
ultimate for motive for all voluntary human action is the desire to experience pleasure or to avoid
pain. Egoism is of the view that humans are always motivated by self interest. It claims that
when people choose to help others, they do it ultimately because of personal benefits expected to
obtain directly or indirectly from doing so. Hedonism assumes that all human actions are
ultimately motivated by desires for pleasure and avoidance of pain. Also, the arousal theory
states that increasing arousal is defined by psychological changes such as we experience in
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respiration or heart rate. This suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or
increase levels of arousal. One may read when arousal levels are high or sleep when arousal
levels are low. People perform best with an optimum level of arousal.
Contributors to historical approach to motivation are Plato, Aristotle, Aqunas, Humes, Bretano
among others.
Humanistic view of Motivation
The humanistic approach to psychology was developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow in
the United States during the 1950s. Humanistic psychology is concerned with topics that are
meaningful to human beings, focusing especially upon subjective experience and the unique,
unpredictable events in individual human lives. It has forced many psychologists to question
some of their basic beliefs.
Humanistic psychologists differ from most other psychologists in focusing on conscious
experience rather than on behaviour, on personal responsibility and free will rather than on
determinism, and of discussion of experience rather than on use of the experimental method.
Humanistic psychology also emphasizes the importance of the individuals striving towards
personal growth and fulfillment.
According to this theory, humans are innately good and our innate tendencies are predominantly
healthy and benign (pleasant or nice). People have an innate capacity for constructive growth,
honesty, generosity and love. However, these instincts are weak and could easily be
overwhelmed by the more powerful forces of learning and culture. The result is that a pathogenic
environment can inhibit our positive potentials and evoke hatred, destructiveness, and self-
defeating behaviour. Motivation results from individuals attempting to fulfil their full potential
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as human beings. It considers the entire physical, emotional, interpersonal, and intellectual
qualities of an individual and examines how they influence a persons choices and behavior.
According to the Humanistic view, all students are motivated.
In this theory of motivation, attention will be given to Maslow and McClellands theories.
According to Maslow, human needs can be classified as:
Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain.
Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or
surroundings.
Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love.
Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others.
Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by maximizing the use of abilities, skills, and
potential
This theory of Maslow assumes that a person attempts to satisfy the more basic needs before
directing behaviour towards the satisfaction of upper-level needs. Lower-order needs must be
satisfied before a higher-order need begins to control a persons behaviour. A satisfied need
ceases to motivate.
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NEED HIERARCHY
MASLOWS KEY CONCEPTS: Self- actualization and Peak experiences.
According to Maslow (1954), self- actualization can be described in the following way: A
musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately at
peace with himself. What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self- actualization.
Self- actualized people are characterized by an acceptance of themselves, spontaneity, the need
for privacy, resistance to cultural influences, empathy, profound interpersonal relations, a
democratic character structure, creativeness, and a philosophical sense of humor.
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According to Maslow, Abraham Lincoln, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Albert Einstein were identified
as self- actualizers.
McCLELLAND NEED THEORY
His theory is considered a humanistic approach to motivation. This is because of an attempt by
the individual to fulfill their quest for something.
.It is a motivational model that attempts to explain how the needs for achievement, power and
affiliation affect the actions from people from a managerial context. People who are achievement
motivated typically prefer to master a task and they prefer to work on task of moderate difficulty.
They prefer work which the results are based on their effort rather than on anything else. Their
personality is motivated by their accomplishment.
According to this theory, there is also what is called Need for power. This motivational need
stern from a persons desire to influence, teach or encourage others. He/she enjoys status
recognition, winning arguments, competition and influencing others and the quest for personal
prestige and a constant need for a better personal status.
There is also what is called Need for affiliation. People who have a need for affiliation prefer to
spend time creating and maintaining social relationships. They enjoy being a part of a group and
they have the desire to feel loved and accepted. They also tend to adhere to the norms of the
culture in the school group for fear of rejection and they like to collaborate than compete.
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Factors Affecting Motivation
1. Attribution (when teachers attribute task to particular students, it demotivate others to working
on the task.)
2. Teacher Expectations
3. Anxiety (Facilitating vs. Debilitating)
4. Environment
5. Student Interest
6. Lack of Instructional Variability
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REFERENCES
AMES, A.C. (1990). Motivation: What Teachers Need to Know ,Teachers College Record
Volume 91, Number 3, Spring, Columbia University
Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating Students to Learn. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Brophy, J. (2004). Motivating students to learn, Lawrence erlbaum associates, publishers
Mahwah, New Jersey London Second Edition
Fried, R. L. (2001). The Passionate Learner: How Teachers and Parents Can Help Children
Reclaim the Joy of Discovery. Boston: Beacon Press.
Maehr, M., & Meyer, H. (1997). Understanding motivation and schooling: Where weve been,
where we are, and where we need to go. Educational Psychology Review, 9, 371409.
Morris, C.G. & Maisto, A.A. 2002. Psychology:An introduction. 11th ed. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Wiseman, D.G. and Gilbert H.H. ((2001). Best Practice in Motivation and Management in the
Classroom. Springfield: Charles C Thomas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation
http://giftedkids.about.com/od/glossary/g/intrinsic.htm