/

Anatomy
of
Hatha Yoga
A Manual for
tudents, Teacher ,
and Practitioucrs
by
11. David Coulter
W it h a Foreword
by
Timulh)' McGJ.lI, M. D.
2002 Winne
Benjamn Fran . In Awa rd for
Health, Wel1ncs:-., and ut rition
..---------------------
ANATOMY
OF
HATHAYOGA
A Manual for Students,
Teachers, and Practitioners
by
H. David Coulter
Foreword
by
Timothy fvlcCall. M. D.
Bodv and Breath
Text une! ilIustrations f' 2001 by 11. David Coulter
Foreword 2001 by Timothy McCall
Aut. hor's phot ograph ( 2001 hy J oyce Baronio
Body une! Breath l nc. 14 1) We.;tside Ave . Honesdalo, PA 18431 USA
O') os 07 Oh OS 04 <) 7 (, ')
PRECAUTIONARY NOTE: Thi is nol a medical text, bul a
compendium ofremarh concerning IlOW anatomy arul ph;}'siology relate
lo hatha yoga. Al,;}' medical questions regarding contraindieations and
cautions or any questions regarding uihether or not to proceed uiith
particular practices or post ures sh ou l d he referred either to health
professionals uiho haoe an interest in medical problems associated with
exercise, stretching, and breathing, or lo hatha yoga teachers uiho hove
had experience uiorhing uiith. medical problems in a therapeutic setting
superoised b;)' health professionals,
All rights reserved. Wit h certain exeeptions enumerated below, no part of this book rnay
be rep roduced, stored in a retrieval systern, 01' transmitted in any form 01' by any means-
electronic, mechanical, photocopyi ng, recording, 01' otherwise without written permission
from t.he publisher. There are three excep tinns, First : brief quotat iuns of up to 300 words
t hat are ernbodied in critical articles and reviews can he used freely so long as they are
properly acknowledged. Second : blanket permission is granted for institurional and indi -
vidual photocopying, properly acknowledged, of up to one hundrr.. -d copies totaling no
more t han 25,000 words for eae h copy with aecornpanyi ng illust rat ions (approxirnately
one chapter), 01' alternatively, a series of extracta from t he en tire book totaling no more
t han 25.()()()words, for purposes of teaching 01' for research and prvate study; exeepting
that no deletions, alterations, 01' exelusions within individual pages are permitted. For
example: eutting and pasti ng of ilIustrntio ns for st udent syllabi is expressly forhiddcn.
Only individual pagos in their entirety are to he photocopied, including t ext (if uny ) and
all runni ng heads, captions, anel labe ls that are incurporated within each page . ' I'hird:
permission lar seanning of text , halftones, anatornical drawings, charts, and tahles reit her
in isolation 01' altered as desired) is grantcd unly for trials of elcctronic 01' hurd copy
publishing layouts : perrnission rnust besought from the publisher 113od)' and Breath Inc.)
to use sueh illustrations for any kind of electronic 01' mechanical transmi.. sson 01' in other
puhlications. Printcd in China,
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Coulter, H. Duvid (Her ber t Duvicl l. 19:19
Anatomy of Hatha YOg'd : u manual for st udl' nts, teadH!1 s, amI praditioners b}' 11.
David Coull el' ; lareword h)' Timothy l\feCa ll.
p.cm.
Includes hibi/ographical referenccs and indexo
ISBN 0-9707006-0-1 (al k. pap!"' )
1 Yoga, Ha tha--Physiological Human 3. Human anutomy. 1.
Title.
HA78J.7.CG85 200 1

2001025691
To my parents,
who guided me lovingly,
watched my Jife with joy and ent hus iasm.
supported my academic and personal interests,
and always t hought the best of me.
CONTE TS
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- Annie Dil1ard, in The Writing Life
Forelvord 11
Preface 13
lntroduction 15
Basic Premises 17
Chupte,. One . MOVEMENT AND POSTURE 21
The Neuro-musculoskel etal System 22
The Nervous Systern 29
Ref1exes 36
The Vestibular Systern, Sight, and Touch .47
Connective T'issue Restraint s 51
Stretching 60
Threo Postures 62
Putting It Al] Together 66
Chapter Tioo - BREATHING 67
The Design of the Respiratory Systern 68
The Muscles of Rospiration 74
How Breathing Affects Post ure 82
The Somatic and Autonomic Systerns 85
The Physiology of Respiration 91
Thoraeic I3reathing 102
Paradoxical Breathi ng 107
Supine Abdominal Breathing 108
Abdomi nal Breat hi ng in Sitti ng Postures 111
Diaphragmatic Breathing 120
A Traditional \Varnill g 131
Chapter Three - ABDOMINOPELVIC EXERCISES 139
Cr unch es and Sit-ups 140
The Foundati on of the Body 141
Supine Leg Lift s 160
Yoga Sit-ups 169
The Sitti ng Boat Postures 171
The Peacock 173
Ths Pelvis and The Analomi cal Peri neum 177
Ashwi ni Mudra 182
Mula Bandha 183
7
Agni Sara 188
Uddiyana Bandha, 'I'he Abdominal Lift 195
Naul i 201
Cont rai ndicat ions 204
Benefi ts 205
Chapter Four - S1'ANDING POSTURES 207
The Skcletal Systcrn and Movement 210
Anatorny of t he Spi ne 215
Sym mctry and Asymrnet ry 227
Standing Postures 228
Four Simple Stretches 230
Backward Bcnding 236
Forward Bending 240
Side Bending 249
What Makes Postures Difficult? 254
The 'I'ri angle Postures 255
Two Balancing Postures 267
Bencfits 271
Chapter Fioe - BACKBENDING POSTURES 273
The Anatomy of Flexion an d Extensi n 274
Breathing and Backbending 280
The Cobra Postures 284
The Locust Postures 296
The Prone Boat Postur es 303
The Bow Postures 305
The Knee J oint 307
Supine Backbendi ng Postures 312
Backbend- The Camel 320
323
I fit s 324
apter Six - FORWARD BENDING POSTURES 325
..ard Bending: Head, Neck, and Chest 326
abar and Lurnbosacral Forward Bending 327
-roiliac Nutation and Counternutation 328
I 1 -ard Bending at the Hip J oints 332
." ard Bending at the Ankles and in the Feet 334
r-,'cal Matters and Cau t ions 337
Posterior Stretch 340
Down-Faci ng Dog 349
'. Child's Pose 352
Breathing and Forward Bcnding 353
Sacroiliac Flcxibility 355
..
Chupler Seuen - TWISTING POSTURES 383
'I'he Fundamentals of Twisti ng 384
']'he Skull, t he Atlas, and t he Axis 388
Movements 01' the Head and Neck 392
Thoracic Twist ing 395
Lumbar 'I'wisting 396
1'11e Lower Extrcmities 398

[nverted Twi st s .424
Sitting Spinal Twists .425
Benefits .435
Chapter Eight - THE HEADSTAND .437
The Cardiovascul ar System .437
'fhe 1\vo Headstands .446
The Upper Extrelnitics .455
Structural Imbal ances .471
Breathing Issues .474
Developing Strength and Flexibility .477
Bcnding and Twisting in th e Hoadstand .488
Extending Your Time .493
Benefits .497
Chapter Nine - 1'HE SHOULDERSTAND .499
Anatomy 01' The Shoulders tand 500
Inverted Act ion Postures 50:1
Th e Shoulderstand 507
The Plow 516
The Lifted Shoul derstan d and Plow 522
Circulati on 524
Respiration 526
Sequ elas 528
Benefits 539
Chiipter Ten - RELAXA1'ION AND MEDITATI ON 541
Muscular Relaxat ion 543
'I'wo Relaxation Posturas 547
Breathing and Relaxation 552
9
'I'ho Autonomic Nervous System 554
Deepening Re laxation 562
Med itation Postures 565
Maintaining the Geometry 566
Props 572
The Six Postures 575
Mula Bandha 588
Mastering the Situation 589
Knower o' the VeiJ 593
Glossary 595
Additional Sources 607
Acknouitedgments 609
lndex of Anatomical Terms 611
Index of Practices 619
Biographical Sketch 623
10
FOREWORD
H atha yoga. Its teachers and serious students are convinced of its puwer to
huild st rength and confidence, lo irnprove flexibility a nd balance, and lo foster
spiritual pcace and contentment. And beyond its attributes as preventi ve med-
icine, many of us also bclieve in the power of yoga to heal , to aid in reeoveri ng
from everything frorn low back strain to carpal tunnel syndrorne and to help
cope with chronic prob lems like arthritis, multiple sclerosis and infection with
the human immunodeficiency vir us (l IIV).
But despite the recont boom in yoga's popularity, most seientists and physi-
cians have been slow to embrace t his discipline. '1'0 many of them pcrhaps, it
seerns like a rnystical pursuit, a quasi-religion with littl e basis in the modern
world of scienco. In a medical profession now itself dorninated by a near rel igious
reverence for the randornized, control led study, knowledge aequired t hrough
thousands of years of direct observation, int rospection, and trial and error may
SL'Cm quaint,
But as the West has slowly opened in the past decades to Eastern, experientially
bascd fields like acupunclure-as part of a greater acceptance of alternative
medicine in general-yoga has begun lo stake its c1aim. Concepts like prana 01'
chi, however, are not warrnly received by skeptical scientists . To win them over
you need lo provide the kind of evidence they buyo Studies. Preferably
publi shed in peer-review jou rnals. And you need to propose mechanisms uf
action that conform with scionce as they understand i t.
A significant breakthrough was provi ded by DI: Dean Ornish, a California-
based cardiologist who interrupted his college years to study with Sri Swami
Satchidananda. His work, published in 1990 in the prestigious British medi cal
journal t he Lancet, showed that a program that combines hatha yoga with
dietary changes, exercise, and group therapy can actually reverse blockages in
the heart's main artcries-which doctors used to t hink wasn't possible.
In 1998, rescarch led by Marian Garfinkcl of t he Medical College of
Pennsylvania and published in the Journal o{ tire American Medical
Association found that lyengar yoga could effect ively reduce the symptoms of
carpal tunneI syndrome, a malady of near epidemic proportions in this computar
age, O' note, Garlinkel ' s st udy lasted only eight weeks, and yet the intervention
proved efficacious. Serious yoga practilioners reali zoof course that although some
benefit may be noticed after even a single class, yoga's most profound effects
accrue over yea rs-s-even decades-not weeks. Yoga is indeed powerfu l medicine
but it is slow medicine.
More studies wiII be needed t o convince the medical establishment, but that
research could also be slow in coming. Funding is a porennial problem. Unlike
the situation with, say, pharmaceuticals, th ere is no prvate industry lo
bankroll the scientific investigation of hatha yoga. Given the incredible cost of
long-range studies-whi ch are more likely t o demonstratc effe ctiven ess-
1 suspect that we're un likely to see any time soon the kind of overwhelming
proof that skeptical scientists want. This presents a philosophical quest ion:
11
13
L le origins of this book date Irom twenty-five years ago when 1 was teaehing
val'ious neuroscience, mieroscopie anatomy, and elementary
. t he Deparlment of Cell Biology and Neuroanalomy at the University of
At the same time 1 was learning about yoga in at the
Medtet on Center in Minneapolis. During those years, Swami Rama,
founded the Himalayan Institute, often lectured in Minnesota, one of his
messages was that yoga was neither exereise but science, and
wanted modern biomedical science lo examine it m that light. One
purposes in eoming to the West was to th!s about, a purpose IS
reflected by the name he selectcd Ior the instituta he
Himal ayan Intemational Inst it ut o ofYoga 8eienee and Philosophy. 'I'he of
connect ing yoga with modern science resonated with me, and the
grew that 1 could be a part of such a qucst. Soon I 1I1Y
interest Swamiji called and suggested that I pay lum a visit to talk about
writing book on anatomy and hat ha yoga. And that is how this project began
in 1976. . . . .
Apart from several false starts and near-fatal errors, I did httle writing on
this subject between 197() and 1988, but still I benefited from. stu?ents'
questions in eourses on analomy and hatha yoga at the UmversJty of
Minnesota (Ext ension Division ), more eomprehellsive courses on yoga anatomy
for graduate students at the Himalayan I nst it ut e in. the lat? 1980s,
and physiology eourses in the mid-1990s fol' lhe Paelfic Insilt ute fol' Onental
Medicine (NYC) and from 1990 lo the present, teaehing anatomy for students
of Ohashiatsu: a method of Oriental bodywork. These courses brought me in
touch with man)' tclling questions fmm studenls interested in various aspeets
ol' holistic medicine; without ibem, the seed planted by Swamiji would never
have matured.
And so it went, from a working drafl in the summer of 1976 to 1995, when
aller many gentIe and not-so-genile nudges, Swamiji insistcd that my time was
up, l was lo finish the book, finish it now, and not run away. Ir [ tried to escape,
he avowed, he would follow me to lhe ends ofthe earth; what he would do upon
finding me is bettcr lefl unsaid. Happily, he saw an early but complete drafl of
t he tcxt ayear before his passillg in November of 199
6
.
PREFACE
'l'imothy McCall, MD
Boston, Massachusetts
January, 2001
l2
'. Timothy MeCall is a board-eertifiL'<1 specialist in internal mL'<1icine and the
. o/' of l!.xamining Your Doclor: A Patient's Guide fo Avouling Harrnful
CareoHis work has appearcd in more than a dozen major publieations
the New Englalld Journal of Medicine, the Natioll and the Los
tes Times. He can be found on the web at www.drmccall.com
\Vhen you have an int erven tion which appears safe and efective-i-and when its
side cffeets are almost entirely positive---should one wait Ior proof befare
trying it? This value judgrnent les at the heart of the recent debate over many
tradi tional hcaling methods.
Ironical ly, though, even within the world of aiternative medicine yoga seerns
under -appreciated. Two years ago, [ attended a Iour -day con ference on aIter-
native medicine sponsored by Harvard Medica] School. A wide range of topics
from herbs to prayer to homeopathy were covered in detall. Yet in the dozens
al' presentations I attended, yoga was mentioned just once: In a slide that
accompanied the lecture on cardiovascular disease, yoga was one of several
modalities listed under "Other Stress Reduction Techniques. " Yogais eertainly a
stress reduction device but to reduce it lo j ust that misses so mucho
Given the situation, how welcome then is David CouIter's Anatomy o{Hatha
Yoga. David combines the perspectives of a dedicated yogi with that of a former
anatorny professor and research associate at two major American medical
schools. He has set himself the ambitiuus goal uf combining the modern
scientific understanding of anatorny and physiology wth the ancient practico of
hatha yoga.
The result of an obvious labor of love, the book explains hatha yoga in
demystfied, scientific terrns while at tho sarne time honoring its traditions, It
should go a long way to helping yoga achieve the scientific recognition it
dese/ves. Usefu l as both a textbook and as a refere nce, Anatomy of Hatha Yoga
is a book t hat all serious yoga teachers and practitioners will want on their
shelves. It wiIl also be welcomed by sympathetic physicians-and there are more
of us a ll the time---as well as physieal therapists and other health
pro fessionals. Speaking as a doctor who had already studied anatomy in detail
(though forgotten more than I'd care to admit) and as a dcdi eat ed student al'
yoga, I can happily report that this book heightencd my understanding of both
hat ha yoga and analomy and-as a niee bonus- improved m)' personal pradicc.
I realizc, however, that to those who lack scientifie tminng Anatom)' of
Haiha Yoga may seem daunting. Sorne sections use tcrminology and coneepts
that may be ehaIlenging on first rcading. Ifyou feel intiInidated, my suggestion
is to adopt the mentality many employ when reading the ancicnt and some-
difficuli texts of the yoga tradition. Rcnd with an open heart and if you get
-rnls1rated, try another part or come back to it another day. As with yoga itself,
e ent students will be rewarded with an ever-grcater understanding.
INTRODUCTIO
Acompl'ehensive staternent on the anatomy and physioIogy of hatha yoga
ought to have been written years ago. I3ut it hasn't happened, and myaim
is to remedy the deficiency. After considering the subject for twenty-five
years, it's clear that such a work rnight weli interweave two themes: for the
benefit of completeness, a traditional treatment of how to do yoga postures
(yoga asanas) using anatornically precise terminology, and, for correlatons
wi.h medicaI science, an objective analysis of how those postures are
realized in sorne of the great systems of the body. In that regard, special
emphasis is placed here on the musculoskeletal, nervous, respiratory, and
cardiovascular systems-the rnusculoskeletal system because that is where
al! our actions are expressed, the nervous system beeause that is the residence
of alI the manageriaI functions of the musculoskeletal system, the respiratory
system because breathing is of such paramount importance in yoga, and
the cardiovascular system because inverted postures cannot be fully
cornprehended without understanding the dynamics of the circulation.
Most of the emphasis is practical-doing experiments, learning to observe
the body, and further refining actions and observations,
'I'he discussion is intended for an audience of yoga tcachers, health
professionaIs, and anyone eIse who is interestcd in exploring sorne of the
structural and functional aspects of hatha yoga, The work can also serve as
a guide for students of alternative medicine who would like to communicate
with those who place their faith more strictly in conternporary science. '1'0
help everyone in that regard l've included only material that is generaUy
accepted in modern biomedical sciences, avoiding comment on non-physieal
concepts such as prana, the nadis, and the chakras, none of which are
presently testable in the scientific sense, and none of which have obvious
parallels in turn-of-the-millenniurn biology.
The book begins with un introductory discussion of sorne basic prernises
that set a philosophical tone and suggest a consistent mental and physical
approach to postures. Ten chapters follow, the first three fundamental to
the last seven. Chapter 1 summarizes the basic principIes of the anatomy
and physiology of hatha yoga Breathing is next in chapter 2 since the manner
in which we breathe in hatha yoga is important for expediting movement
and posture. Breathing is followed by pelvic and abdominal exercises in
chapter 3 for three reasons: many of those exercises use specialized methods
ofbreathing, they are excellent warm-ups for other postures, and the pelvis
and abdomen form the foundation of the body. Standing postures will then
be covcred in chapter 4 because these poses are so important for beginnng
15
studcnts, and because they provide a preview of backbending, forward
bending, and twisting postures, which are covered in detail in chapters 5,
6, and 7. Tho headstand and shoulderstand, including a brief introduction
to cardiovaseular function, are included in chapters 8 and 9. Postures for
relaxation and meditation are treated last in chapter 10.
a will be helpful to experiment with each posture, preferably in the
order given. This approach wil! lead you logically through a wealth of
musculoskeletal anatomy, bring the academic discourse to life, and perrnit
you to understand t he body's architecture and work with it sa fely. 11' sorne
of t hc sections on anatomy and physiology scem formidable, there is an
easy solution. Turn the page. Or turn severa! pages. Go directly to the next
section on postures, in which most 01' the discussion can be understood in
context. Just keep in rnind, however, that knowledge is power, and that to
communicate effectively with laypcople who havc technical questions as
well as wit h he.alt h professional s to whom you may go for advice, it may be
desirable lo refer back to the more chal lenging sections of this book as the
need ariscs. And those who do not find these sections particularly demanding
can look to Alter's definitivo Science o{ Flexibility , as well as to other sources
t hat are listed alter the glossary, ifthey req uire more technical det ails t han
are providcd here.
16
BASIC PREMISES
The last half of the twentieth century saw many schools of hatha yoga
ta ke root in the West. Sorne are based on authentic oral traditions passed
down through many gencrations of teachers. Sorne are pitchcd to meet
moder n necds and expectations but are still consistent with the ancient
art , scionce, and philosophy of yoga. Still others have developed New Age
tangent s that traditionalists view with suspicion. Picture this title placed
near the exit of your local bookstore: Gel Rich, Young, arul Beautiful untli
Hatl w Yoga. I've not secn it, but it would hardly be surprising, and 1 have
to admit that 1 would look carefully before not buying it .. .
Given human diferences, thc many schools of hatha yoga approach even
the rnost basic postures with differing expectations, and yoga teachers find
themselvcs facing a spectrum of students that ranges from accomplished
dancers a nd gymnasts lo nursing home residents who are afraid lo lie down
on the floor for fear they wori't be able to get back up. 'I'hat's fine; it's not
a probl em to transcend such dilferences, because for everyone, no matter
what t heir age or level of expertise, the most important issue in hatha yoga
is not lexibility and the ability to do difficult postures, but awareness-
awareness of the body and the breath, an d for those who read this book,
awareness of the anatornical and physiological principies that underlie
each posture. From this awareness comes control, and from control comes
grace and beauty. Even postures approxirnated by beginning students can
car ry t he germ of poise and elegance.
How lo accomplish these goal s is another matter, and we often see
disagreement over how the poses should be approached and taught,
Therefore , the guidelines that follow are not set in stone; their purpose is
to provi de a common point of reference from which we can discuss the
anatomy and physiology of hatha yoga.
FOCUS YOUR ATT ENTl ON
Lock your attention within the body. You can hold your concentration on
breathing, on tissues that are being stretched, on joints that are being
st ressed, on the speed of your movements, or on the relationships betwcen
breathing a nd stretching. You can also concntrate on your options as you
move in and out of postures. Practicing with total attention within tho
body is advanced yoga , no matter how easy thc posture; practicing with
your attention scattercd is the practice of a bcginner, no rnatter how difficult
the posture. Hatha yoga trains the mind as well as the body, so focus your
attention without lapse.
17
I!> ... \ ,17n M 1 ()F 11. 1711/1 I ()(;.1
BE AWAR E OF YO UR BREATH
We'll see in chapters 2-7 that inhalations lift you more fully into many
postures and create a hea lthy intcrnal tensi n and stability in the torso.
Vou can test this by lying pronc on the floor and noticing that lifting up
higher in the cobra posture (fig. 2.10) is aided by inhalation. Paradoxically,
howevcr, exhalations rather than inhalations carry you further into many
other postures, Vou can test this by settling into a sitting forward bend and
noticing that exhalation allows you lo draw your chest down closer to your
thighs (fig, 6.13). But in either case you gel two beneits: diaphragmatic
breathing assists the work of strctching the tissues, and your awarenoss of
those effects directs you to make subtle adjustrnents in the posture.
While doing posturas, as a general rule keep the airway wide open,
breathe only t hrough the nose, and breathe smoothly, evenly; and quietly.
Neve!' hold the breat h at the glottis 01' make noise as you breathe cxccpt as
required 01' suggested by specifc practices.
BUlLO FOUNOATlONS
As you do each asana, anaIyze it s foundation in the body and pinpoint t he
key muscles t hat assist in maintaining that foundation: the lower extrem-
ities and their extensor muscles in standing postures; the shoulders, neck,
spine (vertebral column), ami rnuscles of the torso in the shoulderstand;
and the entiroty o" the musculoskeletal systern, hut especially the abdominal
and deep back muscles, in the peacock. Focus your attention accordingly on
the pertinent regional anatomy, both lo prevent injury and to refine your
underslanding of the posture.
Then there is another kind of Ioundation, more general than what we
appreciate from the point uf view of regional unatomy-the foundation of
connective tissues throughouL Lhe body, espccially those that bind the
musculoskeletal system logether. The connective tissues are like sleel rein-
forcing rods in concrete; they are hidden but inlrinsic to the integrity ofthe
whole. '1'0 strengthen these tissues in preparation for more demanding
work with postures, cancentrate at first on toughening up joint capsules,
tendons, ligaments, and Lhe fascial sheaLhes thaL envelop muscles. 'rhe
practical method for accomplishing these aims is to build strength, ane! to
do this from the inside out, slarting with lhe central musc1es of the torso
and then moving from there lo the extremities. Aches and pains frequently
develop if you attempt extreme stretches befare you have first developed
the strenf:,'th and skill Lo protect the aU-important joints. Unless you are
already a weightliftcr 01' body bui lder. stretching and hecoming nexible
should be a secondary cuncern. Only as your practice matures should your
emphasis be changed to cultivale a J.,'Teater range of motion around the
joints.
uss: PNI-ftll.\f:..\" 1')
~ O V N I NT O ANO OUT OF POSTURES
Being in a state of si lence when you have come into a posture is soothing
and even magical, but you cannot connect with that slate except by know-
ing how you got there and knowing where you're going, Iryou jerk frorn
pusture to posture you cannot enjoy the juurney, and the joumey is just as
important as the destination. So move into and out of postures slowly .a nd
consciously. As you move, survey the body frum head lo toe: hands, wrists,
rorearrns, elbows, arms, and shoulders; feet, ankles, legs, knees, thighs, and
hips; and pelvis, abdomen, chest, neck, and head. Vou will soon develop
awareness of how the body functions as a unit and notice quirks and
discontinuities in your practice which you can then smooth out. Finally, as
you learn lo move more gracefully, the final posture will seem less difficult,
HONOR THE SUGGESTIONS OF PAIN
Do you honor 01' ignore messages from aches and pains? If you have back
pain, do you adjust your posture and activities to minimizo it, or do you just
tough it out? And do you keep a deferentiaI eye on your body, 01' do you ind
that you gel so wrapped up in sorne challenge that you forget about it? If
you do not listen lo messages from your body you will be a candidate for
pulIed muscIes, tendinitis, pinched nerves, and ruptured intcrvertebral
disks , '1'0 avoid injury in hatha yoga you have lo develop a se lf-respecting
awareness,
Begin your program of hatha yoga with a resolution to avoid pain.
Unless you have had years of expcrience and know exactly what you are
doing, pushing yourself into a painfuJ stretch will not only court injury, it
will also create a state of fear and anxiety, and your nervous system will
store those memories and thwart your efforts to recreate the posture, Pain
is a gift; it tells us that some problern has developed. Analyze the nature of
the problem insteae! of pushing ahead mindlessly. With self-awareness and
the guidance of a competent leacher, you can do other postures that
circumvent the difficulty.
CULTIVATE REGU L AR ITY. ENTH USIASM. ANO CAUTI ON
Try to practice at the same time and in the same place every day. Such
habit s will make it easier to anaIyze day-to-day changes. Mornings are besl
for improving heallh-stiffness in the early morning tells you where you
need the most careful work and attention. Later in the day, you lose that
sensitivity and incur the risk of injury. Cullivate a frolicsome enthusiasm
in the morning to counter stiffness. and CRutiousness in the evening to
avoid hurting yourself And al any time, if you start feeling uncommonly
strong, nexible. and frisky, be careful. That's when it is easy to go too faro
20 A /\/I1rI\. f) ()F IIATIIA )'K;A
TAKE PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
with knowledgeable teachers, but at t he same ti me take responsibi lity
101' your own decisions and actions. Your instructor rnay be strong and
vigorous, and may urge you on, but you have to be the final arbiter of what
you are capable of doing. Because many hatha yoga postures make use of
unnatural positions, they expose weaknesses in the body, and it is up to you
to decide how and whether to procccd . One criterion is to rnake sure you
not only fee[ fine an hour after your practice, but twenty-four hours later
as well. Finally, honor the contraindications for each posture and each class
of postures; if in doubt, consult with a medical practitioner who has had
experience with hat ha yoga.
CULTIVATE PATIENCE
Learn from thc tortoise. Cultivate the patience to move forward steadily, no
mat te r how slow your progress, Remember as well that the benefits of
hatha yoga go beyond getti ng stronger an d more flexible, and that if you
are moni tori ng on ly t hat realrn, you may be disappointed. 1"01' any kind of
beneficial result you have to be pa tienl. The mai n culpr it is t hinking t hat
you shou ld be able to accomplish sornething without making consistent
effort, That attitude has two unfortunate side effocts: Iirs t, it diverts your
attention from the wor k before you to what you believe you are entitled to:
and second, it makes it impossible to learn and appreciate what is taking
place this minute. So resolve lo practico being with your experience in the
present mornent, enjoy yourself no matter what, and let go of expectations.
CHAPTERONE
MOVEMENT AND POSTURE
"f!:t.o;Y' lid,l/Y t/al rd !JYI.11
l1a""cYll'lal e, YaNl avtllo Ilarl tI'etll (nl/al{.'/d/lol/} b:
.11101/1/1 ti" /1N'lw,Y" Jk InJl//k Je, Y ..t1/Nll /Ilh/rlt -It;!:
Jk, jtdNn /.1 o IOol,{/IloJler. < ('1 hrrt"/
l//J//rl Ojt-el/ liniO I//r .1r lI l /JIJ. ":/)"
11lt1l1t/'ll.t u'e on//./"C'//E lo rhl7.lyr m'o' rl# IlJhE// /1
1';lIt?1l;?h'//nr{o/UJ ir/ Ih<ll "/':nclJII. "
_ Michael Gershon. in The Second Brain, p. )4.
T he firs t organizing princi pie underlying human movement and posture
is our existence in a gravitational field. Imagine its absence in a spacecraft,
where ast ronauts float unless they are strapped in place, and where outside
the vessel little backpack rockets propel them from one work site to another.
'1'0 get exercise, which is crucial for preventing [088 ofbone calcium on long
voyages, they must work out on machines bolted to the 0001'. They can't do
the three things t hat most of us depcnd on: walking, running, and lifting.
Ifthey t ried to partner up for workouts, al l they could do is jerk one another
back and forth. And even hath a yoga postures would be valueloss; they
would involve lit.tle more than relaxing an d squirrning around.
Rack on earth, it is helpfu l to keep recalling how the force of gravity
dominat es our practice of hatha yoga. We tend to ovcrlook it , forgctting
t hat it keeps us grounded in the most literal possible sense, When we lift
up into th e cobra, the locust, 01' the bow postures, we lift pars of the body
away from the ground against the force of gravity. In the shoulderstand the
force of gravity holds the shoulders against the floor. In a standing posture
we woul d collapse if we did not either keep antigravity muscles active al'
lock joint.<; to remain erecto And even Iying supine, without the need either
to balance 01' to act vate the antigravity muscles, we makc use of gravity m
ot her creativo ways, as when we grasp our knees, pull them toward the
chest, roll from side to side, and allow our body weight to massage the back
muscles against the 0001'.
Keeping in mind that the earth's gravitational field influcnces every
movement we make, we'lI turn our attention in the rest of this chapter to
21
21 11!\;.\lD.UI (JI- JL-lTIIA ICXiA
the mechanisrns that make rnovcmont ami posture possible, First we'Il look
at how the skeletal rnuscles rnove the body, then we'lI discuss the way the
nervous system controls the operation of the skeletal muscles, and then
wc'Il examine how connective tissues restrict movement. Ifwe undorstand
how these three function together within the field of gravity, we can begin
to undcrstand sorne of the principles underlying hatha Y015d. Finally, we'll
pul it all together in a discussion of three postures. \Ve'lI begin with the
role of skeletal muscles.
THE NEURD-MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
1'0 any informed observer, it is plain that the musculoskeletal syslem
executcs a11 our acts of will, expresses our conscious and unconscious
habits, breathes air into the lungs, articulates our oral expression ofwords,
and implements all generally recognized forms ofnonverbal expression and
communication. And in the practico of'hatha yoga, it is plainly the musculo-
skeletal systern that enables us to achieve externa] balance, lo twist, bend,
turn upside down, to be still 01' active, and lo accomplish all deansing and
breathing exercises. Nevertheless, we are subtly deceived if we think that
is the end of the story. Just as we see munchkins sing and dance in The
Wizard ofOz and do not learn that they are not autonomous until the end
of I.he story, we'l1 find that muscles, like munchkins, do not oprate in
isolation. Andjust as Dorothy found that the wizard kept a tether on every-
thing going on in his realm, so we'll see that the nervous system keeps an
absolute rein on the musculoskeletal system. The two systems combined
form a neuro-musculoskeletal system that unifies all aspecto of our actions
and activities.
1'0 iIIustrate how the nervous system manages posture, let's say you are
standing and decide lo sit. First your nervous systern commands the flexor
muscles (musdes that fold the limbs and bend the opine forward) lo pul!
the upper part of the trunk forward and to iniliale bending at lhe hips,
knces, and ankles. Abare moment afier you initiate that movement, gravity
takes center stage and starts to pull you toward the sitting position. And at
the same time-accompanying the action of gravity-the nervous system
commands the extensor musc/es (those that resisl folding lhe Iimbs) lo
counteract gravity and keep you from faUing in a heap. Finally, as soon as
you are settled in a secure scaled position, the nervous system permits lhe
extensor muscles and the body as a whole to relax.
1'he musculoskcletal system docs more than move the body, it also
serves as a movable container for the internal organs. Just as a robot houses
and protects its hidden supporting elements (power plant, integrated
circuits, programmable compulen" componcnts, and enough
fuel to function for a reasonable lenglh of time), so does lhe musculoskelelal
l . MOI U Uil\"r AND 1'0.\71 'UF 23
syst.em house and protect the delicate internal organs. Hatha postures
teach us to control both the muscles that operate the extremlhes and the
muscles that forrn the container.
.!<ELETAL MUSCLE
The term "muscle" technically includes both its central flcshy part, the
belly o' the muscle, and its tendons. The belly of a muscle is composed.of
individual muscle [ibers (muscle cells) which are surrounded by connectiue
tissue [ibers that run into a tendon. The tendon in turn connects the belly
of the muscle to abone.
Under ordinary circumstances muscle cells contract , 01' shorten, only
because nerve impulses signal them to do so. When many nerve impulses
per second travel to most of the individual fibers in a muscle, it pulls
strongly on the tendon; if only a few nerve impulses per second travel lo a
smaller population of fibcrs within the muscle, it pulls weakly on the tendon;
and if nerve impulses are totally ahsent the muscle is totally relaxed.
[Technical note: One of the most persistent misconceptions doggedly in
the biomedical community is that all muscles, even those at rest, alwayskeep reeervmg
at least sorne nerve irnpulses. Fifty years of elcctromycgraphy with fine-wire needle
electrodes is at odds with this belief, documenting from thc 1950s on that t's not
necessarily true, and that with biofeedbacktraining we can learn to relax rnost of
OUT skeletal muscles completely.]
A muscle usually operates on a movablejoint such as a hinge 01' a ball
and socket, and when a muscle is stimulated to contract. by the nervous
systern, the resuiting tensi n is imparted to the bones on both sides of the
fulcrum of the joint. In the case of a hi nge such as the elbow that opens lo
about 180, any muscle situated on the face of the hinge that can close will
decrease the angle between the two bones, and any muscle situated on the
back side ofthe hinge will open it up from a closed or partially closed position.
For example, the biceps brachii musde Iies on the inside of the hinge, so it
acts lo flex the forearm (by definilion, lhe segment of the upper extremity
between the wrist and the elbow), pulling lhe hand toward lhe shouldcr.
1'he triceps brachii is situated on the back side of the arm (the segment of
the upper extremity belween the elbow and the shoulder) on the outside of
the hinge, so it acts to extend the elbow, 01' unfold the hinge (fig. 1.1).
ORIGINS AND INSERTIONS
\Ve use the words "origin" and "insertion" to indicate where musdes are
attached lo bones in relation to the most common movement at ajoint. The
origin of a muscle is on the bone lhat is relalively (01' usuallyl stationary,
and the insertion of a musde is on the bone that is most generally moved.
Flexion of lhe clbow is again a good example. Since ordinarily the arm is
fixed and the forearm is moved, al leasl. in relative terms, we say that the
24 OF 1f\771. 1 1eXiA
l . 1I1(}I 'EMt.1\TAi\' /} p o sniflE 25
Figure 1.1. View of the right scapula, arm, and upper part of lhe forea rm from
behind and the side (from 5appey; see uAcknowledgcmcnts" for discussion of
credils rega rding drawings, iIIusl rati ons, and ot he r visual matc rialsl.
are doing sornet hing unusual like taking a wal k in a handst and with slightly
bent elbows (which neccssitates a strong commi tment from t he t r iceps
brach rnuscles), the extenso r muscles do not support t he weight of the
body. In mos t practical circumstances, it is like1y lo be the flexors rather
than sxtensors t hat act as antigravity muscles in t he uppe r extremities, as
when you flex an el bow to lift a package or complete a chin-up.
l'fechnical note: Throughout this book, in order to keep terminology and yet
preci se, ['11 stick with definitions of and
which means never usmg ambiguous terms such as upper arm, lower arrn,
"upper leg," an d "lower leg." 'l'he sarne goes for the use of the terrn "arrn"
tu enco mpass un undetermined portion of the upper extremity and the careless use
of lile terrn "leg" te encompass an undeter rnined portien of the lower extremity]
biceps brachi i
rnuscle: Ilexes
lorearm as prime
- mover
brachialis mllscle:
synergist lor nexion
01forearm
...... "'---clavicl e
"'i-- - delloid musde
=1loiIi"=ll"--':'4-- - spine of
scapula
uppe r par!
offorearm
infraspinalus
musce
olecranon:
bony tip 01
elbow and ---- - -jf-
insertion 01
triceps
brachii
teres minor
rnuscle
trceps brachi i

lorearm at elbow
as prime mover
teres major musde
medial bord er
01scapula - - - -'7'
bceps brachii and t.riceps brachii take origin from th ' arrn a nd shoulder,
and t hat they insert on t he orearm (fig, 1.1).
The origins and insertions of a muscle can be functiunally reversed,
When the latissimue dorsi rnuscle (figs. H.9-1O) pu lls the arrn down and
back in a swimming stroke, its toxtbook origin is from the lower back and
pelvis, and its insertion is on the humerus in the armo But when we do a
chin-up the arrn is the relatively stable origino and the lower back and
pelvis bccorne the insertion for lifting the body as a whole. In the coming
chapters we'll see many examples of how working origins and insertions
are reversed.
AGONIST AND ANTAGONIST M US CL ES
Tho muscles surrounding a joint act cooperatively, but one of them-s-the
agonist-ordinarily serves as the prime mover, ass sted in its role by function-
ally related muscles called synergists. Whi le the agonist and its synergists
are acting on one sido of thc joint, muscles on the opposite side act as
antagonists. As suggested by t he name, antagonists monitor. smooth, and
even retard the movement in question. For example, when the biceps
brachii and the brachialis in the a rm (the agonist and one of its synergists)
shorten lo Ilex the elbow, the trceps brachii (on the opposi te side of the
arrn) resista flexion antagonistically while incidentally holding the joint
sur faces in cor rect apposition (fig. loJ).
Muscles also act in re lation to the force of gravity, In the lower extrem-
ities extensor muscles ac t as antigraoity muscles lo keep you upright and
resist crumpling lo the floor. Examples: the quadriceps [emoris muscle
(figs, 1.2,3.9, and H.II) on the front of the thigh (the segrnent of the lower
extremity between the hip joint and the knee joint.) extends the knee joint
as you slep onto a platfonn, and the calf muscles extend the ankles as you
lift your heels lo reach an object on a hgh shelf. Flexor muscles are antag-
onists lo the extensors. 'fhey can act in two ways. 'l'hey often aid !,'ravity,
as when you settle into a standing forwal'd bend and lhen pull yourself
down more im;istently with your hip nexors-the iliopsoas muscles 1figs.
2.H, 3.7, 309, and fI .13). But they also ad to oppose gravity: ifyou want to ron
in place lhe iliopsoas muscle complex l1exes the hip joint, lifting the thigh
and drawing the knee toward the chest; and ifyou want to kick yourself in
the bu ttocks the hall/strings lfig. 3.8, } .IO, IUa, and 8.12) flex the knee,
pulling lhe leg Hhe segrnent. of the lower extremily belween lhe knce and
lhe ankle) toward the thigh. Even so, the flexor muscles in the lower
extl"emities are not c1assified as antigravity muscles, because under ordi-
nary postura1 circumstances t hey are antagonists to the musc1es that are
supporting the body weight as a whole.
For the upper extremities the situation is different , because un less you
INATOMI (JI' l/A 11M I D G I
[And /lI.lOlhcr tcchnical note: Jusi lo avoid confusion, 1' 11 not use t he wnrd flex
exeept m regard lo the opposite of extend. Everyone knows what n first grader
by saying "look flex my rnuseles," but beyond this chi ldhood expres-
ston, Il .can lo arnbiguity For example, having someone "flex thcir bceps"
results m fl.cxIOn ?f the but "flexing" the gluleal rnuscl . the "g1uls"-
results not In flexion but m extension of t he hips. For describing yoga postures it's
bet ter just lo avoid the usage altoget her.]
[And one more: Until gc.tling used to lerminology for moverncnts of'body parts, it is
a puzzle whe.ther it 's better to refcr lo moving a joint through sorne range 01"
lo movmg the part on the lar sirle 01" the joint , For example, t he
be between saymg: extend the kneejoint versus extend the leg, abduct
the .versus abduct the thigh, flex th e anklejoint versus flex the foot , extend
the elbow joint versus exlend the forearm, 01' hyperextend the wrisl joint versus
hyperextend the hand. Even though the two usages are roughly equivalent, the con-
text rnakes one ur the other seern more sensible. FOl' example, sometimes we
rofer lo joint, as in ':flex the wrist ." In that case, saying "flcx the
hand be because 1I could mean any one of three things: making
a fist, flexl.ng the wrist , 01' both in combination. On the other hand, referring to the
body part IS .ofien more self-explanatory, as in "flex t he arrn forward 90." Although
the alternativo-e-"flex the shoulder joint 90"-isn', nonscnsical, it's a little arcano
for the non-professional.]
CONCENTRIC SHORTENING ANO ECCENTRIC LENGTHENING
To unden;tand how the musculoskeletal system operates in halha yoga we
must look at how individual muscIes contribute to whole-body activity. The
simplest situation, concentric conlradion, or "conccnlric shorlening," is
one in which muscle fibers are stimulated by nerve impulses and the entire
muscle responds by shortening, as when the biceps bmchii muscIe in the
forearm shortens concentrical1y to lift a book.
When we want to put lhe book down lhe picture is more complicated. We
do not ordinarily drop an object we have just lifted-we set it down eare-
fully by slowly extending the elbow, and we accomplish that by aIlowing the
muscle as a whole to become longer while keeping sorne of its muscle fibers
in a state of contraction. Whenever lhis happens-whenever a muscle
increases in length under tension while resisting gravity-the movement is
caIled "eccenlric lenglhening."
We see concentric shortening and eccentric lengthening in most natural
activities. When you walk up a flight of stairs, the muscles lhal are lifting
you up are shortening concenlricaBy; when you walk back down the stairs.
the same muscles are lenglhcning ecccntrically to control your descent.
And when you haul yourself up a climbing rope hand over hand, muscles ol'
the upper extremities shorten concentrically every time you pull yourself
up; as you come back down, lhe same muscles lengthcn eccentricaIly.
In hatha yoga we see concentric shortening and eccenlric lengt hening in
hundreds of situations. The simplest is when a single musclc 01' muscle
group opposes gravity, as when the baek muscles shorten concentrically to
I MOlFII/I :I\TAflilJ /'O\17'f{1; 27
lift the torso up frorn a standing forward bend. Then as you slowly lower
back down into the bend, the back rnusc les resist the force of gravity that
is puIling you forward, lengthening ecccntrical ly to smooth your deseent.
ISOTONI C ANO ISOMETRIC ACTIVITY
Most readers are already familiar with the terms "isotonic" and "isometric:"
Strictly speaking, the term isotonic refers solely to sho rtening of a rnuscle
under a constant load, but this never happens in reality except in the case
of vanis hingly small rangos of motion. Over lime, however, the term
isotonic has become corrupted lo apply gencral1y to exercise that involves
movemen t , usually undcr conditions of mod rate or minimal resistance.
Isomet ric exercise, on thc other hand, refers lo something more precise-
holding still, often under conditions of substantial or maximum rosistance.
Raising and lowering a book repeti tively is an isotonic exercise for the
biceps brachii and it s synergists, and holding it still, nei ther allowing it to
fall nor raising it, is an isometric exercise for the same rnuscles. Most
athleti c endeavors involve isotonic exercise because they involve move-
ment. J apanese sumo wrestling between equa Ily matched, lightly gr ipped,
and momentarily immobile opponents is one obvious exception. And
isometric exercise is also exemplified by any and every halha yoga posture
which you are holding steadily with muscular eflort.
RELAXATI ON, STRETCH , ANO MOBILlTY
If few or no nerve impulses are impinging on muscle fibers, the muscle
tissue wiIl be relaxed, as when you are in the corpse posture (fig. 1.14). But
if a relaxed muscle is stretched, the situation becomes more complexo
Working wit h a partner can make this plain. If you lie down and lift your
hands straight overhead, and then ask someone to stretch you genlly by
pulli ng on YOu( wrisls, you wiIl nolice lhat you can easily go with the
slretch provided you have good flexibility. But if your partner pulls too
suddenly or if lhere is any appreciable pain, the nervous syslem will resisl
relaxati on and keep the muscles tense; or at the least , you will sense them
tightening up to resist the slretch. Finally, if you aIlow yourself to remain
near your limit of passive but comfortable stretch for a while longer, you
may feel lhe muscles relax again, allowing your partner to puB more
insiste nUy.
Many of t hese same responses are apparent if you set up similar conditions
of stretching on your own, as when you place your hands overhead against
a wall and stretch the underside of the arms. This is more demanding of
your concentration than relaxing into someone else's work. however,
because you are conccntrating on two tasks al. the same lime: creating the
necessary condilions for the stretch, and relaxing into thal eITort. But the
same rules apply Ifyou go loo far and too quickly, pain inhibits lengthcning,
prevents relaxation, and spoils the work.
MUSCULAR ACTlVITY IN A LUNGING POST URE
1'0 discover for yoursel' how skeletal muscles op rate in hatha yoga, try a
warrior posture (warrior I l with the feet spread wide aparl, the hands
st retched overhead, and the palms together (gs. 1.2 and 7. 20). Fcel what
happens as you slowly pull the ar rns to the rear and lower your weight. 1'0
pull the arms up and back, the muscles facing th e rear have to shorten
concentrica1ly, while antagonist rnuscles facing the front. passvely resi st
the stretch and possibly completion ofthe posture, As you lower your weight
the quadriceps femoris muscle on the front 01' the flexed thigh resists gravity
and lengt hens eceentrically Finally, as you hold st ill in the posture, muscles
throughout the body will be in a state 01' isometric conlraction.
Severa! important principles 01' musculoskeletal activity cannol be
addresscd until we have considered the nervous systern and the conncctive
tissues in detail. For now, it is enough to realize that all muscular activity,
whether it be contraction 01'individual cells, isotonic or isometric exercse,
agonist or antagonist activity, concentric shortening, or eccentric length-
ening, takes place st rict ly under the guidance 01' th e nervous syste m.
muscles facing
!he fronl resist
pulling 01 lhe
arms lo lhe rear - - - - - - - --
righl quadriceps
femoris muscle
lenglhens

Figure 1.2. Warrior I pose
musdes facing Ihe rear
1-short en concenlncally, Ihus
pullingIhe arms backward
f . 01101 LllB'T A /VD {'(I.\71 un 29
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
We experiencc a1l-<>r at least everyt hing pertaining lo the material
world-through the agency 01' specialized, irreplaceable cells called
neurons. 100 billion 01' thcm in the brain alone, that channel infonnation
t hroughout the body and within th e vast supporting cellular milicu th e
entral nerVOllS system (the brain and spina l cord). This is all at:comphshcd
b only three kinds 01' neurons: sensory nellrons, whic h carry the flow 01'
:nsation from the peripheral neruous system (by definition all parts 01' the
nervous system excepti ng the brai n and spinal cord) into the central ner vous
5yslem and consciousness; motor neurons, which carry instructions from
t he hrain and spinal cord into the peripheral nervous system, and from
th ere lo rnuscles and glands; and interneurons, 01' association neurons ,
which are interposed between the sensory neurons and the motor neurons,
and which transmit our will and volition t o the motor neurona. 'I'he sensory
information is carried into the dorsal horti of th e spinal cord by way of
dorsal roots, and the motor information is carried out of the central horn
uf the spinal cord by way 01' ventral roots. The dorsal and ventral roots join
to for m mixed (motor and sensory) spinal nerues that in turn innervate
structures throughout the hody (figs, 1.3-9)
[Tochnical notes: Because this is a book correlating hiomedical seience with yoga,
which many consider lo be a scienee 01' mind, a few comments a re requi red on a
subject 01' perennial, although possibly overwo rked, phil osophic:al
naturo ofmind vis-a-vis th e nervous syste rn. Speaking for neu roscient st s. I think l
can say that rnost uf us aceept as axiomat ic that neurons are collectively rosponsiblc
for all 01' our thinking, cognition, ernotions, and other act ivities 01'mind . and th at
the totality 01' mind is inherent in the nervous syste m. But 1 also have to say as a
practicing yogi that according to th al t radilion , the prin cipIe 01' mind i ' separale
from and more subtle than the Ilcrvous syslem, and is considere<! lo be a life pri ncipie
that extends even heyond lhe body.l
IHowand whelher lhe.-;equeslions bccome resolved in t he thi rd millcnnium is anyonc's
gucss. They are topics that are not usually l akcn serious ly by wurking scient isls.
who usually consider it a waste 01' time lo ponder non-tcslabl e proposit iuns, which
are by definition proposilions that cannot possibly be proven wrong. Such shlle-
men18 abound in new age commentaries, and are a source 01' mild embarrassment
to those 01' us who are lrYing lo examine older t radilions us ing lechniques 01'modern
sciem:e. This says aboul lhe accuracy 01' such proposa ls. It may be lruc, for
exmupl e, l hat "lile <"8nnol continue in lhe absence 01'pra na." The problem is l hat
short 01' developing Hdefinition and ast'8Y for pra nH. such a statement can nol be
tested- il can only be accepted, deni ed, or argued al! llf lIitIl11l.1
IThis approach lo experi men la t ion and ohservation doesn'l requ ire a lot ofbl"illiance.
11 simply stipul ales th at you must always yoursclf ir l he nal ure and conte nt 01' a
statement make it polcnlially refutable wit h an experimental approach. 11' il 's nol,
you ....;11 he accu ratc 9
0
'J urthe ti me ifyou conclude that lhe idea is spurious. even
lhough il may sound invi t ing or may c\"cn appear self-evidenl , a< did th e chemical
lhcory of phlogislon in the mid-18th ccntury. Tu glve Ihe benefil of l he doubt lo the
purv eyurs ofsllch slalelllcnts , it ' s rare l hal lhe)" are oulrighl fabrical ions. On Ihe
.10 , 1,\ A 10 .! 1l UF II ATI IrI lUCiA 1 1I0\ '.'\II',\T Al' /) '"" '/1 'NI: .11
ri gure 1.3. Microscopic seeton of dorsal root ganglion (above),
and lhree-dime n ional view of the first lumbar segment (ll) of
the spina l co rd, showing pa ired dursal anel ve ntral roots and
mixed (motor and sensory) sp ina l nerves (from Quain).
10ne Iast concern: ir your complaint is that you can '1 understand a particular concepl
an d do nol fcel competent to criticize it, don't ass ume that the prob lem is your own
lack of inlelligence or scientific background, More than like ly, the idea wasn't
presented in a straightforward manner, and it usually happens that this masks one
other hand, one should always keep in mind that a ll of us (including scientistst have
a huge capacity for deceiving ourselves when il comes to dcfendi ng our ideas and
innovations. The problem is that it's often impossible to distinguish fantasy, wishfu l
thinking, mild exaggeration, an d imprccise language from out-und-out fraud. What
lo do? In thc end it 's a waste of lime to make a career of fer reling oul errors -one
can't gel rid of bad ideas by pointing them oul. On the other hand, if we tum our
attention lo propositions thal can be tested. the creative allention this requires
sometimes brings inspiration and better ideas, which in l urn disposes of bad ideas
by displacing thern. Lavoisier discredited the theory of phlogislon by poinling lo
br illiant experimenls (rna ny of thern carried out by others), nol by crafting cunning
argumcnts.]
or more fatal flaws in the reasoning. One dependable test of a concept is whethcr
you can eonvincingly explain it, along with the mechanics of how it operates, to a
thir d party. [1' you find yourself getting your explanalion garblcd, or ir your
listener does nol comprehend your argument or is unpersuaded, please examine and
resean:h the idea more critically, and if it still docs nol pass musler, either di scard
it or pul it on the back burner, [ invite the reader to hold me Lo these standards. To
honor them, 1'11 limit inquiries lo what we can appraise and discuss in the realm of
modern hiomcdical science, and lo refine and improve my presentation, I ask for
your written input and cordial criticisrn.]
Returning lo our immediate concerns, it is plain that neurons channel
our mindul intentions to the muscles, but we sUII need working definitions
for will and volition. In this book I'm arbitrarily defining will as the
decision- making process associated with mind, and I'm defining volition as
th e actual initiation 01' the on and off commands from the cerebral cor tex
and other regions 01' the central nervous system that are re ponsible for
comrnan ding our actions. So "will" is ti black box, the contents ofwhich are
still largely unknown and at best marginally accessible lo experimentation.
The nature and content of volition, by contrast, can be explored with estab-
lished met hods 01' neuroscience,
NEURONS
The neuro n is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
syste rn. Although there are other cel l types in the nervous systern, namely
the neuroglia, or "nerve glue cells, " which outnumber neurons 10 : 1, these
supporting cells do not appear, as do the neurons, to be in the business 01'
transmit t ing inforrnation from place to place. So the neuron is our main
interest. lt has several cornponents: a nucleated cell body that supports
growt h and developrnent, and cellular e .tensions, or processes, sorne of
them very long, that receive and transmit information. The cellular
processes are of two types: dendrites and aXOllS. Picture an octopus hooked
on a fishing lineo lts eight arrns are the dendritcs, and the fishing line is the
axon. A typical motor neuron contains many dendrites that branch off the
cell body. Its single axon-the fishing line-may extend anywhere from a
fraet ion 01' an inch away from the cell body to four feet in the cm;e 01' a
mot.or neuron whose celI body is in lhe spinal cord and whose terminal
ends in a muscle 01' the foot, or even fifteen fcet long in the case 01' similar
neumns in a giraffe. The axon may have branches lhal come off lhe main
tru nk 01' the axon near lhe cell body (axon collaterals), and all branches,
inclllding the main trunk, subdivide profusely as they near lheir targel.s.
Dend"iles are spedalized lo receive information frolll lhe environrnent
Or from other neurons, and 8n axon t.ransmits information in the form oC
nerve impulses to sorne othe!' te in the body, Dcndrites of sensory neurons
are in lhe skin, joinL-;, muscles. and intel'llal orgam,;; their" cell bodies are in
dorsal mot ganglio, which are locattld alongside thc spine, and lheir axons
right dorsal root
ganglion wilh cell
bodies 01scnsory
neurons
venlral rool containmg motor
neuronal axons lhat course
oul lo the mixed spinal nerve
(nght slde)
left
dorsal
rool
ventral
rootlets (cut)
mlxed spinal
nervc (motor and
sensory: left side)
.\ 2 .11\\-110 111 O/'/IA7I1tl HXi,l
t , MOl r 11\ ( l '()ST/ Uf.' IJ
pain endings
(dendritic) in
jont capsule
(Sappey)
/'
axon of motor neuron
passmq oul 01spmal
cord into ventral root,
and lrom Ihere inlo a
spinal nerve and lo a
skeletal muscle cell
ce" body
01a sensory
, _ neuron in
dorsal root
ganglion
axon 01sensory
neuron in Iransit
lo dorsal hom 01
spinal cord
axon terrmnats 01sensory neuron
synapsing with dendriles 01an
inlemeuron
motor neuron,
wilh ce" body
in ventral hom
of Ihe spinal
cord, and
axon thal
Innervates a
skeletal muscle
musde ce" wllh 11 nuc/e1 visible
1.4. of Ihe fjflh lumbar segment (l5) of lhe spinal curd
wllh sensory Input from a joint receplor, a generic inlemeuron, and molor '
lo a skeletal muscle cel!. The small arrows indicale the direclion of
Impulse.s pre- lo relalionships. The long
heavy arrows 1n<!Icale Ihe locallOns of lhe genenc Interncuron in lhe spinal
cord dorsal hom ano of lhe molor neuron in the spinal cord venlral horno
carry sensory inforrnation into the spinal cord (figs . 1.]4]). Dendrtes of
motor neurons are located in the central nervous systern, and axons of
motor neurons fan out from there (in peripheral nerves) to innervate muscIe
cells and glands throughout the body. Between the sensory and motor
neurons are the assocation neurons, 01' interneurons, whose dendrites
receive information from sensory neurons and whose axons contact other
interneurons 01' motor neurons that innervate muscles lfig. 1.4). As a class,
the interneurons comprise most ofthe neurons within the brain and spinal
cord, including secondary and tertiary linking neurons that relay sensory
signals to thc cercbrurn, projection neurons that relay motor signals frorn
the cerebrurn and cercbellum lo interrnediary neurona that eventually
contact motor neurons of the spinaI cord, and commissural neurons that
connect the right and left cerebral hemisphcres-that is, the "right brain"
and the "Iefi brain."
Interneurons put it all together. You sensc and ultimately do, and
between sensing and doing are the integrating activities of the interneurons,
It's true, as the first-grade reader suggests, that you can think and do. but
more oten you sense, think, and do.
'1'0 operate the entire organisrn, neurons form networks and chains that
contact and influence one another at sites called "synapses," Synaptic
terminals ofaxons at such sites release chemical transrnitter substances
that affect the dendrita of the next neuron in the chain (fig, 1-4l. The Iirst
neuron is the pre-synaptic neuron, and the neuron affected is the
post-synaptic neuron, The pre-synaptic axon terminal transmits to the
post-synaptic dendrite-i-not the other way around; it 's a one-way street,
Two types of transmitter substances are released at the synapse: one
facilitates (speeds up) the activity of the post-synaptic neuron; the other
inhibits (slows down i the activity of the post-synaptic neuron. 'I'housands
ofaxon terminals may synapse on the dendrites of one post-synaptic
neuron, and the level of activity of the recipient neuron depends on its pre-
synaptic input. More facilita/ion yields more activity in the post-synaptic
neuron in the form of incrcasing numbers 01' nerve impulses that travel
down its axon: more inhibition yields diminishcd activity. For exarnple, the
pre-synaptic input of association neurona lo motor neurons cither facili -
tates the activity of motor neurons, causing them to fire more nerve
impulses per second to skcletal muscles, or it inhibits their activity,
C8.using them to fire fcwer ncrve impulses per second. The peacock posture
(li g. J.2Jd) requires ma.. "(imum facilitation ami diminished inhibit,ion of the
motor neurons tha1 innervHte the abdominal muscles, dL'p back muscles,
muscles t,hat stabilize the scapulae, and ncxors of the forearms. On the
other hand, muscular relaxation in the mrpsc posturc (fig. 1.\4) requlrcs
I'educcd facilitation and IXJ;;;ibly increased inhibition of motor neurons
.l4 ANA7ll.1I1 or IIATlI.-l l'(X,'A
I 1/01'/ III Kr , I,\ lI l ' n '-II '11L J5
cell body 01upper motor neuron
left
side
frontal lobe
hal-bram,
left side.
medial view
axon 01a motor neuren
IIustraled here as passing
out 01Ihe vertebral column
by way 01lhe right l2
spmal ncrve ; lIs cell body
recelves SynaptlCinpul
from the Upper molor
neuren al /he L2 cord level
cell body
example 01a
lowermotor
right neuron wth
an extensive
I dendntc trsa
'\ Y
.
7
rear view 01spinal cord
and paired spinal nerves:
- Cl on each side we see
8 cervical nerves (Cl 8).
12 thoracc nerves (T1-12) .
5 lumbar nerves (U-S).
5 sacral nerves (81-5). and
small coccygeal nerves
81
I
dendritic

/
axon collateral
spinal cerd osecond
lumbar (l2) cord
levet, and lower motor
neuron whose cell
body is shown wilh
lour dendritic
axons 01most upper
motor neurons cross , or
"decussate," lo the
opposite sida 01the bram
in /he motor decussattoo.
which s located in the
lowerrnost segment 01
/he brain stem (Ihe
medulla oblongata)
Figure 1.5. Upper and
Inwer motor neurans.
The cell body of an
upper motor neuron is
shown aboye in the left
cerebral cortex, and
targel-the cell body of
a molor neuran whose
a)(on is destined fo
inoervatc the right
quadriccps fcmnris
muscle-is 00 the right
side nf the spinal cord.
throughout the central nervous systcm (see lig. 10.1 for a sumrnary of
possible rnechanisms of muscular relaxation),
LOWER MOTOR NEURO N PAR ALYSIS: F LACCID PARALYSIS
VOlITlON: THE PATHWAYS ro ACTIVE VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT
Exercising our volition to create active voluntary movement involves
dozens of well-known circuits of association neurons whose dendritas and
celJ bodies are in the cerebrum, cerehelJum, and other portions ofthe brain,
and whose axons termnate on motor neurons. A smalJ but important sub-
set of projection neurons, the subset whose ceIl bodies are located in the
cerebral cortex and whose axons termnate on motor neurons in the spinal
cord, are known as "upper motor neurons" bccause they are important in
control1ing willed activity. These are differentiated from the main c1ass of
motor neurons, the "louier motor neurons," whose cell bodies are located in
the spinal cardo CoIlectively, the lower motor neurons are called thc "final
common patluuay" because it is their axons that directly innervatc skeletal
rnuscles, In common parlanee, ifsomeonc refers sirnply to "motor neurons,"
they are invariably thinking of lower motor neurons (fig. 1.5).
Thc best way to understand how the motor pathways of the ncrvous system
operate is to examine the classic neurological syndromes that result from
illnesses, or from injuries that have an impact on sorne aspect of motor
function. We'll start with one of the most famous: poliumyelitis, comrnonly
known as polio. which destroys lower motor neurons, Anyone who grew up
in the 1940S and early 1950S will remernber the dread of this disease. AmI
then a rniracl tho Salk vaccine-e-came in 1954, putting un end to the Iear,
Poliomyelitis can be devastating because it destroys the lower motor
ncurons and deprives the muscles of nerve impulses from the spinal cord ,
and this results in muscular paralysis, Our power ofvolition in the cerebral
cortex has becn diseonnected from the pathway of action out of the spinal
cord becausc the final cornmon pathway has been destroyed. In its most
extreme forrn the resulting paralysis causes muscles to bccome completely
flaccid, and this accounts for its rnedical name: [laccid paralysis. 'I'he sume
thing happens in a les global Iashion when a pcripheral nerve is severed
or crushed, Destruction of the lower motor neurons 01' their axons al any site
in the spinal cord 01' peripheral nerves causes paralysis of all their muscular'
targets, \ViII, volition, and active voluntary movement are totally fmstrated.
UPPER MOTOR NEURON PARALYSIS: SPASTlC PARALYSIS
When the upper motor neurons 01' their axons are destroye<! as in an injury
01' stroke (the interruption of blood l;upply lo lhe brainl that destroys the
molor region of lhe cerebral cortex, we lose much of our voluntary control
Jl'> A1\',\ fU,\ll ru:l/A 71/A 11)(.,\
of the lower motor neurons, especially on the side opposile lo the site of the
injury. Our will can no longer be expressed aetively and srnoothly The ultimate
result of this, al least in severe cases in which a vascular mishap occurs al
a site where the axons of other motor systems are interrupted along with
those of the upper motor neurons, is not flaccid paralysis but spastic paralysis,
in which the muscles are rigid and not easily conlrolled. A sernblance of
motor function remains because other parts of the nervous systern, parts
that have been spared injury, also send axon errninals to the lower motor
neurons and affect motor function. The problem is that these supplemental
sources 01' input cannot be controlled accurately, and sorne of them Iacilitate
the lower motor neurons lo such an extent that skeletal rnuseles are driven
inlo strong and uncontrolled stales of contraction. Although rnost of the
time the condition does not result in lotal dysfunction, severo spastic paralysis
is only mild ly less devastating than flaccid paralysis: sorne active voluntary
movernents are possible, but they are poorly coordinated, especially those
that make use of the dis tal muscles of the extremities (fig. 1.6).
SPINAL CORO INJURI ES
If t he entire spinal cord is severed or severely damagcd at sorne specific
level, there are two main prohlems. First, sensory information that comes
into the spinal cord from below the level of lhe injury cannot get Lo the
cerebral cortex and thereby to conscious awareness. The patient is not
aware 01' louch, pressure, pain, or ternperature Irorn the affected region of
the body. Second, motor commands from the brain cannot gel lo the lower
molor neurona that are located below the injury. Spinal cord injuries at
different levels illustrate these conditions: a pinal cord transection in the
thoracic region would resu1t. in paraplegia-paralysis and loss of sensation
in the lower extrernities; and a spinal cord transection in the lower part of
the neck would cause quadriplegia-paralysis and loss of sensation from
the neck down , including al! four extremities (fig, 2..12) . Injuries such as
these are usually the result of cither aulomobile or sports accidente.
REFLEXES
o far our discussion has focused on neuronal connections from the top
down-from our intent.ion, lo the cerebral cortex, lo upper motor neurons,
lower motor neurons, and skeletal muscles, But there is sornething else Lo
consider, something much more primitive and elemental in the norvous
systern that bypasses our conscious choices: reflexes, or uneonscious motor
responses to sensory st.imuli. In this context reflexes have nothing at all to
do with Ihe lightning-fast reaclions ("fast reflexes") thal are needed for
expcrtise in video games 01' quick-draw artislry. Thesc reactions refer to
unconsdous responses carried out al lhe spinal level.

thase 3 neurons
represent motor
systems that help
control skeletal
muscular actvity.
but less precisely
than "upper
motor neurons"
motor neurons on the
right sde 01!he spina
corostill receive input
from the 3 neuronal
systems represented by
the solid line
!igure 1.6. A hypothetical scheme
how injury lo a sma ll
reglon of brain could inlerrupt
pal hways i m po r t an for the precise
cOnlrol of ske letal muscular activity
cause spastic paralysis. The dotted
Ime represents the thal have
becn inle rrupled, and Ihe olid line
represents Ihe remaining syslems Ihal
cannol control muscular aClivily
accurately by the mse lves. "an = axon.
f .\10 1"EIIL/\'r11\'f) rosrum: .\7
hall-brain.
(Irom Sappey) left side
.:
neuronal systems
represented by these
two neurons, as well
as by the upper
motor neuron aboye.
are destroyed as a
result of oxygen
deprivaton due to
rupture 01a small
blood vessel at a site
(arrowhead) !hrough
which !he axons of
all !hree systems
course
a
the final common pa!hway
(the collective pool 01all
low:r motor neurons) s
slllllnlact. but ts conscious
controllS problemalic
I
11{ 11,\ t TO.1/ 1 or 11/177111 1'(}( ."A
Figure 1.7. The mvotatic stretch reflex. A 3-fool vertical jurnp moment '1
slretch l' dI ' I atl y
e muse e SJ?IO es 10 a I the ex te nsor (anti-gravity) muscles of Ihe lower
. xlrenllll es . lhe sp lOdlcs then prov ide dircct (monosynaplic) and al l
IInmediat e faci lita tu ry input (-+ in ve nt ral horo of spina l co rd) lo
n . l ' . ensor molor
euron , rcsu tlOg 10 sl rong refl e x cuntrat:tion of Ihe ind ividual muscl cs.
J
muscle
spnldle
rectus
ternors

\
\\-- - - mixed (molor
and sensory)
spinal nerve
dorsal rool
"t-- - - - ganglion
(sensory)
dorsal rool
,I----- - --(sensory)
one 01two muscle cells (greatly
enlarged in relation lo muscle
spindle), and neuromuscular
junction (+)
lateral head 01
quadriceps
lemoris
muscle spindles are
strelched sharply
by impact;
quadriceps lemoris
muscles in ttlighs
support landing
renexly and alrnost
inslanlaneously (Sappey)
lumbar spinal coro
In cross.seclion
Relexes are simple. That is why th ey are called reflexes. They always
inelude four elernents: a sensory neuron that receives a stimulus and that
carries nerve impul ses into the spinal eord, an integrati ng center wit hi n
the spinal coro, a motor neuron that relays nerve impulses back out to a
muscle, and the muscular response that completes the action. More expliciUy,
the sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from a muscle, tendon, ligament ,
joint, or the skin to an integrating center in the spinal cord, This integrating
center might be as simple as one synapse between thc sensory and motor
neuron, 0 1' it might involve one or more int er neurons. The motor neuron,
in its turn, innervates muscle cells that complete the aetion. By dcfinition,
the reflex bypasses higher centers of consciousness, Awareness of the
accompanying sensation gets to the cerebral cortex after the fact and on ly
because it is carried th ere independently by other circuits, There are
dozens of well-known reflexes, We'll examine three, all of which are important
in hatha yoga .
THE MYOTATIC STRETCH REFlEX
'!'he myotatic stretcli reflex, familiar lo everyone as the "kneejerk," is actually
found throughout the body, but is especially active in antigravity muscles (fig.
1. 7l. You can test it in the t high. Cross your knees so that one foot can
bounee up and down Ireely, and then tap the palellar tendon just below the
kneecap wit h the edge ofyour hand. Find just the right spot, and the big set
of quadriceps femoris muscles on the front of the thigh will contract retlexly
and cause the foot to tly up, You have to remain relaxed, however, becausc it
is possible to override the reflex with a wiJIed efTort lo hold the leg in place.
The receptora for the myotatic stretch reflex are located in the belly of
the muscle, where the dendrites of sensory neurons are in contact with
muscle spilldles-specialized receptors barely large enough to be visibl e
with the naked eyc. Named for their shapes, cach of these muscJe spindles
contains a spindle-shaped collection of specialized muscle fibers that are
loaded with sensory receptors (fig. 1.7).
The ref1ex works this way: When you tap the patelJar tendon to activat e
the relex at the knee joint, the irnpact stretches muscle spindles in the
quadriceps Iemoris rnuscle on the front of the thigh. This stretch is as fast
as an eyeblink, but it nevertheless stirnulates the spccific sensor)' neurons
whose dendrites end in the muscle spindles and whose axons terminate
directiy on motor neurons back 111 the spinal cord . Those axon tcrrninals
strongly facilitate the cell bodes ofthe motor neurons whose axon terminals
stirnulate the quadrieeps femoris muscle, causing it to shorten and jcrk the
foot up. The myotatic stretch l' flcx is specilic in that it fceds hack only to
the mllsc/e in which the spindle is located.
As with aIlI'ef1exes, thiRone takes place a fmetion ofa second before you
40 /lNA1nlll ol'IIA1UA 10CiA
are aware of it consciously. You feel it happen after the fact, after the reflex
has already completed its circuito And you notice the sensation consciously
only because seprate receptors for the modality of touch send messages to
the cerebral cortex and thus into the conscious mind.
You can feel the myotatic strctch reflex in operation in many sports in
which your muscles absorb dynamic shocks. For example, when you are
water skiing on rough water outside the wake 01' a boat, the muscle spindles
in the knee extensora 01' the thighs are stretched by the impact of hitting
each wave, and absorbing one bump alter another would quickly collapse
your posture were it not for the myotatic stretch reflex. Instead, what happens
is that each impact activates the reflex for the quadriccps femoris muscles in a
few milliseconds, thus stabilizing the body in an upright position. You can also
feel the reflex when you attack moguls aggressively on a ski slope, run
down the boulder field 01' a mountain (fig. 1.7), or simply jump off a chair
onto the floor-any activity in which an impact shocks the muscle spindles.
The rclex is therefore a major contributor to what we interprot as
"strength" in our dynamic interactions with gravity. Athletes depend on it
far more than most of them realize.
Stimulating myotatic stretch reflexes repetitively has another important
effect: it shortens muscIes and diminishes flexibility. \Ve can see this most
obviously in jogging, which only mildly engages the reflexes each time your
front foot hits the ground, but engages them thousands 01' times in a
halfhour, 'I'his can cause problems if taken to an extreme, and if you tend
to be tight you should always do prolonged slow stretching alter a runo On
the other hand, if the muscles, tendons, and ligaments are overly loose
frorn too much stretching and too few repetitive movements, joints can
become destabilized, and in such cases an activity that tightens everything
down is one 01' the best things you can do.
In hatha yoga we usually want to minimizo the effects of the myotatic
stretch reflex because even moderately dynamic movements will fire the
receptors, stimulate the motor neurons, shorten the rnuscles, and thereby
limit stretch. Any dynamic movement in hatha yoga activates the myotatic
stretch reflex-bouncy sun salutations, jumping in and out 01' standing
postures, and joints and glands exercises carried off \\,;th flair and toss.
These are all fine, espccially as warm-ups, but if you wish lo lengthen
muscles and increase flexibility it is better to move into postores slowly.
THE CLASP KNIFE REFLEX
The clasp kTlife reflex aets like the blade of a pocket knife when it resists
elosure up to a (;ertain point and then suddenly snaps into its folden position.
It is mother stretch rel1ex, but this one causes the targeted musclc to rela.x
rather than contracto The slimulus for lhe rel1ex is not dynamic stretch of
I MOl " vrsrAI\1J /'0.\71 NI" .j l
a muscle spindle, but contractile tension on a sensory receptor in a tendon.
This tension reflexly causes the muscle attachcd to that tendon to relax
and the joint to buckle (fig, un.
'I'he sensory receptor for the clasp knife reflex is the Golgi tendon organ,
Most of the receptors are actually located near musculotendinous junctions,
where they link small slips of connective tissue with their associatcd muscle
fibers. The Golgi tendon organ is therefore activated by the contraction of
muscles ceJls that are in line (in series) with the receptor. Reeent studies
have cIarified that the Golgi tend n organ is rclatively insensitive to passive
stretch, but that it begins to tire nerve impulses back to the spinal eord as
soon as muscle fibers start tugging on it ,
And then what happens? Ths is the main idea: unlike the myotatic
stretch reflex, here the incoming sensory axons do not termnate directly
on motor neurons (which would increase their activity and stimulate a
muscular contraction), but on inhibitory inlerneurons that diminish the
activity of motor neurons and thereby cause the muscle to relax. If you
stimulate the receptor, the reflex rolaxos the muscle (fig. I.Sl. It is a precise
feedback loop in which the contraction 01' muscle fibers shuts down their
own activity. This feedback loop works something like a thermostat that
shuts off the heat when the temperatura rises. Anecdotal reports of super-
human strength in which a parent is able to lift an automobile offher child
might be due to a massive central nervous system inhibition of this reflex,
like a thermostat that stops working and overheats a house. In ordinary
life we see the clasp knife reflex in action, at least in a gross form, when
two unequally matched arm wrestlers hold their positions for a few seconds,
and suddenly the weakor 01' the two gives way (fig, 1.8).
Whether intentional or not, we constantly make use of the c1asp knife
reflex while we are practicing hatha yoga. To see it most effectvely and to
begin to gain awareness of its utility, measure roughly how far you can come
into a forward bond with your knees straight, preferably the first thing in the
morning. Then bend the knees enough to flatten the torso against the thighs.
Hold that positon firmly, keeping the arms tighUy wrapped around the
thighs to stabilize the back in a comfortable position in relation to the pelvis.
Then try to straighten the knecs while keeping the chest tighUy in place, and
hold that positiun in an intense isomet.ric puJl for 30 seconds. Tbis is the
hamstrings-quaddceps thigh pull (lig. 1.16), and we'U examine it in more
detaillater in this chapter. Releasc the pose and then check to see how much
~ r t r you.can come into a forward bcnd with lhe knL'eS strdight. The
dilTerence wdl be a measure of how much the Golgi tendon organs "stimu-
lated" t.he hamstring muscles to rela." by way of the c1asp knife r-ellex.
The Golgi tendon organs are scnsitive lo manual stimulation as weHas
lo muscular tension. If you manipulatc any musculotendinous junction in
p ANA1IJ.I/l (JI' IJA111A HK;A
/ I'IJ!>77 Rf. .B
Figure 1.8. The clasp knife reflex, Muscular effurl stimulates el' I d
organs hos . h () gl en on
r w ose sensory mpul to 1 espinal cord activates inhih .
(+ m dor al hom); the inhibilory inlerneurons Ihen inhibit m ti ory mlerneur<,Jns
ve t I h) l " loorneurons l- In
n ra urn, rcsu hng In ewer nerve impulses per secund to lh 'k f.
ele cclls (+ effecls al the neuromuscular synapse are e,ctal mt.Js-
I f I fh I . . ma result IS
re axa Ion o e muse e, 01' m this case, loss 01 the armwrestlin" match (5
'" appey).
the body vigorously, its Golgi tend n organs will reflexly cause their a:;so-
ciated muscle fibers to relax. This is one of the reasons why deep rnassage
is relaxing, This is also why body therapists wanting to reduce tcnsion in a
spec fic muscle wiJI work directly on its musculotendinous junctions. It's
an old chiropractic trick-manual stimulation stimulates the c1asp knife
reflex almost as efficientIy as eontractile tensi n. Surprisingly, the results
last for a day 01' two, during which time the recipient of the work has a
chance to correct the offending rnusculoskeletal habit that gave rise to the
excess tension in the first place.
Although you can test the effects of manual stimulation on tendons any-
where in the body, let's expcriment with the tulductor muse/es on the inside
of the thighs becauso tight adductors, more than any other muscles, limit
your ability to sit straight and cornfortably in the classic yoga sitting pos-
tu res. First test your ability to sit in either the auspicious 01' accomplished
posture (figs, 10.11 and 10.14). Then release tho pose and lie with the hips
butted up firmly against a wall with the knees extended and the thighs
spread out as much al; possible for an adductor stretch. With the help of a
partner to hold your thighs abducted, try lo pull the thighs together
isornetrically, engaging the adductors as much as possible, and at the same
time stirnulate the Golgi tendon organs in the adductor muscles with
vigorous rubbing. Sorne of the adductor tendons are the cordlike structures
in the inner thighs near the genitals, Others are more flattened and are
located further lo the rearoAHofthem take origin frorn a pair ofbones, the
inferior pubic rami tfig. 1.12), that together form the rear-facing V which
accornmodates the genitals.
A" you massage the adductors for a minute 01' so while keeping them
under tension, you wiII feel them gradualIy ralease. as evidenced by being
able to abduct the thighs more completely. Then sit up and check for
improvement in your sitting posture. The combination of massaging the
adductor tendons plus making an isometric effort with stretched adductors
powerfulIy inhibits the motor neurons that innervate thesc muscles, and
this allows them to release ami permita you to sit straighter and more
cornfortably.
The hamstrings-quadriceps thigh pulI and the adductor massage give us
obvious examples 01' how the cJasp knifc relex operatcs. It is also invoked
in a milder form any time you are able to stay cornfortable in an active
posture for more than 10-15 seconds, which is what we often do in hatha
yoga. In this case don't hounce unless you want to induce the myotatic
stretch reflex, and don't take a posture into the discomfort zone unless you
are prepared to trigger flexin roflexes, which we'lI discuss next.
dorsal root, ano
001 body 01
sensory neuron
- Inhibitory
intemeuron
lateral head 01 triceps brachii --%-- "6. - .JI,..
common tendon 01msert on for
trceps brachii muscle
medial head of trceps brachri ....:
axon of inhibitory intemeuron. with
rrunus siqn signahng Inhlbitory ettect
on cel/ body of motor neuron
radral nerve; branches innervate
al/ three heads 01tr ceps brachii
as well as Golgi tendon organs
most Golgi "tend n" organs
are actual/y found at or near
musculotendinous [uncnons

neuromuscular
synapse
cel/ body \
of sensory
neuron + .
Golgi tendon organ. in senes
with the vo skeletal muscle
cells shown above
+l AI\,OTJMI UF l/AUlA HI(.-r1
I IfOn'\/I ;,\TA,\lJ 1'(J"n'RI:' ~
FLEXION R E F LEXE S
The f1exion ref1exes (fig. 1.9) are pain relexes. [fyou inadvertently touch a
hot skillet you jerk your hand back ref1exly. You don't have to think about
it, it just happens. As with tho other reflexes, awareness comes a moment
lateroFlexion reflexes are more complex than stretch relexes, but they are
easier to cornprehend because pain is such an obvious part of everyone's
eonscious ex..perience. Even if it is no more than a feeling 01' stretch that
wcnt too far while you were gardening, a pain in the knee or hip that devel-
oped alter a strenuous hike, 01' a neck problcm you didn't notice until you
started to turn too far in a certain direction, with rare exceptions your
automatic response will be flexiono You may be only vaguely aware of the
reflex itself, but you will certainly be aware 01' the fear and tension that
accompanies it.
'I'he sensory neurona (including their axons) that carry the rnodalities of
pain and tempcrature conduct their nerve impulses more slowly than those
that activate the myotatic stretch ref1ex. What is more, f1exion reflexes are
polysynaptic-that is, they involvc one 01' more interneurons in addition to
the sensory and motor neurons-and each synapse in the chain 01'neurons
slows down the speed ofthe reaction. You can estirnate the conduction time
for temperature by licking your finger and touching a coffee pot that is hot
enough lo hurt but not hot enough to cause injury. It will take almost a second
1'01' the sensation to reach consciousness from a Iinger, well over a second from
a big toe, ando 1'01' the adventuresome, about a enth 01' a second from the
tip ofthe nose. Such slow conduction times from the extremities would not
serve the myotatic stretch rellex, If 1'01' that reflex, it took a full second 1'01'
nerve impulses Lo reach the spinal cord, you would he in sorious trouble
jumping off a platfonn onto the floor with bent knees-you would collapse
and shatter your kneecaps before the extensor muscles couJd rcact enough
to support your wcight.
Like the two stretch rel1exes we have just considered, the motor reflexes
Ior f1exion are spinal, not cerebral, So even if the spinal cord were cut off
from the brain, the flexion ref1ex would still withdraw a foot from a toxic
stimulus, That's why neurologists have little reason to be encouraged
when the foot 01' a patient with a spinal cord injury responds to a pincho
RECIPROCAL INHIBITION
Flexion relexes not only act vate flexor muscles to puU the hand or the foot
toward the torso, they also relax the extensors, which then allows flexion
to take place freely. This is done through the agency 01' inhibitory nter-
neurons. While facilitatory interneurons mpinge on motor neurons that
innervatc l1exors, thus causing them to contract, inhibitory int.crneurons
impinge 011 motor ncumns thut innervate extensors, causing them Lo relax.
nCOmin
g
!
sensory
stmulus
lrom
bottom01
left loot
(L5)
I
relaxation 01 extensors
(reciproca! inhibition)
Figure 1.9. Flexion reflex on the
left, and crossed extcnsion
reflex on the right. Incoming
sensorv input from bottorn of
left foot (l5) sprcads to fower
~ t r ncurons from L2 through
S2 for both fower extremities (Sappey).
~
I
extensor motorneuron
activatedon nght side
spinalcord
segmentoU _
sensory
axon Irom
left loot -
(L5 spinal
nerve)
tenth thoracic
spinal nerve
- (T1O) right side
T11 spinal
-nerve
rst lumbar
- spinal nerve
(U) (right)
lower
extremity,
right side;
crossed
extension
reflex;
extensors
are lirmed
up and
f1exor
muscles
are relaxed
lromL2
through52
16 ANA7TJ.1/r O"IIAnIA lOCA
The phenomenon is known as reciproco! inhibition, ami it is an integral
part of the flexion reflex (fig. 1.9).
Unlike stretch reflexes, Ilexion reflexes create effects well beyond the
site of the stimulus. \Ve can see this when a nurse pricks a child's index
finger with a necdle to draw blood. The child's entire uppcr extremity
reacts, not just the flexors in the ofTended finger. A vehement jerk back-
ward shows that the flexion relex facilitates flexor motor neurons and
inhibits extensor motor neurons for the entire upper extremity.
THE CROSSEO-EXTEN510N REFLEX
The crossed-extension reflex adds yet another ingredient to flcxion reflexes-
a supporting role for the opposite side of the body. Through the agency of
this reflex, as the extremity on the injured side flexes, the extremity on the
other side extends. This would happen if you stepped on a hot coaJ near a
campfire. You don't have lo think about either reflex; you lift your injured
foot in a hurry, contracting flexors and relaxing extensors on that side-
everything at the same time-toe, ankle, knee, hip, and even the torso. And
as the injurcd foot lifts, the crossed-extension reflex contracts the extensors
and relaxes the flexors on the opposite side of the body, strengthening your
stance and keeping you from toppling over into the fire (fig. 1.9).
The crossed-extension reflex is accomplished by interneurons whose
axons cross to the opposite side ofthe spinal coro and innervate motor neurona
in a reverso pattem from that seen on the side with the injury-s-motor neurons
for extensor musclcs are facilitated, and motor neurons for flexor muscles un'
inhibited.
The flexi n reflexes also serve many other protective functions, For
exarnple, ifyou sprain your ankle badly, the pain endings become more sen-
sitivo, 'I'he next time you start to turn your ankle, the highor centers in th e
hrain associatod with volition and consciousness allow the spinal flexi on
reflexes to act unencumbered and collapse the Iimb before your weigh t
drops fulIy on the vulnerable joint. This prevents re-injury. A "trick" knee
demonstrates the same mechanisms-an old injury, a sudden physicaJ
threat. unresistant higher centers, and unconscious flexion reflexes. Your
bad knee buckJes quickly, and you are savcd from more serious injury.
RECIPROCAL INHIBITION AND A STIFF BACK
Since they restrain movement, f1exion ref1exes usually influence hatha
postures negatively. but there are certain situatiuns in which we can us
lhcm to our advantage If you Lend tu be stiff and not nclinee! to forward
bending, lry this cxperimenl early in the morning. Filst. for comparison.
slowly lower into a standing furward bcnd with your fingcrs extended.
Nuticc that you hesitate to come forwanl smoothly. This may happen e"cn
/ . . 1'0..\7/ 'NI 47
if you are 111 excellcnt condition but not warmed up. Tho deep back
muscles are extensors of the back: they lengthen eccenlricaJIy as you bend,
res isting forward movement and only allowing you come into the postura
with creaks and wariness. Come up. Next, holding tho elbows partiaJly
flexed, flex YoU/" fingers tightly, making fists . Holding that gesture, come
forward again. Youwill immediate1y notiee that you do this more easily and
smooth1y than when your fingers and elbows were extended. Come up, and
rcpeat the exercise to YOUJ' capacity
Making your hands into fists reciprocally inhibits the motor neurons
that innervate the deep back muscles. lf you are in good condition this
merely he lps you come forward more smoothly and confident!y, but ifyour
back is tense from excess rnusclo tone in the deep back rnuscles you will be
arnazed at how much the simple act of flexing your fingers into fists eases
you into a relaxed bend.
Why might your back be stifT from excess muscle tone'! It is usuaJIy
because of pain that causes the back muscles to become taut and act as a
splint to prevent movement. This is fine for a while as a protective measure,
but at sorne stage it becornes countcrproductive and leads to other problems,
When stifTness and mi ld back pain emerge, you need enough muscle tone
to prevent re-injury, it is true, but you do not need enough to lock you up
for months on end. The reciproca1 inhibition caused by making your hands
into fsts helps relax the extensor muscles in the back and allows you to
further into a forward bend. If your back is chronically stifT, but not
In acute pain, you can benefit by doing this exercise severa! times a day.
THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM. SIGHT, AND TOUCH
SOfar we have seen how mutur neurons drivc the rnusculoskelstal system,
how association neurons channel our will to the motor neurons, and how
sensory input from musclos, tendons, and pain receptors participate with
motor neurons in simple reflexes. But that's only the beginning. Many
Sources of sensory input also affect motor funcbon. Sorne of the most
Important are the vestibular sense, sight . and touch.
VESTIBUL A R SENSE
Iittle conscious awareness of our vestibular sense even though it l:i
C1'lhcal lor keeping us balanced in the field of gravity. ts receptors lie close
the organ of hearing- -the inner ear-in little circular tubes caUed semi-
circular canals and in a little reservoir caUed the utriele, all of which are
,in the bony region ol' the skull just underneath the external em:
he semICIrcular canal and the utricle are a11 involved with maintainin
OUr 'j 'b " b g
. eqUJ I flum m space, ut within that I"ealm lhey are sensitive to
dlfTerent stimuli-the semicircular canals to rotary acceleration, and Lhe
-IK A,\:tlV.II' W'//AnIA HX;A
utricle to linear acceleration and to our orientation in a gravitational field.
They also participatc in different reflexes: the semicircula' canals coor-
dinate eye movernents, and the utricles coordinate whole-body postural
adjustrnents.
Except for pilots, dancers, ice skaters, and others who require an acute
awareness al' equilibrium, most of us take the vestibular systern for granted.
We dori 't notice it because it does almost all of its work reflexly, fceding
sensory information into numerous motor circuits that control eye and
body movernents.
Because the semicircular canals are sensitiva to rotary accoleration,
they respond when we start 01' stop any spinning rnotion of the body. One
of their several roles is to help us maintain our equilibrium by coordinating
oye movements with movements of the head. You can experience these if
you sit cross-legged on a chair 01' stool that can rotate, tip your head forward
about jo", and have sorne assistants turn you around and around quickly
for }0-40 seconds. Make sure you keep balanccd and upright. Don 't lean to
the side 01' you will be pitched off onto the 0001: Then have your assistants
stop you suddenly. You eyes will exhibir little jerky movements known as
nystagmus, and you will probably fcel dizzy Children play with this reflex
when they spin themselves until they get dizzy and fall down. The sensation
they describe as the world "t ur ning" is due to nystagrnus. The pcrception
is disorienting at first but it slows down and stops ater a while.
The receptors in the semicircular canals stop sending signals after about
}O seconds of spinning, which is why you have your m;sishmts rotate YOl
for that period of time. It is also why the reaetion slows clown and stops i
}O sceonds after you are abruptly stopped. Third-party observers obviousl)
cannot observe nystagmus during the initia! period of acceleration while
you are being spun around. 'fo observe these eye movements in a practical
settillg, we must rely on what we call post-rotator)' Ilystagmus, the eYl
movemcnts that occur aner you ha\'e been stopped suddenly.
The neurological circuitry for nystagmus is sensitive to excessive alcohol
and this is why highway patro orficers ask suspected drunks to get out 01
the car and walk a straight line. 11' the suspect is suflcr;ng from alcohol-
induced nystagrnus. the ensuing dizziness is likely to make walkin/-
straight impossible. Spontaneous (and continuing) fonns of nystagmu:-
that are not induced by drugs 01' alcohol may be symptomatic 01' ncurologicaJ
problcms such as a brain tumor 01' stroke.
Occasionally studcnts in hatha yoga dasses are ::;ensitive to dizziness
when they do neck exerciscs. They may have had such problems from
childhood 01' they may just not be accustomed to the fael that they are
stimulating their semicircular canals when they roiate their head. And
evcn utherwise hculthy students who are jusL getting over a fever may be
I .110 I L llh \ Yrt.\V PO\'l IIIlE 4<)
sensitive lo dizziness. In any case, anyone who is sensitivo should alwavs
do neck exercises slowly. .
'I'he second component 01' the vestibular organ, the utricle, detects two
modalities: speeding up 01' slowing down while you are moving in a straight
line, and the static orientation of the head in space. The rush of accclerating
01' decelerating a cal' is an exarnple of the first case. As with the semicircular
canals, stirnulation ends after an equilibrium is established, whethcr sitting
still 01' going 100 miles per hour at a constant rute on a straight road. The
utricles also respond to th e orientation ofthe head in the earth's gravitational
field-an upright posture stimulates them the least and the headstand
stimulates them the rnost, ' I'he receptors in the utricle adapt 1.0 the stirnulus
of an altered posture after a shor t time, however, which is why it is so
important for piJots of small piunes to depend on instruments for keeping
properly oriented in the sky when visual feedback is absent 01' confusing.
For exarnple, a friend of mine was piloting a srnall plane and Ilew unexpectedly
into a thick bank 01' clouds. lnstantly lost and disoriented, and untrained
in f1ying on instruments, he calculated that he would just make a slow
turno Unfortunately; after having made the turn and exiting the clouds, he
was shocked 1.0 see that he was headed straight toward the ground.
Fortunately, he had enough airspaco lo pull out of the dive.
In ordinary circumstances on the ground, the receptors in the utricl e do
more than sense the oricntation 01' the head in space: they tl'gger' manv
whole-body postural reflexes that maintain our balance. This is the source
of the impulse to lean into curves while you are running 01' cycling around
a lrack. \VeaIso depend on lhe utric!e for u nderlying adjustments of hatha
yoga posture that we tl;gger when we tilt the head fonvard, backward. 01'
lo one side. Every shift al' tite head in space initiaLes ref1exes that aid and
abct many of the whole-body postural adjustments in the torso that we
take for granted in hatha yoga.
T.he well-known righting reflexes in cats can give us a hint of how Lhe
vestIbular system influences posture in humans. If you want to sce these
reflexes drop un amicable cat. with its legs pointcd up, from as little
as a few mches aboye the flOOl: lt will turn with incredibIe speed and Jand on
alJ four feet. even ir it has becn bJindfolded. CarcfuJ study reveals a definite
sequence of events. 'rhe utricle first detects bcing upside down. and then il
detects ti f: 11 ' . -
le a mg sensation of Imear aL'Cclemtion toward lhc 0001' l
resp t hi h . n
onse o t s t e cal automaticall)' rotates its head, which stimulates neck
muscles that in turn leads to an agile twisting around ofthe rest ofth bod
and . b e y
a mm le landing on aH four feet. The cat does aH this in a fraction 01'a
Comparable renexes also take place in human beings, although
hey are not as rcfincd as in cats.
SO AIVATOM I (JI' /I. 'l771A IlX ;A
SIGHT
When we are moving we are heavily dependent on visiono as anyone can
attest who has stepped off a curb unawares 01' thought erroneously t hat
one more step remaincd in a staircase. 'I'his is true to a lesser extent when
we are standing still. If you stand upright with your feet together and your
eyes open, you can remain still and be aware t hat only rninuscule shifts in
the muscles of the lower extrernities are neeessary to maintain your balance.
But t he moment you close your eyes you will experience more pronounced
mu scul ar shifts. For an even more convi ncing test, come into a posturc such
as th e tree 01' eagle with your eyes open, establish your halance fully, and
then closc your eyes. Few people will be able to do this for more than a few
seconds before they wobble 0 1' fall.
Visual cues are especially impor tant while comi ng into a hatha yoga pos-
ture, but once you are stable you can close your eyes in mos t poses without
losing you r balance provided your vestibular system and joint senses are
heal thy. On t he other hand, if you want to st udy you r body's alignment
objectively you can do it only by watching your reflection in a mirror. It is
all too easy to dcceive yourself if you depend purely on your muscle- and
joint -sense to establish r ight-Ieft balance.
THE SENSE Of TOUCH
The sense of touch bri ngs us awareness of t he pleasure and luxury of como
fortable stretch, and bccause of this it is the surest aut hority we have for
teIling us how far to go into a hatha yoga posture. The vestibular reflexes
an d vision help with balance, and pai n tells us how far not to go in a
stretch. But the sense of touch is a beaco n. It both rewards and gui des .
The modality of touch includes discriminaling touch, deep pressure, an d
hinesthesis. AIl thrce are brought into conscious awareness in the cerebral
cortex, and along with stretch reflexes, vision, and the vestibular sense,
t hey make it possible for us to maintain our balance and equilibrium.
Discriminating touch is sensed by receptora in the skin, and deep pressure
is senscd by receptors in and internal organs. Kinesthesis, which i.;
the knowledge of where your limbs are located in space, as weIl as th e
awareness of whether your joints are folded. straightened, stressed, 0 1'
comfortable, is sensed mostly by receptors in joints, If you lift up in a
posture such as the prone boat and support youl' weight only t.be
abdomen, you can fcel all three asp of touch--contact of the skm wlt h
the floor, dcep pressure in the abdomen, and awar'eness of extension in the
spine and extremities.
Touch receptor!' adapt even more rapidly than receptors in the vestibular
system, whic h means thal they stop sending signals to the central nervous
system after u few 8CConds of sl.illness. That 's why holding hanclswit h somL'One
gets boring in the abscnce of occasional squeezing and stroking. Without
movement , the awareness of touch disappears. Rapid adaptation to touch is
extremely irnportant in hatha yoga postures, re laxation, and meditation, If
your posture is stable, the receptors for touch stop sending signals back to
the brain and you are able lo focus your attention inward, but as soon as you
rnove t he signals return and disturb your state of silenco,
TOUCH AND THE GATE THEORY OF PAIN
Ifyou bump your shin against sornething hard , ruhbing the injured region
allevi ates the pain, and if you r knee hurts from sitting for a long t ime in a
cross-legged posture, the natural response is to massage the region that is
hurting. There is a ne urological basis Ior t his-the gale theory uf pain,
aceording to which the application of deep touch an d pressure closes a "gate"
to block t he synaptic transmission of pa in in the spinal cord. Although it has
not been possi ble lo substantiate this theory as it was initiaHy proposed, we
all kno w exper ient iall y that somehow it works. So oven though the
mcchani sm is st iIJ uncertain, the general idea is widely acceptcd as self-
evident- somewhere between the spinal cord and the cerebral cortex,
touch and pr ossure pat hways intersect with t he ascending pat hways 1'01'
pain and either block 0 1' minimize its perception.
We use t his principle constantIy in hatha yoga . '1'0 iUustrate, interlock
your hands behind you r back and press t he palms toget her, PulI them lo
the real' so t hey do not come in contad with the back, and come into a
bend. If you are not warmcd up you may notice that you feel mild
from t he stretch. Now come up, press the forea rms firmly
agamst the back on eithcr side of the spine, and come forward again. The
contrast will bestartling, The scnsation of deep touch and pressure against
the back muscles stops the discornfort immediately.
Is th is good 01' bad? That is a vital question, and one ofthe chalIenges of
hatba is to lcarn how fa1" this principie can safely be taken. 11' you
un.derestlmate the importance of the signals of pain, and dirninish that
inp ut from touch and pressure, you may injurejoints and tissues,
1I you baby yourself, you'H never progress. The answer unfortunatslv
rs that y know i 'J'
1 ou may not 10W if you havo gone too far untiJ the next morning.
f you are sore you know you misjudged.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONSTRAINTS
OUT bodies are m' d fti . . ..
t
' a e IIp o our pnmary tJssues: eplthe/mm, muscle, neruous
ISSue and t " E" .
h . ' COll/leClVe tlssue. .pltheha fOl'm (;overings, Iinings, and most of
e Internal organs. Muscle is responsible 101' movement. and nervollS tissue
lB respo ' bl ti ..
I
nSI e 01' commumcatlOn. That leaves connective tissuc-the one
11at b" d
10 S all the ot hers logether. If you were able to remove aU t he
eonnective t issue from t he body, what was left wou ld flatten down on the
floor like a hairy, lumpy pancake. You would have no bones, cartilage ,
joints, fat , 01' blood, and nothing would be left of yom: skin except
epidermis, hair, an d sweat glands. Muscles and nerves, without connecuve
tissue, would have the eonsistency of mush. Internal organs would fall
aparto
To understand epithelia, rnuscle, an d nervous tissue we have lo under-
stand their cells, because it is the cells that are responsible for what the
tissue does , Connective tissues are a different matter. With the exception
of fat t he one connective tssue that is made up almost entirely of cclls, it
is the extracellular (outside of cells) substance in each conneetive tissue
t hat gives it its essential character. The extraceUular materials impart
hardness 10 bone, resilience to cartilage, strength to tendons and fasciae,
and liquidity to blood. And yet the extracellular components of
tissues are entirely passive. Trying to relax a ligament or release fasciae
with our power 01' will wou ld be like trying to re lax leat her.
So are t he connective tissues alive? Yes and no. Yes, in that living cells
in the various con nective ti ssues manufacture its ext racellular components
and organize t he tissue. Also yes, in that the ext racell ular space in connective
t issue is teeming wit h electrical activity. But no, in that the extracellular
materials are nonliving. And one more no, in t hat t he on ly way we can
access them is through the agency of living cells. Only through neurons
and their commands to muscle cells can we release tensi n in a tendon.
execute weight-bearing activities t hat add bone salts to bone, and stirnulate
the laying down o' additionaI connective tissue Iibers in tendons and fasciae.
And on ly with cells derived from epi thelial tissues can we accomplish th e
absorption, manufacturing, and eliminatory unctions that are necded for
supporting the tissues 01' the body in general. In the end , our aim of moldinc
and shaping the extraceJIular componente of our conneetive tissues can
only be accomplished indircetIy. .
The fad lhat the various connective tissues are 80 unlike one another
l1 refledion of t he fad t.hat tbeir extracellular materials are diametrical!)
different. Bone contains bone salts; tendons, ligaments, and fasciae contaifl
dense accumulations of ropy libers; loose connective tissue contains loof'l
accumulations of the same liben;; e!astic connective tissue contains elastic
libers; amI blood contains plasma. So we can't work with connective tissues
in general; we ha ve to envision and work with eaeh one
Connective tissucs not only give us shape, lhey also rcstram Bone
butting ab-rainst bone brings motion to 8 dcad stop. Cartilage
motion, but more softly than hom' . Ligaments constrain movements aecording
lo t heir' architectural arrangements around joints. RhL>e\.s 01'fasciae. whieh are
essentiaUyluyen; (11' connective t!sue. endose and org-.mize musdes and nerves,
sometimes more restrictively than we would like. Fina\ly, looso connective t ssue
heIPS bond the entire body together, constraining movemcnt between fasciae and
skin, adjacent muscle groups, and interna! organs.
BONV CON5TRAINT5
Ligaments, rnuscles, and the joint capsule itself all aid in holding the elbow
joint toget her, but underlying these supports, bony eonstraints ultimately
limi t bot h flexion and extensi n. Flexin is limited when the head of the
radi us and t he coronoid process of the ulna are stopped in the radial and
coronoid [ossae in the lower end of the humerus, and extension is stopped
when th e hooked upper end of the ulna-the olecranon process-eome..<; to
a stop in a matching olecranon. fossa in the humerus. Even though thin layers
of cartilage soften the contact bet wcen the radius and ulna in relation to the
humeros, the architectural plan limits flexion and extcnsion as certainly as
doorstops and provide us wit h clear examples of bony constraints to move-
ment. lt is not sornething we wou ld want to alter I fig. 1.101.
In th e spine we see another example of how one bone but t ing up against
another limits movement. The lumbar spine can extend and flex freely, but
matching surfaces of t he mova ble intervertebral joints in this regi n are
oriented vertically in a front-to-back plane that severely limi ts twisting
(fig. 1.11). Because of th is, al most all the twisting in a spinal twist takes
place in the neck and chest, where the matching surfaces of comparable
joints are oriented more propitiously (chapters 4 and 7l. As with the elbow,
would not want to alter t his designoIf t he lumbar region, isolated as it
lS between t he pelvis and chest, could twist markedly in addition to bending
forward and backward, it would be hopelessly unstable.
CARTlLAGINOU5 CON5TRAINT5
Cartil age has the consistency of rubber or soft plastic, It gives shape to the
nose and external ears, and it forms a eushioning layer at lhe ends of long
bones Our m . . th' d' .
. am concern In 15 Iscusslon, however, is not with these
:x:mpl
es
but with lhe joints called symphyses-the intervertebral disk<;
e Wecn adjacent vertebral bodies lfigs . 1.11. _p ob, ..pI, and 4.nhl as well
as th b' . - ,
aH e pu le b?'mphYSIS between the two [Jubic bones (figs. 1.12 amI At
th ' these SItes symphyses restrict movement. something like son bllt
11..' ruhber gaskets gllled between blocks ofwood that allow a Iittle move-
: e
nt
hut no slippage. '1'0 that end the pubic symphysis is secur'e enough lo
IOd the two halves of the pelvic bowl together in front and yet pelTIlit
Postural shift..-. and deviations; intervertebral disks bind adjaeent vertebra.
togeth t ' h I e
. er 19 t Y and yet permit the vertebr'al column as a whole to bend
and twi st.
,-! A"i11TJMI or u /n/M HJGA
rear view
ot spinous
process ot
L4
inferior
articulati ng
process of
Ll (ght
side)
superior
articulat ing
process 01
l2 (righl
side)
rear view
01ghl
transverse
process of
L3
spana orientation of articulating
processes prevents lumbar twisting
inferior articulating
process 01 l5
vertebral body of
l5 trorn Ihe front
INOONS ANO L1GAMENTS
By definitiun, tendons connect rnuscles to bones, and ligaments connect bone
to bone. They are hoth made up of tough, ropy, densely packed, inelastic
connective tissue fibers, with only a few cells interspersed betwecn large
packets offibers. Microscopically, tendons and Iigarnents are nearly identical,
although the fibers are nut packed as regularly in Iigaments as in tendons.
In a tendon the fihers extcnd frum the belly of a muscle intu th e su bstance
of a bone, lending continuity and st rengt h to the whol e complexo
Ligamenls hold adjoining bones together in joints throughout the body,
ofien permitting smal l gliding motions, and usually becorning taut at th e
end of a joint's range of mntion.
Ligaments and tendons can accomrnodate no more than about a
increase in length during stretching, after which tearing begins. This can
bea serious problern. Because the extracellular connective tissue fibers in
tendons and ligaments depend only on a Iew scattered living cells Lar repair
and replacement, and because the ti ssue is so poorly supplied with blood
vessels, injuries are slow to heal. 'I' he most comrnon of these is tendinitis,
which is caused by tears in the fibers al the interface between tendon and
!ransverse processes
01 l1

\,..
radial
collateral
Iigament
ulnar collateral
ligament, two
bands
left
- - radius
radial
---,,,-,_-- fossa
olecranon process
left
humerus
11---- humerus
olecranon process
left
ulna
coronoid
fossae
ulnar
collateral
ligaments
coronoid
processes
disarticulated elbow
joints. tront views
/"-...
right
ulna
medial view of rght elbow oint
ulna ----
right
radius
right
humerus
I
radial
collateral
ligamenl
radial
fossa - - --/--'--
Fi ure 1.10. Bony stops fur elbow and exte.nsion, with Ihe join.l
.gt ed above [ront vicws of the disarticulated right and left elbow Olnt.s
in the and a longitudinal cut through the joint and two of its
bones shown below. Extension is stopped where the olecranon proc,:ss
butts up against its f05S3, and f1exiun is stopped where the of the. radius
and curunoid process butt up agai nsl the radial and coronoid fossae (Sappey).
.,.
figure 1. 11. Lumbar vertebrae frorn the front, side, and behind. The vertical,
ron l.-to-back orientation of the artculating processes and their [oint 5urfaces
provl.des a bony stop that prevens lumbar twisling. paces that represent the
lorallon for the intervertebral disk between L2 and l3 are indicated by arrows
(Sappey).
l . ,I:,. /) 1' 0.\1I 'Il/: ')7
bono. If sorneone keeps abusing this interface with repetitive stress,
whether typing at a cornputer keyboard, swinging a tcnnis racket, or trying
compulsively to do a stressful hatha yoga posture, the injury can take a
year to heal, ur even longer,
The main purpose of ligaments is to restrain movable joints, and this
bocomes a majar concern in hatha yoga when we want to stretch to our
maximum. \Ve might at first think of loosening them up and stretching
them out so they do not place so many restraints on hatha postures. But
ligaments don't spring back whcn st retched and lengthened (al least not
beyond their 4'1(1 maximurn), and if we per sist in trying lo st r etch them
bcyond their Iimits we afien do more harm than good. Once lengthcned
they become slack, and the joints they protect are prone to dislocation and
injury. Ligaments have their purpose; let them be. '1'0 improvc ranges of
motion and Ilexibility, it is better to concentratc on lengthening muscles.
joints have several roles: t hey provide a container Ior the slippery synouial
fluid that lubricates t he mating surfaces ofthe opposing bones; they house
the t>J'Twvi al membrane that secretes the synovial fluid; t hey provide a
tough coveri ng of tissue into which ligaments and tendons can insert; and
of spedal interest to us here, they and their associated ligarnents provide
about hal l' the total resistance to move ment.
Th e shoul der joint reveals an excellent example of a joint capsuIe. Like
the hip joint , t he shoulder joint is a ball and socket-the ball being the head
of the hurnerus and the socket being t he glenoid cavity of the scapula tfig,
1.13). The joint capsule surrou nds the entire complex and accommodates
tendons that pass through or blend into the joint capsu le, as well as Iigaments
that reinforce it on t he outside . To feel how it restricts movernent, raise
your arrn overhcad and pull it to the real' as far as possi ble: within the
shoulder you can feel the join t caps ule and its ligaments tightenng up .
right left
pubie pubie
bone bone
ngure 1.12, Pubic symphysis shown where il oi ns lhe lwo sides o f th e pelvis.
This enlargemcnl of lhe IWo.puuic and (fro nt vicw) is taklm fmm
fig. 3. 2, which shows lhe cn llre pel VISIn per'ipccl lve (Sappey).
JOINT CAPSUL ES
Joint capsules are conncctivc tissue encascments that surround the work-
ing surfaces of the class of joints known as synouial joints, including hinge
joints, pivot joints, and ball-and-sockct joints. Joint capsules for synovial
EXTENSI L E LIGAMENTS
Extensile ligarnents are not really ligaments ; t hey are skeletal muscles heId
at relatively static lengt hs by mot.or neurons firing a con tinuous train of
nerve impulses. They have greater elast icity than connect ive tissue ligaments
because of their muscular nat ura, but other than that they function lo
maintain our posture like ordinary Iigaments, What they don't do, by definition,
is move joints through their full range of motion, which is what we us ually
expect from skeletal muscles. According to the conventional defni tion, extcnsile
ligaments are mostly postura! muscles in t he torso, but it is arguable t hat for
maintaining a stable meditation posture, every musde in the body lexcepting
the muscles of respirat iont becornes an extensile ligament o
Unlike connective tissue Iigaments, the length of extonsile ligaments
can be adjusted according lo the number of nerve impulses impinging on
the muscle. And since every rnuscle associated with the torso and vertebral
colum . ed b .
n IS represent on oth sidos of t he body, t he mat ching rnuscles in
each pair should receive the sarne number of nerve impulses per second on
each side, at least. in any slaUc, bi laterally symmetrical posture. If t hat
number is unequal, the paired muscles wiII develop chronically unequal
lengths that result in repercussions throughout the cen tral a:.x.is of the
In hatha yoga, this condition is especially noticeable because it is the
pnrnary sourcc of right-Ieft muscul oskeletal imbalances.
Axia! imbalances can bespotted throughout the torso and vertebral cotumn
but they are especially noticeable in the neck, where the tiny suboccipitai
muscles funct ion as extensile ligaments lo maintain head position (lig.
8. 20 1. If your head IS chroncally twisted or lipped slight1y to one l:lide it
rna h '
Y mean t at you have held t he matching muscle; 011 the two sides at
llnequaI len gt hs over a long period of t ime. Motor ne urons have bl'come
left
Isehium
ischial luberosities (sitting bones)
nghl
ischium
righl superior pubie ramus
Sil t1,\A7rJ.H)' orn 111,1 HX.A
1 .\ /0 \ t:<Ir\"1 AAV /" lHrilE;' 59
Figure 1.13. Disarticulated right shoulder joinl as viewed from Ihe .
mage); righl shoulder joint wilh its capsule, .also from the (mlddle
and righl shoulder joinl wi th ils as vlewed from behmd (bo llom
Envision the chest as being located In front of Ihe scapula and lo the observer s
right in Ihe lup Iwo mages (the of scapllla shown he re faces Ihe
back of lhe chesO. In Ihe bollom .mage. enVISlon lhe back of Ihe scap ula as
!leing locat ed to the le.h; .exce pl fm be'ing a mll.ch and
co nCi ne d dissecli on. thi s vlew ISsimil ar lo Ihe one shown m figure 1.1. Astensks
indi cale stabilizing ligaments. and arrows indicate rotatm cuf( lendon s (Sapray).
habit uated to long-established firing patterns, the bel lies of the rnuscles
thern:;elves have becorne shorter on one side and longer on thc other, and
the connective t issue fibers within and surrounding the rnusc le have
adju sted to t he unequal lengt hs of t he muscle Iibers, Correcting such
imbalances requires years of unrelenting efTort; neither the bellies of the
muscles 01' their connective tissue fibers can be lengthened 01' shortened
quickly.
FASCIAE
Fasciae are shects of connectivo tissue that give architectural supporl for
t ssues and organs t hroughout the body, holding everything together and
pl'oviding Ior a stahle infrastructure. They are crudely like leather gloves
that form a boundary around your hands. Underneath the skin and
subcutaneous connective tissue, fasciae organizo and un ify groups o'
muscl es, individual rnuscles, and groups of muscle fibers within each
muscle. They form a tough envelope around all the body cavities, ami they
surround t he hear t wit h a heavy connective tissue sack-t he fibrous
pericardiurn. We have superficial fascia just underneath the skin, and deep
fasciae overl ying muscle gro ups. The singular and plural terms are almost
interchangeable- we can say deep fascia of the back, fascia of the body, 01'
fasciae of t he body.
Fascia is flexible ir we kecp movi ng, slretching, and breathing, but if we
allow any part of the body lo remai n irnmobile, its fasciae become less flexible
and eventually restrict our movernents, like glove that fit so tightly that you
can't bend your fingers .
lOOSE CONNECTIVE T1SSUE AND GROUND SUBSTANCE
Loose connectioe tissue is cornposed of ground substance, scattered fibers,
and cells. It fills in the spaces between the three primal)' tissues that are
most ly cellular-musc1e, cpithelia, and nervous tissue-and between all
the other connective tissues, including bone and cartilage, blood and
Iymph, tendons and ligaments, joints and joint capsules, fasciae, fato and
Iymp hatic tissue, But loosc connective tissue is more than a filie): Its
ground substance is crudely comparable to glycerine-it lubricates and
smoothes movement throughout. the hody. The ground substance perrnits
slippagc of adjacent structure:; as wcUas slippage of individual connective
t iss
ue
fibcrs relative to one another in tendons and Iigaments. Were it not
fo
r
the connective tissue fibers and lheir submicroscopic attachments lo
rnuscle fibcrs, nerve fibers, and epithelia. 1,'Tound substance would leL
ev
eryt
hll1g slip and slide apartoThis would be as unwelcome-by itself-as
un oil spill on an icy road.
Ground subslance is normally l1uid, but it congeal8 and loses moisture
corocoid
process 01
scapu la
neck 01humerus
medial border
- --- 01scapula
tendn 01 msertion 01the
subscapularis muscle, one
01the relator cuff muscles
\-----clavicle
C" ::ir---- - front surface 01
scapula (laces
back side 01
chest)
____clavicle

___ subscapularis rnuscle

..J* takes origin from \he
Iront surlace ot the
scapula (behind the
chest) and helps hold
the head ol the
humerus againsl the
glenoid cavity
tendons 01nsertion 01
3 rotator culf muscles:
-r.- ---supraspinatus,
. ---inl raspinatus, and
T... __--Ieres minor ; these
muscJesstabilize the
shoulder joint and
keep it lrem being
dislocated
.1
tendon 01originolong
head 01triceps brachi
lendon 01originolong
head 01 triceps brachii
capsule 01 shoulder joinl---
glenoi d
cavity
srte 01attachment 01
librous capsule 01
Ihe shoulder joint to
\he rear border olthe
glenoid cavity ------
tendon 01 origino
long head 01
lriceps brachu
l endon 01origin,
long head 01the
biceps brachi -----1'+
capsule 01
shoulder jomt
articular
hoad 01
humerus
60 Al\A7n.l11 orruriu lOCA
if the surrounding tissues are inact ive. And as it loses moisture it loses its
lubrcating properties. The entire body tightens down. Tendons, ligaments,
a nd joint capsules become brittle, muscles lose much 01' their elasticity and
abil ity to unction smoothly, and the tissues become suscepti ble to injury.
These reversals are the main reasons for morning stifTness, and they are a
compelling argument for beginning every day wit h a session of hatha yoga.
'ro rehydrate the ground substance a short, lazy practice is not as efTective
as a long and vigorous onc, and you get what you pay for; The beneft is
wcll-being; the payment is work and stretch.
STRETCHING
If you ask most people what it takes lo lift a barbell overhead they will say
muscles, bones, and joi nts. If you as k them what is needed for running a
marathon they will say heart, lungs, and legs , And if you ask them what is
required for dance 01' gymnastic performance they will say strength, grace,
and agility. But if you ask them what is most important for increasing
flexibility they will probably just give you a blank look. And yet those of
us who practice hatha yoga know that improving flexibility is one of our
greatest challenges. Even the sirnplest postures are difficult when one is
stifT, and that is why instructors are always encouraging us 10 stretch. But
what cxactly do they mean?
Given what we have discussed so far, we know that we should be wary
of increasing flexibility by trying 10 free up bony stops or loosening up
eartilaginous restraints, joint capsules, tendons, and ligaments. What we
can do is lengthen nerves and the bellies of muscles, the two kinds of
extendable anatornical structures that run lengthwise through limbs and
across joints.
THE BEl L I ES OF MUSClES
Muscles have t.obe lengthened only a little to permit a respectable improve-
ment in a joint's range of molion. But when we are stretching them ano
looking for long-term results, are we dealing with their individual musclp
fibers 01' with their aSRociated conncctive tissue fibers? The answer is both.
'rhe individual mru;cle fibers within a muscle can grow in length by th e
addition of little contractile units calle<! We know this from
studies of muscles that have been held in casts in stretched positions. And
by the same token, if a muscle . held by a cast in a foreshortened state.
sarcomeres are lost aod the muscle fibers become shorter.
It is not enough to increase the length of muscle fibers a1one. A match-
ing expam;ion ofthe connec:tive tissue within and around the muscIe is also
needed, including the overlying fascia, the connective tissue that surrounds
packets of mm;c1e fibcrs, and the wrappings uf individual liben;. And this is
t . I/(JI ,-1//;,\TA,\IlI'O\71 '/{I ' 6 1
what happens during programs of prolongad stretching, 'I'he connectve
ti ssue gradually follows the lead uf the muscle libers, the muscle as a whole
gets Ionger, and flexibility is irnproved. Hatha yoga stretches are a safe and
effeetive way to bring this about. And in the occasional cases when we want
to tighten everything down, all we have to do is stop stretching so much
and concntrate on repetitive movements and short ranges of motion, The
muscle fibers will quickly get shorter, and the connective tissues will soon
follow suit.
NERVES
The issue of periphcral nerves is another matter. Nerves are sensitivo to
st ret ch but are not robust enough to limit it: they can accommodate to
stretch only because they dori't take a straight course through the tissues
that surround thern and because their individual nerve fibers rneander
back and forth within the connective tissue ensheathments of the nerve
itself. Dur ng the course of stretching a limb, the gross path of a nerve
through thc surrounding tissues is first straightened, and as the stretch
conti nues, the serpentine course of the individual fibers within the nerve
is also straightened. And even after that, the enveloping connective tissue
has enough elasticity 10 accommodate about 10-15%. additional stretch
without damaging the nerve fibers.
With out their conneetive t ssue ensheathments nerves would be hopo-
lessly vulnerable, not only to stretch but also to trauma and cornpression
among tense muscles, bones, and ligaments. The protection is not fail-safe,
however, becausa in extreme cases these ensheathments can accommodato
to even more strctch than the that is safe for their enclosed nerve
'I'he early warning signs are numbness, sensitivity, and tingling, ami
If these are ignored, sensory and motor deficits may develop. Your best
protect ion is awareness and patience-awareness of why nerve stretch is a
potential problem and the patience to work slowly when and ifmilrl symptoms
emerge. rf nerve pain keeps tuming up chronically, seek professional help.
w.. THE LAST A NALYSIS
Research has shown beyond question that the length of muscle fibers mn
be increas ed as a resutt of prolonged stretching, 01' decreased as a I'esult of
chronic for eshorte ning. It is also clear' that the connective tissue ensheath-
ments of either muscles 01' nerves can be stretchcd too muchoBut there is
ano ther factor in the equation: the nervous system plays a pivotal role in
causing muscles to either I'clax or tighten up, and this either permits stretch
0 1' limi ts it. So is it Lheactive role of the nelvous system 01' the passivc role of
L'onnective tissues that ultimatcly restrains movement? Since nerve
IInpul He8 kccp stimulating muscIe cells during ordinary activities, there is
only one way to find out for certain: to check someone's range of motion
when they are under deep anesthesia. when the nervous system is not
stimulating any skeletal musele cells except those needed for rcspiration.
This has been done, inadvertently but many times. Any operating room
attendant can tel1 you that when patients are anesthetized, their musc1cs
become so loose that care has to be taken not to disloeate the joints, and
this will happen even if the patient is extremely stiff in waking life. So why
can't therapists take advanlage of anesthesia-induced lexibility to increase
the range of motion around joints? The answer is that wilhout the protcction
of the nervous systern the tissues tear-muscle fibers, connective
tissue fibers, and nerves. And this preves that even though connective
tissues provide the outerrnost limits to stretch, it is the nervous system
that provides the practicallimits in day-to-day life. When we have reached
those lirnits the nervous system warns us through pain, trembling, 01'
simply weakness that we are going too far, and most important, it warns us
before the tissues are torno
T H REE POSTURES
Thrce hatha yoga postures illustrate the principles of movement we have
been dscussing. They are all simple to analyze and study bccause they
exhibit bilateral symmetry, in which the two sides of the body are identical
in structure and perform identical movements. Eaeh one presents difTerent
challenges. We'Il hegin with the corpse posture.
THE CORPSE POSTURE
The eorpse posture reveals several eommon probloms that arise when pcople
try to relax . Lie supino on a padded surfaee with the knees straight, the fect
apart, the hands out from the thighs, and the palms up. Relax completely,
aliowingyour body to res! on the floor under the influenee of gravity tfig, 1.14)
When you first lie down most ofthe motor neurons that innervate the skeletal
museles are still Iiring nerve impulses, but your breathing gradually
bccomes even and regular, and the number of nerve impulses per second to
your muscles starts to drop. If you are an exper1. in relaxation, wi1.hin a
minute 01' two the number of nerve impulses to the muscles of your hands
and toes goes to zero. Then, within five minutes 1.he motor neuronal inpul
to 1.he muscles of your forearms, arms, legs, and thighs diminishes and also
approaches zcro. The rhytbmical movcment of the respiratory diaphragm
lulls you into even deepcr relaxation, finally minimizing the nerve impulses to
tbe deep postural musclcs of the torso. 'fbe connective tiSSUC8 are not
restrainingyOU. Pain is not registen.. 'CI from any part of tbe body-Ihe posture
is entirely eomfortahle. 'fhis is an ideal relaxatiun.
In the early stngc. of practice any number of prublems can intcrfere
with the ideal. First, let's say you hurt your right shoulder playing basket-
ball earlier in the day. Tension in that region is still high and stands oul
painfully in eontrast to the relaxation in the rest of the limb and on the
other side . In addition, you have an old back injury and the muscles around
the vertebral eolumn are holding it in a state of tension. You would like to
lift your knecs to relieve the stress, but you do not wish to seem unsporting.
So you override the impulses of the flexion refloxes and continue to suffer
with your knees straight,
This is absurdoAHproblerns in the body tattle on themselves in one way
01' another, and you cannot relax your body because it is rebelling. You
would not bein so mueh pain ifyou were walking around the block bccause
the movement would keep you from noticing it, but when you try to relax
you are aware of nothing else. The posture becomes increasingly irritating,
and your mind, far from being still, is oseillating between awareness of the
diseomfort and longing Ior escape, lf your instructor holds you in this pose
for more than a minute 01' two you are in the wrong class. You are not yet
ready for this work. You need to hcal, rnove, and stretch-not lie still ,
Those who are uncomfortable can sometimos improve the situation by
sirnply moving into partially flexed positons-i-bending the knees, placing
the hands on the chest, and supporting the head with a thick pillow. For
restful sleep, it is not surprising that rnost people lie on their sides and curl
up in an attitude of Ilexion.
THE PRONE BOAT
The prone hoat posture demonstrates the simplest kind of movernent
against gravity. Tu experience this lie face down on the floor. Stretch your
arms toward the Ieet, straight out to the sides, 01' overhead, as you prefer.
Raise the arms, thighs, and head away from the floor all at once, keeping
the knees and elbows extended (fg, Ll5). You are lifling into the posturc
with the muscles un the posterior (back) side of the body The neck, back,
hamstring, and ealf museles are all shortening coneentrically and drawing
the body up in an are.
Figure 1.14. The eorpse pasture. Curwhole-body relaxation.
Although by most standards the prone boat is an CHSY posture, especially
with the hands alongside the thighs, it can be challenging ifyou are in poor
physical condition, A set of muscles is being used which is rarely exercised
as a group in daily life, and ifyou keep your elbows and knees extended you
may not be able to lift your hands and fect more than an inch or so off the
floor. The combination ofinOexibility and unfarniliarity keeps the antagonist
muscles on the anterior (front) sido of the body active, and this in turn
restrains the lift. Whole-body extension is the essence of the prone boat,
but the puU of gravity, lack of strength posteriorly, muscular resistanee
anteriorly, an abundance of f1exion ref1exes, and various connective tissue
restrictions in the spine may all Iimit you . For beginners the activity of the
nervous system is the main impediment to the posture.
Fascia is the main obstacle for intermediare students. The nervous
system is commanding the posterior muscles lo contract strongly and the
anterior muscles lo relax, but connective tissues and the design of the
joints prevent marked extension. With time and practice the anterior
muscles will relax and perrnit a fuIl stretch. Finally, advanced students
confidentIy lift to their maximum and play with the edges of neuronal
control, tugging on their connective tissues with an educated awareness
while at the same time kccping the breath even and regular without straining
01' faltering.
THE HAMSTRINGS-QUADRICEPS THIGH PULL
This standing forward bend demonstrates the intcractions among agonist
muscles, their antagonists, gravity, and the clasp knife reflex. Stand with
the feet about 12 inches aparto Flexing the knees as neeessary, bend forward
and press the torso tightly against the thighs, which keeps the back rela-
tively straight and prevents strain, Now, holding the chest and abdomen
firmly in place, try lo straighten th e knee joinL The quadriceps Iernoris
museles on the front of the thighs try to accomplish this, and the hamstring
rnuscles on the back side of the thighs resist, but you can undercut the
hamstring resistance by activating their clasp knife reflexes. Just massage
the musculotendinous junctions of the harnstring muscles behind the knee
joints while you are trying to press your hips up (fig. 1.16).
At this point the quadrieeps femoris muscles are shortening concentrically,
straightening the knees, and raising the body up against the force of gravity.
At the same time the hamstring muscles, which are antagonists lo the
quadriceps, are actively even though unconsciously resisting. Ir you are in
good condition your nervous systern allows you to press upward to your
personal maximum, but if you ha ve recently hurt your knee or sprained
your ankle, flexion reflexes responding to pain will limit you . As you press
up you are making an isotonic movement. If you go lo your maximum but
then keep pressing, you are exercising isometrically.
If you were lo bounee, which we do not want here, you would strctch the
muscle spindles dynamicaJly and stirnulato the myotatic stretch reflexes. If'you
rnove slowly,you will bestimulating the Golgi tendon organs and eliciting the
c1asp knife reflex in both the quadriceps femoris and tho harnstring musclcs.
Although this will tend lo relax both sets of rnuscles, the focus of your will is
to straghten the kneejoint, with the result that the higher centers ofthe bruin
override the reflex in the quadriceps femori and aIlow it Iuller rein in the
harnstrings. NeurologicaJ circuits for reciprocal innervation also probably
inhibit the motor neurons whose axons inncrvate the harnstring muscles.
The main resistance to Iiting up comes from the hamstrings. If you are
an advanced student and not feeling any trace of'joint pain, you can try to
relax the harnslrings and extend the knee joints more completely,
contracting the quadriceps as much as your strength and health permit.
This posture is different from the prono boat, in that your attention is
more rcstricted. In the prone boat you are trying to relax the entire front
side of t.he body; here you are trying lo relax only the harnstrings.
Figure 1.15. The prone boal.l\s you lifl up into lhe posture, muscles on thc back
side of the body concentrically; as you 510wly lower yoursdf down,
lhey lengthen eccenlrically. Tension in and conneclive tissue.. on lhe
front side of lhe body increases as you 11ft up amI deCfeases as you come clown.
Figure 1.16. Standing hamslrings-
thigh pull . The first priority
IS placing the lorso solidly againsl Ihe
lhighs in order lo prolecl the Jower
back. Under Ihose circumstances,
Irying to Iifl lhe hips forceably in
combinalion wilh massaging lhe Golgi
lendon organs in the hamslring
lendons cncourages deep relaxalion
and evenlual lengthening of lhe
hamstring musdes lsimulation).
\
hamslnng
muscles
(.6 A,\ATOMI Of' I/A77IA IOGA
If you are reIati vely heaIthy, as you reach the Iimits of nervous syst em
control , the fasciae bcgin to play an important. role in limiting your efforts
10 straighten the knees and mise up. Youreach a point at which the connective
tissue fihers within and surrounding the hamstring muscles wiIInot allow any
more lfting, Theyare now like wires pulled taut, stretched tu their limit. The
onIy way to get more length in the system is to paticnUy Icngthen the rnuscles
and nerves with a long-term program of prolonged stretches.
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
We have covered a great deal of lerritory in this chapter, but in so doin g we
have laid the foundation for everything that is to come. '1'0 sum it up:
sensory input to th e brain and the power of wiII both ultimately influence
the motor neurons, which in turn preside over the actions of the musculo-
ske letal system. The reflexes are in the background and out of our imrnediate
awarencss, but without them we would be in dire straits, Without the
strelch reflexes our rnovernents wouId be jerky and uncertain, likc film
portrayals of Frankenstein's monster. And without pain receptora and
f1cxion reflexes we would soon be a battlcground of burns and injuries.
Without the reflexes from our vestibular systern we wouId teeter about,
uncertain of our balance and orientation. Without sensation from touch
and prossure pathways we would lose rnost of the sensory input that gives
us pleasure--and aIong with its 108S, its guidance. In the end. the nervous
system drives the musculoskeletal system, and these two in cornbination
maintain and sculpt conneetive ti ssues, which in turn passively rcstrict
movement and posture. AlI of this takes place within the field of gravity
under the auspices of wiII and creates the practice of hatha yoga.
": J{:(l'Ilr / /J jr;:rt:n "crl lf/. 7/fnll'l"/' l b hod1:.1
I.n l.M'I:I'UllllOlJ).- h /'.(J/l l f J ,f/Ir'I/VI.rl/ 11l j l o/l J 1;;;'j l n /I y ' r rk. "
- Gershon, in Th e Second Brtun, P.3S.
CHAPT'ER TWO
BREATHING
":7J/ u n Illaca l l/' a n 'ce j j Jo Jo/'n rl("<'-'1r1 4r1'11 l/al
II'oa// j / U /I 1(' f"II/f! .yle1l/(y- 1/'I"lh"tY' UIJ/1 I//a I l n,"!
/olf";1'('1/ 11 Ihi" t:j/e.1 /I/lrIjy,//I UtI' llrl:d. ;'/; N:Y.("JII.("I
lOi Jh, /1 ha.;("I.(JI'r .?/'a/tler/I(' tVfJ/ O/f'. ltJ/t"l 1"1 I I/ I ".0I//
lo Ik a-l,d'/uk o /t /nJ//f.. I"kl,-,f/N.1:J14cllr rftll/I.rk-P.1r /'IY!:J
o//I//,wY> . .:J't?P tJ/al?"o/l ,fe 9 adJ r/ Ih, ;'rp, t.k INl? .1
("{!b/u; /lJ t/Jn/I/I? ;;IWI t?4t:n' l"l/VI, C/nJt: ;Y''//I te'
/111J.t' e//lol! a/ldc('l / o/, J,.,. o lo/I.r- 0 /1 Ih;;:-':11 I'a./lr,.,. o/;j-h l
. .$ / ICC .1l/eh a/? (?//C'/Y'IIIU o/
/l/NI (", II/Cw.rk- /: .All 1ft / 11.1' rb-al/J /N'/l/' l o I/JI"
l//lOJ! I IllO!1 o-lld Jo o(("'u/t. a /110110 ; //lI"I -it" al
1" "
caMI. a .?II"-C.M.
- J ohn Mayow, in Tractatus Quillque (1674), quoted from
Proct or 's A History of Breathinq Physiology, p. IS.l.
knew nothing of physiology, at Ieast in terms that would have been
helpfu] lo 17th and 18th century European scientists and physicians like
Jo hn Mayow, but Ior a long time they have made extraordinary cla irns
about the value of st udying the breath. They say flatl y for example that
the brea th is th e link betwccn the mind and the bodv and that ir .'
Cont rol '. J' we can
our respiration we can control every aspect of OUI' bcing This . . th
end . . . . IS IS e
Evepomt , they tell us, that begins with simple hatha yoga breathing exercises.
th ry aspect of our being'! That's a lot , by any standard. No malter: even
t hough such comments may stimulate our cUI;osity, lheil' pursuit is outside
.c ofthis book. Our objective here is to pursue st udies in breat hing
as thcy can be obj ectively and experientially, and th en to
ss sorne of the relatlOnshlps between yoga and respiration that . b
corrclated ' t h ud . ean e
b
. WI m em blOmedical science: how different f
rcat h ffi " o
fl' Jng ect us In dlfferent ways, why this is so, and what we can learn
om pl'actl ce and observation,
Breathing usually opcrates at the cdge of our awareness but w'll d
volit ' . ' 1 an
Ion are always at Olll' rhsposal. Just as we can choose how many limes
67
Figure 2.1. Cardio-respiralory sy temo As indicated by lhe arrows, oxygen is
transpor l ed from lhe atmosphere lo lhe cell of the body: from airways 1 I
heart, and finally to lhe systemic
d.'O)(Ide.l s transported lO the o!her direclion: from !he cells l o lhe syslemic
C1rculatron, heart, pulmonary ci rculalion, lungs, airways, and almospherf' (Dodd).
travels in the opposite direction, first from the cells ofthe body to the heart
in the systemic circulation, and then from the heart to the lungs in the
pulmonary circulation (fig, 2.1 and chapter H) .
Everything about the respiratory systom is accessory to the movemcnt
of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Airways lead frorn tho nose and mouth into
the lungs (lig. 2.2). Air is pullod backward in the nose past the hard and
soft palales, where it makes a 90 turn and enters a l'unnel-shapcd re!:,'ion,
bott om: the syslemlc circulalion of
blood lo and Irom Ihe body as a whole
the pulmonary capillaries lie
in intimate appositon to lhe
alveoli ; lhey transport carben
dioxide from the blood into
the alveoli and oxygen from
lhe alveoli into lhe blood
cells 01
:H--- ...,.. lhe body
lhe capillaries 01!he
systemic circulation lie
in close apposition to
the cells 01 the body;
7-----::""- lhey transport oxygen
lo the cells and
carbon dioxide away
'rom them
10rthe systemic
""------ crculat on, the
aorta carries
oxygenaled
blood lrom lhe
left ventricle 01
the heart lo lhe
body as a
whole
the pulmonary
vein carries bood
high in oxygen
and Iow in carbon
dioxide Irom the
lungs to the left
1---- - --atrium 01the heart
top: l he pulmonary ci rcul al ion
of blood lo and from the lungs
atmosphere:
----.. oxygen in ..
"'-carbon dioxide ""--
out
the pulmonary
arlery carries
blood low in
oxygen and
high in carbn
dioxide from
the right
venl ricle 01 -----_ _+.
the heart lo
lhe lungs
the vena cava---,fZ::-
carries blood lhal
Is high in carbon
dioxide and low in
OxygenIrom lhe
capillary beds 01
Ihe body back lo
l he right atrium 01
lhe heart; lhis is
!he syslemic
"venous relum"
to chew a bite of food 01' adjust our stride when we are walking up a hill, so
can we choose the manner in which we breathe. Most of the time, however,
we run on "automatic," a1lowing input from internal organs to manage the
rate and depth ofour breathing. Yogisernphasize choice. They have discovered
the value of regulating respiration consciously, of breathing evenly and
diaphragmatically, of hyperventilating for speciic purposes, and of suspending
the breath at will. But even though these aims might seem laudable, readers
should be made aware that the cJassical literature of hatha yoga generally
warns students against experimenting intcmperately with breathing exercises.
Verse 15 of Chapter 2 01' the Hatha Yoga Pradipiha is typical : 'aust as lions,
elephants, and tigers are gradually controlled, so the prana is controlled
through practice. Otherwise tho practitioner is destroyed." This sounds like
the voice of experience, and we ought not disrniss it casualIy. We'lI revisit
the issue of temperance at the end of the chapter afier having examined
the anatomy and physiology of respiration. There are reasons for caution.
To understand the benefits ofcontrolled breathing we must procecd step
by step, beginning with a look at the overall design of the respiratory
system, and then at the way skeletal rnuscles draw air into the lungs. Next
we'lI see how breathing affects posture and how posture affects breathing.
After that we'Il explore how the two rnajor divisions of the nervous
syslcm-somalic and autonomic-interact to influence breathing, Then
we'll turn to the physiology of respiration and examine how lung volumes
and blood gases are altered in various breathing excreises. 'I'hat will point
us toward the mechanisms by which respiration is regulated automatically
and at how we can learn to override those mechanisms when we want to.
Finally we'll examine four diferent kinds ofbreathing-thoracic, paradoxical
abdominal, and diaphragmatic-and the relationships of each lo yoga
breathng practices. At the end of the chapter we'll return to the issue of
moderation in planning a practice.
THE DESIGN OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Every cell in the body nceds to breathe-taking up oxygen, burning fuel
generating energy, and giving off carbon dioxide. This process, known a '
cellular rcspiration, depends on an exchange-moving oxygen a1l lhe way
from the atmosphere lo lungs, to blood, and to celIs, and at the same time
moving carbon dioxide from cells lo blood, to lungs, lo atmosphere. The
body accomplishes this cxchange in two steps. 'or step one we draw air into
the lungs, where it comes in contact with a large wet surface area-the
mUed ive hundred million alveoli -into which oxygen can dissolve and
from which carbon dioxide can be eliminated. For step two oxygen travels
in the pulmonar)' circulation l'rom the lungs lo lhe heart and in the
systeOlic cil'culation froOl the heal1. to thc cclls ofthe body. Carbon dioxidc
7
0
AN,11nlll ot: 11,1111,1 H)GA
the pharynx. From there it contines downward into the larynx, which is the
organ for phonation and whose vocal cords vihrate to create sound. Below the
larynx air passes into the trechea, the right and le primary bronchi, and then
into the two lungs, each ofwhich contains 10 broncJwpulmonary segmenis that
are served individually by secondary bronchi. The socondary bronchi in turn
divide into tertiary bronchi and smaller subdivisions tbronchioles that collec-
tively compose the bronchial tree (fig, 2.3). The terminal bronchioles ofthe
bronchial tree in turn open into the tiny alveoli, giving a microscopic view
2. B/U"tnflNG 71
of the lungs the appearance of a delicate laey network. The trachea and other
large tubcs in the airways are held open by incompletc rings of cartilage, and
the alveoli remain open because a special surfactant on their walls limits
their expansion during the course of a full inhalation and yet prevents surface
tensi n from collapsing them during the course of a full exhalation.
The pharynx is a crossroads Ior the passage of air and food, Air passes
down and forward from the nasopharynx into the laryngopharynx and then
into the larynx and trachea. Food is chewed in the mouth, and from there
it is swallowed backward into the oropharynx and across the pathway for
air into the esophagus, which is located behind the trachea just in front of
--righl
pulmonary
artery
carnes
carbon
dioxide lo
the righl
lung
righl
pulmonary
veins carry
oxygen
Iromlhe
right lung
back to
Ihe heart
apex, right lung
left right
ventncle ventricle
'P"'.'''' loo, \
lertiary bronchi lor
bronchopulmonary
segments 01lhe inlerior
lobe 01lhe left lung
left
primary
bronchus
left
pulmonary
veins carry
oxygen
Irom the
Iefllung
backlo
!he heart
left
pulmonary
artery
carnes
carbn
dioxide to
Ihe left
lung
epiglottis
..
palate:
hard,
trachea (pathway
lor air between
larynx and
primary bronchi
esophagus
(pathway lor
lood between
oropharynx
and stornacn
vertebral canal
(tube housing
spinal ccrd)
mtervertebrat
verbebral
body, C5 - --=;=l:H--frR
nasal conchae
spinous process
ofsecond
cervical
vertebra (C2)
rnupharynx
Figure 2.2. Nearly mid-sagittal cut (just to the let of the nasal septum) showing
the let hal of the head and neck, and revealing the crossing passageways for
food (solid line from the oral cavily into the esophagusl and air (dashed lines
from the nasal passages inlo the trachea). (from Sappev).
Figure 2.3. lsolated heart-lung preparaton as viewed frorn behind. 1 he aorta
and superior vena cava are not visible from this perspectivo. The bronchial tree
inlo right and left primary bronchi, 5 secondary bronchi (3 for the
rrght lung and 2 for the left), and 20 lerliary bronchi to the bronchopulmonary
s.egments (10 for each lung), Branches of the pulmonary arteries and veins are
hkewi se associated with each of the bronchopulmonary segments (Sappcy).
71 A"A1n.1/}' or /fA in 1V<;A
.1, flIU:Al1t1SG 7,\
Figure 2.4. Cross-sectional view through the upper chest, looking from aboye at a
5ection Ihrough the lungs and pleural cavities, and al a Ihree-dimensional view of
Ul
e
up pe r portion ol lhe hearl with great vessels, pericardial cavity, i1nd fibrous
Pl'rk ardium. Pericardial and pleural cavities are greatly exaggeraled (Sappey).
(two times per sccond ) "s wa llow" air into your lun gs 10-15 ti mes Ior inhalation,
closing the glottis after each swallow, To exhale you sirnply open the glottis, For an
interesting exercise in awareness , and to feel for yourself how the lungs effortlessly
get smaller when you open your glottis to exhale, hold your nose and breathe thi s
way for 2- ] rninutes . ]
The remedy fOI" pneumothorax in a hospital setting also illustrates the
architecture of the systern. !t's simple, at least in principie. Tubes are
sealed into the openings of the chest wall, and the air is vaeuumed out of
the pleural cavities. This pulls the external surfaces of the lungs against
the inner wall DI' the chest and upper surface of the diaphragm, and the
muscles of respiration can then operate on the infl ated lungs in the usual
manner.
A seeond emergeney situation involves an obstruction in the airway,
perhaps a big ehunk of food that has dropped into the larynx instead of the
esophagus, Ir it is too big to get all the way through into the trachea, the
obstruction may gel. stuck in the larynx, block the airway, and prevent you
from breathing. In sueh cases the natural reaction for most people is to try
inferior lobe
of left lung
left pleura l
cavity
supenor lobe
of left lung
spinous vertebral vertebral body

erector
spinae
musde
esophagus
inferior lobe
of right lung
righl pleural
cavity ---....'1/
superior lobe
of righllung -t-irH--:--
left atrium
receivmq
oxygenaled_!\\,-----r;;.;
b100dby
wayof
pulmonary
veins
if chest wall is
P8netrated,
lung col/apses,
and air rushes
ITlto pleural
cavity. creating
pneumolhorax
SUperiorvena cava
the vertebra] column (fig. 2.2). The glottis, which is the narrowed aperture
in the larynx al the level of the vocaL cords, closes when we swallow. You
can feel that happen if you initiate either an inhalation or an exhalation
and then swallow sorne saliva. You will find, no matter what part of the
breathing cycle you are in, that swallowing obstructs breathing. If it doesn't,
food may "go down the wrong way," as children pul it , and we choke.
The lungs are rnostly composed of air: 50t( air after full exhalation and
80% air after full inhalation. If you slap the side of your chest you '11 hear a
hollow sound; contrast this with the lower-pitched liquidy sound that
comes frum slapping your hand against your abdomen. A slippery mem-
brane that is itself irnpervious to air covers the lungs, which can in turn be
likened roughly to blown-up balloons that fill the rib cage, excepting that
the "balloons" are not tied off al their necks. So why don 't they deflate just
like loosed balloons that Ily away? The answer is fundamental to the design
of the respiratory syst.em. The lungs have an inherent elasticity, and they
remain inflated inside the rib cage only because they faithfully track
changes in the volume of the chest as it gets larger and smaller. How can
this be? It is because nothing lies between the outer surfaces of the lungs
and the ehest wall except a potential space, the pLeuraL caoity, This cavity
eontains no air; only a vacuum which holds the lungs tightJy against the
inner surface of the chest wall, along with a small amount of lubricating
fluid that perrnits the lungs to expand and contract as the chest expands
and contracts through the agency of the surrounding muscles of respiration
(figs. 2.4, 2., and z.o).
TWO EMERGENCY SITUATlONS
'I'wo emergeney situations will put all this in perspective. First, if your rib
cage were penetrated on one side in a traurnatic injury, air would rush into
the pleural cavity and cause the lung on that side lo collapse. This is called
pneumothorax. How quickly it develops depends on the size of the
With a large enough opening, the lung eollapses almost like letting lhe ai r
out of the neck of a balloon, as might be surmised from Mayow's astut e
obscrvations more Lhan years ago.
More perilously than for one lung, if both sides of the rib
cage are grossly penetrat.ed, both lungs collapse lo theiI. si.ze
shrink away from the chest wall. With the pleural cavltleS filled wth al r,
the muscles of respiration cannol get purchase on the external surfaces of
the lungs 1.0 create an inhalation, and unlcss someone holds your
blows direcUy into your mouth t.ogive you artificial respiration, you wlII die
in a few Innutes.
ITcchnicnl nole: There il" one other allernlltivc. Ir you wero thinking rasl
anu nol too distrnctpd by the injury. ynu could bulloon out your checks anel quu:kly
74 AflTUM)' orusrn )"()(;,I
.l. BREA7711"'(; 75
Figure2.5. Surtace viewof ches!. The internal intercostal muscJesare visiblein front
near the sternum where they are not overlain by the external intercostals and they
are also visiblelaterallywhere the external intercostals have becn away
(between the frfth and sixth ribs). As a group, the external intercostal muscles lift
the rib cage up and out to support nhalation, and the intemal intercostal musdes
pull it down and in lo complele a full exhalation (fromMorris).
and contract the chest (figs. 2.5 and 2.9). Two sets of these muscles, one
under the other, act on the rib cage. The external intercostal muscles run
between the ribs in the same direetion as the most external sheet of abdominal
muscles (figs. 2.7,2.9,3.11-13, and IUl); they lift and expand the rib cage for
inhalation, like the movement of an old-fashioned pump handle as it is liftecl
up from its resting position. The inlernal intercostal muscles run at right
angles to the external layer; they pull the ribs closer together as well as
down and in for exhalalion (usually a forced exhalation). Ifyou place your
hands on your chest with the fingers pointed down and medially (towa rd
the midline of the body), this approximates the orientation of the externa]
intercostal muscles, and if you place your hands on your chest with the fingers
pointing up and medially, this approxirnates the orientation of the int.crnal
intercostal muscles (fig. 2.';). The external intercostal muscles do not
a1ways act eoncentrically lo lift the rib cage; during quiet breathing they
floaling ribs:
eleventh (tip)
twelllh (tip)
lifth rib
lirst nb
lirst thoracic
vertebra
internal
-.' intercostal
muscles
costal cartilages
lor second, lhird.
and lourth ribson

'/ external
\..;..... intercostal
muscles
entrance to
chest cavity
Iower border 01 ribcage to
which respiratory diaphragm
(notshown) altaches
internal intercostal
muscles rundown
and laterally
costal
cartilages
lar fiflh.
sixlh,
sevenlh,
and
eighth
ribson
right side
01chest
THE MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION
lnhalations can take place only as a result of muscular activity. Exhalations
are diferent: the lungs havo the capacity lo gel smaller bccause their elasticity
keeps pulling them, along with the rih cage, to a smaller size, And as airead)
mentioned, the size of the lungs follows the size of the chest in lockstep: any-
thing that expands and contracts the chest also expands and contracts th
lungs, whether it is lifting or compressing the rib cage, lowering or raisi ng
the dome of the respiratory diaphragm, releasing or pressing inward wit h
the abdominal muscles, or allowing the elasticity of the lungs to draw i
the chest wal\.
Thc way in which the muscles of respiration accomplish breathing is
more complex than the relatively simple way a muscle creates movemente
around a joint. Three main sets of muscles are active when you breathr
normally: the intercostal muscles, the abdominal muscles, and the respinory
diaphragm. We'll start our discussion with the intercostal muscles.
THE INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
When we breathe, and in particular when we emphasize chest br'eathing,
the short intercostal (bctwecn the rbs) muscles operale as a unit to expand
to inhale more forcefully, but this will almost certainly reinforce rather
than relieve the obstruetion. Trying lo exhale may be more productive. Or
a sccond person, someone who knows first aid, could try the Heimlich
maneuver, pulling sharply in and up on the abdominal wall from behind to
create enough intra-abdominal and intra-thoracic pressure to force the
object from the laryngopharynx back into the oropharynx, where it can
either be coughed out externally or swallowed propcrly.
The emergency surgical remedy for a complete obstruction of the larynx
is a trachcotomy, making a midline incision betwcen the larynx and the pit
of the throat, quickly separating the superficial muscles, and opening the
exposed trachea with another midline incisionjust below the thyroid gland.
'I'his allows inhalation and exhalation to take place below the obstruction.
In the case of pneumothorax, when the chest wall has been penetrated
and the lungs are collapsed, the muscles of respiration can expand and con-
tract the chest, but the effort is all for nothing since the requisitc contact
between the inner surface of the chest wall and the outer surface of the
lungs has been lost. lt's like a car stuck in the snow-the whcels turn but
they can't move you forward. The second case is like a car with its drive
wheels immobilized in concrete-the blockage in the airway completely
frustrates the aetion of the muscles of respiration. In both situations we
are trying lo pull air into the lungs by using our force of will but we are
unable to support our inner needs with our external efforts.
7(, Alv111UII I OF 111117111 1(1(1.1
also act isomet ricall y to keep t he rib cage fro rn collapsing inward when t he
respiratory diaphragm (see below} creates the vacu um that draws air into
t he lungs.
THE ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
In breathing, the abdominal muscles (figs. j .u-rj, 8.R, B.ll, and KI3-14}
function mainly in deep and force d exhalations, as when you try to blow up
a ball oon in one breat h. For that task the muscles shorten concentrica\ly,
pressing the abdominal wall inward, which in turn pushes the abdominal
organs up agains t t he relaxed (01' relaxing) diaphragm. In cornbination
with t he action of the interna! intercostal rnusc les , this forcibly decreases
the size of t he chest cavity and pushes air out of the lungs. You can also feel
the act ion of t he abdominal muscles by pursing the lips and forcing the
breath out through the t iny opening, In yoga the abdominal muscles are
impo rtant Ior what yogis refer to as even breathing, and they are also key
elements for many hreat hing exercises,
.l tuuurutr, 77
side), but you can' t feel it behind because the deep back muscles are in the
way. You can also oceasionally feel the region whero the crura (plural form)
of the diaphragm attach to tho lumbar vertebrae, especially in someone
slender who is lying Ilat on the floor, becausc the lumbar regi n sometimos
arches forward to within an inch or so ofthe surface ofthe abdomi nal wall.
'I' his vividly i\lustrates how far forward the diaphragrn can be indented by
th e spinal column.
The diaphragm has lo be one of the most interesting and complex muscles
in the body. Because it is a thin sheet. its shape bears t ho impressons 0 1' its
immediate surroundings-the rib cage, the heart and lungs, and the abdominal
organs, and it is dependent on the existence and anatomical arrangements 0 1'
these structures 1' 01' its function, The diaphragrn's extensivo relationship with
larynx
Figure 2.6. Fron l view of lh e chest, wilh the firsl sil( ribs c1avides and slem I
away t I l ' I . . ' , urn cu
I o t le Inlerna organs, whlCh mcl ude: th e larynl(, Irachea, lungs and
p Cural C3V1hes; the hear l, grca l ves!iel s (aorta, vena cava, pu lrnonary ar le d
pulmonary vein, not all shown), per icardial cavity, and fi bro us
upper front portion of lhe resp iratory diaphragm; and lhe ri ghl and left ph
Thp pl eural cavi ties are rcpresenled by Ihe thin \\Ihitc spaces
ungs and fh e body \\Iall, and h ' l ween thp lungs and di aphragm ISappcy).
THE ANATOMV OF THE DIAPHRAGM
Because the respir at ory diaphragm is cornpletely hidden inside the torso.
most people have only a rudimentary not ion of what it looks like 01' how it
operares. The sirnplest way to descr ibe it is lo say t hat it is a dorned sheet
01' cornbined muscle and tendon t hat spans the entire torso and separates
t he chest cavity from the abdominal cauity (figs. 2.-9). Its rim is attached
to t he base of the rib cage and to the lumbar spine in the real'.
The diaphragm is shaped like an umbrella, 01' an upside-down cupo
except t hat it is decpl y indented to accommodate the vertebral column. It
consists of a central tendon, a costal portian, and a crural portian, The
central tendon forrns the top surface of the dome, which floats there freel y,
attached only to the muscle fibers of the costal and crural portions of the
diaphragm. It is thus the only "tendon" in the body which does not attach
directly to the skeleton. The largest part 01' the diaphragm is its costa!
component, whose muscle fibers fan down from the central tendon and
attach all around to the lower rim 01' the rih cage (figs. 2.7-9}. The crural
portien 01' the diaphragm consists 01' the right crus and left crus, which
attach to the forward arch 01' the lumbar spine <figs. 2.7-8), These are
separated from one another by the aorta as it passes frum the IhoraC1C'
cavity into the abdominal cavity. The archilecture 01' lhe diaphragm th m;
pennits it lo move lhe central tendon 01' lhe dome. lhe base of the rib cage,
the lumbar spine, 01' any comhination of l he three.
Youcan note tIJe site of the costal attachment 01' the diaphragm by hooking
your fingers under the rih cagc and t racing its lower marginolt is high in front
il atlaches lo t he slernum, and lower whcre you trace it laterally (lo th e
trachea
right phrenic nervc
(white profile)
right vemncle
right pleural cavity
between nght lung
ano diaphragm
right sevenlh rib./
and COslal cartilage
Jeft clavicle (cul)
left pleural
cavity
lthinwhile
space)
left fifth rib
ventricle
1---.. pericardial cavity
surrounding heart
librous pericardium
<, where it sits on lop
01diaphragm
abdominal muscles
(tranversus abdomlnis)
7/l ANlll0"'l OF /MJ1M lC)(..l
L IJR/"l77/1NL 79
Figure 2.7. A view o the respiratory diaphragm looking al its u n e r n e t ~ side
from below. lt's like a rejected upside-down bowl that a potter pushed In on
one sido. The pushed-in place is the indentation for the vertebral column, and
the botlom of the bowl contains hiatuses (openings) for the esophagus, aorta,
and inferior vena cava. The central tendon of the diaphragm is represented by
the large lightly contrasted central arch. The muscle fibers of the diaphragm ar e
disposed' radially from the central tendon: the costal ibers allach lo the base of
the rih cage most uf Ihe way around (approaching the viewer in the third
dimension); and the righl and left crura attach lo the lumbar vertebrae below
(between and in fronl of Ihe origins of Ihe psoas muscles). (from Morris)
the chest wall ls a case in point. Evcn though the costal portien of the
diaphragm extcnds to the base of the rib cage, the lungs are never pulled
that far inferiorly (toward the Ieet), and for much of its area the costal
portion of the diaphragm is in direct contact with the inner surface of the
rib cago, with only the potential space of the pleural cavity separating the
two, This region into which the lungs never dcsccnd is called the zone of
apposition (fig, 2.9); without its slippery interfaces, the outer surface of the
diaphragm could not slide easily against the inner aspect of the rib cago,
and the dome of the diaphragm could not move up and down srnoothly
when we breathe,
left lorearm
is partially
pronaled
(not quite
enough lor
X-like conq-
uralion 01
radius and
ulna lo be
apparent)
scalenes inserting
on left c1avicle
THE FUNCTlON OF THE DIAPHAAGM
To analyze the origins and insertions of a muscle that is shaped like an
indented umbrclla is a bit daunting, but that is what we must do ifwe want
to understand how thc diaphragm functions in breathing and posture.
Wc'll bcgin with the simplest situaton, which is found in supine postures.
Here the base of the rib cage and the lumbar spine act as fixed origins for
the diaphragm, and under those circumstanccs the central tendon has to
clavicle
lorearm supinated
(radius and ulna in
paraJleIconfiguration)
humerus
Figure 2.8. Respiratory
diaphragm and other
deep muscles of the
body. Wilh internal
Organs removed and
rnosr of the rib cage
and sternum cut
away, the dome-like
slructure of Ihe
rfiaphragm is readily
apparenl (Albinus),
eleventh nI
(lIoaling)
left crus 01
diaphragm
intercos tal
muscles:
internal , and
external
left quadratus
lumborum
muscle
left psoas muscle
costal libers 01lhe diaphragm
attaching lo cartilage al Ihe
_Ollhe"'Z
hialus
lor vena
cava
esophagus
and its
hialus in Ihe
respiratory
diaphragm
lhree layers
01abdominal
muse/es :
extemal
abdominal
oblique.-----\IIII
internal
abdominal
oblicue,
transversus
abdominrs
/lo A '\AJVMI (11' 11.-1'17'" r()(;A "1I/l/"IHII....c; 1'1
Figurp 2.'1. Abdominal organs in place. with lhe diaphragm amllower half of lh!"
rib cage cut lo iIIustrate exlensive zone of into. which the lungs
do nol descend t'ven durmg lhe (:ourse of a maxlmum mhalallOn ( appey).
act as the movable insertion. The dome of the "cup," including the central
tend n, descends and flattens during inhalation. putting pressure un the
contents of the abdomen and crcating a slight vacuum in the chest that
draws air into the lungs. By contrast, the dome of the diaphragm is drawn
upward during exhalation by thc inherent elasticity of the lungs, and as
that happens air escapes into the atmosphere.
Whenever the chest and spine are fixed, as typically occurs during
relaxed breathing in a supino po ition, the top of the dome of the
diaphragm is pulled straight downward during inhalation, like a pisten.
with the chest wall acting as the cylinder. During a supine inhalalion th e
fibers of the diaphragm shorten concentrically and pull the centra! tend n
inferiorly, During a supine exhalation its fibers lengthen cecentricaIly as
the central tendn is both pushcd from below and pulled from abov
pushed by gravity aeting on thc abdominal organs and pulled by the elast k
recoil of the lungs. The ahdominal wall remains relaxed. It strctches OU l
Ihe liver and us
large impression
on the inferior
surfaca 01the
diaphraqrn
zone 01
apposilion:
pleural cavuy
IS shown as
a subslantial
space lar
clarily; Ihe
dapbraqrn
al Ihis site
is aClually in
inlimale
apposilion lo
the chesl
wall
lower end 01
ascending -
colon
groater
omentum
(draping
down Irom
slomach)
impression 01hear1is lacated here raspiratory diaphragn

{j stornach and
us nnpressroi

externa! ar-
intemal
intercostals
1J!f..---spleen and j
I impression
___eleventh n

3layers 01
abdomina
muscles.
in lig. 2.7
descendi '
colon
unnary
bladE
anteriorly 1forward > as the dome of the diaphragm descends during
inhalation, and it moves back posteriorly (toward the back of the bodyl as
the diaphragm relaxes and rises during exhalation. Only in supine and
inverted postures do we scc the diaphragrn act with such purity of movement.
This kind of breathing is carried out in its entirety by the diaphragm,
but it is often referred to as abdominal breathing; 01' belly breathing;
because this is where movement can be seen and felt. It is also known as
decp diaphragmatic breathing in recognition of its effects in the lower
abdomen. Finally, we can call it obdomino-diaphragmatic breathing to indicate
that the downward movement of the dome of the diaphragm not only draws
air into the lungs, it also pushes the lower abdominal wall anteriorly
Another type of diaphragmatic breathing operates very differently.
Amazingly, its principal mcehanical features were accurately described by
Galen (a first century Roman physician and the founder of experimental
physiologyl alrnost two thousand years ago, even though his concept of why
we breathe was pure fantasy. During inhalation the prirnary act on of this
type of breathing is not lo enlargc the lungs by pulling the dome of the
diaphragm inferiorly, but to lift the base of the chest and expand it laterally,
posteriorly, and anteriorly. It works like this, If there is even mild tensi n in
the lower abdominal wall, that tension will impede the downward movement
of the dome of the diaphragm. And since the.abdominal organs cannot be
compresscd, they can act only as a fulcrum, causing the diaphragm to
canlilever its costal sito of attachment on the rib cage outwardly, spreading
the base of the rib cage to the front, to the rear, and to the sidos, while at
the same time pulling air into the lower portions of the lungs. In contrast
to the pump handle analogy for intercostal hreathing, diaphragmatic
breathing has Leen likened to lifting a buckct handle up and out from its
resting position alongside the bucket (see Anderson and Sovik 's }oga,
Mastering the Basics for illustration and further explanation). Without the
resistance of the abdominal organ, lhe diaphragm cannot create this
resulto The intercostal muscles serve to support the action of the
diaphragm, not so much to lift and enlarge lhe chest but to kecp it ti'om
collapsing during inhalation.
note: Precise language does not exisl. al least in English, (01' deR:ribing
11 single wOI'd 01' phrase how the I'espiratory diHphragm operutcs to expand (he
I'Ib cage in diaphragmatic brcathing. A "cant ilcver however, from civil eng-
neering, describes a hOl'izonlal tmss supporled in the middle und sust.'lining a load
al both ends, and this comes clase. In lhe speciul ruse of the human tor:::o, lhe
ahdominal organs and ntra-abdominal pressure provde horizontal l:iUPp0r(. for the
dome of the diaphragm. and lhe lifl and outwanl expansion of lhe base of the rib
cage s a load sustaim.'Ci al the perimeter of the base of the rib cage.1
The origins and im;ertions of the diaphrawn for abdominal inhalations
are difTerent than for diaphragmatic inhalations, and understanding the
subtleties of these functional shifts will further clariy the differcnces
between the two types of breathing, For abdominal breathing in the corpse
and inverted postures, both the costal attachment to the rib cage and the
crural attachment tu the spine act as stationary origins; the only part of the
diaphragm that can move Ithe insertion, by definitionl is the central tendon
in the dome, which moves inferiorly during inhalation and superiorly
(toward the headl during exhalation. By contrast, for diaphragmatic
breathing, the central tendon is held static by the relative tautness of th e
abdominal wall and serves mainly as a link betwcen the spinal attachments
ofthe crura, which now act as the stationary originoand the costal attachment
to the base of the rib cage, which now acts as the rnovable insertion.
'1'0 surnrnarize, diaphragrnatic breathng occasions an expansi n of the ril
cage from its lower border. To differentiate it from abdomino-diaphragmatic
breathing, in which the rib cage remains static, we can call it thoraco
diaphragmatic breathing, It should be rnentioned that the terms abdominal
breathing, belly breathing, decp diaphragmatic breathing, and diaphragrnatk
breathing huye all becn in casual, aIthough generally noncritical, use for .
long time, but the terms "abdomino-diaphragmatic" and "thoraco
diaphragmatic" have not appcared in the literature before now.
HOW BREATHING AFFECTS POSTURE
The way breathing affects posture and the way posture affcets breathi n..
will be continuing themes throughout the rest ofthis book. The importanc
of these issues have long been recognized in yoga. but most commentari p
are vab'lle and impn.'Cise. Here J am aiming lor simplicity: pholographl
records of exha!ations and inhlllations, and superimpositions of compule l
generated tracings of inhalations (since these are always larger) on Ih,
exhalations. As seen in both this chapter and in chapters 3 and S. suc
images provide a sourcc of raw data nol only lor how inhalations result i
movements of the chest and abdomen but also for how they alTect the bol
from head LOtoe . The single most important key to understanding aH SUL
eIrcels is the operation of the regpiratory diaphragm. and to introduce t i
subjeet, we'lI e"lllore two exercises that will help Y0l! heeome aware of il
anatomy and understand lwo of ils main roles in movement other t h!
those fOl' respiration itself.
A VARIATlON OF THE COBRA
Lie face down 011 the floor and interlock your arms bchind your bad
b'Tasping your forearms or elbows. Or you can simply place your hands 11
the standard cobra position alongside the chest. trongly tighten all f, hl
muscles from the hips to the toes, and use the neck amI deep back musel
1.0 lift the heud, ncck. and chest as high as possible. YOl! are not making sn)
particular use of the diaphragrn to come into this position. Now inhale and
exhale deeply through the nose. Notice that each inhalation mises the
upper part of the body higher and that each exhalation lowers it (fig, 2.10) .
Because you are kecping the back muscles engaged continuously during
both inhalution and exhalation, the lifting and lowering action is due
entirely to the museles of respiration,
In this variation of the cobra pose we hold the hips, thighs, and pelvis
firmly, which stablizes the lower back and the spinal attachment of the
crus of tho diaphragm . Inhalation creates tensi n at all three of the
diaphragrn's attachments: one on the vertebral column, one on the base of
the rib cage, and the third on the central tendn. But because the hip and
thigh muscles have becn tightened, the spinal attachrnent is stabilized,
excepting only a slight lifting effeet that is translated to the hips. What
happens in the torso illustrates clcarly how respiratory movernents influence
posture: with the abdomen pressed against the flOO1; thc contents of the
abdominal cavity cannot easily descend, and this restricts the downward
movement of the central tendon, which now acts as a link between the two
muscular portions of the diaphragm, With the crural attachments stahilizod,
the only insertion that can be mobilized without difficuIty is thc one at the
base of the rib cage. This attachment therefore expands the chest from its
base, draws air into the lungs, and lifts thc upper body. If you are breathing
smoothly and deeply you will Ieel a gcntIe, rhythmic rocking movcrnent as
the head, neck, and che t riso and fall with each inhalation and exhalation.
This is a perfect illustration of thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing.
In this exercise the action ofthe diaphragm dm;ng inhalation reinforces
the activity of the deep back and neck muscles and thus deepcns the back-
ward hendo Dm;ng exhalation the l11uscle tibers of the diaphragm (engthen
eccentricaJly as they resist gravity. When they finally relax al the end of
exhalation. the backward bend in the spine is maintaincd only by the deep
, ---- inhalation
," '.-----__L _
i ~ u r 2.10. Cobra variation wilh tightly engaged lower extremities.
D1ilphragmatic inhalation (dotted line) lifts the upper half of Ihe body Ovcr and
aho
ve
what can he accomplished by the back muscles acting aJon (halflonel.
Contrast with !.he diaphragmatic rear IiU in figure 2.11.
114 .1"'A7o.lll CJI ' I/A7HA I'OCA
muscles of the back and neck. This is an excellent exercise for strongthcning
the diaphragm, because after you have lifted to your rnaxirnum with the
deep back muscles, you are using the diaphragm, aided by the external
intercostal rnuscles acting as synergists, to raise the upper hall' of the body
even higher-and this is a substantial mass to be lifted by a single sheet of
muscle acting as prime mover. Furthermore, if you keep trying as hard as
possible to inhale deeply without closing the glottis, you will be creating the
most extreme possible isometric exercise for this muscle and its synergists, the
external intercostals. But be watchful. If this elfort creates discornfort in
the upper abdomen on the left side, please read the section in chapter 3 on
hiatal hernia before continuing.
THE DIAPHRAGMATlC REAR LIFT
Next try a posture that we can aptly call the diaphragmatic rear lift. Agai n
lie face down, placing your chin against the floor, with the arrns along the
sides ofthe body and the palms next to the chest. Keeping the chest pressed
firrnly againsl the floor; relax all the muscles from the waist down, including
the hips. Take 10-15 nasal breaths at arate of about one breath per second.
With the t highs and hips relaxed, and with the base ofthe rib cage Iixed
against the flOO1; the action of the daphragm during inhalation can be
translated to only one site: the spinal attachrnent of the crus. And because
the deep back muscles are relaxed, each inhalation lifts the lower back aru
hips, and each exhalation allows them to fall toward lhe floor (Hg. 2.11
Make sure you produce the movement entirely with the diaphragm, not bv
bumping your hips IIp and down with the gluteal (hip ) and back museles
Beeause the inhalations increase the lumbar curvature, this exercise wil
not be comfortablc fol' anyone with low back pain.
--- _...
Figure 2.11. Diaphragmalic rear lifl.. t lhe rib .cage anchorecl againsl
lhe flor, its lower rim acts as an ongm for lhe d,aphragm ralher than an
inscrtion (as happens in lhe cobra poslure in fig. 2.10). If lhe gluteal region
and lower exlremilies remain cumplelely re laxed, lhc crural attachmenls
of lile diaphragm lhen Iifl lhe hips during inhalalion and lowcr lhem back
duwn during cxhalalion.
L . 11/(&1'17///1(; IlS
You can feel the diaphragmatic real' lifl. most easily if you breathe rapidly;
the quick inhalations whip the hips up and away Irom the floor and the
sudden exhalations drop them. But ifyou breathe slowly and smoothly you
wiIl notice that each inhalation gradually increascs the pull and tensi n on
the hips and lower back, oven though it does not create much movement,
and that each exhalation gradually cases the tension, When you are breathing
slowly enough, you can also feel the muscle fibers of the diaphragrn shorten
concentrically during inhalation and lengthen eccentrically during exhalation
as they control the gravity-induced lowering of the hips toward the floor,
The origins and insertions of the diaphragm are reversed in the diaphrag-
matie real' li, in cornparison with the cobra variation. and this creates reper-
cussions throughuut the whole body. In the cobra variation wc fix the hips
and thighs, allowing the costal attachment uf the diaphragm to lift the rib
cage, and with the rib cage the entire upper half of the body. In the
diaphragmatic real' lift we do just the opposite: we fix the rib cago, rcJax the
hips and thighs, and allow the crural insertion of the diaphragm to lift the
lumbar spine and hips.
These two posturas also show us how important it is that the diaphragm
is indented so deeply by lhe vertebral column that it almost encircles the
spine. This enables it to act both from above and behind to accentuate the
lumbar arch during inhalation. lifting the upper half of the body in the cobra
variaton, and lifting the sacrum and hps in the diaphragmatic rear lift.
THE SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC SYSTEMS
Tho way we breathe affeets far more than our posture, and we can best
explore those rarnifications by looking at the two great functional divisions
of the nervuus ISYlStem-somatic and autonomic-and at the tissues amI
organs they each oversee. The somalic llerVOllS system is concerned wilh
evcrything from the control of skcJetal muscle activity to conscious sensations
such as touch, prcssure, pain, vision, and audition. For the autonomc neruous
syslem, think first ol' regulabon of hlood prcssure, viscera, sweat glands,
digestion, and elimination-in fact , any kind of internal fllnction of the
body that you have little or no intel'ei:lt in trying to manage consciously.
This system is concerned with sensory input to the brain from internal
organs-generally more for autonomic reflexes than fol' inner scnsations--
as well as for motor control of smooth muscle in the walls of internal
organs and blood vessels, cardiac muscle in th wall of the heart, and
glands (figs. 10.4a-b). Both sYlStcmlS are involved in brcathing.
!!:!.E SOMATIC SVSTEM
Sincc breathing draws air inlo the lungs, and Hince the lungs are internal
organs, we might SllppoSC that the mllsclelS 01' respiration are controlled by
a) a lesion
inmotor
palhways
abovelhe
ponsleaves
respuation
enlirely
under Ihe
control 01
Ihe pontine
and
medullary
respiralory
control
cenlers
X6 1.'\".,UIII or 11/1'11 lA I (lG/I
the autonomic nervous systern. But they're noto The act of breathing is a
somatic aet of ske letal muscles, In chapter 1 we discussed the somatic nervous
systern, although without narning it, when we discussed the control of the
skeletal muscles by the nervous syslem. Respiration makes use of this system.
whether we want lo breathe fast or slow, cough, sneeze, or simply lft an
object while going "oornph." When we participate consciously in any of
these activities we breathe willfully to SUPPOlt them, and we do so rom the
command post in the cerebral cortex that inluences the lower motor neurons
for respiration. If you are consciously and quietly using the diaphragrn as
you breathe, you are activating the lower motor neurons whose axons
innervate the diaphragrn by way ofthe phrenic llaves (figs. 2. and 2.12l. If
you are eight months pregnant the diaphragm can't function effi cien t!y,
and in order to breathe you will have to activate lower motor neurons
whose axons innervate t he intercostal muscles by way of the intercostal
nerues . And if you are trying to ring the bragging bell at a state fair with a
sledge hammer, you will make a mighty effort and a grunt with YOlIl
abdominal rnuscles, again calling 011 motor neurons from the thoracic cor
to transmit the cerebral comrnands to the rnuscles of the abdominal wall.
The cell bodies for the phrenic nerves are located in the spinal cord in thr
regin ofthe neck (t he cervical region), and the cell bodies for the intercosta
nerves are located in the spinal cord in the region ofthe chest (the thoracu
region l. In the neck the spinal cord contains eight cervical segmenta (CI-81
and in the chest it contains twelve thoracic segmenta (TI-12; figs, l.'; aru
2.12). The diaphragrn is innervated by the right and left phrenic nerves
Irom spinal cord segments Cj-S; the intercostal and abdominal muscles an
innervated by the intercostal nerves Irorn spinal cord segments TI-l2 (figl-
l.') and 2.12).
Both the phrenic and intercostal nerves are necessary for the fuI
expression of breathing. Ir for any reason the intercostal nervcs are no
functional, Icaving only the phrenic nerves amI a fllnctioning diaphragn
intact, the diaphragrn wiUslIpport respiration by itself (fig. 2.12, site dl. B" I
in that event the external muscles will no longer rnaintain t h
shape of the chest isometricaUy, and cver'y time the dome of the diaphragn
descends and creates a vacuum in the lungs and pleural cavity, the chelo
waU wiII be tugged inward. On lhe other hand, if for sorne reason t h!
phrenic nerves are not functional lsee asterisks lig. 2.12), but the inter
costal nerves and muscles are intact, the vacuum produccd by activity
the externa! intercostal muscles will puIl the dome ofthe flaccid diaphragn
higher in the chest during the course of every inhalation.
Like a1l typical sornatie motor neurons, thOHC for respiration are con-
l roll ed from higher centen; in t he brain, and lile cannot be :supported by
spinal conl transections aboye C3 ( fig. 2.12, site el. A tran:section at C6 is
lhis neuron represents all
inffuences on breathlng
Irom aboye lhe pons and
medulla
the pons and
a neuron in its
respratory
control center
l he medulla and a
neuren in ItS
respi ratory control
center
the lelt phrenic
nerve innervates
!he left side 01
Ihe di aphragm;
nscell bodies
are located in
spina/ cord
segments C3-5:
cult ing these
nerves al Ihe s
woul d cause
compl ele
paralysis olthe
diaphragm
the left intercostal
nerves (whose eell
bodies are ocated
In spinal cord
segments TI -12)
Innervate bolh lhe
inl ercostal museles
and !he abdominal
museles en lhe left
side
Figure 2.12. Cenlral
nervous system palh-
Ways and peripheral
nerves for the motor
of respiration.
Sltes of Icsions thal
affcc-I brea lhing and/or
thal cau e quadriplegia
parapl egia are
Indicatcd al aslerisks
and al a-e (Sappey).
2. HHFA111h\(; 117
?
<.
b) a eomplele Iransection 01
Ihe brain slem al lhe lower
end 01Ihe pons leaves
respiration under Ihe erudesl
possible control 01the
medullary control eenter
alone
e) a lesion that deslroys
motor palhways lor respira.
lion between lhe medullary
control eenler and C3 results
in immediale cessation 01
brealhing. and dealh
d) a Iransection 01Ihe spmat
eord jusi betow e5 spares
the phrenie nerve and Ihe
lunction 01!he diaphragm
(permitting lile lo be
sustained) . bul paralyzes all
lhe intercoslal and abdomi-
nal museles. and results in
quadriplegia (see chapler 1)
e) a Iransection 01Ihe spinal
cord al L1 spares lower
motor neurons ler all lhe
museles 01respiralion.
whieh in turn permits normal
brealhIng, bul results in
paraplegia (see ehapler 1)
llll ANt17T1MI OF 11..1tu I OC;A
not quit e as serious. It spares input from t he brain to the somatic motor
neurons whose axons travel in th e phrenic nerve, and in that manner
spares the function ofthe diaphragm, as me ntioned aboye, but it eradicates
input to t he somatic motor neurons that innervate the intercostal and
abdominal muscles, as well as to the rest ofthe skeletal muscles ofthe body
Irom the neck down, rcsulting in quadriplegia (fig. 2.12 , sito d; also seo
chapter 1). Ifa complete transection occurs at LI-the first lumbar segmcnt of
the spina! cord-aH input to all molor neurons for all muscles of respiration is
spared and hreathing is normal, although such a transection woul d result
in paraplegia (f g, 2.12, site e; seo also chapter 1).
THE RESPIRATORV CENTERS
Breat hing goes on twenty-four hours a day. We can regulate it mindfully
from the cerebral cortex if we want, in th e sarne way that we can regulate
our movement and posture, but rnost of the time our minds are occupi
elsewhe re and we rely on other motor centers to manage respiration, Thes
respiratory control centers are located in the two lowest segments of thc
brain stem (t he continuation of the spinal cord into the brain), A crudc
rhythm for respiration is generated in t he lowest of these segments-s-the
medulla-and this is fine-tuned by the next higher segment-the pons (fig
2. 12>' Inp ut from these centers to the motor neurons of respiration
unconscious. Willed respiration, of course, is directed from the cerebral corte.
and can override the rhythms generated by the lower scgments of t hr
brain. But even if higher centers have been dcstroyed by a strokc or traumati.
head injury (fig. 2 .12, site al, the controlling centers for respiration in tlu
pons or even just t he medulla may still survive, al lowing sorneone who I
otherwise brain-dead to continuo breathing indefinilely.
We dcpend on the respiratory centers lo manage sornatic aspects l
breathing automatically, but somctirnes the rnechanisms do not wor
pcrfectly. In arare form of sleep apnea-the central hypooentilatior
syndrome-i-ie autornatic control of ventilation is lost but the ability t
brelithe voluntm'i ly is preservCd. Thi8 is roughly similar to a circumstanc
immOlialized in Jean Giraudoux's play Ondinf! . Ondine, a water nymp
and an immortal, married llans. li mortal, even though she knew that sud
a wJion was forbidden and that Hans was doomed to die if he was unfaithfl
to her. When t he prophecy was fulfilled, Hans was dcpJ;ved of his automat l
'
functions. "Asingle moment of inattention," he tells Ondine, "and 1 forg(
to breathe. He died, they will say, because it was a nu isllnce lo breathe." Anc
so it carne lo be. This fonn of slcep apnea is now known as Ondine's curse
Although lhe respiratory pathways in the brain stem support Lhe most
p.-imitive form uf rhythmic breathi ng, higher centers can ei t her smooth
t hi s out or disru pt it. We all know Lh8t whcn we are in inte nse emot ional
states our breathing becomes jerky and irregular. Watch a baby struggle to
breathe while it is preparing to cry, or think of how uncontrol lable laughing
affects a teenager's breathing. By contrast, when we are calm, the somatic
motor circuits for respiration will be delicately balanced and our breathing
will be smooth and even. Maintaining such even-tempered states is one of
th e aims of yoga.
THE AU TONOMIC NERVOUS SVSTEM
When you think of the autonomic nervous system, the Iirst point s noto lo
confuse the terms automatic and autonomic. We can breathe automatical ly
courlesy of the somatic nervous system, but the word autonomic is derived
frorn "autonomy," t he quality of being independent. In the context of the
two great divisions of t he nervous syslem, the au tonomic nervous system
is largely independent ofthe somatic system: it consists ofa vasto auxiliary
network of neurons t hat cont rols vscera, blood vessels, and glands
throughout the body. lt is not, however, completely autonomous, because i t
int eracts with t he somatic nervous system-it bot h fceds scnsory informatinn
from within the body into the somatic systems ofthe brain and spinal cord
(in this case our main concer n is t he res pi ratory centers), and is affected by
the somatic motor systems in re turn.
We cons tant ly depcnd on smoot h interactinns between the somatic and
autonomic nervous sys tems. You race around the block using you r skeletal
muscIes, which are controlled by the sornatic nervous systern, but you
would not get Iar unless your autonomic nervous system sped up your
hea rt, stimulatod t he release of glucose from your live r, and shunted blood
from th e skin to the skeletaI muscIes. And ir, instead al' running around the
block, you sit down and read a book alter dinner, you flip t he pages using
your skeletal rnuscles and depcnd on the unconscious operation of your
nervous system to digest your meal , Respiration, as it happens,
IR th e foremost function in the body in which signals from internal organs
have a constant and cont.inuing effect on somatic function, in this case the
rate and dcpth of breathing, twenty-foul' hours a day.
11' we Iook at an overview of how t he aulonomic nervous system opemtes,
controlling aulonomic influences from lhe central nervous system (the brain
and spina! cordl are reIayed t o thcir VS<.'Cral targ-ets by lwo systems of
autonomic motor neurons: sympathetic and parasympathetic. The
nerL'OUS system prepares lhe body for emergencics t"fight 01'
fllght ") and thc parasyrnpathelic nermllS s)'stem maintains the supportivc
functions ofthe interna! org-dI1S. Between them, by definition, these two systems
exc<:ute the autonomc motor commands from lhe brain and spinal COI-d. !\ilore
of t hese interactions \ViII be discussed in chapter 10 , in which we'JI be
concelTled wilh l.hcimportancc orthe autonomic nervous system in relaxation.
'JO lOCA
Here our concern is limited mainly to breathing, and the Iirst thing tu
note is that the most important autonomic rclat onship involving the control
of respiration is sensory. This does not mean sensory in regard to sorne-
thing you can feel: it refers to influences from sensory receptors that have
an impact on breathing. SpecificalJy, the sensory limb of the autonomic
nervous system earries information on oxygen ami carbon dioxide levels in
the blood and ccrebrospinal fluid to the respiratory control centers in the
brain stem. You would see the important respiratory linkage between the
autonomic and somatic systcms in operation if you were suddenly rocketed
from sea leveJ 10 the top of Alaska's Mount Denali . You would immediately
begin to breathe faster because your somatic respiratory control centers
receive autonomic sensory signals that your blood is not getting enough
oxygen, not because you make a conscious somatic decisi n that you had
better do something 10 get more airo
There are also purely autonomic mechanisms that afTect breathing in
other ways, 'I'he most obvious example is familiar to those who sufer from
asthma, or from chronic obstruetive pulmonary disease (COPO) combined
with bronchitis, and that is the difficulty of moving air through constric
airways. It is not very helpful to havo healthy skeletal muscles of respira
tion if the airways are so constricted that they do not perrnit the passage o'
airo Although this is a complex and multifaceted problem, the autonomic
nervous system involvement appears to be straightforward. In quiet time
when there is less need for air, the parasympathetic nervous system mildl:
constriets the smooth muscle that surrounds the airways, especially tlu
smaller bronchioles, and thereby irnpedes the flow of air to and from thr
alveoli. But in times of emergency 01' increased physical activity, t h
sympathctic nervous system opens tho airways and allows air to flow moro
easily. Those who have chronic respratory diseases have an acute aware-
ness of how difficult it can be to medicate and regulate this system.
HOW BREATHING AFFECTS THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
A11 of our roncems so far have been with how the nervous system influem:e
brellthing. These are aH widely recognizcd. What is not as well-known is
diITerent methods ofbrealhing can affect the autonomic nervous system anl
have an impact on the functions we ordinarily consider to be under
control. Abnormal breathing patterns can stimulate autonomic reaetions al .
ciated with panic attacks, and pOOl' breathing habits in emphysema pBtient
produce anxiety and chronic overstimulation of lhe sympathetic ncrvou>
system. By contrast, quiet breathing influences the autonomic circuits th al
slow the heartbeat and reduce bluad pre;sure, pl'oducing calm and a senSl
uf stahility. Our ability to control respiration consciously gives us access to
autonomi funetinn thot no other system of the body can boast.
2:1 BREATHING
One breathing technique that can produce a beneficent effcct on the
autonomic nervous systern is 2:1 breathing-taking twice as long to exhale
as lo inhale. For those who are in good condition, -second exhalations and
j-second inhalations are about right, and if you can regulate this without
stress, the practice will slow your heart down and you will have a subjective
experience of relaxation. As with almost all breathing exercises in yoga,
both inhalation and exhalation should be through the nose .
This connection between heart rato and breathing, known as respiratory
sinus arrhythmia, involves reflex activity from the circulatory system to
the brain stem that causes the heart to beat more slowly during exhalation
than it does in inhalation. It is a natural arrhythmia, called "respiratory"
because it is induced by respiration, and called "sinus" because the receptors
that stimulate the shifts in heart rate are located in the aortic and carotid
sinuses, which are bulbous enlargements in those great vessels. If you take
longer to exhale than to inhale, especially when you are relaxing, the slowing-
down effect of exhalation will predorninate, This is an excellent example of
how we can willfully intervene to produce effects that are usually regulated
by the autonomic nervous systern,
There are limits on both ends lo the effects of 2:1 breathing. If you are
walking briskly, exhaling for two seconds and inhaling one second, you will
not get this reaetion, and ifyou take it too far in the other direetion, which
for most people rneans trying to breathe fewer than five breaths per minute
(Ii-second cxhalations and 4-second inhalations), the exercise may become
stressful and cause the heart rate to increase rather than slow down. 'I'he
goldcn mean-that which is entirely comfortahle-is best,
There is one well-known practical consequence of respiratory sinus
arrhythmia. For deeades doctors have known ernpirically that pursed-lip
breathing against moderate resistance is helpful for those with obstructive
lung disease. What is not generally realized is that the practice is helpful
mainly bccause it lengthens exhalations, slows the heal't rate, decrea<;es
the amount of air remaining in the lungs after exhalation. and reduces fear
and anxiety. Knowlcdgeable yoga teachers realize that the same end can be
accomplished through a different approach-Ien,rthening cxhalations by
pressing in gently with the abdominal muscles while at the same time
breathing through the nose .
THE P H YSIOL OGY OF RESPIRAT ION
Different batha yoga breathing exercises affect respiration in differcnt
ways, but before we can undersiand how they do this we need a little more
background. Wc'lI start OUT discussion with a look at the amount of air
found in the lungs and airwuys at diffel'ent stagcs uf the breathing cycle
92 Al'nnMI 01 ' nl"fllA H/{i,l
Figur.e 2.n. lhe four lung volumes(on Ihe lefl) and Ihe four lung capacilies (on
lhe nghtl. are combinaliuns uf lwo or morL' lung vulurnes. Al! lhe
values are SUTlulalJonsfur a hL'althy young mano
dscussed earlier, is lo drastically decreasc this value so that the fresh air
that you inhale is mixed with a srnaller volume of oxygen-poor airo
Lung volurnes and capacities differ markedly in different hatha yoga
postures and practices, For example, agni sara (chapter J) almost obliterares
the expiratory reserve volume and increases the tidal volume from 500 mI
lo possibly I,Mo 011 (figs. 3.31-33); invertad postures (chapters 8 and 9)
decrease the expiratory reserve volume and shift the tidal volume dosel' to
the residual volume; and the bellows breath, which will be discussed al
length later in this chapter, minimizas the tidal volume.
The anatomic dead space is another extremely irnportant c1inical
value-the air-Iilled space taken up by the airways, which include the nasal
passages, pharynx, 181}'J1x, trachea, right and left. primary bronchi, and the
branches of the bronchial tree that lead lo the alveoli. It is called a dead
space because it does not, unlike the alveoli, transport oxygen into the
blood and carbon dioxide out. This space ordinarily totals about 150 mI, so
for a tidal volurne of seo mI, only 350 mi of fresh air actually gcts to the
alveoli. You can get an immcdiate idea of its significanro when YOII are
snorkeling. If you breathe through a snorkol tubo with a volume of 100011
the practica] size of the anatomic dead space increases frorn 1')0 ml to zxo
omi __.....:._:.......__
IOlallung
capaClly
Inspralory runCllonal IIlSpnalory Vital
reserve residual capac,!y capac;ly
voIlJme capacity
W
t---i
H
lJdal
volume
exp,rBtory
reserve
voIumc
residual
voIlJme
6000
mi
:[
5000
e

mi
'E

4000
'"
mi
.g
ti
ra
a.
3000
ra
<J
mi
"O
c:
ra
'"
2000 Q>
E
mi
:;,
"O
,.
Ol
1000 f---j c:

mi
These values--the lung volurnes, capacitics, and anatomic dead space-
vary according to stature, age, sex, and conditioning, SO to keep things simple
we'Il always use round numbers that are characteristic for a healthy young
mano The numbers are generally smaller for women, for older men and
wornen, and for those in poor physical condition. That's not so relevant to
us here. Our main interest is not in how the lung volumes and capacities
vary in diffcrent individuals; it is in how they vary with different breathing
practices and postures, 'I'he numerical representations in fig. 2.13, as well
as in alI the charts on respiration, are only simulations, hut they wiII be
useful starting point for more rigorous inquiry.
LUNG VOLUMES, CAPACITIES, AND THE ANATOMIC DEAD SPACE
There are tiJUI' /ung uolumes (fig, 2.13). We'JI begin with the tidal uolume
which is the amount of air that moves in and out in one breath, Textbook
state that in our healthy young man it amounts to one pint, 01' about 'ioe
ml (rnilliliters) during relaxed breathing, but this volume is obviou sl
circumstantial-when we are climbing stairs it wilI be greater than whe
we are sitting quietly. The inspiratory reserve uolume, about 3,300011 <.3 1
quarts), is the additional air you can inhale after un ordinary tidal inhalator
The expiratory reserve oolume, about 1,000 rnl, is the additiunal air you ca
exhale after a normal tidal exhalation. The residual oolume, about 1,20 1
rnl, is the amount of air that remains in the lungs after you have exhal
as much as possihle,
Lung capacities, uf which lhere are also our, are combinations of two (
more lung volumes (Ig. 2.13). First, the oital capacity is thc total amount e
air you can breathe in and out: it totals 4,Hoo rnl and is the cornbination ,
the tidal volurne plus the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes. Th
is the most inclusive possible definitiun of the yogic "complete hreath." an
is an important c1inical value.
Second, the lolal/uflg capacily is In a healthy you n
man is amounts to about ,ooo mI and is the sum of all four lung volume
01' alternatively, the sum of the"vital capacity and lhe residual volume.
'I'hird. lhe inspiralory capacity is the lotal amount of air you can inilal
al the beginning of a normal tidal inhalation. This is a rcstricti\'e definitiol
of lhe yogic "complete breath," which is the combination of the tidal volum
and inspiratory reserve volume labout 3,Hoo mD.
Fourth, the {u1!c:tiona/ resldua/ capaclly, 2,200 mI, is the combination
Lhe residual volume and lhe expiralory reserve volume. As its ml/ll l
implies, this is an especiaIly practical quantity-the amounl of air in th.
lungs at the end of a normal exhalation that wiII be mixed with a fres!
inhalation. This usually amounts to a lot of air-more than four times 8l-
much m; an ordinary Lidal volume of SOO mI. Onc point of pursed-Iip brealhing,
94 ,1,,/I '/VMI or IIATIIA IOC,l
1JI1E.171/1,\'(; 9S
45 40 35
alveolar ventilalion
4200 mi per min
brealhing rate 6
breaths per min;
tidal volume850 mi;
minute venlilalion
5100 mi per mln;
inhalation exhalalion
5 sec 5 sec
30 25 20
alveolar ventllation
4200 mi per min
brealhing rate 24
brealhs per min ;
tidal volume 325 mi:
minute ventilation
7800 mi per min:
inhalation exhalation
1.25 sec 1.25 sec
15 10 5
omi
ALVEOLAR, AND BlOOO GASES
'fhe whole point of breathing is to get oxygen from lhe atrnosphere to the
cells of the body and carbon dioxide from the body into the atmosphere,
and to understand how this happens we need to know how diffusion and
press ure difforcntials drive those processes. l lere's how it works: A gas
moves frorn a region of high concentration to one of low concentration, just
as a drop of dye placed in a glass of water gradually diffuses throughout,
sooner 01' later equalizing the mixture unlil it has colored al1 the water in
th e glass uniformly, Very crudely, sornething similar happens in the body.
Therc is much conccntration 01' (01' pressure from: oxygen in the atmosphere,
less in the alveoli, less than that in the arterial blood, and less yet in the
cells of the body that are using the oxygen. By the same token, there is
much concentration of (01' pressure from) carb n dioxide in the vicinity of
the cells that are eliminating it, somewhat less in the veins and alveoli, and
alrnost none in the atmosphere.
The standard measure of pressure we use for gases is millimeters of
mercury (mm Hg), which is the height of a column of mercury that has the
same weight as a column 01' gas that extends al1 the way out lo the strato-
sphere, In other words, ifwe think 01' ourselves as bottom-dwellers in a sea
of air, which we assuredly are, the weight of a column of air aboye us at sea
level is the exact equivalent of the weight of a column of mercury of the
sarne diameter that is 760 mm in height, We use this unit for measuring
timeIn seconds (sec)
Figure 2.14. l hree molles of breathing wilh idenlical alveolar venlilalions. lhe
nu me rical val ues are simulalions ior a hcallhy young mano
6000
breathing rate 12
breaths per min;
5000

!idal volume500 mi;

minute venlilalion
!!l 6000 mi per min;
i
4000
alveolar venlilation
E 4200 mi per min
.S
IJ)
Cll
E
:l
o
,.
<s
:g
1000
ALVEOLAR ANO MI N UT E VENTllATI O N
When we consider how much air we inhale and exhale over a period oftime.
the first thing we think of is the minute ventilation, the arnount of air we
breathe in and out over a period of 60 seconds. This is what we feel-s-th e
touch of the breath in the nostrils, in and out, over a period of one minute.
AII you have to do to calculate your minute ventilation is measure your
tidal volume and multiply that value times the number ofbreaths you take
per minute. According to lextbooks, this would be 500 mi per breath times
12 breaths per minute, and this equals 6,000 mi per minute.
The minute vcntilation does not tell us everything we need to know
however, because what is most important is not the amount of air th at
moves in and out of the nose 01' mouth, but the amount of air that gets pas t
the anatornic dead space into the alveoli. This is also measured over a peri
of one minute and is called, logically enough, the alveolar ventilation. It i
our primary concern when we wanl to know how breathing affects the conlent
of oxygen and carb n dioxide in the blood, and that is OUT main interest il
yoga breathing exercses. To calculate the alveolar ventilation, subtract th
size ofthe anatornic dead space from the tidal volume before mu ltiplying b.
the respiratory frequency. For example, '500 mi 01' tidal volume minus 15
0
ro
of analomic dead space cquals 350 mi por breath, and 350 rnl per breath lime
12 breaths per minute yields an alveolar ventilation of 4,200 mi per minut
The values given 1'01' lung volumes and capacities, as well as for minut t
and alveolar ventilation, are only lextbook example it is not uncommOl
lo breathe more rapidly and take in a smaller tidal volume for each hread
Ifyou walch a dozen people c1osel)' in cm;ual situ at ions, such as when the.
sitting on a bus wilh lheir arms folded across their chests, you can casil.
count the breaths lhey take per minute, and it is usually raster than th l
lextbook standard of 12 breaths per minute: 1-4-30 brcaths per minute is 1
lot more common. This is of no great consequem.'e because everyone
adjusts their tidal volume so that their alveolar ventilation stays within
normal range (fig. 2. 14 ). In ml.'<!itation the rate of breathing generall)
seems to slow clown. but it can still vary widcly and may either be faster 01
slower than the standards cited in the medical literature on respiration.
Here too, you adjust the rate of breathing and the tidal volume so lhat lhl'
alveolar ventilalion comes in line with lhe metabolic requiremcnts of the
practicc.
mi, you have to inhale 600 mi through the end of the tube just to get 3'50
mi to the alveoli, and you might have a few moments of panic before you
adjust to the need for deeper breaths. Clinical concerns with the anatornic
dead space are often grim: in terminal emphysema patients its volume
sometimos approaches and excccds the vital capacity.
many vales: total atrnospheric pressure; the at.mosphere's iternized
content of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases; t he docreased oxygen and
increased carbon dioxide in t he aJveoli; and the eontent of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. At sea leve l it
is 7
6 0
mm Hg, and of this total, t.he oxygen share is about 150 mm Hg, the
nitrogen share is about 5Ho mm Hg, and water vapor is about )0 mm Hg,
depending on the humidity. At the summit of Pi kc's Peak in Colorado
atmospheric pressure is 450 mm Hg (oxygen 8) mm HgI, and at the summit
of Mount. Everest in t he Himalayas it is 225 mm Hg (oxygen 4
2
mm Hg l.
Going in the other directio n to a depth of 165 feet under water (which is
consi dered by diving experts a prudent maximum depth for breathing
atmospheric air that has been pressurized by t he dept h al' the water) ,
atrnospheric pressure is 4,500 mm Hg and oxygen is 900 mm Hg.
Returning to more ordinary circumstances, let ' s limit ourselves for th
moment t o what wo wou ld see inside and outside the body at sea level . Ir
we are quietly breathing atrnospheric ai r at our favorite seaside resort.
where the oxygen content is about 150 mm Hg, we'U end up wit h oxyge
levels of about 104 mm Hg in t he alveoli, which is reduced from 150 mm Hg
because of the transfer of oxygcn from t.he alveoli into the blood. Passing
on down t he pressure gradient , arterial blood contains slightly less oxygen.
about 10 0 mm Hg. Venous blood, 01' blood that has just released its oxyger
in the tssuos, contains dramatically less, about 40 mm Hg. Ca rbon dioxidi
decreas es in the other direction from the blood to the atrnosphere, from a
high of 46 mm Hg in venous blood to 40 mm Hg in arterial blood and thc
alveuli, and finally to a negligible o.j mm Hg in the atmosphere.
The nurn bers for atrnospheric, a lveolar; and blood gases ron al l be com
pared convcniently in table 2.1. The ones we are especially concerned wit l
when we look at pulmonary ventilation and breathing exercises in yoga are
the pressures for oxygen and carbon dioxide in atmospheric air, alveoli
arteriaJ blood, and venous blood.
Too little alveolar ventilation is hypooentilation, and too much is hyper
oentilation, Both conditions will have repercussions in the alveoli, arteria l
blood, and venous blood, as well as on tissues throughout the body
Hypoventilal.ion will result in reduced levels of oxygen and increased levell'
of carbon dioxide at aUl.hose sites, and hyperventilation drives the figuref
in the opposite direction (see tablf' 2.2).
HYPOVENTlLATI O N
Everyone has an intuitive undel'standing that we have to have oxygen to live,
und mast pcople huye experienced an undcrsupply of oxygen at one time 01'
ano ther, if only from holding lhe breath. What's not always recognized. a1.
least from personaJ experie nce, is that the rnomcntary discomfort of smothering
is a warning of something more serious: that the cells of the brain and
spina l coro are acutely sensitivo to oxygen deficits, t hat asevere deprivation
of oxygen will cause temporary damage to the tissue in less than a minute,
and t hat neurons totaUy deprived of oxygen Ior about five minutes (as in
the case of stroke) will die.
dry airo
moisl air,
warm alveolar arterial venous
gases any tern-
75 ,80%
(98.6") gaseous blood blood
relative
peralure
humidity
wet air pressures gases gases
oxygen 159.1 150 149.2 104 100 40
carbon dioxi de 0.3 0.3 0.3 40 40 46
water vapor 0.0 30 47 47 47 47
nitrogen 600.6 579.7 563.5 569 573 627
totals, in 760 760 760 760 760 760
mm Hg
Table 2.1. The aboye ehart shows pressur es in mm Hg (millimete rs of
mereury) expeeted during the course of relaxed breathing at sea level ;
the most important eight values are shown in boldfa ee. Nitrogen is inert:
its values are det ermined solely by altilude and the summe d specific
pressures for oxygen, carb n dioxide, and water vap or.
Hypovent ilat ion, 01' underbreathing, is a related matter, and another
conditi on t hat is familiar to people with respiratory pro blems. They call it
shortness of breath. Hypovent ilat ion is not usually a serious matter Ior
anyone who is in good health, for whom a few deep breaths willusually step
up t he alveolar venti lation enuugh to bring the oxygen and carb n dioxide
levels into bal ance. This is also the aim of severa l hatha yoga breathing
exerc isos that increase ventilatory capacity, especially the bellows breath,
gases alveolar gases arterial blood gases venous blood gases
relalive hypo normal hyper- hypo- normal hyper- hypo normal hyper-
venlilalion ven!. ven!. ven!. ven!. ven!. ven!. ven!. ven!. ven!.
Oxygen 90 104 140 85 100 120 32 40 60
carbon
50 40 15 51 40
dioxide
15 56 46 30
lable 2.2.The above eha rl shuws simu lalions of alveolar and lJlood gases in mm
I-Ig for hypovenlilal ion, normal brealhing, and hypervenlilalion. The six figures in
boldface are Ihe norms, repeated from table 2.1.
y!\ , 1NA mMl 01: IMUIA nXiA
But vigorous practice of bellows brcathing brings up the question of hyper-
ventilation, or overbreathing, and this, paradoxical1y, can create a deficit in
the supply of oxygen for the cells of the central nervous system where we
need it the rnost.
HYPERVENTILATlON
Let's say you are hyperventilating during the course of an extreme bellows
exercise, If this involves breathing in and out a tidal volume of 500 mi three
times per second, you will end up with an alveolar ventilation of 180
breaths per minute times 350 ml per breath, which equals 63,000 mI per
minute, or Iifteen times the norm of 4,200 ml per minute. If you were in
world-class athletic condition and running full speed up forty flights of
stairs, this would be fine . During heavy exercise your body will use all thr
oxygen it can get, and it will also need to eliminate a heavy overload of carbor
dioxide. It's not, however, a good idea for an ordinal')' person to breathe ir
this way. Extreme hyperventilation when you are not exercisng strenuously
skews the blood gases too mucho
OUI' first thought is that hyperventilation rnust drive loo much oxygen int r
your tissues, but this is inaccurate. Except for a few special circumstances
such as breathing 100% oxygen for prolonged periods, or breathing oxygen at
high pressure in deep-sea diving, you can't get too much, and the increasec
oxygen in the blood that resuIts hum hyperventilation is certainly not harmful
The problem with hyperventilation is not that it increases arteri a
oxygen but that it decreases arterial carbon dioxide, and that can havo ar
unexpected side effect. What happens is that a substantial reduction il
arterial carbon dioxide constricts the small arteries and arteriales of t h,
brain and spinal cord, The way this happens, al' at least the end result, i
very simple: an arteriole acts crudely like an adjustable nozzle on the enr
of a garden hose that can open to emit a lot of water or clamp down to cml
only a fine spray. As carbon dioxide in the blood is reduccd. the artcrioll'
clamp down and the blood supply to the tissue is restricted until there is l:il
IiUle blood nowing to the brain lhat it doesn't matter how weU it I
oxygenated. Not enough blood land therefore not enough oxygenl can gt.'
through the arterioles to the capillary heds and adequately support. t h.
neul'ons.
Hyperventilating vigoroul:ilyenough to dramaticaIly lower blood carhOl
dioxide docsn't nccessarily reHult in death 01' even obvious clnical symp
toms, but it can cau:,;e more general complaints such as fatigue, irritabilit)
lightheadedness, panie attacks, 01' the inability to concentrate. It's no
illogica1 that the {olk remedy rol' panic attacks, which is sUB routinely
administered by triage nul'ses in cmergency moms, is to have someone who
is in such a state hreathe into a papcl' bagoRebreathing our exhaled carhon
2 11/(/:'1'17/1/\'(,' 9Y
dioxidc increases carb n dioxide levels in the blood and opens the cerebral
cireulation. 'l'here are better solutions, however, and triage nurses who
have aIso had sorne training in relaxed yogic breathing practices would he
more imaginativo, perhaps suggesting something as simple as having the
pationt lie supina and breathe abdominally with their hands 01' a moderate
weight on the abdomen.
Extremely low blood levels of carbon dioxide can cause you to pass out.
Children at play sometimos hyperventilate, hold their breath alter a decp
inhalation, and then strain against a closed glottis, If they do this for only
3-4 seconds they will drop to the 0001' like stones. Increasing intrathoracic
pressure from straining will have diminished the venous return to the
heart (and thus the cardiac outputl imrnediately alter the cerebral circulation
has been partially occluded by hyperventilation, and these two ingredients
combined cut off enough of the blood supply to the brain to cause an irnmediale
but temporary loss of consciousness. The danger of passing out Irom con-
stricted brain arterioles is also why lifeguards do not allow swimmers to
hyper venl ilate vigorously before swimming underwater. Hypcrventilating
followed by holding the breath after a deep inhalation is not harrnful to
children on a grassy lawn who will begin to breathe normally as soon as
they lose consciousness, but it is dcadly under water ,
One of the most demanding tests of aerobic capacity is mountain climb-
ing without bottIcd oxygen at altitudes higher than 25,000 fect. Supcrbly
conditioned athletes are able lo mect this standard and reach the summit
of'Mount Everest by hyperventilating the oxygen-poor atrnosphere (42 mm
1Ig al 29,000 feet) aIl the way to lhe topo They can jam enough oxygen into
their arterial blood to survive (about 40 mm Hg), and that's good; but the
hypel'ventilation also drives their alveolar carbon dioxide down to less than
10 mm Hg, and that's not so good. They have to train rigorously at high
altitudes to adapl the cerebral circulation to such extremely low levels of
C"'drbon dioxide. If mosl of us were transportcd unpreparcd to sueh an
altitude (as would happen if we suffen.'<i a sudden loss of cabin pressure in
an airliner eruising at 29,000 feel), we would expelienee so much reflex
hypervcntilation and subsequent constriction of the cerebrol circulation
lhat wilhoul supplemental oxygen wc would pass out in about lwo minutes
and die soon thercafter.
Beginning hatha yoga students who practice the bcllows hreath exces..'>ively
~ expericnce sorne adverse symptoms of hyperventilation, especially
llTitabilily. But ir they continuc the practiee ovcr a period of t.ime, the cerebral
circulation graduaIly adapts to decreased levels of earban dioxidc in the blood,
and they can intensi.fY their practice and safely gain the bcncfits of alertness
and well-being associated with higher levels ofblood oxygen.
100 ,rJ,UI nI' H,'U'A Ir )(;A
.l. fjf{fjHl/lfl,(," 101
Figure 2,15. Brain stem and cerebellum on the:' left (wilh central chemoreceptor
ncar the front surface of the medullal. and on Ihe right. the carotid sinus (with
peripheral chemoreceptorsl just below bifur<:ation of.the common carotid
arlery iolo the internal and external carohd arterles (Qualn).
CHEMORECEPTORS
The levols of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and cerebrospinal
fluid are monitored by chemoreceptors, specialized internal sensors of the
autonomic nervous system. Scnsory nerve endings associated with these
receptora then transmit nerve impulses codcd for distorted levels of oxygen
and carbon dioxide directly lo the circuits of the somatic nervous system
that regulate breathing (fig. z .is). Accordingly, the chemoreceptors are
important keys to linking the autonomic and sornatic systems.
There are two classes of chemoreceptors: peripheral and centra!. Thr-
peripheral chemureceptors, which are located in the large artories leadiru
away from the heart, react quickly to substantial reductions of arteria
oxygen and strongly stimulate respiration. Ifyou restrictyour breathing, 01' 1
external carotid artery and main branches (supplies lace and scalp)
internal carolid artery (travels deep here to supply brain)
autonornic
nervcus
system input:
peripheral
cherno-
receptors to
ponline
respiralory
center
central chemoreceptors
(in oblong whito space)
are sensitivo to carbn
dioxide In cerebrospinal
nuid (esF) ; they help
regulale respiration by
way 01the medullary
respiratory center (small
arrow)
bul bo!
enlargemenl l
carotrd sinus
with periphere
chemoreceptor
Ihat respond
reduced levels e
blood oxyger
you are at an altitude that cuts your arterial oxygen in half (that is, from 100
mm Hglo 50 mm Hg), the input ofthe peripheral chemorcceptors to the brain
stem respiratory centers will quadruple your alveolar ventilation from a
norm of 4,100 ml per minute to about l,OOO mi (i liters) per minute. Even
if you are well enough conditioned lo walk up a 30 grade at sea level with
only moderate increascs in alveolar ventilation, you will find yourself panting
when you hike up that sarne grade at a high altitude.
Although the pcripheral chemoreceptors respond to large dcereases in
blood oxygen, they do not respond significantly to small decreases, If you
are only somewhat short of oxygen you may simply lose the edge of your
alertness and just feel like yawning and taking a nap, which is the point at
which yoga breathing exereises are indicated.
Central chemorec:eptors, which are located on the surace ofthe brain stern
immcdiat ely adjacent to the somatic respiratory control centers, stimulate
the rute and depth of respiration in response t increased levels of carbon
dioxide, and dampen respiration if levels of carbon dioxide fal!. They are
more sensitivo to small changas than the pcripheral chernoreceptors, but
t hey are lower to react bceause the cerebrospinal Huid in which they are
bathcd is isolated {mm the blood supply and does not respond instantly lo
changes in blood carbon dioxide.
The differing sensitivities of the peripheral and central chernoreceptors
sometimes results in their working at cross-purposcs. For examplc, at high
altitudes decreased oxygen stimulates the peripheral chernoreceptors to
increase ventilation, but this also lowers cm'bon dioxide, and when that happens
the central chemoreccptors start lo retard ventilation. You may require the
extra air for the sake of the oxygen, hut the response to decreased carbn
dioxide confounds that need. Training the system lo adapt to such conflicting
signals is part of the process of high-altitude acclimation,
THE ROL E OF WILL
Dozens of physical, mental. and environmental factors cooperate to influence
respiration, and sorne of' these work at odds with one another. Our will can
Override most of them. You can counter the state of being bored and sleepy
by practicing bellows breathing, If you are bicycling behind a srnelly bus
vou can hold your breath, at least momentarily, to escape the fumes. If you
have the habit of breathing irregularly you can learn oven meditativo
breathing. Ifyou are upset you can breathe slowly and evcnly lo calm down.
Most i rta t 1 b . .
. mpo n, you can caro to o serve hcalthlCr breathing patterns
you are doing hatha yoga postures; then you can carry the refined
hablts over into your daily life. To scc specifically how thi. wOl'ks in lhe
practical environment ofyoga postures, we'lllook al four diITerent kinds of
brcat hing: thoracic, paradoxical. abdominal, and diaphrawnalic.
102 AI\'A70\n 'OFIIA71/A YOGA
THORACIC BREATHING
Specialists in holistic t herapes oten condernn tharacic, or chest, breathing
but there are two possible scenarios for this rnode of breathing t hat should bl
considered separately: one is empowering and has an honored role in hathi
yoga, and the ot her is constricting and can ereate physi cal an d mental heal tl
problems if it is done habitual1y. First, wc' Il look at the beneficial version.
EMPO WE RE D THORACIC BREATHING
'1'0 get a feel Ior the best of empotoered thoracic breathing (fg, 2.29a), staru
up, int.erlock your hands behind your head, pull your elbows t.othe real' a
much as possible, bend backwards moderately, and inhale, expanding t h,
chest maximally, Lift your elbows and expand t.he chest until you feel t h
intercostal muscles reach their outermost limits ofisometric tension.
1Technical note: Although the diaphragm is not. as obviously involvedin this rnethr
of breathing as the intercostal muscles, it supports inhalation synergistically, How
Its muscle fibers resist lengthening by keeping the dome of the diaphragm fror
being pulled freely toward the head m; inhalation what we'lJ
;cefor paradoxical breathingl, and al the peak of inhalation, It holds momentan l
in a state of isometric tension.]
Next, let your hands hang down and pull you r elbows slightly to t.he real
agai n while bending baek rnoderately and inhaling as much as you can. If YOl
observe carefully you'lI see t.hat you can slightly increase your inspirator:
capacity wit h the arms in th is more neutral position. How can you prove this
Go back to the first post.ure, inhale as much as possible, then hold your breatl
at the glottis at the end of your Iullest possible inhalation. Still holding YOUI
breath, assume the second position with your hands hanging and elbows baek
and you will imrnediately confirm that you can inhale a little more. Then as
control experiment.just te becertain, try it.the opposi te way, first. a maximun
inhalat ion with the hand" down and elbows baek, and second with the hand
behind the head and the elbows strongly lifted and pulled to the real'. You'1
lind that eoming into t.he lat.tel' position secondarily (after locking the
in the first position) mandates a release uf ail' once you open the glottis. 'rhesE-
are not yoga practices, of course, but experiments te test the efTectsof partic-
ular arm posit.ions on your inspiratory reserve volume during the course of
empowered thoracie breat.hing. You can also experiment with any number
of other standing postures. If, for example, you grasp your elbowl5 tightly
behind your back with your opposite hands, 01' come into a forward bend
&'Uppor ting your hands on the thighs just aboye the knecs, you will find
that these arm positions markedly limit your inhalation.
In general. there are three major reasons for variations in inspiratory
capaeity that are due to posture. One is obvious: sometimes the position ofthe
upper extrcmities (.'ompresses the chest and limits inhalation mechanically.
2 103
'[he other t wo are more subtle: many of t he muscles uf the upper extremities
serve either as synergists or as antagonists to the external intercostal muscles
for enlar,'ing the ehest. Thc relationships are straightforward: any posi tion
that favors the synergistic efTects will increase inspiratory capacity, and any
position t hat favors the antagonistic efTects will .it. . .
One of the most efTectivetraining exercises for mcr easmg your inspiratory
capaeity takes its cue from a standard barbell exercise. In this case you can
sirnply swing a broomstick or a light barhcll without added weights from your
thighs to 180
0
overhead, doing 10-15 repetitions while keeping your elbows
extended. Exhale maximally as you bring the broornstick or barbell to your
thighs . and inhale maximally as you bring it overhead. As a barbell exercise,
this is designed to develop and stretch chest muscles sueh as the pectoralis
majar (fig, 8.R-9), but many of the muscles needed for moving the barbell
through its are also aet synergistically wit h t he externa! intercostals to faeilitate
nhalation. This is also a great exercise for children with asthma, who often tend
t.o be parsimonious when it comes to using their ehests for breat hing. If thoir
asthma is t.ypically induced by exercise, they should of COUl'SC use a broom-
stick instead of a barbell, and be sensitivo to their capacity.
In hatha yoga general ly, inhaling as much as you can is an excellent
chest exercise any time you are doing simple whole-body standing back-
ward bends (fg. 4.19), dia phragm-assisted backbends (Iig, 5.7), cobra
postures (especially those shown in figs. 2.10 and ).9-12).the upward -facing
dog (figs, 5.13-14), prone boats and bow postures (fig, 5.20-23), variations of
tho cat pose in which t he lumbar regi n is arched forward (figs. 3.30 and
3.34b), or possibly best of all, any one of several variations of the fish
posture (figs, 3.19a, 5.28, and 9.191. In fact, whenever an instructor suggests
taking t he deepest possible inhalations, this can only mean placing an
emphasi s on empowered thoracic breathing, and it wOl'ks well in any
relatively easy posture in which it is natural to thrust the chest out.
CONSTRICTED TH ORAC IC BREATHING
Constricted thoracic brcathing (lig. 2.29b) is typicalIy shallow. rapid. and
irregular. It is commonly assoeiated with stress and tension, and our main
int.erest in analyzing it is lo understand why it is inadvisable to breathe
that way habitualIy. Whenever someone criticizes chest breathing, this is
what they are talking about.
To help students understand why constricted thoracie breathing is
undesirable, ask them to le in the corpse posture (figs. 1.14 and 10.2),
placing the left. hand on the abdomen and t.he rigbt hand on the chest. First
of all they should eoncentmt.e on moving only thc front surfaee of the
abdomen when they breathe; the right. hand should be statiunary and the
left hand should rise toward t.he ceiling during inhalat.iun and come back
down during exhalalion. Ask them lo nol ice t hat this is natural an
comfortable. 'I'hen, to do thoracic breathing, ask them lo breathe so thal
the left hand is stationary and the right hand is lift ed toward the ceili ng
This feels so unnatural, at least in the supine posi t ion, that many student,
in a beginning class won 't beab le to do it, Youwill probably havo to dernon
strate and explain that you are not toaching a re laxed or empowered yogu
breathing practice; you simply want students to experience this form 0 1
thoracic breathing so they can contrast it with other options.
In thoracic breathing the hand on the abdomen is stationary becaus-
rigid abdominal muscles prevenl the dome of the diaphragm from movi ru,
and the only way you can inhale is to lift and expand the upper part of t h
chest. This is not a relaxing breathing pattern, and sorne people will kno
in advance that the exercise will be slressful-don't insist that everyor
doil.
When you breathe thoracically whi le standing (fig. 2.I), you can feel ti
external intercostal muscIes expand t he rib cage, especially during a del
inhalation, and you can fcel them resist its tendency to get smaller durii
.1 RRJi-l"/7Uf\ 'G l OS
exhal ation. This is fine for empowered thoracic breathing, but it feels out
ofplace in the supino posture,
'l' he role of the internal intercostals, whether standing or supine, is
not so obvious. In the first place they do not become ful ly active except
in forced exhalation, even in someone who has hcalthy breathing patterns,
Second, habitual chest breathers are generaIly compulsive about
inhalat ion, as though they are afraid to exhale, and because of this they
rnay not make rnuch use of their internal intercostal muscles under any
circumslances.
Oth er muscles in the neck, chest, and shou lders also support thoracic
breathing as a side efect to sorne other action. The scalenes (figs, LX and
8.13), which take origin frorn the cervical spine and insert on the c1avicle
(the collarbone) and first rib, have their primary effect on t he neek, but
they abo li t he chest during the course of a complete inhalation. We call
this clavicular breathing to differentiate it from lifting the chest with the
intercost al muscles. In addition, as mentioned earlier, mos t of the muscles
that stabilize the scapula and move the arrns also have indireet effects on
breathing for thc simple reason that they attach to the chest.
,
,
r
,
,
,
inhalation --- - - ;
.
.
,
,

Figure 2.16. Thoraeic

hreat hing. lhe dotted line
reveals the profile for a
moderalely empowered
Ihorade inhalalion, with
lile slernum lifled up and
oul in aeeordanee wilh
Ihe "pump-handle
w
anal-
ogy. lhe abdomen and
respiratory diaphragm
remain relalivcly fixed in
position, and lhe head is
pullcd lo lhe rearol he
halflone profiles a normal
exhalaliun.
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
,
,
,
,
I

I
,
\
PROBLEM5 WITH CON5TRICTED THORACIC BREATHING
During constricted ches t breathing both inhalation and exhalation are
hesitant an d tentative, This breathing pattorn is not eomrnon among
experienced yoga studcnts, who have a largo repertoire of more useful
forms of breathing, but you sce it oceasionally in beginning classes, And
once in a whi le during the course of a classroom demonstration you '1 1even
hear someone say "That's how 1 always breathe!" 'I'he abnorrnal upper
body tensi n associated with this forrn of breathing is palpable-both
literally and figuratively-in faces, necks, and shoulders.
Habitual chest breathing not only reflects physical and mental problems,
il creates them. lt mildly but chronically ovel"Stimulates the sympathetic
ncr vous system, kceping the heart r t ~ and blood pressUl'C too high,
preeipitat ing difficulties with digestion and el imination, and causing cold
and dammy hands and feet. In common usage chest brcathing is known as
"shallow" breathing, and if you watch people n ~ t h c in this fashion for
any lengt h of time you wiII notice that every once in a whilc they wiIl sigh.
yawn, 01" take a much dceper breath to bring in more airo
If you reaIly want to understand shallow breathing you have lo cxperi-
ment with yoursclf. In either a supine 01' upright posture. try taking 2 ]0
const r ict ed thoracic breaths, lilhng only the upper part of the chest. Be care-
fui not to move lhc abdomen, and try lo keep lhe lower part oflhe chest from
moving. '1'0do this you have lo keep the abdominal wall J'igid and hold the
lower part oflhe slemum and the loweJ' ,i bs still. Ifyou are healthy this will
106 _. ,\' ,17-0.11" (JI' IIATIIA H )(;,1
give you an unusuaJ and unsettling eel ing, and pretty soon you'lI have al
irresistible urge to take a deep breath-if not two 01' t hree , You'U wonde:
how anyone could possibly develop this breathing pattern as a liletime habit
Chest breathers often Ieel short of breath becausc conslricted thoraci.
breathing pulls rnost of the air into the upper portions of the lungs. Bu
when we are upright it is the lower portions of the lungs that get most I
the blood supply. Why? The pulmonary circulation to the lungs is a 10 \ \
pressure, low-resistance circuit in which the average pressure in t h
pulmonary arteries is only 14mm Hg. By contrast, the pressure in artera
of the systemic circulation averages about 100 mm Hg (chapter X). 'I'he I
mm Hg pul monary arterial pressure is more than enough to perfuse bloo 1
into the lower part s 01' the lungs, but it is inadequat e to push the blood inr
the upper parts 01' t he lungs. This means that when you are taki i
constricted thoracic inhalations, you are bringing the bulk 0 1' t he air in
the parts of the lungs that are most poorly supplied with blood. You cal' t
make efficienl use of the extra vent ilation to the upper parts al' the lun
becausc of the poor cir culat ion, and yet you gel scanty ventilation to t l
lower parts of the lungs that are getting the bulk of the blood supply. TI
no wonder those who breathe thoracically need to take occasional breat s
that will fill their lungs from top to bottom.
The disadvantages 01' constricted chest broathing are ordinarily empha-
sized, but this mode of breathing is occasionally necessary. If you shoi :l
happen lo overi ndulge in a holiday meal and t hen follow it up with a r '1
dessert, try ta king a walk. You wiIl notice that the restricted form -f
thoracic breathing is the only comfortable way you can breathe. A five-rn e
walk can be useful. but the last thing you'lI wanl lo do en route is to prr s
against your stomach with your diaphragm (figs. 2.1) and 2.29b).
THE NEED FOR EMPOW ER ED T HORACI C BREATHING
In addition to certain postures in hatha yoga, thoracic breathing WOI s
beautiful ly in aerobio exercisc, in which a freer and more vigorous stylc 11'
thoracic breathing is combined with increased cardiac output. The arou- d
heart creates pulmonary arterial pressures high enough lo perfuse t e
entire lungs with blood al the same time they are being ventilated from I P
to bottom. In hatha yoga this also happens in a series of briskly exccut <1
sun salutations 01' in any other postures that stress the cardiorespratc Y
systern, such as triangles (chapte 4) 01' IUl1ging postures (chapter 7), esr
cially when performed by bcginners. In hatha yoga we aJso frequently ti e
an empowcred and healthy forro of thoracic brealhing 1'01' the comp le e
breath (which we'U discUSH later in this chapter) and in most ot h -r
circumstam:es in which you are ta king fewer t han two breaths per minut
L . 10 7
PARADOXICAL BREATHING
Empowered chest breathing carried lo extremes is paradoxical breathing
(fig. 2.2ljC). Try inhaling so deeply that the abdominal wall moves in during
inhalation rather than out. 01' imagine a situation which shocks YOU. Lct's
say you dart into a shower thinking that the water will be warrn, and
instead find it ice cold. You will probably opon your mouth and suck in air
with a g'dSp. Try brcathing this way three 01' four breaths under ordinary
circumst ances and notice how you feel . This is paradoxical breathing,
so-named because the abdominal wa l l moves in rather than out during
inhalat ion, and out rather than in during exhalation (fig. 2.17). Unloss
someone is in a state of considerable anxiety, we rarely see this in the
corpse posture-s-it is more common whi le sitting 01' standing.
Duri ng a paradoxical inhalation, the external intercostal muscles enlarge
and lit t he rib cage, lift the abdominal organs and the relaxed diaphragrn,
and suck in the abdominal wal l. During a paradoxical exhalation, the
abdomen moves back out because the rib cage relaxes and re leases the
vacuum on the diaphragm and abdominupelvic region,
Paradoxical breathing stimulates the sympathetic nervous system even
more than thoraeic brcat hi ng. ln an average class only a fewstudents will have
inhalation - - - - - -
Figure 2.17. Par ad oxical
breathing. LJuring inhalation.
the ext erna] intercostal and
other accessory muscles of
r(.'Spiralion create a vacuum in
the chest lhal pulls the relaxed
diaphragm up and the relaxed
abdominal wall in. lhe end
stage of a natural exhalation is
Profiled by Ihe halfton e.
IOH 1.\'.-170. 111 or / hl n/A 1r J<i A
t he cunfidence to try il. enthusiastically, and those who do it for 10-1'; deo )
breaths may get jurnpy and nervous. This is its purpose: preparation for fig'
01' flight, Paradoxical br eathing gives you an immediate jolt of adrenaline. TI
problem is that sorne people breathe Iikc lhat much o' the time, making lifc I
constant emergency. Our bodies are not built for remaning this keyed up, al .,
keeping the sympathetic nervous system in a constant statc of arousal is ha l
on the supportive systerns of the body. Digestion, circulation, endocr i e
function, sexual function, and immune function are all either put on h( ti
01' are stressed by continual sympathetic discharge.
SUPINE ABDOMINAL BREATHING
The antidote for chronic thoracic and paradoxical breathing is abdomi
breat hing; 01' obdomino-diaphragmatic breathing (fig, 2.29dl. lt is simj
natural, and relaxing-especially in th e supino position. To try it, Iie in 1 e
corpse posture, and again place the right hand on the upper part of t
chest and the left hand on t he upper part of t he abdomen. Breathe so ti L
the left hand moves antcriorly (toward the ceiling: during inhalation al j
posteriorly (toward the floor) during exhalation. 'l'he right hand should n t
move. Take t he same amount of time Ior exhalation as inhalation. Not I e
that inhalation requires moderate effort and that exhalation seei
relaxed, This is abdominal breat hing. As discussed earlier, it is accon
plished by the respiratory diaphragm.
Because the contents of the abdominal cavity have a liquid characti r.
gravi ty pushes them to a higher than usual position in the torso when Y'
are Iying down. The diaphragrn acts as a movable dam against this wall
abdominal organs, pressing them inferiorly (toward the feetl durir
inhalalion and restraining their movement superiorly (toward the hca-
during exhalation. As the diaphragm pushes the abdominal organs inferior
during inhalation, thc abdominal wall is pushed out, thus pressing the IL
hand ant.eriorly.
We perceive the gravity-induced exhalation as a state of relaxation, bl
careful observation will reveal that the diaphragm is actually lenglhenill
eccentrically throughout a supine exhalation. In other words, it is resist in
the tendency of gravit.y to push the diaphra{,>'JTl superior ly. You can feel Hu
fOl' YoUl"self if you breathe normally for a (ew breaths, making the hreat
smooth and even, without jerks, pauses, or noise. Then, at the end of
normal inhalation, relax compl etely. Air will whoosh out faster, proving tha
some tension is normaIly hcld in the diaphrU{,>'JTl during supine exhalat iom
You can re lax the diaphragm suddenly if you like. but exhalations that an
rest rained actively are more natural, at least for anyone who has had soml
training in yoga.
LUIIIG VOLUMES AND ALVEOLAR VENTlLATlON

Sin
ce
the abdominal organs and the dome of t he diaphragrn ride to a higher
than usual pusition in the chest in a supine posture, less air than usual is
len in t he lungs at the end of a normal exhalation. This is reflected in a
decreased expiratory reserve volume. You can preve this to yourself if you
brea
t he
abdominally first sitting upright and then lying clown supine, and
I
hiecti velv compare the two expiratory reserve volurnes. What you do is
5l
come to the end of a normal exhalat ion in each case and then breathe out
as much as possible-all the way clown to YoU!" residual volume. H will he
obvious that the supine position decreases the amount of air you can
breathe out to about one-half of your upright expiratory reserve volurne,
let 's say from 1,000 rnl to about soo mi (fig. 2.IHl.
Supine abdominal breathing is both natural and efficicnt. sing the
aboye figures. if you were to maintain a tidal volume of 500 mi when you
are supine, you will be rnixing that tidal volume with only 1,700 mI of air
nstead of th e 1,200 mi in your functional residual capaci ty when you are
upright, And because your tidal volume for each breath is getting mixed
with a smaller lunct ional residual capacity, you will not need to breathe as
Figure 2.18. l ielal volume simulations for abdominal brealhing in a silling poslure
(far fefl), ancl for Ihree cond ilions of ahdominal brealhing in a supine posilion,
Ihe firsl wilh alveolar ventilalion identical lo Ihe silling poslure, secund wilh Ihe
brealhing rale slowed down, and Ihird wilh Ihe Lidal volume decreased.
110 11\A77),\/ ' OF IIA f /111 'Ut,A
deeply or as fast., In faet, ir you werc to keep your alveolar vent.ilatio
constant at 4,.WO m/minute as a textbook norm, the improved efficiency r
the alveolar cxchange would soon be refleeted in increased blood oxygc
and decreased blood carbon dioxide. What happens, of course, is that ,}T
either slow your rate ofrespiration or decrease your tidal volume (or botl
and that keeps blood oxygen and carbon dioxide within a normal range.
SMOOTH, EVEN B REATHI NG
The corpse posture is a good place to learn one of the most importa r l
skills in yoga: smooth, even breathing. When you are relaxed and breathn .{
nasally and abdominal1y, it is easy to inhale evenly, smoothly merge ti
inhalation into the exhalation, and smoothly exhale. You may pause t
the end of exhalation, but if you do so for any length of time t
diaphragm will have relaxed completely during the pause and you m.
fi nd t hat you are starting your next inhalalion with a jerk, The bE' t
prcvention Ior that dis t urbance is to begin your inhalat ion conscou:
just 8S exhalation ends.
USING A SANDBAG
' l'he movements 01' the diaphragm are delicate and subtle, and not alwa
easy to experience, but when you are supine you can place a sandbag t h
weighs 3-15 pounds on the upper abdomenjust below the rib cage, and yr
wil1 immediately notiee the additional tensi n needed for inhalation al
controlled exhalation. Make sure the chest does not move and that ti
weight is light enough to push easily toward the ceiling (fig. z.zza). TI
exercise is valuable both Ior training and strengthening. lt helps studenl
learn to sense the activity of the diaphragrn by increasing the amount 1
work and tensi n needed for inhalations (concentric shortening of ti '
muscular parts of the diaphragm> and for control1ed exhalatiUJ1
(eccentric lengthening of the muscular parts of the diaphragm). Th
cobra variant and the diaphragmatic rear lift (figs. 2.10-11) give t h
diaphragm more exercise by requiring it 1.0 Iift large segments of th .
body, but a light sandbag brings the student more in touch with th .
delicacy of its fundion.
Since breathing evenIy with a sandbag mereases neuromuscular activil.
in the diaphragm, this makes you aware of the challenges involved I
moving it up and down without starts, stops, and jerks. And developing thl
control necessary lo accomplish this is an important aid to learning eve1
breathing. First try it with a 58ndbag wcighing 10-15 pounds to feel ti
pronounced increase in muscular activity, and then try it with a book 0 1"
much lighter sandbag weighing 1-3 pounds_ After you have practiced with
a lighter wcight for a while, you will have become so sensitive to the subtIp
Betivity ofthe diaphragm that you will be able to sense its delieate eceentric
resistance during exhalation without any weight at all . After a bout twenty
decP br eath s with a sandbag you'lI also not ce that it i natural to stop
breathi ng for a few seconds at the end of an exhalation, and that this yields
B moment of total relaxation. Here again, once you havo experieneed this
with a sandbag you will notiee that the same thing can happen with free
relaxed abdominal breathing.
Caution: Don't pause the breath habitually. It's unnatural while inhaling
and exhaling, or at the end of inhalation, so those times are not usually 8
problem, but at the end of exhalation, it 's tempting. Don 't do it except as an
experi ment in understanding the operation of the diaphragrn, The medical
lore in yoga (the oral traditiun) is that the habit of pausing the brcath at the
end of exhalation causes heart problerns.
THE INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
Ifyou are not using a sandbag, t he extent to which the intercostal muscles
are acti ve during supi no abdominal breathing is an open qucstion. ' l'hey
may be serving tu rnaintain the shape of t he rib cage somet r ically during
inhalation (as in upright postures), but this rnay not be the case loward t he
end of a long and successful re laxation in t he corpse posturo, At that time
the t idal volume and t he minute venti lation are reduced so markedly that
little te nsion is placed on the rib cage by breathing, and the intercostal
muscles may gradually become silent. It would require electromyography
usin g needle electrodes placed dirccUy in the intercostal rnusc les to settIe
the point.
Th ere will be no doubt about the activity of the intercostal muscles
if you use a sandbag for this exercise. Now the diaphragrn has to push
the sa ndbag toward the ceiling, and as its dome descends its costal
attachment s pull more insistent.ly on the base of the rib cage than
would othenvise be the casco This puB can be countered only by
isometric tension in thc intercostal muscles; you can fcel it develop
instantly if you make a before-and-after compa-ison, lirst without a
sandbag and then with une.
ABDOMINAL BREATHING IN SITTING POSTURES
We discussed abdominal breathing in the supine corpse posture lirst
becau se in that pose we lind the simplest possible method of breathing: the
diaphrlf, 'lTl is active in both inhalation anel cxhalation, the intercostal muscles
Bcl only to keep the chest stable, and the abdominal muscles remain
completely relaxed_Abdominal breathing in silling postures is quite difTerent.
Fir st of all, when we are upright, gravity pulls the abdominal organs
inferiorly instead of pushing them higher in the torso, and this is what
111 \ ,\' ,HOA/l oru.u u O<ir!
of th e mattcr, What we want from r olaxed , even breathing is no jerks-j ust
the sensation th at you are rnaking a transition fmm inhal at. ion to exhalation
an
d
Irorn exhalation to inhalation. The actual pattern ofbreathing is elliptical
rather than circular, but tho image of a Ferris wheel is still useful, espe-
cially for beginners. 'I'he main point is t hat even though no air is moving
in 01' out at the ends ofinhalation and exhalation, you can merge inhalation
with exhalation (and exhalation wit h inhalation) without effort ifyou focus
on smooth movement a long the ellipse. There will be different challenges
at each junction, so we' ll look at thcm separately.
THE JUNCTlON OF INHALATION WITH EXHALATION
The end of inhalation is the least troublesome. erve impulses keep
impi nging on the rnuscle fibers of the respiratory diaphragm oven after
exhalation begi ns, and this operates to smooth the transition between the
end of inhalation and t he beginning of exhalat ion. Picture your inhalation
as you Ieel it , If you make the transition frorn inhalation into exhalation in
slow mot ion, initiating you r exhalatio n ever so slowly, you will feel a slight
hesitation as you start to exhale, which rellec ts the continuing Ilow uf
nerve impulses into t he diaphragm as its dome begins to ascend. If you
havo healthy breathing habits liltle offort is needed Lo t une t his mechanism
dclicately and make an even t ransit ion [mm inhalation into exhalation, but if
you find you rself holding your breaLh at l he end of inhalation it is beLte/' to
firsl concentrate on breathing evenly in bending, twisting, an d inverted
posturcs-t he poses 1hemselves corred bad habitE.
.
"
I
.
.
I
.
I
I
.
,
Inhalalion \
1
Figure 2.19. Abdominal, or
abdomino-diaphragmatic
brcathing. During inhalation,
Ihe lower abdomen comes
forward and tbe dome of the
diaphragm descends. There
is little movement or
enlargement of the rib cage,
Ithough the external inter-
Costal muscles are active
cnough to keep the chest
fmm collapsing inward as
dome of the diaphragm
15 pulled downward. l he
and neck are pulled
. hghtl y to the rcar during
Inhalal i on.
causes the shift in expiratory reserve volurnes Irorn approximately 500 1I
in the supine posture to about 1,000 mI in t he upright posture. It a
means that the diaphragm cannot act as purely Iike a piston as it can n
supine and inverted postures.
The other rnajor difference betwccn supino and upright abdomi 11
breathing is that when we are upright we can choose between exhal 19
actively 01' passively We CHn simply relax as we do when we sigh, allow 19
the elasticity of the lungs to implement exhalation, or we can m st
exhalation with the abdominal muscl es, which we do in many yoga breat h 19
exercises and for all purposcful actions such as liting a heavy weight Ir
yelling out a command. A quiet breathing pattern with rel axed exhalati, s
is simpler, so we'll look at that first,
ABDOMINAL BREATHING WITH A RE LAXED ABDOM EN
Breathing abdominally with a relaxed abdomen is a prelude to meditar e
breat hi ng because it gives one an opportunity to understand the sul le
problerns involved with breat hing qu iet ly '1'0 begin, sit st raight in a eh Ir.
Don 't slump but don't pitch yourself Iorward with an arched lunu I r
lordosis, eithcr, Make sure t he lower abdomen is not rest rained by ti It
clothing. Because t he abdominal museles wrap around lo the rea r it is bet ' 1'
not to lean against thc back 01' the chair , Now breathe so that tho lov -r
abdomen moves outward during each inhalation and comes passiv y
inward during each exhalation. Breathe evenly and nasally, making SI 'e
the chest does no1 move. The abdominal muscles have to be compl ete y
free. Ir they are even mildly tensed you wil! not be doing abdominal brca1hi -!.
Notice, even so, that the ahdominal movement is minimal and that the TI .t
01' the body is stable excep1 for a slight backward movement 01' the h(' I
during inhalatiun (fig. 2. 19 ).
When you are sitting, the two most critical moments for relaxcd, e\ ' /
breathing are at the transitions-one between inbalation and exhalat i
and th e ot her between exha lati on a nd inhalation. Th ese are the ti m
when 1he breath is more likc!y tojerk 01' become uneven. But ifyou imagiJ
tha1 your breath is making a circular pattem it is easier lo
thesc transitions smoot hly. Pretend you are on a Ferris wheel. Going up
inh aJing; coming down is exhaling. The upward excursion smooth.
decelerates to zem as you circle up to the top; the downward excursio
smoot hly accelcrates from zero as you start coming down. At the botton
just the opposite happens: a downward deceleration (exhalationl mergt
smoothly into an upward acce leration (inhalationJ.
11' you are riding a real 'erris whecl with your eyes c10sed you know YOl
have renched the top and bottom 01' its circular movement by feel-the onl,
time there is ajerk is when it stops Lo let someone 0lT. And therein lies the nul
114 AfIoA7HMt' UF IIA71M tOG,1
[Technical note: In an uprrght postura the dia phragrn continuos lo receive ner
impulses as its dome starts lo rise during exhalat ion, but refe r r ing' to its muscuh
eomponents as lengthening eeccnlrically during thal lime would be pushing the u
01' lhe term eecentric too far, The phrase eccentric lengthening is customnn
applicd only lo a muscle's resi stonce lo the force of graoi ty, There is no doubt t h
eccentric lengthening of the diaphragm oecurs during exhalation in a su pi
posture and even more obviously in inverted postures (in other words, gravity ai
exhalati on and the diaphragrn resists as its muscular cornponents lengthenl, bu
arn not using the lerm eecenlric here because the primary cause 01' the UPWit
excursion 01' the diaphragrn during relaxed exhalations in an upright postura is I
elasticity of the lungs, not gravily. On the eontrary; under these circumstances grav
actually has the opposite effeet: rather lhan uiding exhalation and resisting inhalati,
in upright postures it resists exhalation and aids inhalation. Why? The liver is firn
adherenl lo the underside 01' the diaphragm (this association is shown artificia
dissected and pulled aparl in fig. 2.9), and the heart is situated just above t
diaphragm. Under these conditions the force of gravity lends lo pull all three (1
liver, the dome al' the diaphragm, and the heart) down al thc sarne time, mildly aid i i
inhalation and restricting exhalation rather than the other way around.]
THE JUNCTION OF EXHALATl ON WI TH INHALATION
As oxhalation in an uprigh t posture continuos, the diaphragrn finally rel axr
and loward the end of exhalation ils motor neurons have largcly ceascd )
lire. This makes it diflicull to negotiate a smooth transition bctwt>en lhe el
of exhalation and t he beginning of inhalation becau;e the motor neurOl
creatc a jerk in the system when lhey start firing again, something Ji
starting a cold car that cranks in fits and coughs before it runs smooth
I n an average beginning class, two or t hree times 8..<; many students w' 1
find it more difficult to avoid a discontinuity at the junction of exhalal
and inhalation than at the junclion of inhalation amI exhalation.
ABDOMINAL BREATHING WITH ACTIVE EXHALATIONS
It i.s very easy to remcdy the jerk at the beginning of inhalation. Allyo
have lo do is maintain tension in the abdomen throughout exhalatiOJ
especially toward the end, and merge that tension into the cycle ofinhalatiOl
If you are um:crmin of how to do Ihis, Lirst leam to emphasize exhalalion i
a contrivL'C! siluation. Purse the !ips so lhat only a smal l amount of air cal
escape, and blow gentIy as if you are blowing up a balloon. Not ice lhat lh
abdominal muscles are now responsible for the exhalation. Keep blowing a
long as you can. Afier you reach your limit notice thal inhalation is passive
especially at its start. Why? If you have exhaled almost to your residua
volume, the chest will spring open passively and the abdominal wall wiJ.
spring forward of its own accord, ut leas t unti l you have inhaled your
nOJ'mal expiratory reserve volume. Then, as you begin to inhale yom
nonnal tidal volume, the diaphragm begins its active deseent.
Aftcr you have gotten a fccl for exaggeratcd exhalations, try even
abdominal breathing while you are sitting in a chair. Again, your c10thing
2 I/IlE 1/ 711f1oG 115
must be loose so there are no restrictions on the movement of the lower
abdomen. Begin by taking z-second exhalations and z-socond inhalations.
Imagine the ellipse, t he exhalation going down and th e inhalation going up,
one eount each second : down, down, up, up, down, down, up, up. Then create
an imuge in your mind in which you are actively pressing in the abdominal
muscl
es
during exhalation and releasing them forward during inhalation.
, till riding the ellipse, think "travel down" the ellpse and "push in" the
abdomen fur exhalation, and think "travel up" the ellipse and "ease out"
the abdomen for inhalation: clown and in, up and out, down and in, up and
out . Assisting exhalations with the abdominal rnuscles does two things:
it masks any jerks and discontinuities that come Irorn starting up the
conl.ract ion ofthe daphragm, and even more impor1:ant, it keeps alive your
intent to br eat he evenly
THE IMPORTANCE OF POSTURE
No br eathing tcc hnique will work unless you are sitting correctly, as two
simple experimenls will show. First sil. perfec tly straight and breathe evenly,
remaining aware of l he elliptical nalure of lhe breathing cycle and making
sure that you are not creating pauses or jerks at eilher end of the ellipse.
Nowslump forward slightly and alIow the lumbar lordosis to collapse. Notice
three things: inhalalion is more labored, exhalation starts with a gasp, and
it is impossi ble to use the abdominal muscles smoothly lo aid exhalation.
Breathing evenly is impossible and meditation is impossible. 'rhe lesson is
obvious: Don't slump.
Now sit un the edge of a chair. Keep the lumbar lordosis maximally
arched but lean forward, making an acute angle between lhe torso and the
thi ghs. Watch your breathing. 'rhe abdominal muscles now have to push
l rongly against a taut abdomen to aid exhalation. Then, at the begiJ1Ing
of inhalation, ifyou relax your respiration, air rushes inta the airways. Try
rest raini ng inhalation and notice that active abdominal muscles are
requi rcd lo prevent lhe sudden inOux of airoThe lesson here? Don 't lean
forward, even with a straight back.
THE BELLOWS BREATH AND KAPALABHATI
The belIows breath (bhash'ilw ) and Iwpalahhali are both highly energizing
abdominal brcathing exercises. In their mild form they are excellent for
beginners , because they rcquire only that students be acquainted with
even abdominal breathing. The belIows breath imitatcs the movement of
the blacksmith's bellows, and kapalabhat.i requircs sharp exhalations and
Passive inhalations. The chest should not move vcry much in either exercise
eVen though the intercostal muscles remain isometrically active.
To do the belIows exercise, sit with your hcad, ne{:k, and tl"Unk straighl
116 INA"HJM Y OF IIA I IIA 10(;11
minute. By contrast, ir you take two breaths per second fOI" kapalabhati,
your alveolar ventilation would be 120 breaths per minute times 150 mi per
breath, or IH,ooo mi per min ute .
Looking carefully at th e graph (fig, 2.21), notice not, only t hat kapalabhati
ereat es more alveolar ventilation than the bellows, but that its funetional
residual eapacity is smaller. The reason for this is that each sharp exhala-
tion in kapalabhati begins beore you have inhaled up to the point at which
an ordinary tidal inhalation would begin in the bellows, On the other hand,
kapalabha1.i is nearly always practiced for a shorter period of time than t he
bellows. So even though t he projected alveolar ventilation is 50% greater
in kapalabhat i, doing t he bellows (01' longer t imes can easily make up the
difference.
,
,
,
I
,
,
I
,
I
I
I
I
'.
/
,
,
,
r
,
~
I
,
I
I
inhalation ------J
Figure 2.20b. Kapalabhati, an
abdominal breathing exercisc in
which exhalalions are emphasizcd
by sharp ly prcssing in with Ihe
abdominal muscles. Inhalal ions
are mostly passive and Ihe lidal
volume is abo ul 30U mI.lhe
exhalalions lhrust the head. neck,
and chcst slightly forward even as
lhey drive Ihe dome of the
relaxcd diaphragm toward Ihe
head and lhe abdominal wall to
lhe rearo
,
I
,
,
,
,
I
I
I
inhalalion ~
,
Figure 2.20a. l he bellows breath,
which is accomplished by
brealhing abdomi nally at the rale
?f 1--4 brealhs per second, wilh
Inhalations and exhalalions
q ~ l l y emphasized and equa lly
3l11\1e. lhe exercise mimics a
blacksmith's bellows, wilh a lidal
\lolumc of aboul 2011 mI.
an d unsupported by a wall or the back of a ehair. '1'0 begin, exhale and
inhale small puffs of air rapidly and evenly through your nose, breathi ng
abdominally and pacing yourself 10 breathe in and out eomfortably about
jo times in 15 sceonds. Keep your shoulders relaxed and your chest still.
The hlacksmith's bellows operates by pulling ai r into a collapsiblc charn be
and then blowing it foreibly into apile of glowing coals. In the bellows breaU
the diaphragrn pulls air into t he lungs and the abdominal muscles force it out
And just as the blast of extra oxygen from the air in the blacksmith's bellow
ki nd lcs additional combustion in the coals, so does t he additional oxyge i
pulled into the lungs by the bellows exercise increase the potenti al f
eombustion t hroughout the body.
T'he bellows is an easy and rewarding exercise if it is not overdone. Th
main problem begi nning students encounter is eoordinating the aetions 1
the diaphragm and abdominal muscles wit hou t hr eat hing t horacica lly (
paradoxicaIly. 'I'he secret is to start with active, even, abdominal breathin
Watching yourself in a mirror, breathe evenly, usi ng z-second exhalatiot
and z-secon d inhalations liS breaths per minute). Then gradually increa
your speed, taking i-second exhalations and I-second inhalations (
breaths per minute), rnaking sure not to move your shoulders 01' heav
your chest up and down. Not ice that the entire body is stable durii
inhalation except for the abdomen (fig. 2.20a). Then take one breath pt
second, then two breaths per second, then three, then possibly four. Mal
su re you give equal emphasis to both phases of the cyclc. When and if YI 1
lose control, slow down.
Kapalabhati is similar to bcllows breathing except t hat it consists of 1
sharp inward tap with the abdominal muscles, a quick pressing in t h
results in a sharp exhalation. '1'0 inhale, just relax. Inhalation is pa ssi -
and requires only releasing tensi n in the abdominal wall (fig. 2.20b). '1'
the exercise for one breath per second al first, and gradually increase yo
speed as you get more eonfidence and experience.
Kapalabhati is one 01' the six classic cleansing exercises in hatha yog
and i is especially effect ive in lowering alveolar carbon dioxide in the 10 \\ [
segmenls of lhe lungs. Like thc bellows, kapalabhati is not only energizi
il develops strength and stamina, and il teaches you tu cOOl'dinate ti
abdominal muscles for skill l'ul use in olher exercises such as agni sal
utldiyana bandha, and nauZi, all 01' whieh we'U diseuss in chapler 3
The physiological eorrelales of bellows breathing and kapalabhati diDi
(lig. 2.21 ). Ir we ru;;ume a tidal volume 01'200 mi for the bellows and 300 n I
rOl' kapalabhati, we'JI gel 50 mi 01' alveolar ventilalion per brealh for ti
bcllows and 150 mI of alveolar ventiIation per brealh 1'01" kapaIabhati. At
mte 01'three breaths per sC<."Ond, yow' alveolar venti lation 1'01' the bellow
wuuId be IXO brcaths per minute times ')0 mi pe1' brealh, 01' y,ooo mi pe
e
IIH AfI,IHI'\/r(JFIM'I71t1 IO<. A
Which exercise should be learned first? The simplicity and case of
moderately paced bellows (two breaths per seeond) argues for concentrati n
on it first , but ifyou compare a few sccon ds of'kapalabhati with one minut
of a fast-paced bellows breath, kapalabhati will be the mi lder exercise ano
less likely to result in hyperventilat.ion. Ei thcr choice is fine. After a litt
experience students naturally adjust the rato, extent, and depth of the
respiration so that both exercises are comfortable.
For beginners the most common challenge ofthcse two exercises is to st,
re laxed and not breathe diaphragmatically, thoracically, or paradoxi cal'
The chest and shoulders should remain still except for the moderatc impa
on th e chest of movernents that originate from the lower abdomen. It
easier t o accomplish th is with kapal abhat i because al1of the emphasis is . 1
the lower abdomen. In the bellows, if it is difficul t to keep th e chest SI
the only solution is to re turn to even abdominal breathing and start ov,
Go slowly enough to rnaintain control, even if you have to slow down o
}0-60 breaths per minute.
6000 .-------- - - - - ----,.---- - - - - - - - -
In bot h exercises it is important not to maintain any terision in t he lower
abdomen during inhalation, for if you do, it wilJ impede the downward
displacement ofthe dome ofthe diaphragm and force a lat eral expansion of
the chest (thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing), 0 1' even frankly thoracic
breathing. Th is is impraclical because the chest is a cage-rigid in comparison
to the abdominal wall-and except for speedy thoraco-diaphragmatic and
thoracic breath ing in aerobic exercise, it s unreasonable physiologically and
unsettling neurologically to breathc by en larging and contracting such an
enclo uro quickly. The most efficient way to breathe rapidly in hatha yoga
exercises such as the bellows breath and kapalabhati is to create most of the
motion in the softest tissues-and that means the lower abdomen. This is
easier lo regulare in kapalabhati t han in t he bcllows because 01' the extra
emphasis on exhalat ion.
Once you have mastc red t he technique of quicken ing the bellows to one
breath per seco nd with even abdominal breathing, it isn' t too diflicult lo
increase th e speed to over 120 breaths per minute. Serio us st udents
can speed up gr adually lo I HO- 240 breaths per mi nute, and advanced
pract itioners approach jOO breaths per minute. It 's fun, an d the faster the
better, But beware of hyperventi lati ng: build your capacity slowly but surely.
4000 1----- - - ------+-- - - - ------
30001-- --------- -+-- ---- - ---- -
TH E LONG VIEW OF LEARNING AND TEACHING
Bad breathing habits are likely lo be insidious, but they are not intractable.
Even though they go on 24 hour a day year in and year ou t, change is still
possble because the respiratory motions are entirely controllcd by somatic
motor neurons--you have t he potent ial 01' thinking the actions through
and controlling them willfu lly.
How to proceed? Whether bad breathing habits involve constricted
chest breathi ng, reversing the movement of the abdomen in paradoxical
breathing, jerking the breath, 0 1' pausing bctween inhalation and cxhalaton,
anyone who has such problema should first master abdominal breathing,
Thoraco-diaphragmatic brcathing is not advisable at first ; it will be
especially confusing to chronic chest breathers. 'I'he best solution for
such st ude nts is a regular pract.ice of a variety 01' posturcs in hatha yoga.
and the corpse posture is the place to start, In the supine position almost
eVeryone can learn to breathe in a way that a llows a hand 01' sand bag
on th e abdomen t o move smoot hly toward t he ceiling. As soon as problem
breathen; have t hat mastered, t hey should work with abdominal
breathing whi le sitting up straight in a chair, first, just inhaling and
exhaJing natural ly. This means: first, maki ng sure that th lower
abdomen r elaxes completely and protrudes during inhalation. and that
th
e
chest does not lift up and out; and second, allowing the abdominal
lllusclcs to rernain passive duri ng exhalat ion, thus permi t t ng the
8
7
inhalation.
3/8 sec
6
kapalabhati
120 breaths/min
5
exnalauon,
1/8sec
minute ventilation 36.000 rnl/mi n
alveolar ventilation 18,000 ml/rrun
lidal volume 300 mi
funct iona l residual capacity 2,000 r
4 3
inhatation,
1/6 sec
2
bellows breath
180 breaths/min
exhalation,
1/6sec
minut e ventilation 36,000 ml/mln
alveolar ventilation 9,000 ml/min
tidal volume 200 mi
funetional residual capacity 2.200 mi
10001- - - - - - - - - - - - -1-- - - - - - - - - -
time In seconds (sec)
omi L ..L__
O
50001------ - - ----+----- - - -----
Figure 2.21. Bell ows and kapal abhat i, The bcll ows.
exe rcise is usuall y raste r, but kapalabhat i ordmanly ma kes use of a l arger td al
vo l ume and a decreascd funct ional residual capaci ty.
120 OF1M11M
abdominal walI to sink back in . It may help to make tiny sighs t.o inSUTI
that each exhala tion is ent.i rely passive.
Mer mastering abdominal breathing with passive exhalations in a
upright posture, students should learn lo URe the abdominal muscles lo al
exhalation and cu ltivate even breathing. This will lead naturally to t h
beJlows breath and kapalabhati. Both of those exercises should I
approached with a sense of experimentation, observation, and pla
Rushing yourself or sorneone else into developing new hreathing habits WI I
only create anxiety and disrupt rather than benefit the nervous system.
DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING
Yogis are not the only ones who know about diaphragmatic breathing (fi
z.zce). Martial artists, public speakers, and rnusicians are all united in I
praise. But even those who practice it have a hard time describing precise
what they do and how thcy do it. This is not surprising-it's a difll ci
concept. We'lI approach it here by looking at how diaphragmatic breathir
differs frorn abdominal and chest breathing and take note of how it fe<'
and where you feel it in the body.
Abdominal breathing, or abdomino-diaphragmatic breathing, brint
your attention to t he lower abdomen. If you sit with it for a whil e
meditation you will be re laxed, but your attention wil1 be drawn to t h
pelvis and the base of the torso. [t. is a good technique for beginners, but J
the long run it results in a depressed, overly re laxed sensation. Thorac
and paradoxical breathing go to the other ext reme. They bring you
attention to t he upper chest and spin you off into realms that are not want
for rneditation: heady sensations for thoracic hreathing, and tangents 1
anxiety and emergency for paradoxical breathing, Diaphragmatic breathi ng
or /hora co-c1iaphragmatic brea/hiT/g, iti lhe perfect compromise. It bring
your at.tention squarely to the middle of the body, to the borderlinl
betwecn the chest and lhe abdomen, and from t.here il can balance ane
integrate the opposing polarities.
Diaphr af:, '1l1atic breathing is also the most. natural way to breathe ir
everyday life. Whenever you gear up mentally and physically for any activity.
the additional concentration is retlected in diaphragmalic breathing. And
in the yoga post.urcs that cal! for it, the ef1i:nt to maintain the required tensio
in the abdominal musclcs will bring you more control and awareness of thl'
torso than any other typc of breathing.
DIAPH RAG MATlC BREATHI NG IN T HE C ORPSE POSTURE
We'lI start with diaphragmatic breat.hing in lhe corpse posture. To begin,
lie supine and br eathe abdominally for fivc or six rounds, allowing th e
lower abdomen to relax and protrude during inhalalion and to drop back
2. flRlirl71I1f1.'C 121
to
ward
the 1100r during exha lation. Then, to create t horaco-diaphragmat ic
breat.hing, hold enough musc1e tone in t he abdomi nal muscles as you
inhale to prevcn t t he lower abdomen from moving anteriorly that
phas
e
of th e cycle. You can feel what happens next. Since thc tensron JO the
bdomi nal muscles does not allow t he abdominal waIl to prot rude as the
a . al
central tendon starts to descend, t he diaphragrn can act only at its cost
insertion to lift and expand t he ri b cage, Thi s draws air into the lungs and
al the sume t ime enlarges the upper abdomen, as opposed lo the lower. As
in abdominal breat hing, the external intercostal muscles rcmain active;
yOu can feel them lengthen actively against t he resistance of the lungs'
elasticity as t he chest wings out during inhalation, especialIy toward the
end of inhalation. Diaphragmatic broathing in the corpse posture requires
more attent ion than abdominal breathing, and because of this it is usofu l
as a concentration exercise and Ior the deep inhalations and long exhalations
in 2:1br eal.hing.
SANDBAG BREATHING
In the corpse post ure, sa ndbags of various weights wiIl st.rengthen and
furthcr ed cate t he diaphragm, intercostal muscles, and a bdominal
muscles. As mentioned ear lier, a sandbag weighing 3-1') pounds is best
for training in abdomi nal breat hing because it can be comfor tably
pressed toward the cei ling with each inhalation, and its falI can be co rn-
fortably restrained du r ing exhalation. The chest is stable, and bot h the
uppcr and lower abdomen are t h rust anteriorly (along wi th t he sandbag)
by inhalation (fig. 2.22a).
1'0 intensify the exercise and create diaphragmatic breathing, increase
t he weight of th e sandbag to t he point at wh ich it is a bit awkward lo press
it toward the ceiling. This much weight, about 20-30 pounds for a healthy
yuung man with good strength, makes it more convenient to breathe
diaphragrnati caIly than abdominaIly. If you adjust the amount and place-
ment ofthe weight perfectIy, the tension on your uppcr abdomen will cause
the diaphraf:, '1l1 to fiare the rib cage out from its base. You have play with
the resul t ing sensations and analyze the movements carefully. In this case
(fig. 2.22b), if a 25-pound bagoflead shot is placedjust beneath the rib cage,
inhalat ion lill.s t he chest and uppcr abdomen up and forward, but the
movemcnt of the lower abdomen is checked, at least in comparison with
abdomi nal inhalation shown in fig. 2.22a.
If you inerease the weighi. even more, to }0-50 pounds or so, you wiII
create so much tentiion in l.he abdomen that the dome uf the diaphragm
is unable to descend al. aH. In that. evenl the only way you will be able to
breathe comfortably will be by lifting the upper part of the rib cage and
breat hing t-horacically (fig. 2.22C). Placing two 2')-pound bags of lead shot
122 ANA7nMl or IIA7/M 1"(X ;A
.! 811/ ;'1ruu: 12.'
Figure 2.22a. Abdominal, or abdomino-diaphragmatic breat hing, with a
14-pound sandbag. The diaphragm pushes against Ihe abdominal organs,
ultirnat ely pressing the abdo minal wall and sandbag toward the cc iling.
crocodile posture. First, lo experience abdominal breathing, lie prone, with
the feet apart, the elbows flexed, and the arms stretched out in front, Your
hands should be pullcd in enough for the forehead to rest on the bony part
of th e wrst. This is the most relaxcd variation of the crocodile (fi g, 2.231-
1'he position of the arms restricts thoracic breathing, the position of the
chest against the floor restricts diaphragmatic breathing, and the position
of the lower abdomen against the floor restricts what we conventionally
thin k of as abdominal breathing. Still, in a modificd form, abdominal
breathing s what this is, with the hips and lower back rather than the
front of the abdomen responding to the rise and Iall of the dome of the
diaphragm.
Abdomi nal breathing in this sleepy, stretched-out crocodile requires a
more acti ve diaphragm than abdominal breathing in the su pino posi tion.
Why? The weight of the entir e torso against the floor in the prone posi tion
restrai ns inhal at ion more t han the weight of the ahdominal organs by
thernselves in the supine position-it feels something like breathing in the
corpse postura with a lead apron spanning you r entire chest an d abdomen.
Ir you make a nominal effort lo breathe evenly, the diaphragm also has to
work more strongly lo restrain exhalation. At the end of exhalation, of
course, it can relax completely, just as it does in the corpse posture.
Next, lo experience an unusual form of diaphragmatic breathing, Jie in
the more tradit ional easy crocodi lo with the elbows flexed and the arrns
al a -l5-90o angle from the torso. The hairline should rest against the
Iorearrns. Adjust the arms so that the lower border of the chest is barely
touching the 0001'. This arches the back and creates a mild backbending
postura (fg, 2.24). Now we are entering complcx and unexplored territory.
Tha lower abdomen still cannot prolrude because it is against the floor:
lhoracic breathing is restricted by the extreme arm position even more
than in the previous posture; and the attempt of the diaphragm to descend
is chec ked becausc thc base of the rib cage and upper abdomen is still held
in positi on. The only parts of the hody that appcar to yield for inhalation
" ..- ' .., -.
"
inhalalion
~
"
Figure 2.22b. Diaphragmatic, or lhoraco-diaphragmatic breathing with a 25-
pound bag of lead shot. lhe extra weig ht is somewhat more difficult lo lift Ihar
the 14-pound sandbag, and this creates mo re of a lendency for the rib c a ~ ~ II
be en larged from its base than for the weight to be pushed toward the ceiling.
inhalalion
~ , ,
.. - ' \
- -- \.. -
on t he abdomen creates lwo results: it requires thal there will be a
substantial increase in the anterior disp lacernent ofthe upper chest during
inhalation, an d it holds the middle and lower portions ofthe abdomen fixed
in position.
BREATHING IN THE CROCODILE POSTURE
If you still have trouble sensing the ways in which abdominal am
diaphragmatic breathing operate and difer from one another, the distinc
tions will become more clear if you try breathing in two variations of t h.
inhalalion
rigure 2.22c. Thoracic breathing, as required by "O pounds of weighl placcd
on the abdomen and lower border of Ihe chest, After a modesl downward
excursin of the dome of the dia ph ..agm (inhalation), its muscle fihe rs remain
in a slate of isometric co nl..action and Ihe brunt of inhalation mus l be bo rne
by lhe external inte..coslals.
nhataton
-.L .
Figure 2.23. A specialized Iype of abdominal b..eathing crealed by a stretched-
n ~ t crocod ile po t ur e, lhe floor cannol yield lo Ihe descpnding dome of lhe
dlaph..agm during inha lalion, so lhe lowe r back and hips are lifted by defaull.
,
.
,
,
,
..'
2 HHf:H1WI,'C 125
,
,
I

,
.
.
,

inhalation

I
I
1
I
I
I
I
1
I
.
Figure 2.25b. Diaphragmalic
breathing from the side,
iIIuslrating the forward
movemenl of the chest
when rnoderale lenson is
held in lhe abdominal
muscles during inhalalion.
Figure 2.25a. Diaphragmalic,
or lhoraco-diaphragmatie
breathmg, from a fronl
view, Holding moderale
Icnsion in the abdomen
dictales lhal the diaphragm
will cantilever lhe base of
lhe rib cage oul and up (lhe
"bllcket-handle" analogyl.
!:!QW DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING AFFECTS PDSTURE
Ir you examine your body carefully when you are breathing daphrag-
rnatically in the easy crocodile (Iig. 2.24), the cobra (fig. 2.10), 01' the
diaphragmatic rear lift (fig, 2.111, you will notice that inhalation raises your
posture up and back, and that exhalation lowers it down and forward. This
principie also holds true when you are standing, sitting straight, 01' even
lounf.,>lng in a soft chair. During inhalation in all such postures the head
rno
ves
back, and during exhalation it comes forward. During inhalation the
cervicallordos;.o; (the forward arch in the neck) decreases, thus raising the
head: during exhalation it increases, lowering the head. The shoulders
move back during inhalation and forward during exhalation. The thoracic
hyphos;s (the posterior convexity in the chest) decreascs during inhalation
and increases during exhalation. Final1y, if you are sitting straight the
lumbar lordosis increases during inhalation and deereases during exhalation.
.-'
innalation
a1'C the 10wCl' back and hips (fig. 2.24), just as in the stretched crocodiJ
Isolated comparisons 01' the dashod superimpositions for inhalations
these two postures is not helpul to our analysis, however, because ti
expcrience 01' breathing in thcm is compJetely different. Although it is 1"
reflected in the photographs, inhalation in the beginners crocodile creat
a characteristic tension at the base 01' the rib cage which is absent in 1 e
stretched-out posture, For that reason we can-indeed we must--elas.
breathing in the beginner's crocodile as thoraco-diaphragmatic breathii
DIAPHRAGMATlC BREATHING IN SITTlNG POSTURES
'1'0 experience the centcr-of-the-trunk sensation that characteriz
diaphragmatic breathing in sitting postures, sit upright in a chair and fi
review abdominal breathing as a hasis 1'01' cornparison. Then to brca t,
diaphragmatcally, inhale gently while holding just enough tcnsion in ti
abdominal muscles to make sure that the lower abdomen is not displac
anteriorly during inhalation. 'I'hcrc is a sense 01'enIargement in the 10\'0
part 01' the chest and a Ieeling 01' expansion in tho upper part 01' t
abdomen just bcJow the sternum. The lateral excursion 01' the rib cage (ro
2.25a) is more pronounccd than the anterior movement (fig. 2.25b), but YI 1
may have to take a few slow, deep inhalations to confirm this.
AH 01' these observations wiII be lost on chest breathers bccause t i
difference between the miId lower abdominal tension that crean
diaphragmatic breathing and the frank rigidity 01' the entire abdomi n
walJ that is associated with constricted thoracic breathing is far loo suht
1'01' them to feel and comprehend. They will get mixed up every time.c
discussed earlier, anyone who has the habit 01' chronic chest breathir
should not try to do thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing until they ha
beco me thoroughly habituated to abdominal breathing. Their Iirst g ,
rnust be lo break the habit 01'constricted chest breathing forever.
Figure 2.24. Objectively this beginner's crocodile posture again appears lo lifl
the \ower back and hips as in abdomino-diaphragmalic hreathing, but appear-
ances can be deceiving. The subjeelive red of lhe poslure is lhal lhe mild baek-
bending posilion severely restricts lifling of lhe lower back; more emphasis is
feH al the base of the rib cage. For lhal reason. and because the exlreme ann
position also reslricls lhorade brcalhing. this poslure is admirably slliled for
lraining in thoraco-diaphragmalic breathing.
12(, A.'\'A mMI o r /I/n/IA HK;,1
The movernents are subtl e, but if you purposely try to make thern in Lht
opposite direction, you will see inst antly that they are contrary lo the normal
pattern.
An understanding of these principies is of practical value to rneditat ors
because they can t.ake advantage of the slight post ural changos cause:
by breathing to adjust and improve their si tting postures, Try it . Si ,
comfortably on the edge of a st r aight chair and breathe evenly anr
diaphragmatically in a cycle of 4- seconds for oach round of inhalat ioi
and exhalaban. Resolve not to make noticeable movernents for the nex
five minutes. Now, with each inhalation lift your posture, allowing th
inhalation to pull the head back, flatten the thoracic kyphosis, an
increase t hc lumbar lordosis. These adjustments should bc so slight tl u
they are barely percept ible, even to the practitioncr, Press the abdome
in actively during cach exhalation so as not to Jose ground. Pretend ths
the breath is acting like a ratcheting mec hanism on a pu lley t hat
lifting a weight. With each inhalation you gain a single cog, and duriu
exhalation the ratchet prevents the weight from faJling. You can al -
imagine that the breath is a thread which lifts th e posture durin
inhalation and then ho lds it from falling during exhalation. The resolv
not to move in this exercise is critical, so good concentration is require-
If you make adjustments that are externaJly visible, the body accepts t i,
habit of moving, and the posture deteriorates when cuncentration lapses
Next check the effects 01' diaphragmatic breathing when you al
slouched. Youwill notice the same problems you encountered with abdornin
breathing in a slouched posture: labored inhalatiuns, BJ1 inability to su
exhalations without gasping, and t he difficulty of using the abdomi .
muscles 1.0 aid exhalation. 'I'he ent ire torso is lifted up and back with cal
breath, but each exhalation drops il forward . Youcan see an ext reme examl
ofthis ifyou dip your head forward while you are sIouched. Each inhalatil
roUs th e body up, and each exhalation rolls i1. down .
Now t.ry:o; tling pcrfed:ly st ra ight (but without a rching your t orso forwat 1
from lhe hips l-Notice that the posture itself defines diaphragmatic breathin
Unl ess you are too l1abby. th e abdomen is held taut enough by th e post.u
o
tu make abdominal breathing inconvenient. You can play with the edges
this. Hold the posture Iess rigorously, and you will see that you begin
br ea1.he abdominalIy. Sit straight, an d th e tuut abdomen will force you
breathe diaphragmati cally. Can-ying th is to an e>.:t reme, if you ben
forward from the hips mar ked ly while maint.aining a prominent lumrn
lordosis , th e abdomen gets w tuut that inhalatinn bL'Comes vcry labariou.
Youwil! then eit her have to res or t to chest breathing 0\' make cxcess ive eflbl
tu bt'calhe diaphragmaticaIly
2. llRfitll7l11\'(i 127
gEN DIAP HRAGMATlC B REATHI NG
Many of the principies underlying even abdominal breathing apply to
even diaphragmatic breathing as well. Make sure there are no jerks in
your breat h. This is more difficult in diaphragmatic breathing than it is
in abd ominal breathing because t he process is more complex and you
ar e consta nt ly monitoring the tension in your abdomen. ntil you get
accustomed to doing this, it may create slight disruptions during
inhal ati ons.
Be careful that you are not creating a pause at the end of inhalation.
'I'his is less of a prohlem in diaphragmatic breathing than it is in abdominal
brcathing because the additional tensi n in the abdomen (as well as the
focus al' mental attention at the junction of the chest and abdomen) keeps
the diaphragm in a state of tensi n well into exhalation. Be even more
watchful that you are not creating a pause al the end of exhalation. As with
abdominal breathing, it is important to assist exhalation with the abdominal
muscles, causing that part 01' the cycle to flow smoot hly and naturally into
the inhalation. As inhalation proceeds, however, there is an important
difference between abdominal and diaphragrnatic brcathing: during
abdominal breathing, the abdominal muscles Iacilitate even breathing only
at th e beginni ng 01' inhalation, but during diaphragmatic breathing, they
remain active throughout inhalation so that their isometric tensi n can
force the diaphragm tu spread its costal attachrnent lat erally and enlarge
the rib cage.
Breathe through your nose, and try not 1.0 create noise. Il' your breath-
ing is noisy, you may have to work with cleansing, diet , allergies, and
breathing exercises to solve the problem, but this is essential. Noisy
breaLhing will distract your mind as long as it lasts.
Observe in your mind's eye th e ellipLical nature of the breathing cycle.
Smoothly dccelerate your rate of inhalation and mcrge it into exhalat iun
exactl y as you would round ofI' an eIJipse al lhc top 01' a chalkbuard.
Smooth ly accelerate your exhalation under th e control of your abdominal
musdes as you draw the chalk down the ellipse; smoothly decelerate your
exhalat ion and merge i1. nto lhe inhalation as you carry your mark around
the bottom of the ellipse.
. UntiI you have maslered even breathing don't lry to lengihen your
mhalalions and exhalations. A 2-second inhalation and a 2-second inhalation
is fine, ur a littIe faster or slowel'. The longer you try lo make the cycle, the
more difficult it is to make it even. So be completely natural at first with-
out thinking oftrying to accomplish anylhing.
Afier several months of practice you can slowly work up to mak ing your
breat hs longe", so long as you are still not jerking, pausing, ur making
noise. If you BJ'e taking fewer th an six brcaths per minute, you will be
121\ AI\ATOMI IJFIf,.1nlA lOCA
adding a thoracic component to diaphragmatic brealhing, which mear
that you are activating the external intercostal musc!es concentricaU
especially toward the end of inhalation. You will also be pressing mor
insistently with the abdominal muscles to lengthen the exhalation. And
you carry this to un extreme, going slowly, you will final1yapproach breathir
your vital capacity with each cycle of exhalation and inhalation. This is t i
complete breath, our next topic .
THE COMPLETE BREATH
The complete breath is one of the sirnplest and yet most rowarding of ,
the yoga breathing exerciscs. '1'0 begin, breathe in and out a few tim
normally and then exhale as much as possible, all the way down lo Y0 1
residual volume. Then for the complete breath inhale as much as possibl
which will he your vital capacity (fig, 2.261. Contine by exhaling and inhalii
your vital capacily as many times as you want.
This is a lot of vcntilation even if you breathe slowly. If you inhale al
exhale your vital capacity three times in one minute, your minute venti
tion will be 14, .1
0 0
mi per minute (4,800 rnl per breath times three breat
per minute), and your alveolar ventilation will be 13,Y5
0
mi per minu
(4,65
0
mi times 3 breaths per minute). After just six such breaths y I
blood gases will have shifted perceptibly-a!"terial oxygen will have movc':1
Irorn perhaps 100 mm Hg to 120 mm Hg and arterial carbon dioxide fro 1
perhaps 46 mm Hg to 35 mm Hg (fig. 2.27). For this reason the compk
breath is both cleansing and energizing, but if you do it slowly and eve
it will also produce a sense of calm and stability,
You can practica the complete breath when you are sitting, standing, r
Iying down, but it is most commonly done in a supine position with t
three complete breaths , alveolar venJilation is 13950
ml/min; estimaled final blood oxygen is 125 mm'Hg;
estirnated final blood carbon dioxide is 35 mm Hg
ro ro 00 00
time in seconds (sec)
hands stretched overhead, usually al the end of a class 01' at the end of a
series of sun salutations. Most instructors will suggest filling the lungs
fro
m
beluw-expanding the lower, then the middle, and finally the upper
parts 01' the lungs.
A eommon and less extreme variation uf the complete breath is lo simply
inhale and exhale your inspiratory capacity instead of'your vital capacity, and
unless the instructor specificaIly asks you lo exhale as much as you poss bly
can before starting the complete breath, inhaling and exhaling the inspiratory
cnpacity is what most people will do naturally
[Technical note: In addition to the preven anti-aging effects 01" a calorie-restricted
and high-nutrition diet in experimental anirnals, the ability to quickly inhale a
commodiolls vital capacity appears to be one of the most reliable predictors of
longevity in humans. Whclher this argues for the principie of trying lo increase
your inspiratory and vital capacity is not so certain, but it certainly can't hurt any-
one who is in good cnough health to do the postures. In chapter 3. we'Il concentrate
on exercises that focus on exhalation rather than inhalalion-increasing your vital
capacity by developing the ability to exhale your full expiratory reserve volume and
rninirnize your residual volume.]
Figure 2 27 S l ' f
h . . . mlUalmns o three compl -te breaths (in this ease inhaling and
ahng lhe vilal eapacity) following an inilial exhalation of the expiralury
volume. Even Ihough Ihe subject is only taking three brcalhs per
in imd uul lhe full vital eapacity a few times is expeelcd lu
edly mercase blood oxygen and deerease blood earbon dioxide.
6OllO
mi
five normal breaths ,
beginning wilhan
5000
exhalation and ending
mi withan inhalation;
1
alveolar ventationis
4000
4,200 ml/min; b100d
e mi
oxygen leve! is 100

mm Hg; blood carbon

E
dioxide is 46 mm Hg
E 3000
<n mi
Q)
E
.:l
o
2000 >
i
mI
"lJ
'"
1000
mI
Oml
O 10 20

,
,
I
,
,
,

I
I
I
I
I
.
.
\
"
"
I
,
inhalatian- - --.-.;'
Figure 1..2(,. The complete
breath, or inhalalion and
exhalation of lhe vilal
eapadty. The halftone
shows a profile of lhe
fullest pussible exhalation.
and Ihe dolted oulline
shuws lhe fullesl possible
subscquenl inhalalion.
IJO ANA "lnlll' Uf'IIA"llIA InCA
2 1.\1
ALTERNATE NOSTRIL BREATHING
One uf the best breathing exercises for calming the nervous system S
alternate nostril breathing, 01' nadi shodanham. This is a concentrat i n
as well as a hreathing exercise, and it is possibly the single most imp, .
tant preparation for meditation in hatha yoga. There are dozens rf
variations to suit difTering needs, ahi lities, and temperaments. At r e
extreme. mental patients, flighty 01' hyperactive chi ldren, 01' anyone \\ o
has difficuJty cuncentrating can simply sit up straight, rest their el b, 's
on a desk, press the right nostri l shut with the right index fnger, d
exhale and inhale three times. Thon they can press the left nostril .it
with the lefl. index finger and again exhale and inhale three times. T is
simple exercise can be repeated for 5 minutes at a pace of 1- to z-seo d
exhalatiuns and 1- to z-second inhalations ( 15-30 breaths per mi m e)
using abdominal breathing, It trains concentration because it req u
sitting straight, cuunting the breaths, switching nostrils at the prr r
rnornent, and, most important of all, breathing evenly with no n( e,
jerks, 01' pauses.
A slightly more cumplex versi n of alternate nostril breathing b 18
with making the classicall1l11dro (gesture) with the right hand, curling le
index and middle fingers in toward the palm. Closing the right nostril th
the t humb, exhale and inhale once through the left nostril (fig. 2._ 1).
Then, closing the lefl. nostril with the ring (fourth) finger (fig. 2.28b) ex. le
and inhale once through the right nostril. Go back and forth like that I 5
min utes. Breathe abdominally 01' diaphragmatically as your abi l es
permit.
rigure 2.28a. Alternate nostril .
breathing, c10sing the righl nostnl
with Ihe right thumb.
Figure 2.28b. Altc rnat c nostril
breat hing, c10sing the left nostril wil
Ihl' right Cour th fingt'r.
The following version of this exercise is the one ordinarily taught in
hatha yoga classes even though it is more elaborate and demanding 01'
concent ra tion than the previous exercises, sing the same hand mudra as
for the seeond exercise, exhale through the left nostril and inhale through
the right three hreaths, then exhale through thc right and inhale through
the left three more breaths. Then breathe threc breaths evenly with both
no::;t rils open. Ne},.', exhale through the right and inhale through the lefl.
three times, then exhale through tho left and inhale through the right
three times, and again take three even breaths with both nostrils open.
That's 18breaths. Repeat this three times, for 54 breaths total. As before,
your concentration will beon postura, abdominal 01' diaphragmatic breathing,
and, above all, on even breatbing.lfyou can avoid sacrifcing even breathing,
you can slow down 10 J-second exhalations and j-seccnd inhalations, 01' ten
breaths per minute.
If you do this practico threo times a day, it centers the attention and calms
the mind, and it is lhcrefore ideal for anyone who wishes to remain balanced
and focused . For a more advanccd practice, studonts will gradually slow
down the pace ofbreathing until they are fina\ly taking zo-second exhalations
and zo-second inhalations. ltimalely they will practice pranayama, 01'
breath ret ent ion (which, as will be discussed shortly, should never be under-
taken exeept under the supervision of a competent instructor>.
A TRADITIONAL WARNING
Caut ions to be judicious and respeetfuJ of breathing exercises abound in the
literatll re on hatha yoga. And it does indeed seem from anecdotal reports of
explorers in this field that the rhythm and record of our respiration
resonates throughout the body. It sceffiS to accentllate whatever is in lhe
whether it be benevolence 01' malevolence. harmony 01' disharmony,
:u-
tue
01' vice. On the negative side, experi enced teachers rcport that quirk-
mess of any sort gets accentuated in students wbo go too faT. It might be
an. abusive streak, laughing inappropriately, speaking rudely, nightiness,
tWl tchines' t ' R' h
s, 01' nervous ICS. Ig t to left phy::;ical imbalances also become
Unfortunately, novices ofien c10se their ears to wW'nings:
havIng bccome addicted to their practice, lhcy will not be denied.
Competent teacheTs of hatha yoga will be watchful of these simple matters
;d waTY of tutoring refractory stlldents. Even the beginning exercises
Isrussl>d in thi s chapler should be treatcd with re pect.
Apart from psychoIogical concerns, thl! special physiological hazards
ofbr th ' .. .
ea lI1gexerclses IS that they can cause problems without rriving .
trad' . . ' . .,' us
Jet i It lOnal slgna.ls warnmg us agam.st doing s.omel.hing harmful. In ath-
. cs, the practlce of asana, expenrnents Wlth dlet, 01' just tinkcring
wllh any object in lhe physical world, we depcnd on OUT senses lo tell
an empowered thoraclc inhalation
IJ2 AI\A"H)MI O/-1M/l/A !"lX,A
us t hat we are exceeding our capacity or doing sorncthing inadvisah
But breathing exereises are dfferent., In that realm we are dealing wi 1
phenomena that our senscs, or at least our untutored senses, are oft n
unable to pick up, even though they can sti ll affect the body. A el
because of this, advanced exe rcises should be undertaken on ly by t hr e
who are adequately prepared. Given such preparatinn, and given tl 'L
une is enjoying a balanced life uf cheerful t hought s, positivo feeli n ;,
an d productivo actions, the yoga breathing exercises have the potent 11
for producing more powerful and positive benefits than any other pract 'e
in hatha yoga. Again, that's a big claim, but experienced yoga instruct 's
wiII agree.
" l/i.i/fn :yu:dIAr/1 I/' l/.1c o/rcYII)nlt"/i/I, /I//Io,? h ajt'//Iu/
Ik'al IZ/I nrr/nJ/i//I-t''Ihty' e.1Jud/n/'"//1 ml/fileN 'r 1"1 mny
k ,/lfl,J.1eJ I /II./JIk //10.1. 1 o/ &'od l/luJ a' dI{)// rlfl l
/'I!/ir lAe.1I .- mlnl/tn.rl/ck j l u '/! d'l7/.//rdJ"IJ//I
11, /.1 / l/' 1!'//;Y'(',I'j'Ijhr h-callf/ rtf/O/./l . .,
- J ohn Mayow, in Tractat us Quinq/le (1674), quotcd from
Proctor' s A History uf Breathing Physiology, p. 162.
--... ---
e. R/l EAn/l/\'C 13.\
chesl is
expanded
lo ils near
maximum
abdominal
wallis
relaxed
but taut
Figure 2 29 E ' .
1) The d' a. t horacrc breat hing: nh al att on,
Ihereb orne of diaphragm re sts being pul/ed loward the head and
2) Th YSUpporls nhalation indi reclly. '
3) The abdomin.al wa ll is relaxed bul taut ,
4) lhe mt ercost al ac tive ly Iifl the chest up and out,
S) n nb cage expands lo it s near mximu m.
le mental state is celcbratory.
1,14 Ar.", '/ OM1 'OFIfAT//r1 l()("l
a constricted thoracic inhalation
chest is expanded
and litted, but within
the confines 01
"shallow breathing"
abdominal
wall held
rigidly
Figure 2,29b. Constrictcd thoradc
1) The diaphragm is relaxed an? irnmoblle.
2) The abdominal wall is heId ng,dly.. .
3) The external intercostal muscles actively lift the chest up and out.
4) The rib cage cxpands lo within and constricted limits.
5) The mental state can hecunte anxrous,
2 . lil<E-I17I1/\'(j 1.1<;
a paradoxical inhalation
chest
expanded
maximally
abdominal
wall rs
pulledin
and up
passively
Figure 2.29c. Paradoxical breathing: inhalation.
1) The diaphragm is complelely relaxed and Iifted by the chest,
2) The abdominal wall is pulled in and up passively
3) Thc e.xtemal intercosta l muscles a tively lift the chest up and out.
4) The rib cage expands maxirnally,
5) Overdone, the mental state can become anxious and panicky.
\J6 ANATOMI' 01' IIA111J1 10CI1
an abdominal (abdomino-dlaphragmatic) inhalation
inlereostal muse s
are held in a gel e
state 01isometr
eontraetion to k. p
the chest Irom
collapsing nwat
during inhalatior
abdominal 1I
is relaxed al 1
pushed torw rd
by !he actior 01
me n
Figure 2.29d. Abdominal (abdomino-diaphragmatic) breathing: inhalation.
1) The dome of the diaphragm moves down in a rairly simple piston-Iike ac t n,
2) The lower abdominal wall ls relaxed and pushed forward by the diaphrag
n
3) The intercos tal musdes aclively hold the chest wall in a stable position.
4) The rib cage re rnains about the same size in all parts of the breathing cydt
5) The ment al state s ralaxed an d may ge t sleepy,
.1, BRE4TI/ING 1.' 7
a dlaphragmatic (thoraco-diaphragmatic) inhalation
upper abdominal
.",.,., wall is pressed
:=>out along wilh
the lower bordar
01the rib cage
(movement is
exaggerated)
----- lower abdominal
wall is held some-
whal taut , either
by a) muscular
resistanee. or
b) by silting or
standing straiqht,
or el by both in
cornbinanon
2.. 2ge. Diaphragmatic breathing: inhalation.
2) The against the abdominal organs.
3) lhe ?bdomrnal wall is taut, in part !rom muscular activity.
4) 1 e muscles rnaintam the overall integrity of the chest wall
S) The rib cage is flared at its base by the costal altachment of the diaph;ag
he mental state s dear and at tentive, and is focused on Ihe mid-Iorso. m.
13R Al\'lrtDMl OI '///1T1IA HIGA
CHAPTEH.
ABDOMINOPELVIC
EXERCISES
1'111'171' 1.1 ' C-..'IO Y/ 1' 1fl d ;' .10&.1' . d ; ana o/
l/l(. a j jocialt"aI IPIl// ('/&r .1tJI'I. s1?l't / Jar a alJo ;;'/11' /21.1
d ioI0tue4 Ilaal & r. /tcmotlJ c '(# /r/lo/,Y' JyJE//I a"td
'E/tn'w'iMl'" 151:J1u /I- n / l'I.&- l'!.r,o-r-/JEJ I/LJ O/N tJ I/I"
{lLIaI t/i/tt' /.J {le/Y Jk H"t- il //Iajl ;./tapn/l/'l'/
akll'tC. N
- Sri Swami Rama, in Exercise Witholl/ Mouement., p. :;3.
Asure way to develop what yogis call inner strength is to tone the abdominal
regi n. If energy in the arms and shoulders is weak, a strong abdomen can
give you an extra edge, but if the abdomen is weak, look out, because even
the strongost arms and shoulders are likely to fail you . One of the most
memorable hoxing rnatches of the century (Muhamrnad Ali vs. George
Forema n, DcL 30, 1974) is a perfect example. Ali knew he had lost his edge
for dancing around the ring "like a buttorfly," and that he probably couldn' t
win un less he adopted uneonvcntional tactics. Suspecting that Foreman
would not have the stamina Ior a long bout, Ali had prepared a stccly but
resili ent belly with thousands of repetitions of sit-ups and other abdominal
exerci ses. He called on this secret strength early in the match, repeatedly
going to the ropes and letting his opponcnt punch himself to exhaustion.
Reality hit in the eighth round-with a few precise strokes AH brought
Forema n down for the count.
Thc structural foundation for abdorninopelvic st rengt h and energy (t his
is obviously a literary rather than a scientific use of the term "encrgy,"
something Iike saying sorneone has "a lot of pep," or "a 101of guts") is the
pelvis and abdomen, a complcx region whose archilecture can be under-
slood most easily by studyng two simple and familiar exerciscs: crunches
and si l-ups. 'I hen we'Jl be able lo make more sense ofth general design of
the abdominopelvic regi n in relation lo the chest and lower extremities.
This in t ur n will cnable us to discuss leglift s, sit-ups, the boat postures, and
the peacoc k. These sccmingly diverse exercises not only strengthen lhe
torso, they st irnulate abdominal energy by using t he abdomen as a fulcr'um
i . A/II )(J.I /I,\ ()PU ./e 141
abdominal muse/es aet as agonists (prime movers)
THE FOUNOATION OF THE BODY
To un derstand how crunchas, sit-ups, and leglifts operate mechanicalIy, as
well as to lay tho groundwOl'k for discussing standing, backward bending,
forwar'd bending, twisting, and sittng postures in later chaplers, we must
look al t he pelvis and its relationships with the spine and thighs in detail.
THE HIP BONES AND SACRU M: TH E PE L VIC BOWL
We'I1 first examine the pelvic bouil, whieh is formed from the eombination
of the two peloic bolles (the hip bones and the sacrum-lhe lowest 01'the
four main segments of the spine. 'I'ho pelvic bones have two roles: one is to
link the vertebral column with the th ighs, legs, and feet; the otber is to
define (in eombinat ion with the sacrum) the base of the torso and provide
a skel etal framework for the pclvic cavity and the organs of elimination
and reproduct ion.
In the fetus eaeh hip bono is made up of three segments: the ilium, the
ischium, and t he pubis. We ofien speak of thcm individually, but in adults
they are fused together ioto one piece, with one hip bone on each side. To
the rear; t he iliac segments of the pelvic bonos form right and left sacroiliac
joints wit h t he sacrum (fi g. }.2-4).
To unders tand the lhrce-dimensional architectw'e of the pelvic bowl,
there is no substitute for palpating its most prominent landmarks. You can
start by feel ing the crests of the ilium on eaeh side at your waistline. Then
locate the ischial fuberosities (thc "sitting bonos") behind and below; these
are the protuhcrances upon which your weight rests whon you sil on a bicycle
seat or on lhe edge of a hard chai r.
1'0 cont inue YOur exploration, locate lhe two pubic lxmes in [ront, just
above lhe genitals. 'Ihey join one another at lhe pubic symphysis, a fibl'O-
joint which keeps the two si des of the pelvis locked logelher
In fronl (figs. 1.12 and 3.2-4); their romi (ramus means "branch" ) conocet
wilh t he ilia and ischia on each sirle (figs. .1,2-4). First trace the upper margin
uf pubic bone laterally, \Vhat you are fceling are the superior pubic
rana, bony projections that extend into the groin toward the ilium on eaeh
IliOP50a .
s muscles (hlp nexors) acl as synergists lo braco !he pelvis
Figure 3 1
e ' .
rUnen exercise,
safe/y lifting up
iIlld fOrWard
with benl knees.
140 A\A /VMt O'-/1/I7HA tD(;,1
for manipulating large segmsnts of the body in re lation lo one another il
.
In the second half of the chapter we'll shif], our attention to the anatomica,
perineum and discuss practices that work with t hat region with. th.
abdomen and pelvis in relativo isolat on, in contrast 1.0 the abdommal exercises
whieh demand use of t he body as a whole, The practices in the second half (1
the chapter inelude asluoini mudra, mula bandha, agni sara:
bandha, and nauli hriya. Last, we'lI take a criticallook at contraindication
and benefits.
CRUNCHES ANO SIT-UPS
If you asked the instructor at your local healt h elub to show you the be
alxlominal exercise, you would probably be told to do crunches. You would. '
down supine, draw t he feet in, bend t he knees, interlock the fingers
t he head, and then pu l! t he upper half of your body into a four t h of a sit-u
just enough to lift your shoulders weU off the 1100r. Then you would 10Wt
yourself bac k down and repeat the movement s as many limes as you wa i
This is not abad exercise, lt strengthens the abdominal muscles and stretcb
the back in one of the safest possible posit ions. Sit-ups are a difTerent rnat t.
In high school gym classes from years gone by, students used t:o L'Oun.l ti
number of rapid-fire sit-ups (jerk-ups, actually) they could do 10 a rrunu
with the knces extended and the hands interlockcd behind the neck. If YI .1
are strong and under eighteen this prohably won't hurt you, but if you
older and have a history of back problcms it is likely to make them
The muscles responsible for cnmches and sit-ups include both abdomu I
museles and hip flexors . 'rhe abdominal mUtieles encircle the abdomen ti el
extend [mm the chest to the pelvis. The hip f1exors, which are p
in the pelvis (and thus hidden from view), flex the temu,. at the J OI
Tbey inelude the iliac/ls amI psoas musclc.
c
; (or the iliopsoas, conslden
the two of them logether as a team). They run from the pelvis lo the upr r
part of the femur in the case of tbe iliaeus, and from lhe lumbar spine to t le
femur in the ca..e of the ptiOlS ([jgs. 2.R, 3.7, and R.13).
Crunches are relatively safe because the knees are bent and the lum L r
region is rounded posterior!y (lo the rear). nder t
abdominal muscles pull you up and forward, and the Ihopsoas
that movement as syoergists by bracing the ilia and the lumb8l' regIon (1 :.
) By ontrasl if you do sit-ups with the knees straight, the psoas m
. C , cd .. t ' Y
first pulI the lumbar spine into a more fully arch posltlon an enOl
(lo lhe frunt), anrl lhen they pulI lh torso up und fonvard.lfyou have ba It
bl ' t' t/lis initial puU 00 fhe lumbar arch that can create prohlerr plO ems, I IS . .
Later in this chapter (lig. 3.21U-b) we'U see severa l ways to approaeh Slt-I )
exerciscs more saICl):
1.12 ,1.\'.-170.111 (JJ. Il.H7ft1 )()(itl
.l . tl/ilH1.l llll O/ 'N. I / ( /'.\""U.-JS"\ 1.1.1
e
3.2. !he lemale pelvis, with saerum and Iwo hipLones. lhe saerum
art :culales Ihe rear wilh ilia al Ihe sacroiliac joinls, and the two hipbones
Ih wllh one another In fronl (by way of thl:' righl i1nd left pubic bo ) I
t' libro 1'1 b' '. nes a
car I agenous pu le symphyslS.Also see Ilg. 1.12 (Sappey).
more mobile than those for men in comparable eondition. VVe')) cxplain the
nature of the complex movernents that are possible at the sacroiliac joint
in chapter 6.
Anatomical differences account for sorne of the variations in sacroiliac
mobility between men and women, along with the female hormones estrogen,
progcsterone, and relaxin. The latter all becorno especialIy important in the
last month 01' pregnancy for loosening up the sacrciliac joints, along with
the pubic connections in front, AlI must yield lo permit the passage of tho
baby through the birth canal.
Internally, the sacroiliac joints sorne times become Gnllylosed. which
means they havo formed a partial or complete bony union. Older men are
particularly apt lo develop this condition, and once it begins, their sacroiliac
components can slip relativo lo one another only wth considerahle difliculty
and unpleasantness, Such slippage usually happens as a result of a fall, but
any impact that disturbs the partially locked relationshp bel wecn the two
sides of the joint will traumatiza the opposing surfaces and probably cause
extreme pain. Sacroiliac sprain (tears) al' the binding ligaments are yet
another problem: in this case they are a comrnon cause of lower back pain.
anterior
superior
iliae
spme
antenor
inferior
iliae spine
left aeetabulum
......... (socket for hip
joint)
left superior
pubie ramus
______ left inferior
pubie ramus
top bordar of sacrurn (males
wi!h intervertebral disk
L5 and the saerum
erest of !he righl ilium
(
ri
9hl
ischral tuberosily
Slltll"lg bone)--
THE SACROILlAC JOINTS ANO THE SPINE
The two pelvic bones connect with the rest ofthe torso through the sacr m
at the two sa.croiliac joinls (figs. 3.2-4), which are formed on each sid of
lhe sacrum at thejunction oftwo rough but matching surtaces (figs. J. j 1d
6.2)-the lateral surfaee ofthe sacrum and the medial surface ofthe p< l ic
bone. Even though these are movable synovial joints whose mating surto es
are bathed in synovial fluid, and even though their matching L-shl
groove-and-rail arehitectUJ'e permits sorne movement in childrcn nd
healLhyyoung adults, heavy bands 01' decp fasciae and well define<! sacro! aC
and ilinlumhar Iigame1lts (lig. 34) bine! the joints togcther on lhe out
and J'l'stl'ain their movement in most pL'Ople over the age 01' l5. Ath h ic
young women are notable exceptions; thcir sacroiliac joinh; are genen Iy
side, An inch or SO lateral lo the pubic symphysis, these projections a
overlain by the iliaeus and psoas mu..eles passing out of the pelvis lo th.
combined insertion on the front of tho femur. And beyond the softness f
these rnuscles, the superior pubic rami connect with the ilia, which a
again easily palpable.
Next 100'8te the inferior pubic rami, which connect to the isehia (figs . 3.2-
'1'0 find them, stand with your feot wide apart and locate the bonos t 11 t
extend from the base of the pubic region inferiorly, laterally, and posterior (.
They form a deep upside-down V. About halfway back each inferior pu e
ramus mergcs into the next cornponent of the hip bone, the ischium. J s
hard lo locate the lateral border of the inferior pubic ramus because I .e
tendons ofthe adductor muscles (figs. 2.M, 3.8--9,and 8.13-14)are in the w y.
And in the male it is also difficult to palpate the inside, or medial, bol ' -r
of the inferior pubic rami because the penis is rooted in the converg g
arrns of the V. Jn the female the medial borders of these bones are m 'e
accessible. In either case, following them posteriorly will finally lead yot o
the isehial tuberosities.
Heturning to the ilium, which continues laterally from each supe: Ir
pubic ramus, you will find a prominent bony point, the anterior super Ir
iliac spine, and just below this protuberance, the less obvious anterior inft I Ir
iliac spine (figs. 3.2-4). Ifyour abdomen is not in the way, you will b le
aware ofthe right and left anterior superior iliac spines when you lie pr le
on a hard surface. From these landmarks, trace the crests of the ilia latei ly
along the waistline. If you are slender and not heavily muscled, you m
poke your thumb inside the iliac crest and feel the top half inch or so 01' le
inside ofthe pelvic bowl from which the iJiacus muscle originates. Ther as
you follow the crest ofthe ilium around to the back, you wilJ come lo a . Id
mass of muscle, the erector spinae, below which the ilium articulates .h
the sacrum,
1.14 A\ATOMI 01' IIA"I1/A rUGA
J . ABlJ/)M /II 'I J/ 'l;'/ 1'/ 1..' IiX/:R(./.V:\ 1.1)
Because the sacroiliac joints in adults bind the pelvic bones so firrnly o
the sacrurn, every tilt, rotation, and postural shift of the pelvis as a wlu e
affects the vertebral column, and with the vertebral eolumn, the enl e
body. [fyou rotate the top ofthe pelvis posteriorly (which is hy definitim a
posterior peluic tilt , 01" colIoquially, a pelvic "tuck"), the top of the sac n n
is carried to the rear, and this causes the lumbar curvature to flatten II d
lose its lordosis (forward arch), 01" in the ext reme lo becorne rounr d
post eriorly. On the other hand, pulling the top o' the pelvis forward, which
is defincd as an anterior peluic tilt, increases the deplh of the lumbar
lordosis. And ir you stand on one foot the tippod pelvis will ereate side-to-
side daviations o' the spine,
lransverse process, L4 iliolumbar ligaments
lefl iliae erest
isehialluberosily
aeetabulum
(hip socket)
iliolumbar ligamen! from behind
righl sacroi liac
[oint and

pubic symphysis
anterior
inferior
iJjac
spine
superior pubic ramus -
anterior
superior
iliae
spine - - - - .3,,;:1
anterior
superior
iliac
spna
anterior
inferior
iliac spine
shared bordar 01
anal and urogenital
left ischial tuberosuy lriangles
3.4. Pelvic restrai ning ligamenls from the fron f (above) and from Ihe
SI and behind (below), The borders uf t he diamond-shaped anatomical
.ermcum are shown below, an d inelude the anal trianglc behind Idotled
te? and the urogenilal lrianglc in fronl (das hed line), wilh a shared bu rder
salid line) eonnccting the two ischial tuber osities (Sappey).
L1
T6
articular surtaee (i1ial)
the sacroi lac oint
ischial luberosity
erest of the ihum
anterior inferior iliae spine
anterior super ior iliae spine
Figure 3.3. The vertebral
eo lumn (far rightl is vewed
from its righl side, and Ihus
reveals the sacral articular
surface of the right sacroiliac
joint. The right hip bo ne
(below and lo the Id Ois
disa rticulaled from the
saer um and f1i pped
ho rlzon tally, thus revealng
its inside surfaee and the ilial
face of the right sacroiliae
joint (Sappey).
146 _U\'A7UM I ()F /lA11M I OG.
.1. A H{)()MI.\Of'EJ. \ f e "-'"f.ROSE\ 147
THE HIP JOINTS ANO THEIR PRIME MOVEAS
Most peop le understand the hip joints intuitively so long as t hey are deal
ing with a simple imperativo such as "bend orward from the hips,"
understanding t hat a simple "hip replacernent" invo lves rcplacing the hea
of the fmur with a sleel ba ll t hal will lit into t he hip socket, Questionc
beyond that, most peop le will fall si lent; t hey have no nolion of what ma k
up t he socket or how movements take place. But now we have begun
develop a distinct image of the pelvic bowl. We have seen how t he two pch
bonos are united in front at the pubic syrnphysis and how the pelvic bon
articulate with t he sacrum behind, and we have palpa ted several bor
la ndrnar ks on each side. \Ve only nced a few more details to complete t I
pcture.
'I'he acetabulum (socketr for each hi p joint is located at the lateral a
infe rior aspects of th e pelvic bowl (figs. ).1. and ).4-5). You can't feel t e
acetabulum, but you ca n feel t he bony protuberance just bclow the jo
t hat sometimes bu mps into thing the greater trochant er of the fen
(figs. J .S-6). If you s tand up and locate th is landma rk near where yo r
hands fall alongside you r t highs, you will notice that it moves around s
you swing your t high back and fort h.
The pelvic bowl is the foundation for al l rnovements of the thighs at the
hipjoints, incfuding Ilexon, oxtension, abduetion, udduction, and rotat on.
To flex the thigh in a legl ft (figs, ].15-17J you contraer the psoas and iliacus
(fgs. 2.1>, .\7, and 8.1]), which, as we have seen, run frorn the pelvis
lo the uppcr part of the femur in thc case of the iliacus, and frorn the
lumbar spine to the fmur in tho case of lhe psoas, For activities such as
lifting each knee (as in running in place ), or for stepping Iorward (as in
walki ng), the origns of these museles are on the torso and their insertions
are on th e thighs, but for sit-ups and crunches (fig. J. I), the origins and
insertions a re I'eversed-the thghs are fixed and lhe entire body is pulled
up and forwar d.
exte nd the thigh actively in a pos turo such as th e locust (Iigs. 5.
1
5- 11)
you tighten th e gluteus maximus muscle (figs. J.8, and 8.<)-10), which takes
origin from t he posterior su rface of'the i1ium and which has two inser t.ions
,
superior
pubic
ramus
\
site 01altachmenl 01
li br ocart ilagenous
pubic symphysis
ilium
_____iliac crest
pubofemoral ligamen!
antenor
superior
ihac spine <.., .'
anterior
inferior

rectus
femoris
tencon
gluleus mi ni mus
muscl e,
and allachment
sile on grealer
trochanler
Iigament
supe Jr
pub
rarn
attacnrne l
site 01pI IC
symphys
\
i1ium
acetabulum
(socket)
head 01lemur (baH)
I
neck 01l emur
greater
trochanter
sha 01
lemur
(upper
portion)
Figure 3.5. Righl femur (on the left) as rmm Ihe rront, and righl hip
bon e (on lhe right) as viewcd fmm Ihe Ide. lhe head or the femur fits snugly
into lhe acel abulum, forming a hall-and-socket oint (Sappcy).
ischial tuberosity inlerior pubic ran IS
Figure 3 fi R' h h' b . .
Pubor . . Ig. t 'P . aod JOlOl caps.ulc, wilh Ihe iliofemoral and
beh' emoral VISible 10 fronl. ilnd the Ischiofemoralli gaml'nl hid I
andInd. in comhination bccome taut duriog hip
Illose durlOg hlp nexlOn (ror example, when the kOl.'Cis lifled); (from -"apPaY):
1.111 A\:-l 7VM I ' or I !AUIA I OC, I
rghl
gluteus
maximus:
insertion
in iliotibial
tract

lateral head
01 quadri eeps / . . . .
lemoris muse/e ,lrolJbl8l
traet
rght glul eus
maximus:
orgln (cu)
lasaa overty,ng rghl
side 01saerum
greater
Irochanler
inferior
gemellus
rght gluteus
maximus
musele
mtact
hamstrng museles:

bceps lemoris
sem,membranosus
iliotibi al
tract
1. A IJI)()MI .\ W'r:/. I 1<: J'.XJ3l<.'I.V-S 1.11,1
ilioremora/ , isc:hiofemora/ , and pubofemnra/ ligaments (lig. .1.l. You won 't
feel this spiral unless you know it is there, but it will become increasingly
tau t as the thighs are extended. When that happens, the head of th e femur
is dr iven into the acetabulum of the pelvic bone in a near-perfect fit, and
the thigh wiJ1 extend no more. The spira l will unwind as th e thighs are
nexed.lf t his spral is removed and the hipjoint opened up, the head ofthe
[emur and the acetabulum become visible (fig. .i .s).
laseia overlying gluteus med us
addUClOr muse/es (0)
Righl gluleal regon and upper Ihigh from behind, with Superficial
aw:ecll on on the Ieft (a). and deeper on Ihe right (b) . The partaf cut-
!Ji Yof the gluteus rnaxrrnus on the nght (b) exposes deeper muse/es of the
well as a e/ear picture of th > dual inserlion of Ihe gluleus maxirnus lo he
ollhlal trael and I he femur- (Sappey).
erest 01 e
left ilium
greater trocnant
r-- - - -- 1eft lemul
"';lIIf'-- - _ cut end 01le 1
psoas mus 3
superior put
&:''''r-- __ramus
l\\.f'-,------_twelfth
twelfth thoracic
vertebra (T12)
one on the femur (fig, j. iob), and the other in a tough band of connect iv,
tissue-the iliotibial trlU't-that runs all the way down past the knee to t hr
leg (figs. ).8-9 and R.12l. You can feel the activity of the gluteus rnaximu-
becorne pronounced if you stand up and pu ll the thigh to the rear whih
pressing against. the gluteal region wit.h your hundo By cont.rast., ma n
other postures such as the camel (figs. ;.34-)5) hypcrextend the hip join
passively, and this is resisted both by the psoas and iliacus muscles (figs
2.R, }.7, and R. 13), and by th e rectus [emoris component of the quadricep
femori s mu scle (figs. .1.9, ) .11, and R. 1).
'1'0 abduct th e thigh , which you do when you lilt th e foot st raight out t
the side, you t ighten the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus mu sen
(figs. J.R, j.roa-b, R.9-IO, and R.12), which take origin from beneath t h
gluteus maximus and insert on the greater trochanter, '1'0 adduct th
thighs, which you do by pulling thern together, you tighten the adducu
muscles, which take origin from the inferior pubic rami and insert bel
on the femurs and tibias (figs, 2.R, and R. I)-1 4 ).
If the muscles of the hips and thighs are strong and flexible, and if Yl
are comfortable extending the thighs fully in any standing, kn eelin g, e
prone posture, you'lI finally encounter resistance lo extcnsion in a del )
spiral of Jigaments that surround the ball and socket hip joint- t l
psoas major
iliaeus
mtervert ebral disk
between L5 and the
saerum
joint mserticn 01right
iliopsoas eombination
Figure 3.7. Deep disscction of revealing Ihe
psoas and iliacus musdes an,d Ihelr on ft'murs ,
Tht'ir conlraclion lifls Ihe Ihlghs, Ihus hnngmg about hl p f1cxlun (Sappey).
150 A.\'A70MI or//AHfA !(/GA
l . A/lI / o. l lIl\ Opn . I '1<. f.'\l'l/nsrs 'SI
Figure 3.9. Righ t side of pelvis (decp di ssection), right thi gh, and right knoe, 3'
viewed rrom lhe fronl (Sappey).
THE aUADRICEPS FE MORI S MUSCLE
The quadriceps femoris is the largest muscle 00 the ront of the thigh <fig
1.2, } .I), and H.S-9) and the forernost anti-gravity muscle in the body. 'J'.1I
of its four components, or "heads," take origin from the femur and aet (
t he l ibia by way of the patellar tendon. Its fourt h head, the rectus Iernor
(flgs. J.9, }. II, and 8.R-y), takes origin from the front ofthe pelvis (the anten
inferior iliac spine, figs, 3.2-6) and joins the other three components bek
The quadriceps fomoris is the rnuscle, more than any other, that stands y ,1
up from a squatling position. You can test its strength by standing in a
bent-Irnce position or }O seconds with your back flat against a wal1 n J
then slowly rising. For those who are older and in a weakened condit ir
iliacus -
psoas
muscle
iliotibial tract
quadriceps femoris muscle
(three 01 Ihe lour heads. """",,=--+-i
including the reclus temoris,
are visible in Ihls superficial
dissection) ; Ihe 10000rth head
01 Ihis muscle is racated
deep l o these three
intervertebral
disk between
L5 and L4
adductors
_ sartorius
____ quadriceps temons ter 1n
. palellar tendon
tbis is the muscle that gives thern pause when they want to c1imb up or down
stairs without holding onto a handrail. It is ruso Waterloo for inexpericnced
skiers who are trying lo negotiate a bowl of deep powder for the first time:
they are firrnly (oven though wrongly) convinced that they have to keep their
weigbt back and their ski tips visible lo avoid loppling over into the snow,
Allbough t hat can indeed happen-it's called a "face plant" or "headet"-
must novices overcompensate for the possihil ity and quickly pay or their
error : quadriceps fernoris muscles that are soon burning with pain.
THE HAMSTRING MUSCL ES
00 the back sides of the thighs are the hamstring muscles, rnost 01' which
have t heir origin on the ischial tuberosities. Like the quadriceps femoris
muscles, the hamstrings insert below the Irneejoint, in this case both medally
and lal erally (figs. 3. 10, 8.10, and 8.12). Tight hamstrings are the bane of
runncrs- t hou!i8nds of repetitivc strides make these rnuscles shorter and
shorter untiJ they a re barely long enough t o permit full extension 01' the
knecs.
As two-j oint rnuscles that pass lengt hwise across two joints ins tead of
one (from th e ischial tuberosities of the pelvis all the way to thc proximal
ends 01' t he tibias and fbulas), the hamstrings contribute both to exlension
of the thi ghs at the hip joints and lo flexi n of the legs at the knee joints,
This architectural arrangernent facilitates walking and running beautifully,
but it creates a prohlem in hatha yoga. Since the harnstrings reside on the
back sides 01' two joints-the knee and the hip ach of which is crucial in
its own way for forward bending, these muscles are major obstacles to such
It ' s obvious that you could relieve tension on the hamstrings
In forward bends by easing up either on hip flcxion 01 knee extensi n. but
releasing flexion of the hips would he contrary to the whole idea. Whal
everyone does naturally is lo flex their knees slightIy, insuring that the
hamstring rnuscles don't lug so insistently on the base oftbe pelvis as one
attempts to bend forward. This was the principie involved in chapter I
we bent the Irnees befare pulling lhe torso clown agaiost the thighs
In t he standing hamstrings-quadriceps lhigh pull, and this is why we kccp
knecs hent in crunches. It is also why lhe knees should be bent if you
tnsis.l on doing high-specd sit-ups. Otherwise lhe hamslring muscles on
the lschial tuberosities from below and create too much tension in lhe
lower back as you jerk yoursclf up and forward.
SPINE AND AB DOMINAL WA L L
The pelvic howl is not merely the link belwccn the lhighs and the llpper
hall' orthe body; it is also the foundalion for the torso. Knowing lhis, ifyou
look al a skeleton, even with one glance, you will sense an immediate cause
l .. 1lI1JfJ.lI/WI/'H. \ 't e: ISJ
quadratus lemoris
iliae crest
- tascia overlying Ihe
soleus musc1e
_______ gluteus minimus
pirilormis l endon
- insertion 01 gluleus
medius on grealer
trochanter
long head 01
bceps lemoris
(short head,
wilh its origin
on the lemur,
is located
deep lolong
head)
... .rA---.!Jl......----laleral and
heads 01
gastrocnemius
muscle
(Irom Sappey)
piriformis muscle
occupied Ihis spaee

semimembranosus ------
for alar m: there are many bones and rnuch skeletal density in the pelvis
and lots of ribs and vertebran in the upper torso, but there are only five
lumbar ver tebrae connecting the two regions (figs. 4.3-4). This arrange-
ment coul d not provi dc adcquate support to the torso if it were acting
alone. lt needs t he help of t he soft tissues, espccial ly sheets of rnuscle and
fasciae. '1'0 that end the skeleton is supported by a "tube" containi ng the
abdominal organs, a tube that is boundcd in front and on the sides by the
abdominal muscles, braced posteriorly by the spine and deep back muscles,
cBppcd by the respiratory diaphragm, and sealed oITbelow by the peluic
diaphragm. The tube runs all [he way from the sternum to the pubis in
front but is qui te short laterally.
Figure 3.10b. Right thigh,
knee joinl and hamstr ing
les from the rearo The
disseelion. now reveal -
Ing the gluteus minimus, i s
eVell de ep er than the one
shown on the r ight side o
fig. 3.8. The pi r iformis and
gluleus medius are now
removed except for thei r
tendons of insertion on
Ihe gr eal er l ro chanl er. and
lhe only rema ini ng par l of
gluteus maximus is i l s
emoral allaehmenL
gluleus rnaxirnus
(insertions on lemu
and iIiotibial traen
and nerve branche
gluteus minimus and
/ its nerve branches
r 1gluteus medius
>"" / and its nerve
. branches
main lrunk 01 so IC
nerve

__eommon peroneat nf ve
==
nerve branches l e
the lateral head o
the gastrocnemiu
muscfe

. '
semimembranosus l
muscle and ts nerve / lVfsn
branehes :
semitendinosus / ', .
rnuscte and its nerve
branches
cutaneous
nerves (to
skin)
f igure 3.10a. Nerves t o muscles of the baek of the hip and thigh originate frm
spi nal segment l4, l5, 51, and 52, and run down the baek of the thigh on the
extensor side of the hi p join\. The large sciatic nerve and associaled branehes 1
the gluleus maxi mus emerge rorn jusI undcmcath the piri form is muscle (shov '1
inlaet in fig. 3.8b, in t wo parts connecled by the dolled li nes here i n fi g. 3.10il
and removed cxcept for its tend n of inserlion in fig. 3.10b). Nerves l o the glule
mcdius, gluteus mini mus, and pi r ifoml i s are shown ab ove, il nd nerv es t o Ihe
hamstrings. gastroenemi us. and adductors are shown below. A superficial bran
of lhe common per on cal nerve swi ngs around l o an anteri or, subcutaneous, al
vulnerabl e posili on jusI bel ow th e kne e (chapter 10); (frolll Sappey).
medial head,
and lateral head -------Jll-J."
01 gaslrocnemius
rnuscle, and
their nerve
branches
adductor museles =---7.
and some 01 lheir
nerve branehes
gluteus maximus
aOO nerve branches
Ihal emerge lrom
benealh tne pirilormis
(dotted line)
pirifermis (erign
Irom the underside
01the sacrum) and
its nerve branches
We have four pairs of abdominal muscles (fi gs , 27, 29, 311-1.), S.H, H.I
and 8.1)). Three of these form layers t hat encircle the abdomen, and tl ll
fourth is a pair of longitudinal bands. The extemal abdominal oblique laye
runs diagonally from aboye downward in t he same direction as t he extei
nal intercostal muscles. If you place your han ds in the pockets of a shoi
jacket with your ngers extended, the fingen; will point in the direction 1
the external abdominal oblique musele fibers , The internol abdomitu
oblique layer is in the middle, Its fibers also r un diagonally but in the opp
site direction, from laterally and below to up and medially in t he san
direction as the internal intercostal muscles. The innermost third layer, tl
transuersus abdominis, runs hori zontally around the abdominal waIl fro
back to front . These three layers together act as a unit. hclping to support
the upper body and contrihuting to hending, twisting, and turning in a log-
cal fas hion. '1hey are also necessary for coughing, sneezing, laughing, and
vari ous yoga breathing exercises.
'rile Iourth pair 0(' abdominal rnuscles, the rectus abdominis muscles
(rectus means "straight"), run vertically on either side of the midline between
the pubic bone and the sternum. As discussed earlier in this chapter, the rec-
tus abdominis muscles are the prime movers (agonists) for Flexi n of the
spine in crunches, whilc the hip flexors serve as synergists for bracing the
pelvis and lumbar region . The roles are then reversed for old style sit-ups, in
which the hip Ilexors become the prime movers for jerking the torso up and
forward at the hip joints, and the rect us abdominis rnusc les serve as syn -
crgi;ts for bracing the spine .
THE CAVITlES AND INTERNAL ORGANS
Within t he "tu be" of the torso are the thoracic, abdominal , and pelvic
caviti es, as well as rnost of t he internal organs. The heart, lungs, and
esophagus lie within the thoracic caoity, which is bounded externally by the
rib cage an d inferiorly by the respiratory diaphragm Cfigs. 2.6-91. The
serratus anterior
internal intercostals
_____ spermatic cord in
ingUinal canal
two 01 three
tendinous
inscriptions
serratus anterior ...........
(ve segments)
fascia covering
rectus abdominis
IS
left stemocleldomastl :1
muscle
_____ latissi IS
dorsi
________ sperrnanc cr d
suspens y
_Iigamenl )!
penis
.. - - - - - - te5lis
right sartorius muscle -r
nghl rectus temoris
right clavicle

serratus anterior /
(!ive segments
showing)
!ascia overlying rectus
abdominis muscles
deltoid
muscle
Figure 3.11. Torso, with superfidal rnuscles uf the neck, fascia cove ring th
rec tus abllominis musclcs, and the exte rna abdominal oblique muscles (Sappev).
Figure 3. 12. External abdomina l obl ique an d recl us abdominis fasda on
Ihe tor o's right side, a nd int ernal abdomina l oblique and exposed rect us
abdominis mu scle on Ihe tor so's left side (Sappey).
156 A\An),I1I ' ot: l/A I7IA 1'(l (;A
stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys are containr
within the abdominal cauity (figs. 2.9 and J.14), which is separated from ti
chest by the diaphragrn, protectcd posteriorly by the spine and deep bUI
muscles, and surrounded anteriorly and laterally by the abdominal musck
The urinary bladder; the terminal end of the colon, and portions of tl
reproductive systcms lie in the pcloic cauity (figs, 2.M and } .7) and open
the external world by way of passages through the pelvic diaphragm al ti
base of the pelvic howl (figs, z.zca-e, J.14, and }.24 -26). 'I'he pelvic cavity
defincd above by the upper limits ofthe bony pelvis and below by the peh
diaphragm, but otherwise it is confluent with the abdominal cavity Thi
we refer to thern together as the abdominopeluic cauity (fig, }.14. illustratn 1
on the right).
Most ofthe internal organs are not fixed in position hut can slide arou .l
by virtue of slippery external surfaces: pleural and pericardial membrai s
in the chest, and peritoneal membranas in the abdomen and pelvis . Witl n
the thoracic cavity, t.he perlcardial membranes surround the heart a -1
enclose the pericardia! cauity while the pleural membranes surround t e
lungs and enclose the pleura! cauities (figs, 2.4 and 2.). Within both t l '
abdominal and pclvic cavities, the perifonea! membranes surround the
abdominal and pelvic organs and enclose the perifonea! cauity, Like the
pleural and pericardial cavities, the peritoneal cavit ies are potential spaces
only, as illustrated by a schematic midsagittal section through this regin
(fig. 3.1-4). These spaces contain only a small arnount of fluid which allows
the organs to move relativo to one another. The most famous trick question
lJ1 a medical gross anatomy course is: Name all the organs in the pleural,
pericardial, and pcritoneal cavities. The correct answer is: None.
INTRA- ABOOMI NAL ANO INTRATHORACIC PRESSURE
Lubricating fluids in the peritoneal cavity impart a liquid character to the
internal organs in the abdominopelvic cavity and allow that regi n lo act
as a hydraulic (having to do with liquid) system, 'I'his means that ir sorne-
t hing presses against the abdominal wall, hydraulic pressure is transmittcd
throughout the entire regi n just like squeczing a eapped tube of tooth-
puste at one site will cause the tube (o hulge out everywhere else, 'I'he
figure 3.13. Internal abdominal oblique exposetl abdorninis
torso's right side, and abdonllOls and sechoned rectlls abdorntnls
mllscle on lhe lorso's left SI de (Sappey).
Schemalic drawings of the peritoneal cavity and a Iew abdominal
d pelvlC organs: rnale on the right, female on the lower left, and gender-
cross section on the upper left. White spaces indicate lhe peritoneal
all d.rawings. The uf lhe
cavlty (wlthlr1 whlCh reSide thl' abdomlr1opelvic organs and the
Perrl oneal cBvity) is iIIl1straled in lhe mid-s<lgillal seclion on lhe righl (Sappey).
small
inlesline
stomach
transversa
colon
____ grealer
omcntum
respiratory diaphragm
prostate
gland
rectus abdominis
pubic
symphysis
vagina lemale urelhra
ascendingl
descending
colon
kidney
rectum
uterlls
transversus abdomi nis
(innermost 01three
layers 01 abdominal
muscles: left side)
external
/abdominal
/ obhque
internal
abdominal
oblique
nternal
abdominal

right side ...............
paired rectus
abdominis
muscles
ISIl ..1"'-110.11" UF l/A'li lA )()("iA
abdominal wall is the soft part of the tube, and the respiratory and pelvi.
diaphragms seal it al. either end. A seprate unit, the chest, is bounded b
the rib cage and the respiratory diaphragrn. 'I'he glottis can seal the al
within the chest, with the result that the chest can act as e pneumatic (havin
to do with air) syslem, Such a systern remains at atrnospheric pressure any
time the glottis is open, but if you inhale and close the glottis, the syster-
can be cornpressed (and is indeed often compressed) by the action of th
abdominal rnuscles and external intercostals.
Even though the thoracic and abdominopelvic regions are anatomicall
independont, the former functioning as a pneumatic system and the lattr
as a hydraulic system, the trunk as a whole operates as a cooperative un i
For exarnple, ifyou bend over from an awkward position to pick up a heav
object, and if you have to do that with your knees straight, your spine
vulnerable to injury frorn too much stress on the lumbar region. Ir y
were to try that maneuver frorn a bent-forward position when you a
breathing freely r oven worse, if Y0l! were lo hold your breath after
exhalation-thc weight of the object would create a frighteningly efficiei
shearing effect on al! the intorvertebral disks betwcen the chest and H-
sacrurn. Were it not for our ahlity lo supplement skeletal support with t '
hydraulic and pneumatic pressures within the abdominopclvic and thorac
cavities, the intervertebral disks in the lumbar region would quickly degenera
and rupture. To prolect yourself you will have to increase intra-abdomill
pressure. and you can do this with 01' without lhe aid of compressed ai r 1
the chesL
You can protecl. your spine with respect to how you use your hydrau
and pneumatic systems in one of three ways. First, before you lift you c' 1
inhale, dose t.he glottis, and hold your breath. 'rhen you can tighten y I l'
abdumen. pelvic diaphraf.,'lTl , and internal intercostal muscles al1 al I
same time so thal lhe pneumatic prcssure in the chest comes into equilibri
with lhe hydraulic pressure in the abdominopc1vic cavity, This allows t I
respiratory diaphragm to remain relaxed and increases pressure in t i
torso as a whole. That increased pressure then supports the action of l
back muscles in two ways : it creates a laut, reliable unit from which lo II
lhe objecl, and il produces a lengthening effed on lhe spine which sprea
l
lhe vertebrae apart and eal:ies stmin on the interveJ1ebral disks. (lt shou
be noled lhat fnr older people, especially lhose who mighl be vulnerable I
cardiovascular problems, lhis is an emergency measure only, because it w
resull in an immcdiatc increase in blood pressure.>
A sccond way to pmlect your back, if you have a strong rcspiralor
diaphragm and know huw lo use it. is lo keep the glottis and airway ope
al:i you lifl, and at the same time preSl:i down with the diaphragm, in wit l
I he abdominal mu!.'c1cs, and up wilh lhe pclvic diaphragm. This is a ve .
different situation from the first one. Here it is the respiratory diaphragm
rather than the glottis that seals the top uf the tubo and eounters the
act ion of the abdominal muscles and pelvic diaphragm. Just the same, it
cases strain on the intervertebral disks in the critical lumbar region. The
main difference between the two lechniques is that now the thoracic region
is not involved because the airway is opcn and intrathoracic pressure is not
increased.
The third way to protect the spine, and (me that comes naturally to most
of us, is lo mix and match the options. Prepare yoursolf with an inhalation
partially close the glottis, press down with the diaphragm, and coordinats
your lift ing effort with a heavy grunting sound, which is a signal that the
glottis has been partially closed. What happens exactly? You start with an
intent to use method numbor two-vincreaslng intra-abdominal hydraulic
pr essure alone-but augment that effort by increasing pneurnatic pressure
in the chest at the precise moment that mximum protection for the back
is need ed. This is the choice of championship weighUifters, who continue
to brcat he during the easier portions of the Iit, and then emit a mighty
gr unt lo complete it.
In all hatha yoga postures that involve bending forward and then lifting
back up in a gravitational field (for practical purposes this rneans anywhere
but in a swirnrning pool), it is increasod intra-abdominal pressure far more
than lhe action of individual rnuscles that protccts and braces the back. If
you want lo strcngthen lhe abdominopelvic region lo the maximum. and if
you wan t this region lo link the uppcr and lower halves of the body in the
mosl effective and efficient manner, you \vill have lo exercisc the sccond
option-kecping the glottis open-when you do the exercises and postures
lhut follow, This means alwuys placing the burdcn fol' creating intra-
abdominal pressure on the respiralory diaphmgm, the abdominal muscles,
and the pelvic diaphragm. The first option. holding lhe breath at the gloltis,
should beul;t!{1 unly as an emergency measure for extl'icating yourselfsafcly
from a posture lhat is beyond your capacity.
ENERGY
Yoga is concernerl firsl and foremost with the inner life and lhe
l ' . ,
nope VIC eXCI'CISCS are no exception. On the most obvious level yoga
post ure ' strengthen the abdominal region and protect the back. Bul when
you do them you also come alive with energy that can be feH from head t
loe L lift ' h ' . < o
. eg s, Slt-UpS, t e slttmg boal pm;lures, and the peacock all creale
lhesc effects thl'Ough manipulating lhe limbs and torso in a gravitat' al
field h' on
Vi de you are using the abdominal region as a fuIcrum fur your efTorts.
J\nd the harder you work the mOl'ecncrgizing the eXl:!rcise.
SUPINE LEGLIFTS
"Safety first." is a wise slogan, and t he Irai lt.ies (or challenges) of ti
human frame offer us many oppo rlunities lo pract ico it . Ifyou have not he
much experience with abdominopelvic exercises, please read the scction e
contraindications at the end of this chapter before doing t hem. Even ti
simplest leglifts and sit-up exercises should be approached wit h cautio
The first ru le: ntil you knowyour body and its lirnitations well, your fir
line 01' proteetion is to keep the lower back Ilattened against the 0001' as )',
do these exercises, Wit h a Iittle training you can confidently make skillful u
01' the hydraulic nature 01' the abdorninopelvic region, and after you a
certain of yourself you can explore other options,
SUPINE SINGLE LEGLIFTS
Supine single leglifts are the safest beginning leglift ing exercises beca r
t hey are not likely lo strain an inexperienced or sensi tivo baek. Start w h
the thighs adducted, t he knees exte nded, the fect extended (toes poiru j
away from you), and the hands alongside the thighs, palms down. SlO\ y
raise one foot as high as possible (fig, J.15) and then slowly lower it back o
the Iloor, Repeat on the ot her side. Keep breath ing. 11' you are comfortal
you can t ry severa l variations 01' t his exercise, One is to keep the kr e
extended. pull th e tlexed thigh as close as possi ble to the head (using t le
hip Ilexors, not the upper extrernities), and hold it t here 1' 01' 30-60 seco "l .
And after you have come rnost 01' the way down you can hold t he foot ,-
metricallyan ineh or two away from the floor;
Ii gure 3.15 . Single (eglif!. This poslure is a safe hamslring slre lch for lhe f1excd
lhigh hecause lhe pel vis an d lower back ar e stahili;ed against the f1oor.
.1, .uu""\Of'I'I . I '1(.' ISE/lCI.W-:\ 16 1
What happens in single leglifts is that the psoas and iliacus muscles Ilex
the hi p while the quaclriccps fernoris muscle keeps t he knee exte nded. The
rectus femor is (the straight head of t he quadriceps Iemoris ) assists in both
roles: it aids Oexion 01' t he hip because 01' its or igin on the anterior inferior
i1iac spine, and it assists the rest 01' the quadriceps in keeping t he knee
extended (fig, 39) The posturo itself creates the stable conditiuns that
make single leglifts an easy exercise. First, the hamstring muscles of the
de being lift ed pulJ inferjorjy on t he ischial tuberosity on that sarne side,
which kecps t he pelvis anchored in a slight ly l ucked position an d the lumbar
spine flatt ened against the 0 001", and second, kee ping the oppos ite t high
and leg flat on t he 0001' irnproves the stabi lity 01' t he pel vis and lumbar
spine even mor e. The combination perrni ts flexi n of one t high wit h little
or no st ress on th e lower back.
TH E BI CYCL E AND OTHER VARIATlONS
To further prepare for more difficul t yoga posturas, and to get bot h lower
extrernities into th e picture but stiU wit hout placing a great deal more
stress on t he lower back than is occasioned by single leglifts , flex bot h
knees, draw t hem toward th e chest, an d bicycle YOUI' feet around and
around. Next, and a little harder, lower your feet doser lo t he 0001' and
pump them back and fort h horizontally. Intensifying even more, straighten
your knees and press your Ieet toward t he ceiling. This is easy if you have
enough llexibil ity to keep your th ighs and legs perpendicular to the 0 001' . Ir
you do t hat, bend your knees slightly, and from that position, keep
one leg lifted and slowly lower the opposite foot to within an inch of t he
0001', straightening t he knee on t he way down; t hen raise it back up and
repeat on. t he ot her side. Keeping one foot up whi lo lower ing and raising
the oth er IS almost as easy as keeping one leg flat on the 11001'. You can also
a scissori ng motion, wit h t.he Icet meeting midway 01' near the highest
And any time you need to ereate less pulJ on the underside 01' the
pelVIS from t he hamstl;ngs, bend the knecs.
you do varjations that are more demanding than the simple bicycling
mot!Un, )lou'lI fmd that your abdominal muscles tighten inereasing jnt l".-
abd . I , <
pressure and pressing the lower back against the 0001' in coop-
wit h t he respiratory diaphragm. This ussumes uf course that your
all"Wuy i . '1' l k ' " <
S opcn; I you oc 1t at the glotlis, the diaphruhTffi wjll remain
re1axed an d you will miss one of the majn 01' the exercise.
EXERCISE
As Soon as you are comlortable doing single Icglifts and their va"i<ltions fi
')-10 . < or
minutes, you can tr.y the fire exercise, named from its energizing
efTcets on t he body as a who lc. To get in position for t his one, sil on the
Like hea lth club crunches, two features of this practico make the fire
exercise sale: the back is rounded posteriorly, and the psoas muscles help
lifi, the thighs rorn a stabilized origin on th e inner curvature of the lumbar
spine (fg, 3. 111) . If you start with the back straight 01' less firrnly rounded
to the real', the psoas muscles will destabilize the lumbar regi n by pulling
it forward before they begin to flex the hips: this is fine if your back is
st rong and healthy, but too stressful if it is noto
You will immediately sense the difference between the straight and t he
curved-to-the-rear positions of the spine if you do the following experimento
First round your back and try the fire exercise in ts standard formo Sense
your stability. Then (provided your back is sound) try lift ing your feet alter
lowering your head and shou lders t the real' and Iet t ing the lumbar region
relax and come forwa rd. The instability of the second starting position will
shock you. The lesson: if you are unab le tu maintain a stabilized posterior
curvature, don't do t he fire exercise. Instead, work with crunches and the
single leglift variations until you are strong enough to keep the back
rounded to the real'.
l . , 1BOOM/MJ/ ' I':/. I "le EXEII<:ISF. ,'i 163
THE BA51C 5UPINE DOUBLE LEGLlFT
No matter what kind of leglift you try, if you do not do it while keeping your
lower back flatt ened against the floor in the supine position 01' rounded t
the real' when the head and upper back are lift ed, it has lo be considered
an advanced practice. The supine double leglift is a case in point. Lying flat
with the legs extended, a small amount of space will usually be found
between the lumbar region and the floor, and if this is allowed t remain
when the psoas muscles Oex lhe thighs, those muscles will not be pulling
from a stabilized lower back that is pressed to the rear, but from a wavering
and inconstant lumbar lordosis. It is lherefore ess entia\. before st arting the
double legl ift , to press this region to the floor with a posterior pelvic
tIlt and hold it there for the duration of the exercise.
To begin the supine double leglifl, lie down wilh your thighs adducted,
knees extended, feet and toes extended, and hands alongside the thighs,
palms down. Next, in order to establish enough intra-abdominal pressure
to dominat e the lumbar ('egion decisively, st rongly engage the abdominal
muscles along with the respiratory and pelvic diaphragms, and holding
lhat .posit ion tenaciously, slowly lift the feet (by flexing the hipsl &'i high as
po lble <fig. 3.17) and then lower them to within an inch of the floor. Come
and down for as many repetitions as you want, breathing evenly
hroughout the exercise.
Since the muscular leverage for pressing th e lumbar region to the floor
cOmes fmm the abdominal muscles, especially frum the rectus abdominis
learning lo actvate t hose muscles is l.he most important part of Ule excrcisc:
Figure 3.16. Fully lifted
position for the firc
exercise. Ils key feature
is that the back remains
rounded posleriorly. An
altema tive and slightly
easier hand position is
to place them under
lhe pelvis, palms up.
162 , l \ ATOM }' UF II AHIA }()(;t1
0001' lean back, support yourself on the forearms, and place the hanc
under the hips 01' slighUy behind thern , palms down, 01' up, if that feels easic
Keep ing t he feet together, extend the toes, feet, and knees, and draw .1I
head Iorward while keeping the back rounded. Exhale, and at the same tI
slowly lift the feet as high as possible, drawing the extended knees j
t he head (fig, 3.
16
). Slowly come back down, not quite to the 0001' YOl
strength permits. Come up and down as many times as ca.n witho.
strain inhaling as required and always breathing evenly. H commg all t
way up and down is too difficult , simply tighten t he muscles, lift the fl '1
an inch 01' so, and hold in that position isometrically. After a few days Y' 1
may have enough strength to do the full exercise. . .
Tbe fire exercise is intended for breath training as well as for buil di g
abdominal strength, and ifyou watch your breathingcareful!y, you'll not e
that the posture feels more powerful when you exhale. As is true for ma ,y
day-to-day activities, inhalation is mostly a preparation for the intens y
associated with exhalation. In the case uf the fire exercise, it's a matter ,f
muscle mechanics: to support. the posture eflicienUy with nt ra-abdomir a.l
pressure, t he diaphragm must be continuously active, and to do this it m t
oprate .....ithin a fairly narrow range with its muscle fibers. ly
stretched and its dome high in the torso. For t his reason you will find yo 1'-
self exhaling almost as much as you can and taking small nhalations If
you take a deep inhalation as an experiment, you will sen- a
10 88 of abdominal and diaphragmatic strength. As always for exercises SI :h
as these, unless you are faced with an unexpeeted emergency keep 1'-
way open, supporling the posture on ly with hydraulic pressure m le
abdominopelvic unit.
1f>4 ANA7U 1n ' Or "A7J1A H)(.A
If you cannot get the feel oftightening them when you are lying flat on I e
0001; which is the case for most. beginning students who have never b( n
very athletic, lift your head and shoulders while holding your har
against your abdomen for feedback-i l is impossible to lift your upper br y
withoul engaging the abdominal muscles, Then try to generate thal sa e
fecling as a preparation for tho leglift, but without lifting the upper boc
Double leglifts are difficult not only because they depend on st n g
abdominal muscles that are acting in a manner to which they are not acc 3-
tomed, but also because the knees rnust be kept fully extended. To flex le
hips with the knees straight, a tremendous force has lo be exerted on le
insertions 01' the iliopsoas muscles at the proximal (near) end of the fen Ir,
and this is like t rying to lift a board by gr ipping it with your Iingers al le
end. The rectu s femoris musc les ai d leglift s as synergists because they
pullingfmm the Iront ofthe pelvis to their insertions on the patella (kneec p)
instead of from the pelvis to t he proximal portion 01' the femur, but p -n
with help from these muscles, the exercise is sti ll a les t of strength Ir
many students, The endeavo r is further complicated by the fact that k, )-
ing t he knees straight during the leglift stretches the hamstring muse O: ,
which are antagonists lo the iliacus, psoas, and rectus fernoris muse s,
That stops a 101 of people in a hurry,
TRAINING ALTERNATIVES
There are fewer sights more un nerving lo a yoga instructor than wat cl- 19
a b'TOUP of beginners struggle with double leglifis, permitting lheir lum ir
regions lo lift off lhe floor as they start lo mise their feet, and at lhe .: le
time holding their breath at the glottis. Ifyou are teaching a c1ass in wl -h
Figure 3. 17. End posilion for
Ihe supine double leglift.
lhe key requircment of Ihis
poslure is lo aClively keep
Ihe lo\Ver hack f1attened
againsl lhe fluor using lh
abdominal musclcs.
J. AIII)(JMItWJPELI /C /:X / i /{(."JSES 16')
several people are struggling, you should stop everyt hing and dcmonstrate
lhe proper technique. Try this: Lie down and ask two volunteers, one on
either sirle of you, tu press their right hands against your abdominal wall
and place their left hands under your lower back. Then tighten your
abdOlni naJ muscles. This will push their right hands toward t he ceiling,
and at the same time it will Ilatten your lumbar region lo the floor against
their left hands. ' I'hen do a double lifl showing first how the lower back
should be kept down , and second, letting it lift inappropriately away from
the floor. Keep up a stream of conversation lo prove that you are supporting
the effort with your diaphragm and not holding your breath.
If students have the knack hut not the strength to keep Iheir backs
agRinst the floor during the double Ieglit (which is very cornmon), another
trick is lo try th is exercise: before beginning the lifl tell them to bend t he
knees enough to rase the t highs to a j o-4S0angle, then lirt the feet off the
11001' and straighten the knees. 'l'his will ma ke it easier to kecp t he back
agamst the floor an d make it possible t o complet e t he leglift properly from
the higher angle. They should corno parti ally down in t he same way, being
sensitive to when they can no longer keep their back braced against the
floor, at which time they should bend their knees and eit her lit back up or
come all the way down .
BREAT HI NG
Tha respective natures of the chest and the abdominopelvic regions of the
torso are very different from one another: the abdominopelvic cavity is like
an oblong rubbery egg filled with water, and the egg 1S topped by a cage of
bone filled with airoEveryone doing leglifl s should increase pressure only
In the egg. You will have lo squecze down from aboye with the respiratory
diaphr8f:, 'Ill. up from below with lhe pelvic diaphragm, amI in with the
abdominal muscles. 'fo maintain this p1'essure the respiralory diaphragm
has lo be slrong enough during both inhalation and exhalation to countcract
lhe elfects of t he abdominal muscles, and this effort must be sustained
throughout the exercise. So when do we breathe? AlJlhe time. And how? It
If you have excellent hip Oexibility, you will be able to lin the
thlghs 1)0, exhaling as you lift , and when you have reachcd that position
can relax and breathe any way you want. But if you1' hip flexibility is
hn1Jled, and if you have lo keep working againsl tight hamstring muscles
eVen in the up position. your breathing will be intense and focusedon exhalation
a11 t ime. Vou will be.taking tiny inhalations you can.
ou can take breathrng one step further and mtemiify the energizing
t of leglift ing cxercises, as well 8h their difficu1ty, by kecping 8h much
RIr Out of the lungs as pos..<;ibJe, exhaling all lh way to your residual volumc
and lhen taking I'mall inhalations. If your residual voJume is 1,200 mi. you
1f>6 ANAroMl (JI' HA77M IOGA
3 . Al mOM/,\'OPN, I'/C / o"},/ R ( .I.V S 1f>7
might breathe in and out a tidal volumc between 1,200 mI and 1.400
instead ofbetween 1.400 mI and 1.600 rnl, which approximales what wou
be most natural in the active stages of double leglifts (fig. 3.IIH. Breatlu {
this way is more difficu lt because the already hard-working abdomii ,1
muscles (especial ly the rectus abdominis) now have lo work even harder J
kecp air out of the lungs.
THE SUPERFISH lEGllFT
\Ve have seen that the lumbar region can be stabilized for legl ifts either y
rounding it posteriorly as in crunches or the fire exercise, 01' by keepi np t
flattencd against the floor. But anyone with a sound back can al so y
leglifting ...vith the lumbar region stahi lized in an arched forward positi , l.
This is a variation of the Ish posture (figs. 3.19a. ';.28, and 9.19)-a postl e
I' m calling a superfish leglift (fig 3.19b).
To do this posture place your pal ms up under the hips, stretch you r fl -t
out in front , and support all or rnost ofyour weight on your forearms. L- t
your head barely touch the f1oor. Now urch up maximally by lifting e
chest and abdomen inlo the most extreme poss ble position. This . U
sta bilize the lumbar arch tfig..l .19a). Then kecping lhe feet together, d
the toes. feet, and knecs extended. slowly raise the heels away from l e
l1oor. Raise up only as far as you can without degrading tho arch in th e
back. Iryou have excellent harnstring flcxibility you may be ab le to flex
your thighs to a JOo angle (fig. 3.19b), or even more, but rnost pcople will
only be able to mise their feet a Iew inches before the harnstrings start tugging
so much on the base of lhe pelvis that they pull the lower back toward the
1100r. So you have a choice: either (in your feet up and down and allow the
back to follow in reverse-back down feet up, followed by back up feet
down--{)r lift your feet only until thc lower back starts to lose its emphas ized
forward curve, 'I'he main benefit of the exercise comes not from how lar
you raise the feet but in experiencing the intense pull of the hip Ilexors on
the accentuated lumbar arch. Keep breathing, but for this posture focus on
inhalation rather than on exhalation, beca use emphasizing exhalation will
press the lumbar regan posteriorly and defeat your purpose.
THE SlOW lEGlI FT WIT H A RElAXED ABDOMEN
This next leglifting exerciso turns everything we have said so far on it s
head because it is carriod out with relaxed abdominal muscles; Ior this
reason it is only for advanced students with healthy, flexibl e, and adven-
turesome backs. Thc sequence of rnovernents is not only an excellent
strength-building exercise for the ilopsoas muscles, which will be doing
Figure 3.19a. posture. The and abdomen are lfted as high as possihle
and the posture IS supporled rnainlv by the upper extremities.
40
35 30 25 20
time in secones (sec)
15 10 5
sitting posture supine posture normal leglifts intense leglift s
normal breathlng normal breathlng accelerated accelerated
(see tig. 2.18) (see fig . 2.18) breathing breathing
12 brealhs/min 12 breaths/min 60 breaths/rnin 60 breaths/min
liclal vol. 500 mi tidal vol. 400 mi !idal vol. 200 mi !idal vol . 200 m
FRC 2200 mi FRC 1700 mi FRC 1400 mi FRC 1200 mi
alveolar alveolar alveolar alveolar
venlilation venlilat ion venlilation ventilal ion
4200 mi /minut e 3000 mi/minute 3000 mi/minute 3000 m/fminutl
l\fV
..--..
"-J 'C/
IV\lVVV\J\f\NVWvvvvvv
blood oxygen blood oxygen blood oxygen up blood oxygen I
and carbon and carbon blood carbn blood carbon
dioxide normal dioxide normal dioxide down donde down
I Om
O
1000
5000
3000
4000
2000
6000
Figure 3.18. Simulated shifts in.respiration during ..The two
on the left are repealed from flg. 2.18. FRC= funchonal residual capacrly.
Superfish leglifl. .lhighs.a!e as much as withoul
gradrng lhe lumbar arch, whlch IS stab.lrzed m lhe fon.vardPOsllion.
most of the work, it is also a golden opportunity to observe compl x
muscular action.
Begin in the supine position. Keep the abdominal rnuscles relaxed , <' d
in slow motion develop enough tensi n in the iliopsoas muscles to prepare o
lift your feet. Notice that as tension develops, the lumbar arch increa -s
(fig.3.20a). This is a formidable concentration exercise. What you are do 19
is diametrically opposed to the standard double leglift, and keeping le
abdominal muscles relaxed as you increase tension in the hip flexors l2 's
against every natural inclination.
It is important to sense that the iliopsoas muscles are raising the lum .ir
arch maximally befo re they lift the heels off the floor, Follow the move m nt
of the lumbar region to its limit. As soon as that point is reached the -h
wiII be stabilized and the hip flexors will finally begin to lift the thighs g.
Al.that precise moment focus your concentration un not, repoat rt ,
tightening the rectus abdominis muscles. Although this is counter to UI'
natural predilections, any tension in those muscles puIls thc lower l 'k
toward the floor, As with the superfish leglift, unless you have ,lg
hamstrings and exceptional hip flexibility you will not be able to lift ip
very far and at thc same time maintain the deep lumbar lordosis. Ne ' Iy
everyone will find that their hamstrings start pulling the lower 1 ck
toward the floor before they can even gel. their thighs flexed 45, m eh
less 90.
Figure 3.20a. For Ihe first stage of a double leglift with a relaxed abdomen.
tension in Ihe i1iacus and psoas muscles liflo; Ihe lumbar arch forward as Ihe
abdominal muscles remain complelely relaxed.
Fgure 3.20b. Complelion of slow leglifl wilh relaxed abdomen. lis key featun is
Ihe lumbar arch slabilized in the forward posilion before and while I e
Iccl are lifled slighllyoff lhe noor.
BREATHING EXERCISE
In a second variation of the leglifl with relaxed abdominal muscles, instead
of focusing primarily on exhalation as we do for the fire exercise and ordi -
nary doublc leglifts, inhale slowly as you develop tension for raising the lum-
bar regi n and for starting to lift the feet off the 11001', This facilitates arching
the lumbar region forward. Then to continue the leglift, exhale as you flex
the t highs to 90 while your lower back is being pulled down against the
oor by the harnstrings and abdominal muscles. Breathe to suit yourself
while resting at l)0" of hip flexionoThen brace yourself and exhale while low-
ering the feet back to a few inches away from the floor, Next, inhale as you
cautiously relax the abdominal muscles, which allows the lumbar arch to
become re-established. Then lower the feet the rest of the way, exhale and
rest with your feet on the floor, and inhale again to begin a new lifting
cycIe.
This rnethod of breathing helps you coordinate the chaJlenging msculo-
skeletal requirements of the exercise, When you start the sequence, the
thighs are the fixed origins for the iliopsoas muscles, and the lumbar region
and pelvis serve as the insertions. Then, as soon as the lumbar region is
lited to its rnaximum, the origins and insertions reverse: the lumbar
region and pelvis serve as origins and the thighs become the insertions,
Coordinating the breath with all of this while you are watching the activity
of the rectus abdominis museles and the hamstrings, and at the same time
kecping in mind everything else that is going on, will rnake you aware of
the architecture ofthe abdominopelvic region more than any other exercise.
YOGA 5IT-UP5
Yoga sit-ups are a far cry from the fast, jerky exercises in a high sehool gym
class, For (me thing, they should always be done in slow motion. For another,
they should always be done with full awareness of the spine as you roIl up
into a sitting position "one vertebra at a time," as hatha yoga teachers like
10sayo Yogasit-ups also differ fundamentaIly fmm leglifls in that for sit-ups
yoUare rolling up the part of the body (the torso) tha controls the move-
ment itself, while in leglifts you are raising up a part of the body that is
merely connected to the lifiing unit.
n 1,'h
e
initial position for sit-ups is lying supine, keeping the thighs together;
exmg the feet and toes, extending the knees, and pressing the lower back
to the floor, Thon, with the hands toward the reet and the lower
back held against the floor. flex the head toward the chest. Breathing evenly,
Continue to mil up one vertebra at a time Hig. 32Ia) untiJ you are in a sitting-
POsit ion. Concentratc on the aetion of the abdominal museles, and streteh
the hands forward as much as possible. Come clown from the posture in
reverse order, slowly mIling clown, first the saerum, then the lumbar
170 A/\/I/OMI"or 1//1T1I/I HI(;,l .J. Al1lXIM/,\/ nn.rvtc 17 1
regiun, chest, and finaIly lhe head and neck, breathing evenly all the ....
If you are unable tu lift up significant!y, just squeeze up as mueh as
comfortable, hold the position isornetrically Ior a few seconds, and slov V
rol! back down. You will still benefit frorn the poslure. \Vork on il every d.
and you will soon be lifting up with ease. When you have developed enou '1
strength to do sit-ups with the hands pointing toward the feet, you ( '1
work with progressively more difficult hand and arrn postions-e-pl ac g
the fists in the opposite armpits (figs. 6.13-14), catching the opposite earlol.
interlocking the hands behind the head, and stretching the arrns overhea
Holding your hack flat against the floor while initiating a sit-up pow -;
fully activates the abdominal muscles, and this enables thern to act
prime rnovers for rolling you up and forward, but ir you start with le
lower back arched forward, beware. 'I'he abdominal muscles wiIl berel a -d
and less effective, and the psoas muscles will create excess tension al le
lumbar lordosis, exactly as in old-style sit-ups. Do not let that happen. Ir 'u
don' t have enough control lo kecp the hack against the floor, bond the
knecs before you do the sit-up just as you would in crunches.
Sit-ups in yoga, whether done with extended or flexed knces and hips,
complement leglits because they involve sorne of the sarnc muscles. But
there the similarities end. Leglifts sirnply flex the hips, but Ior sit -ups,
muscles from head to toe on the front ofthe body act first to brace and then
to bend the torso up and Iorward like an accordion. The iliopsoas and rectus
femoris rnuscles first aet as synergists, bracing t he pelvis and lumbar
rebrlon and merely supporting the action of the rectus abdominis. Then as
the upper body is pullcd further up and forward, the hip flexors take a more
active role. Picturing the loeations of all three hip flexors plus the rectus
abdominis muscle from the side makes it obvious that the rectus abdominis
is the unly one of the four that has a good mechanieal advantage for initiating
the sit-u p, especially when the knees are straight and the thighs are flat
against t he Iloor (fig. J.2Ib) .
Even if you are careful to keep the lower hack against the floor as you
start th e sit-up, the exercise still compresses the spine and should be done
for only a few repetitions. lfyou are looking for an athletic abdominal exorcise
that can be repeated hundreds of limes, al! modern trainers recomrnend
that you do sit-ups by first bending your knees and pulling YOUI' heels
toward your hips, When the hips are partially flexed as in fig. J.I, the iliopsoas
and the rectus femoris are able to act more powerfully as synergists from
the beginning to support rolling up and Iorward, kceping the pelvis stabilized
at t he crucial moment the sit-up is being initiated by the rectus abdominis
rnuscles.
Figure 3.21a. Inlermediate position for a slow easy yogic sit-up.
Figure 3.21lJ. lU(;3tions of musdc5 invul\cd in 510w sit-up5.
quadriceps lemons muscles kecp knees
extended and thighs braced
THE SITTING BOAT POSTURES
Leglifts and sit-ups are dynamic exercises that feature isotonic movements,
whereas sitting boats are classic yoga postures that are held isomctrically.
The latter resemble boats when viewcd from the side, and are even as tippy
as boats because of the way you must balance YOUI' weight on the pelvic
bowl.And since the sitting boat postures are ordinarily held for w-60 seconds
Lh ' . . .,
ey reqUlre more eoordll1atlon and balance than leglifts 01' sit-ups. \Ve'll
two variations: one makes use.of a rounded back-a nat-bottom
at, and the other makes use of a strmght back-a boa! with a keel.
!.!:Le FLATBOTTO M BOAT
'rh .
. .c boal posture wlth the back rounded should be mastered lirst because
It lS safer and more elementary, and because it doesn't require nearly as
hip flexibility as lhe posture with the straight back. Start from a sit-
:l1l
g
POl>ition with the fingers interlocked behind the head ur neck, the feet
nd toes extended (poinled away from the headl. and the knees extended.
rectus abdominis
musdes act as
prime movers tor
initiat ing sit-up
i1iacusand psoas
muscles lirst brace o
!hen pull lorward
actively to complete
the posture
rectus lemoris muscles pull
lorward on pelvic bowl
' 72 III\'A70.\ 11, (11' 111I771A HX"" 1, ..llIlXM/J\()"EJ.\'/( I x/;'m:/.H'-\ 173
Round the Uackposteriorly and slowly lean to the rear. You will belengt hern
the iliopsoas and abdominal muscles eccentrically as gravity pulls your hp ,1
and shoulders cIoser to the f1oor. Then lean back even further whi lc flexi
the t highs, and right after that pull the torso forward with the abdornir u
rnuscles. Final ly, flex the thighs as much as possible with a cornbination If
the proas, iliacus, and rectus fernoris muscIes. Keep the knees extenr ;
and hold the pose isometrically for 10-6 0 seconds (fig. ].22a). If you st t
shaking, you 've gone beyond your capacity and should come back dm
Your back should be rounded enough for your weight to besupported on t e
relatively flat surface of the sacrum-the flat bottom of the boat- o
balance ought not be a serious problem, but if it is, sit on a softer su d : e
01' a pillow.
The other way lo come into this posture is to miseup from a supine posi l.
With t he loes, feet , a nd knees extended, press the lower bac k to the fl . Ir
using th e abdominal musc les. Holding that position, raise t he head d
pull the shouldors up and forward, and when t hat rnovement is part u o'
underway, tight en the psoas and iliacus muscles concent rica lly to flex t e
thighs. If you have developed the requisite st rength from legl ifts Id
sitt ing- up exercises, t he enti re scq uence should be easy. 'I'ry it slowly o
analyze its components. You will probably [lid yourse lf minimizing yo Ir
ti da l volume and focusing un exhalation, exactly as you did with th e e
exercse and most of the othor leglifts.
trying t lift up in a duuble leglift whi le keeping the abdomen rclaxed, AH
such postures, including this straight-back boat pose , are irnpossible if hip
nexibilit y is poor, And even interrnediate-Ievel students find it diffcult to
resist the hamstring st retch and at the same time sumrnon the st rengt h to
calmly hold t he posture in its ideal formo
THE PEACOCK
Peacocks are said to havc extraordinary powers uf digestion and assimilation,
and t hat is one reason the posture has been given this name, The hatha yoga
Iiterature tclls us that the peacock pose so enlivens the abdominopelvic
regioo th at if' you have mastercd it and hold it regularly for three minutes
a duy, you can ingest poison without harm. It might be wise to take that
with a grai n of salt, but the peacock is certainly t he supreme post ure Ior
developing abdominopelvic energy. What is more, the completed posture
looks Iike a male peacock as it struts its stuff wit h a long plume of colorful
feathers trai ling behind.
Th erc are several ways to approaeh and complete t he pos tu re, Here's
one: '1'0 come into the preparatory position, you first kneel with t he thighs
abducted and t he toes Ilexed. Then you lower the top of th e head lo the
Iloor, and place the palms on the floor between the knees with t he fingers
THE BOAT WITH A KEEL
Figure 3.22a. F1at-bottomed
boat. This is a beginner's
posture, and
IS especially valuable for
thuse with poor hip
flexibility.
3.22b. Slraighl-back
ct'1 boal. for advanccd
student s who have good
slrength and hamstrings
enough lo permil 9UO
of hlp fl exiono
The back is kept straight in the second sitting boat posture, and this r y
not beeasy. From a sitting posi tion with the feet togelher and with the t S
and knees extended, sit ramrod straight, which includes arching the 10\ -r
baek forward. Next, stretching your hands out in front of you, lean b
ward, keeping the hips Ilexed at a 1)0 angle, which of course lifts the f t.
You will be supporting t he postura with the psoas, iliacus, and abdom al
rnusc les, ami especially (in contrast to the round-hottom buaO, wit h le
rectus femoris muscles (figs. j.(), /l.!), and 1(11) , which are prime moven; Ir
keeping the front of lhe pelvis pulled forward and for maintaining lhe JO
angle between the pelvis and t he lhighs. Hold the pose isometrically Ir
10-60 seconds (fig. 3.22bl . It is harder to balance in this posture than in le
previous one because you are poisl'<.! on your sitting bunes lthe keel of 1 le
boaO instead of the l1at of th e sacr um. Again. use a pillow if balanci nl- s
too difficult.
If you have limited hip l1exibility because of tight hamstrings, you 11
find yourself stl'Uggling tu keep yuur back straight. The problems are c
pamble to tho&! faced by studcnts trying to do 90 leglifls while keepl
their lumbar regions arched forward in t he super fish leglift , as well as 1
174 , IJ\'A7U. II I OF flAn/A I'OGA
pointing bchind you. Bring the wrists and elbows together tightly, and r II
the hands toward the head until the forearms are perpendicular tu the nI Ir
and the elbows are in contact \..rith the abdomen (fg, 323a). The wri sts .. 11
be extended about 1)0. If this is a problem because of previous w .t
injuries or wrist inflexibility, you may not be able to do the peacock UI il
the situation has been corrected wit h other st retches. Most women II
have lo squeeze their breasts botwccn the arrns above the meeting poin t rr
the elbows. If you try to create more room for the breasts by alIowing le
elbows to come apart, one or both elbows will slip to the side and otl le
abdomen when you attempt to complete the posture.
Holding this position, take the knees back as far as possible and t -n
straighten thern, sli di ng the toes as far back as you can. supporting j UI"
weight on the top of the head, the hands, and t he feet (fig, 323b). 'I'hi s .1Y
be all you can do. If so, remain in this position for 20-60 seconds to b Id
your capacity
Sti ll keeping the elbows in position, lift the head . 'I'hen slowly take j UI"
weight. lorward by extending th e elhows, supporting most of your we ht
on t he hands and sorne of your weight on t he extended Ieet (fig. 3
Again , you may fi nd it useful to remai n in this position for 20-60 seo ds
rather than go furt her and Iall forward.
Now, whi le bracing the back and thighs to keep the body as strai gh as
possible, pitch your weight forward by extending the elbows until yoi re
balancing all of your weight on the hands, paying spccial attention to le
figure 3.23a. Preparatory posilion, peacock.
Figure 3.23h. Second position. peacock, with elbows f1 exed aboul 9ll o.
.J A1J1XJ'\/I ,\OI'N 17C EXERUS/i.\ 175
fingertips. You have to keep the body ri gid enough fOI" the toes to lift off the
oor (fig. 3.23dl, and the back rnuscles have to be very powerful to accornplish
this. especially if you want to keep the back re latively st raight in the final
pose. Alt hough wc' ll delay detailed comments on the design of the upper
extremil ies unti l chapter R, the musc les that stabilize the two scapulae (tho
shoulderblades J are also crucial to t his effort, especially one-the serratus
anteror- t hat keeps the scapula flat aga nst the back and pul led to the side
(figs. 3.11-1 2 and 8.1)) .
Assuming that your abdominal muscles, back muscles, and scapular
supporting rnuscles are strong enough lo support the posture, and assuming
that you have been able to keep the elbows in position, the main problem
for most people is developing enough strength in the Ilexors of the fore-
arrns lo pcrmit a slow and controJIed eccentric extension of the elbows . To
complete th e posture, the forearm Ilexors have lo support t he entire weight
of the body. They lengthen eccentrically as you bring your weight lorward,
and as you t ry to come into the final isometric position you may exceed
their limi ts . One of three reactions is typical: you may fall forward on your
nose as t he flexors suddcnly relax and give way under t he influence 01'
inhibit ory input to motor neu rons from Golgi tendon organs; you may fall
figure 3.23c.Third posilion for the peacock, with weight supported only
between the feet and the hands,
/
forearmftexors
3.2. 1d. Peacock posture completed. As the weight comes further forward,
e forearm f1 exors lengthen eccenlricallyto support the poslure.
111
to
it .
to one side, usually as the weaker arm slips off the abdomen; 01' your m 0 1'
pathways may just deliver up a resounding objection hecause they sen at
sorne level that you will not have the strength to SUPPOlt the final post re.
In this last case st udents oft en do something si lly, like tossing thei r Jet
into the air as if they were trying to levit ate. Their foet , of course, fall ick
to earth just like anything else that is tossed in the airoYou can com te
this posture, at least using thc approach dcscribed here, only by brin ng
your weight forward.
A successful peacock puse depends to a great extent on your body 'pe
and weight di stribution. If you have a big chest and smal! hips and t h ths
the bu lk ofyour weight will be Iorward and you will not have to extem he
elbows a 10110 complete the posture. But ifyou have a smal l chesl, big .,IS,
and heavy thighs and legs, a greater proportion of your weight wil!
the real' and you willhave lo extend your elbows more full y As you do iat ,
however, t he forearm flexors start losing t heir mechanical advantagc md
the pose becomes more difficult to complete and hold. This is easy tu I .ve,
If it happens that you can complete the posture easily you'lI not havc my
trouble supporting a zv-pound weight on your midback without addil nal
extcnsion of the elbows. But if someone were to place a s-pound weigl on
your feet , the increased elbow extension needed lo bring your weight foi .ird
to a point of balance will probably drop you to the floor like lead.
1t is commonly sad that the peacock is more difficult for women ian
for men because they have less upper body strength, but the ma in n -on
that women have more difficulty is that a greater proportion 01' eir
weight is distributed in the lower half of the body. It follows, then, th lo
make th e posture easier, all they need to do is to Iold in sorne oftheir 1 ver
body weight. The classic solution: do the posture with th e legs folded
th e lotus pose so the elbows will not have to extend as much to sup
This is possibl e, of course, only you are comfOlt a ble in the lot us.
'rhe peacock develops more intra-abdominal pressure than any ( ler
posture because the abdominopelvic unit (which is boundcd by the respiro nry
diaphrawn, the pel vic diaphrawn, and th e abdominal muscl es ) is sup Irt-
ing the weight of the body through the elbows and arms. And becauR he
diaphragm is working so hard, you can breathe only under du 'ss'
Neveltheless, you should always keep breathing. lt is lcmpting to hol he
glotlis shut and cqualize intra-abdominal pre5!:>'Ure with intrathoracie r cs-
sure. but that is impractical because you can hold your br ealh for on SO
. lId
long. In addition, the suhstant ial increa.;e in intrathoracl pressure e
be dangerous to th e heart and eirculation. lt is much better lo kcep t he ir-
way open and limil the increase in pressure to the abduminopelvic ca ty.
Obviously the peacock is only for those who are in splendid at hl tic
condition.
J , ABf)(J,II/MJ/'/:LI1C E\'ERClSES 177
THE PELVIS AND THE ANATOMICAL PERINEUM
A fllmous conductor, rehearsng the chorus for the Verdi Requiem, once
stopped the mu sic and shouted to the performers , "No! o! Squeeze it in-
push it up!" He may not have known it, but he was telling thern to seal off
and cont rol the anatomical perineum-the base of the pelvis-and thereby
eultivate what we have been calling abdominopelvic energy. AlI t rained
singers have learned th at the purest and richest sound originates from Ihis
region. In the language 01' si ngers , the base of the body "supports" the voice.
Th e perineum and pelvis not only establish a foundation for creating an
intensely lyric sound, they form the lowermost portion of the abdominopelvic
unit , support the weight of the abdominal and pclvic organs, and bear their
full share of intra-abdominal pressure. As an experiment, next time you
sense an impending sneeze or a li t of violent coughing, notice that you
prepare for t he sharp increases in intra-abdominal pressure by pu lling the
base of th e body in and up with an intensity that will match the expccted
explosiveness of t he expected sneeze 01' cough.
For singers and public speakers who are engaging an audience, a tripartite
muscular effort within the torso s apparent. The anatomical perineum
pushes up against the pelvic organs, the abdominal muscles squeeze in Irorn
the front, the sides, and behind, and the muscle libers of the respiratory
diaphragrn lengthen against resistance, slowly submitting to the ascent of
Ihe dome of t he diaphragm during exhalation. AII three act together to
oversee a whole-body regulation of the passage of air past the vocal cords
in t he larynx.
THE PE LV I S AND THE PERINEUM
The pelvis and t he perineum mntain the pathways for eliminalion, serve as
focal points for sensual pleasure, and accornmodatc all aspects ofprocrcation;
bul even though these functions are all enOl'mously signilicant lo us
peroonally and are tI'eated al lengt h by aH esoteric traditions, our main
here is lo understand how the pelvis and perineum are important
In postures and breathing exercises. '1'0 that end we'U simply outline thcir
anatorny and concentrate on several important practices that enable the
st udent to sensc their architecture experientially and lay the b'TOundwork
for mor advaneed study.
The pelvis perineum are dillicult terms to eomprehend because the
words "pel . "" l '" d " . .. h h
. ViS, pe VIC, an pcrmeum eae ave more than one meaning.
F1rst consi der the pelvis. 'I'he way we used this woro in lhe finst half of the
current chapter was in reference to t he pelvic howl, which, in addition lo
thp two pelvic bones, includes th e pubic symphysis plus the sacrum, the
sacroili ac joints, and aU lhe pelvic l'estraining ligament s (lig. J .4). But lay
!X'llple occasionally refer lo the pelvis more generally as including the
.l AIIIXI,\/ 1JWWEl I7C EXl'RUS/S 17'J
part of the perineum, which IS obvious to any slender person sitting
upright on a hard seat.
unnary
bladder
pubic
symphysis
male urethra
(dark profiJe)
sigmoid colon
connective
ussue
-'--septum
between
corpora
cavernosa
01 penis
glans pens
scrotum, wilh lestis
proslatic
urethra
corpus
. . / spongiosum
01 penis
PELVI C DIAPHRAGM
We can best understand the structures included within the anatomical
perin eum if we build our understanding from the inside out. The deepest
layer, the peluic diaphragm, is a broad, thin sheet of muscle and fasciae
[hat spans the entire diarnond-shaped region, encircling the anus posteriorly
and Iying deep 1.0 t he genitals anteriorly. Seen in three dimensions it is
shaped like a deep hammock. Stand up and envison such a hammock at
the base of t he body. It is suspended between the pubic bones in front and
the sacrurn behind, and it supports the internal structures of the pelvic
sacrurn
rectum----"
rear.midsagiltal /
Portian 01pelvic
dlaphragm
3.24. Midsagittal (Iongil udina l. Ironl -t o-baek) seetion lh rough lhe male
reve aling midline parts a f lhe reproductive system, lhe midl ine lerminal
01 lhe digestive and uri nary syste ms, and lhe rear portion of lhe pel vic
1
3
phragm (Ironl portion is int errupted by lhe genilals). (Sappey)
T HE ANATOMICAL PERINEUM
The anatomicaJ perineurn is shaped roughly like a diamond. lt is define- by
four points: the inferior border of the pubic symphysis, the tip of the el vx
lt he tailbone), and t he two ischial tuberosities. The diamond is made. u of
two t.riangles: the urogenital triangle antcriorly, and the anal tnat tle
posteriorly (ligs. 3.4 and 3.27) . Thesc two triangles share a common b. .;e ,
which is nn imaginary line between the two isehial tubcrosit ics , but ex pt
for this one line, the two triangtes tie in different planes. The anal trial :le
exlcnds up and back to the coccyx, and the urogenik'll triangle ext end. IP
and forward along lhe inferior pubic rami to th e pubic symphysis (fig. 3 ..l.
'rhe tine connecting the two isch ial tuberosit ies is lower th an any ot el'
CONTENTS OF THE PELVIC BOWL
The contents ofthe pel vic bowl are best see n in a dissect ion in which a lid
sagittal cut has been made from the wais t down (figs. 3.24-25). The re; on
for this is simple: most of the pelvic structures in which we are intere ed
either tic in the midline 01' are visible from the perspeclive of a fron . 0-
back cut that runs straight down the rniddle of the body. I n both sexes. he
skeletal ramework of the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal spine are vi- ile
behind, along with the pubic syrnphysis in front. Also in both mal e -id
female, the recturn, anus, bladder, and urethra are plainly secn. The p is,
prostate gland, and scrotum are found exclusively in the male (fig. 3 -t ),
and the uterus, vagina, labia, and cltoris are found exclusively in he
female (fig 3.2<;).
17tl AIIA1YJMI or I/AH IA }"(I ( ;A
regin of the body between the upper portian of t he thighs and the lo", r
abdomen, and indeed, in the section of t his chapter on intra-abdomit \1
pressure , we referred to the pelvic cavity as a part of the comb ii d
abdominopelvic region. And final1y, we commonly make reference to e
contents of the pelvic bowl, that is, lo t he pelvic organs.
The word "perineum" also has more than one meaning. Gross anato IY
textbooks usual ly include a chapter titled "The Anatomical Perineum" tl u
describes the contents of a diarnond-shaped region that forrns the bas, If
the pelvis and that contains the anus, t he genitals, and their supporr Ig
muscles. The more common definiti on of t he perineum, however, refer ' 0
a much srna ller region, not inclusive of the anus and t he genitals, I ut
between thern. This is t he site hatha yoga teachers are referring to VI' -n
th ey tell you to place one heel in t he perineum, and this is the regi on l ile
obstetrician stices through lo do an episiotomy, These variations in u. g-e
are rarely a problern, however, for anyone who has awarencss of I th
possibilities, because t he meaning of the term is nearly always clear f, -m
its context.
l /lo Af>i lHH/I ' oF IIA711A 'OCA
l . AIJIXI,\/'WJI'I,/ 17C E.\LRf.f.\D> 1!!1
figure 3.25. Midsaginal sectiun Ihrough. female. pelvis mid l!ne .
parts of the reproduclivc system, the rnidline termmal. of the digest b
and urinary svs tems, and the rea r segnll'nt of the pelvic diaphragrn (Sappcy).
cavityjust as a hammock in your back yard supports th e human fr arne. 1 e
midsagittal segment oft he hammock that runs fr orn the anus to the coo x
is visible to the real' in figs. 3.24- 25. The pelvic diaphragm is interrupted y
the anus and its sphi ncters to the rear, and by the midline structures of' t e
genitals in front . A frontal section [rnalel through the prostate gland < d
urethra illustrates how the borders of the hammock extend up and o
either side (fig. 3.26). In a superficial dissection of either male or fem e
only the rear half of the funnel cumes nto view because the geni ta ls en -r
it in front (figs. 3.28-29); in a deeper dissection (female) with th e genil ls
removed (fig. 3.27>, it becomes obvious that the pelvic diaphragm for l
sl ing around cross sections of the vagina and uret hra.
(from
Quai n)
obturator
internus
musele
pelvie diaphrag m
Inferior pubc ramus
corpus spongiosum
ureters opemng
inl o urinary bladder
mal e urethra
prostate gland
Corpus cavernosum
(crus 01lhe penis)
In hatha yoga the pelvic diaphragm is activatcd consciously by two practices:
ashwini mudra and mula bandha. There are subtle and not -so-subtle
differcnces between t he two. We'll begin with as hwini mudra.
ASHWINI MUDRA
Ashwini is the Sans krit word for "mare" ("horse" would be an appropriate
tran slat ion except that the word mudra, which means "gesture," is a
feminine noun in Sa nskrit and requires a feminine modifi er), and as hwini
mudr a in hatha yoga is narned for th e movement of the pelvic diaphragm
in a horse after it has expelled the contents of its bowel. During the expulsi n
phase, the cone- shaped pelvic di aphragm moves to the rear; and alter the
contents ofthe bowel are dropped, the museles ofthe pelvic diaphragm pull
strongly inward. In so doing they cleanse the anal canal. In human beings
thc same t hing happens-you first bear down, opening the anus and
cxpelling t he contents of the bowe l, and then the pelvic diaphragm pulls
inward and upward while contracting the anal sphincter. The pulling
inward motion, which we also do reflexly from moment to momcnt during
the day, is ashwini rnudra . This is not as obvious as it is in a horse, because
Pelvie diaphragm _ _
r'
3.2&. (longitudinal, side-to-side) section !hrough the mal e pelvi c
. phragm, urmarv bladder, prostate gland, prostatic urethra, and corpus spon-
as well as the paired corpora cavernosa. inferior pubie rami and i1ia
p diaphragm forrns a deep hammock that extends lengthwise hum'the
s u l o lhe coccyx and that supports the inle rnal pelvie organs. Here we see a
. echlln through the sides of the harnrnock, and in fig. 3.27 we see it as a whole.
is
uri nary blal .er
_ ____cll ris
sigmoid colon
left o ry
- - -I-H ---ul - JS

female urethra vagina
anus
sagttal sec-
l ion through
rear portion
01pelvie
diaphragm
recturn
sacral promonlory
intervertebral disk
between the lifth lumbar
vertebra and lhe sacrum
coecyx
Figure 3.27. A deep dissection of the pel vic of female (view fr rn
bel ow). The superficial muscles and ex te rnal ge mta ls (se e flgs. 3.28-29) have I
been re moved, revealin g the underl ying hammock-l ike pelvic diaphragm (se
f
figs. 3.24-26), as wel! as u.rogenital .and mangles (see also fig. A
co mpa rable male IS .d entlCal , e xcept that a cross-se ct lUn uf
the pe nis and mal e ur ethra IS "ubstltuted fur Ihe vagina and fernale ur elhra.
in hurnans the whole regi n is onveloped in loose connective tissue id
covered with t he superficial structures of the perineum. but it is the same gest 'e,
As a natural movement, ashwini mudra is often forceful, especially w -n
it is associated with keeping the base of the abdominopelvic cavity ses -d
during sharp or extreme increases in in1ra-abdominal pressure, or when lS
used as a las t-ditch means for retention (think of restraining diarrhea), a
yoga practice, ashwini mudra is not so intense, but it sti ll aets as a peru al
scal, fort ified in this case by tightening the gluteal rnusclos along with le
pelvic diaphragm and anal sphincter, The rnudra is applied for a few se -\s,
released, and repeated. Ideally, only the gluteals, the pelvic daphragm, Id
t he anal sphincter are activated, but t he proximity of muscles overlying he
genitals anteriorly sometimes rnakes th is difficult, and you will often -el
thern tighten along with the res t when you t ry to create th e gesture.
vagina
I
r
\
\
anal lriangle
(dotted lina
plus solid line)
left sacroiliac jDint sacrum right ilium
pelvic diaphr j rn ,
righl sida
l
/
(Iro
Mor s)
Sorne post ure s rnake apure ashwini mudra easy, and ot hers make it
difficult. If you stand with the Ieet well apart an d bcnd forward 20-}00, you
v.'1l find it awkward to contraer the anus and pelvic diaphragrn, and alrnost
impossible to contract thern without aclivating the muscles around the
genitals as well. Now stand upright with the heelE and toes together and
rry it again, This is easier, Ir you don't tighten too vigorously you may be
able to isolate the pelvic diaphragm and the gluteals from the museles of
the genit als. Next, bond backward gentIy, keeping the heels togcther and
the thighs rotated out so the feet are pointed 90" away from one another,
Keep the knees extended . 'I'hen tighten gently behind and try to rclcase in
front. This s one of t he easiest upright postures in whic h to accornplish a
pure ashwini mudra. Last, bring t he toes together and rot a te t he hecls out.
This again makes it di fficult.
These simple experi rnents iHustratc the general ru le: a ny posture that
pulls the hips toge ther will rnake ashwini rnud ra easier, and any post ure
that pulls the hips apart will make it more t1 ifficul t. That , as it happens, is
one prohlem with all cross-legged sitting pos tures. Try it. When t he thighs
are flexed with respcct to t he spine and abductcd out to the sides, it is
almost imposs ible to con tract the gluteals and only a little less difl icult to
solate the anus and pelvic diaphragm from the genitals. But if you t ry the
mudra in the shoulderstand or hcadstand wit h the hccls together antl the
toes out, you will find t hat it is easy bccause gravity is alrcady pul1ing the
pelvic diaphragm toward t he floor, Little or no cffort is needed lo achieve a
fully pulled-in fecling, and that effort need not involve the genitals, Now lie
supine on th e floor and notice t hat you can easily tighten up in the rear
without recruiting muscles around the genitals. Pronc, it is more diffcult,
at oleast in me n, in whorn the muscles associated with lhe genitals are
shmulated by contact with the floor.
One of the best post.ures for ashwini mudra is the upward-facing dogoAs
long as the pelvis is lifted slightly offthe naor (figs . 5. I.H4), it is impossible
too do thi s pose wit hollt activa ting the pelvic diaphragm, yet it does not
the muscles in the urogenital triangle in the least. The down-
dog (figs. 6.17 and 8.26), not surprisingly, creates the opposite e!fect:
thls postur e is one of t he easiest poses for recruiting the muscles of t he
region in isolation, but a pose in which it is almost impossible lo
180late the muscles associated with ashwini mudra.
MULA BANDHA
lnash ..
WIllJ mud ra we stronglY act ivatc t he pelvic diaphragm, the anus, and
th
e
gluteals. Mula bmdha is more delicate. llere we mi ldly activate the
Pel ' . .
VlC dt aphragm plus-more strongly-the overlying muscles of the
t r ia nglc, which includes t he mllsc!es associated with the
IX-l ANA7Tl.\/1 (JI' IIrlT1IA H lG/I
.l . ..11Jl}(1. 1I/;\ O / ' i::/, I /C 1i.\EIIU .\ / :\
3.28. Male anafomiral perineum. l he anal porlinn of Ihe pelvic
'aph.ragm is hown hel ow (in fhe ana l triangle). lhe external genilals and lheir
musclcs are shown aboye (in lhe urogenilallriangle). whe re lhey are
IfrPenmposed ove r (and fhu s hid e) lhe fron l po rtion of lhe pelvl. diaphragm
orn Sappey).
nnd certai nly none in the gluteal muscles. This describes the rool lock. You
don't have to make extreme efforts. The cushion on which you are si tt ng
pJaces enough pressure on t he rnuscles of the urogen tal triangle to focus
your awareness on the lock.
Now t ry the sanie exerciso in a slumped postura with the back rounded
lo the real'. This changes everything. Jt shifts your attention frorn the front
ofthe anatomical perineurn to the rear; and it elici ts a mild ashwini mudra
inst ead 01' mula bandha because you are tipping baekward toward the plane
al' the anal triangJe and away frorn the plane of the urogenital triangle.
geni ta ls and the urethra, Therefore, to understand mu la bandha we h. 'e
to examine the anatomical disposition of these muscles.
TH E MUSCLES OF THE UROGENITAL TRIANGLE
Looking at a su perficial disseeton, we see that three pairs of museles OVl ie
the genitals. In both male (fig, 3.28) and fema le (fig. .P9), the superfi Ji
transuerse perineal muscles course laterally in t he shared border of le
urogenital and anal triangles, extending lateral ly Irom a heavy banr of
centrallv located connective tissue-the central tendon uft he perineum tu
the iseh'iaJ tuberosities. The bulbospongiosus muscles in lhe ma lo enci le
t he base of the penis; in the female those sarne muscles encircle t he va; la
and urethra, The ischiocaoernosus muscles in bot h t he maJe an d femah ie
superficial to t he erectile tissues of t he corpora cauemoea, which t h u-
selves course fr orn t he inferior pubic rami lo the body of the penis in he
male and to the clitoris in the Iemal e. In a slight ly deeper plane 01' he
urogenit al diaphragm (in both rnal e and ferna le ), the deep transi se
perineal muscles spread out lateral ly in sheets that attach to the infi ur
pubic rami, and the uret hral sphincters encircle the uret hrae.
MULA BANDHA. THE ROOT LOCK
Unlike ashwini mu dra, which is often a response to sharp and sur en
increases in abdominopelvic pr essure, mu la bandha (the root lock : a
gentle contraction of t he pelvic diaphragm and the muscles of the uroget
triangle. It does not counter intra-abdominal pressure so mueh as it lis
urogenital energy within the body, controlling and restraining it du ng
breathing exercises an d meditation (again, t his is a Iiterary rather t h 1 a
scientifc use 01' t he term "energy"). What actually happens is more ( . ily
sensed than described, so we'lI begin with a series 01' exercises.
First try sitting in a ha rd chair eovered with a thin cushion. In a nei al
position, neither perfectly upright 01' slumped, try lo blow out but wit l .ut
letting any ar escape. Try hard. Notice that the pelvic region contracta Id
lifts up involuntari ly enough to countcr the downward push from the {' -st
and abdominal wall . Now try the mock blowing maneuver again, bu t iis
time keep the pelvie region relaxed, and notice that it feels like st rail ng
for a bowe l movement. TI'Y it one last time, but this time lift the el' are
anatomical pel'ineum consciously, and you will qllickly sensc that t I ,; C
eITorts bring both the pelvic diaphragm and the muscles of the uroge al
region into play.
Ncxt sit really straight. arching the lower hack forward. Exhale, 19
in with t he abdominal museles, an d not ice that it is nat ural to find a fOl .15
for yuur a l lention at a point between t he anus and genitals. You may sel '; C
a slight tcm;i on in the musclcs orthe geni taLs, but HUle or none in the an s,
/
righl iSChial luberosily
anus lip 01coccyx
left side 01scroturn
wilh left testis
bulbospongiosus
muscfe (feft side)
lschiocavemosus
muscle (lett side)
pelvic diaphragm.
real' portioo. left slde
leh gluleus maximus muscle
186 ;lNA7TJ" n -01' IIAnlA HK;A
$_AI/l)(JMIA'/If'/:'I.nc I I!;'
figure 3.29. Female anatomical perineum: The anal portian of lheyelvic
diaphragm is shown below (in the anal lnangle), The external genltals and th4 r
associaled muscles are shown above (in the urogenital triangle), where lhey a e
superimposed over (and thus hide) the front portion of the pelvic diaphragm
(from Morris).
(The angle between thcse two planes is shown clearly in fig. 3-4) Si lt Ig
straight rocks you up and forward so that contad with the cushion Ia v rs
the root lock. The lesson: sit straight if you wish to apply mula bandha
If this is still confusing, it will be helpful to first experience a gross ven- ' n
of the root lock. The best . concentration exercisc for this is to sit upri ht
and try brcathing in concert with slowly increasing and decreasing tens -n
in the perineum. With the hoginning of exhalation gradually tighten le
muscles of the pelvic diaphragrn and genitals, aiming for rnaxi rn m
contraction al the end of exhalation. As inhalation begins, slowly re x.
Repeat the eycle for ten breaths several times a day. At first it ma. ne
difficult to tighten the muscles without also tghtening the gluteal musco -s,
but f you are careful to sit straight it will becorne easy.
With practico you will be able to sense the contraction of successive layers
of muscles from the outside in. Starting superficially and with a minimal
effort, you can feel activity in the ischiocavernosus, bulbospongiosus, and
superfi cial transverse perineal muscles. And with a Iittle more attention
yOu can actvate the deep transverso perineal muscles and the urethral
sphincter. And with yel more effort you can act vate the pelvic diaphragm.
'I'he central tendon of the perineum, which as discussed previously is
located al the dividing line between the anal and urogenital triangles,
appears lo be the key structure around which the more delieate versions of
mula bandha are organized. This is an extremely tough fascial regi n into
which the superficial and deep transverse perineal rnuscles insertoIf you
can learn lo focus your atlention on this tiny regi n while creating mini mal
physical eontraction of the nearby musc1es, you will be Ieeling the mol. lock.
(Yoga teachers who speak ofplacing awareness on the perineum are referring
to thi s regon.) Conc ntrate on the sensation, and in time mula bandha wiIl
feel natural and comfortable. With experience you can hold the lock
constantJy, which is what yogis recommend for meditation.
A MOD I FI ED CAT 5TRETCH
In addition lo the down-facing dog (figs. 6.17 and 8,26), which was just
menli oned in the section on ashwini mudra, one of the best yoga postures
for help ing you come in contact with the de licacy and precision of the 1"O0l
lock is a modified cat pose. From a kneeling position, bring your chin lo the
0001', swing your elbows out, and bring the upper part of the chest as low
as possible, arching your back deeply and mimicking a cat peering undcr a
(fig, 3.30). Then tighten the perineal region generally You will imme-
dlately notice that the exposed anus in this position brings the sensations
loward the front of the diamond-shaped perineum rather than behind and
that eve if vou soueeze vi '
n 1 you squeeze vigorously the gluleal muscles rornain relaxed.
you have practiced this pose severa] times and gotten accu stomed to
It8 associated ti
sensa ions, you can try to find the same feelings when you
apply the root lock in sitting postures,
Figure 3 'JO M d'fi d
ilsh .. " , o I le cat strelch, for sensing mula handha in prefercncl:' lo
Wlnl mudra.
t er
LIS
e
rse
vaglnalopl' IOg
ischiocavem us
muscle, left e
pelvc diaphragn
rear portien, left de
left gluteus maximum mu le
!ip 01 coccvx
anus
right
ischial
cltoris
IRS .r,\ /l 10 M I OF /M111A HIGA
AGNISARA
Agni sara, or "fanning the tire," is a breathi ng exercise, an abdominal exer -e,
and a powerful stimulus to abdominopelvic health. When it is done ' h
full at tention and for an adcquate span of daily practice, it stokes th e re
of the body like no other exercise. But before t rying it we'Il first do a tI Il -
ing exe rcise for acti ve exhalations, and then we' ll wor k with a mod a- te
practice- A and P brcathing-i-that is accessible to everyone.
ACTIVE EXHALATION
During the coursc of re laxed, casual breathing, you make moderate efi ts
to inbale and you usually rclax lo exhale. but al l of the exercises that (01 ' W
make use 01' acti ve exhalat ions, in sorne cases breath ing out all the ty
down lo you r residual volume. To get an idea of what is involved, t ry le
following exercise: Inhal e moderately through the nose, purse the lips, nd
exhale as if you were t rying lo blow up a ball oon in one breath. Try lis
scveral t imes.lfyou slowl y breat he out as rnuch air as possible t hrough e
resistance of t he purscd lips, you' Il notice that exhalation is accompa
by a tightening of the rnuscles t hroughout the torso, including the abdo ial
muscles, the intercostal muscles in t he chest, and t he muscles in the f or
of the pelvis. At first you will notice the abdomi nal muscles pressing he
relaxed diaphragm up (a nd pushing th e air out) wit h the chest in a relati Iy
fixed posit ion: t hen you'11 not ice the chest being compressed inward ; id
finally, toward the end 01' exhalation, you will notice the contraction f he
pelvic diaphr agrn. This sequence of eve nts will also take place if '1U
breathe out normally, but creating resistance through t he pursed ps
makes the muscular effor ts much more obvious.
A AND P BREATHING
This preliminary exercise Lo ab'lli sara, called allllm:/zana prasarana or
A and P brealhing101' short, involves active exhalations and reJaxed inhal at lS.
The literal meaning of the phrase js apt : "squeezing and releasing." SI Id
with the Lrunk pitched forward, the hands on the thighs jll st above le
knees, the elbows extended, the feet about a foot and a half apart, and le
knees slightly bent. Much of the weight 01'the torso is placed on the fr lt
ol'the thighs. Brealhe in and out a few l imes nor mal ly, lJnd observe that le
posture and the angle ol' lhe body pu lls the abdominal organs forward Id
creates a mild tcnsion against the abdominal wal!. Notice thal counter 19
lhe tension produced by lhe force of gmvity requires that a mild effort le
made cven at the heginning of cxhalation, and the greater the for wl d
angle lhe greater the cffect.
'1'0 do A and P brealhing, assume th e .;ame posture as in the trial r tl 1,
and press in slowly (squeezing) from a Bsides wi l h t he abdominal muscl s
.r. AH/XJllth\ OP/:'/.I'/< E\ /:R<.'I. \IS 11\ <)
as yoUexhale, all the whi le bolstering the effort with the ches t. Your fi rst
impulse is lo emphasize the upper abdomen. Try it, several ti mes, observing
exaclly where the various effccts and scnsations are felt. Notice t hat the
elfort in t he upper abdomen is accompaned by a slight feeling ofweakening
in the lower abdomen. The lowor region may not actually bulge out physical ly,
hut it feels as if it might. Now try lo exhale so that t he upper abdomen, t he
lower abdomen, and the sides are given equal ernphasis, as though you are
compressi ng a ball. Exhalation might take 6-7 seconds and inhalation J-4.
lnhalation is mostly passive (releasing) and manages itself naturally, Take
10-1 5 breaths in this manner.
Much of inha lat ion is passive in A an d P brea t hing because t he chest
prings open and the abdominal wall spri ngs Iorward of their own accord.
The strong emphasis on exhalation rneans that you are breathing in and
out a tidal volume which is t he combi nat ion of your normal t idal volume
for an upright pos t ure plus part 01' your expi ratory reserve. Your revised
tidal volume for A and P breathing might be about mI for each hreath
rather than the textbook tidal volume of 500 ml, and along with this, vour
new expiratory reserve volurne would become about 600 mi rather than
1,000 mi (fig. J 32, lefl-hand pa nel). In any case, A and P breathing boosts
your energy by increasing blood oxygen and deereasing blood carbon dioxide.
It is a simple exercise. but ono t hat is bot h relaxing and invigorat ing.
TH E CLASSIC AGNI SARA
A .p breathing can be done by anyone, but agni sara and its more complex
are intenso prac t ices t hat require training and condi tioning.
Iheir effects on the body are powerful enough for t hem to be contraindicated
by severa! rned ical condit ions (see the end of this chapter). 'fhey should
also bedo I
ne on y on an cmpty stornaeh and afer evacuating the bowels
. Like A and P breathing, lhe c1assic agni sara is usually don e standi;lg
Ihe torso al a 60-70 angle fro m upright, the feet apart. lhe knees
shghtly bent , the hands on t he thighs just above the knces the elbows
extended d t h ' '
,an e arms supportmg the torso. And like A and P brealhing
thc practicc foc . ha! t ' B . . . . '
uses on ex a Ion. ut mstead of utIhzmg a mass contraction
01' abdo minal I . .
d . musc es , agnl sara reqUlres a stcp-by-stcp muscular effOlt. To
o the practJce, focus your attention on lhe a rca jllsl aboye the publ's a d
pres . th b ' . . " e n
. S e ti domen m at that slle before prcssing in with the middle remon
o th e abd Th . "0
h' . omen. en con tll1uc to exhale, gradually rccruiling muscles
oIRher the abdominal wall and ending with the internal intercostal muscles
: n b cage-all the time holding tension 0010"": Exhale as much as possibl
otlce t ha t exhalation not only presses lhe abdomen and chest in it al
presses the back to t he real' (lig. 3.31). For inhalation revers e th e p'roce so
fela . ss,
Xll1g t he chesl and uppe r abdomen rsl and lowel' abdomen las1.
II}O rl 1\ATO,\/ l orn.vtu HKiA
3 rll/l )(J,I I/tI O I '1:l 17C EXF/Uol o' /-S 1';11
If you watch yourself from the pubis lo t he sternum when you have 110th g
on, it will be easier to Iearn, but even then it may take severa! weeks of d: Y
practice and concentration before you can do the exercise with confidenco
ITechnica.l note : Therc's no unambiguous language for indicating in a simple phi -e
the souree of the movement involved in cxha.lation. Somet irnes tea chers say "push oe
abdomen in," but muscl es, of eourse, never push. Others say "pull t he abdomen
but thi s sounds as though somcthing othcr than t he abdominal muscles therns- 'S
might be responsible, as we'lJ soon see is the case for uddiyana bandha Alt h -h
"press t he abdomen in" isn't perfect , it 's at least general enough not lo be rnisleadi o)
The roctus abdorninis rnusclcs are not single muscles extending fro m e
pubis to the sternum, but a series of short muscles that are isolated fl TI
one another by horizontal lines of eonnective tissue called tendir I S
inscriptions, which are responsible for the muscular segmentation d
washboard look in the abdomen of a bodybuilder, The wave of abdom lI
contraction in agni sara is possible only because each segment is separa Iy
innervated and can be controlled indi vidually.
In agni sara the modifications of the lung volumes an d capacities re
more extreme than in A and P breathing. Here exhalation comb ines ) Ir
normal tidal exhalation (500 mIl with your entire expiratory reserve vol le
(1,000 mi), creating a tidal volume of 1, 50 0 mi , an expiratory res, 'e
volume of zero, and a functional resi dual capacity which is now equr o
your residual capacity of I,ZOO mi (fig, 3.32) . As with A and P br eat h. g,
inhalation takes care of itself and is passive except for the last 500 il ,
Inhalation ordinarily takes about halfto three-fourths the time as exhala n
and is aceompanied by thc gradual relaxation ofthe intercostal and abdo ,11
muscles.
inhalatan exhalatia n IIlhalalian
5 sec 20 sec tOsec
60 30
omi 00
For t hose who are interested in numbers, minute and alveolar ventilations
are easily calculated (fig. J .Jz). A reasonabl e practico s lo breathe out and
then in 4 times per minute. which would yield a minute ventilation of 6,00 0
rnl (1,5
0 0
mi per breath times 4 breaths per minute), and an alveolar'
ventil at ion of 5,400 mi per minute mi per breath times 4 breaths per
minute>' With practico and self-control you can slow down even more, to as
)jUle as two breaths per minute, yielding a minute ventilation of J,OOO mi
and an alveo lar ventilation of 2. 700 mI per minute. You might be concerned
that 2,700 ml pe!" minute will not supply enough fresh air lo the alveoli in
comparison to the standard 4 ,200 mI per minute mentioned in chapter 2,
but in that case we were mixing 350 mi of fresh air with a functional residual
capacity of 2,200 mI, and here we are mixing 1,350 ml of fres h air in each
breath with only 1,200 mi of residual volume. It's plenty.
Duri ng agni sara the diaphragm rernains generally passive, It is relaxed
throughout rnost of exhalation, although it probably resists lengt hening
toward th e very end of exhalation as it oppnses the upward movcrnent of
the abdominal organs, And likewise, during inhalation the dome of thc
diaphragm moves downward pass vely as you breathe in what is ordinarily
your expratory reserve volurne, [fyou have controlled t ho release into this
00 1m
lime Inseconds (sec)
3.32 . Simulated comparisons of agni sara wi th A and P breathing in a
foung manoCompare these three modes of breathing with no rmal breathing .
2.14. Even t hough taking only two agni sara breaths per minute (above
the alveolar. venti lation predpitously (lo 2700 mi per mi nu te), exhaling all
e Way to the rl' sldual volume is adequale for maintaining lhe blnod gases.
6000
A and P breathing;
ag ni sara; agn i sara;
6 breaths per mio
4 breaths pe r mln 2 breaths per min
5000
tidal valume 900 mi; tidal valume 1500 mi; tidal valume 1500 mi:
minule ventat on
minute ventilation minute ventilatian
4000
5400 mi per min: 6000 mi per min: 3000 mi per min:
:[ alveolar ventilation
alveolar ventilatian alveolar ventilatian

4500 mI per min

5400 mi per min
2700 mi per min

3000
E
,
,
.
.
I
I
,
,
,
r
,
,
,
,
r
r
,
r
r

,
I

,
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, ,
, ,
, ,
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,
1
1
,
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,
,
'.
,
I
1
,
.
,
1
I
1
.
,
Figure 3.31 . Agni sara.
lhe halftone reveals
the prol1le for full
exhalation, and the
dotted line reveals the
profile for nhalation.
Exhalation is taken all
the way through the
expiratory reserve
volume (in othe..
words, to the residual
volume), but inhalat ion
doesn't extend into
what would ordinarily
bt' the inspiratory
reserve volume.
192 11\i17HIII"m'JlAHIA "C;,I
1. AlIIXI,lIli\V/'D.I '/ C E."(f :RCIsI ;\ 193
AGNI SARA IN OTHER POSITIONS
;.---
Ifyou have a problem doing agni sara standing, you can try it in other postures.
First you can kneel, with the body lifted up off the heels, the hands on the
thi ghs, and the torso pitched forward (fig. J -,U). Or you can rest the
buttocks on the heels and drop the hands or elbows either to the thighs 01'
tu the floor just in front of the knees. Or you can place the elbows on the
knecs and touch the abdomen with one hand lo give yourself feedback and
encouragement when you try to exhale and inhale in a wavelike motion. 11
is also comfortable to do agni sara in cat stretch variations, arching the
back up as rnuch as possible during exhalation (figs. 3.J4a-b. halftone
images) . And for a potent combination of breathing practices, the cat
strctch poses are also excellent Ior going back and forth between agni sara
exhalations and empowered thoracic inhalations (chapter 2) that take you
to th e outer rnost limits ofyour inspiratory capaeity for these posturas (figs.
3.348- b, superimposcd dottcd lines).
If t hese standard poses for agni sara are inconvenienl for you , you can
still do the practice in a chair or in a meditative sitting posture, It works
best t o sit up straight, arch the lumbar lordosis, and pitch yourself forward
at a slight angle. This will enable you to feel the countering tension of the
abdominal muscles in each regi n of the abdominal wall .
If you are chronically short of breath you wiII have a fine personal practice
if you aim for 10-15 breaths per minute for only one minute. Every bit of
extra exhalation induced by agni sara is a hlessing. Even if your alveolar
vent ilation remains exaetly the sume as it is in ordinary relaxed breathing,
it wiII be more efficient for bringing in oxygen and removing earbon dioxide
from t he blood, just as we saw for kapalabhati (chapter 2) . If you have
chroni c obstructive pulmonary disease and do agni sara several times eueh
day you wili please and surptise yourself, yaur family, and your doctors.
phase of inhalation slowly, you'll notice that it is not the diaphragm but le
abdominal rnuscles that are in command, lengthening eccentrically to
restrain the gravity-induccd drop of the abdominal organs until you n 'h
what would have been your normal tidal range. At that point they reh -;e
more completely and allow the diaphragm to preside over an ordinary t al
inhalation of the last 500 rnl,
Although the chest does not at first glance seem to playa prominent ,le
in agni sara, the interna] intercostal muscles do become activated Ir
compressing it inward during exhalation, especially in the last stages \\ -n
you are approaching your residual volume. 'fhen, as you begin lo in l le,
the chest springs open passively, restrained only by the abdominal mus es
and inlernal intercostals. Since the emphasis of agni sara is on exhalat n,
the chest shows only a modest enlargement during the period of 1, al
would havo been an ordinary tidal inhalation in normal breathing.
The airway is open in agni Rara, and intra-abdominal pressure re m ns
in approximatc equilibrium with atrnospheric pressure, SO it is not neces ry
to apply mula bandha. And it is not only unnecessary to apply as hv ni
mudra-in the bent-forward position it is impractical. Beginners, howc el',
may find it helpful to ostablish the .-001 lock while they are learning Loact i ite
the wavelike recruitment of abdominal rnuscles from beluw. Focusing t -ir
attentiun on the front uf the perineum may help thern develop and re ne
the practice. After that they should stop paying special attention to th e lOt
lock. It is not a part of this practice.
We are not looking for speed in agni sara, but for control. A corru un
mistake s to whoosh air out too quickly at the beginning of each exhala! JO.
'l'ry to make the rate approxirnately equal throughout so that you still l ve
a third of your agni sara tidal volume left when you have a third of \ ur
time lo go. Approach the end of exhalation by recruiting the highest of he
abdominal muscles, and keep pressing. Your lime for exhalaton 'ld
inhalalion will lengthen with practice, working up quickly lo 6--10 SC('I ds
. it
for exhalation and 3-5 seconds for inhalation: with a little more prac!J<
is eaS" to manage three or even two brealhs per minute. In the hegim 'lg
J ill
it helps lo sel a dock on the (loor und walch the second hand, bul
soon become a distraction. Discard the dock after a few days and concenl te
on the senRations.
For un even more ntense prnetice of agni Rara, and for an occasl nI
change of pal'C, you can exhale w; usual, and then instead of f Iy
into inhalation. take a minimal chest inhalation and then immedIa Iy
re-establish an even more powerful exhalation. Repeat this several tin S
before inhaling as in the traditional agni sara diHCUSsed above. 'f IS
exercise, which can only be ['epeatcd a few times before you have to inh: e
fllliy, dramaticalIy the powcr of agni sara.
3.33. Agni sara kneeling.
gain, the halftone reveals the
profile fOI" full exhalation and
the dotted line reveals the
profile for inhalalion. The tidal
Inhalation and exhalation
combines an ordinary tidal
\lollJme wilh the entire
eXPirat ory reserve volume.
:
,
.._.:"
I
,
,
,
,
.l . A/JIXJMIt\'l}/'UI7CE\:J,RUSJ:S 195
is probably more important. Finally, if you really want to learn agni sara,
YOu have lo both stay within your capacity and at the sarne time explore
your lirnits. You'lI not scnse the power of this practice unless you do it
.10-40 minutes a day for \0 days in a row,
SARA WITH OTHER HAT HA YOGA PRACTlCES
If you are an advanced student, you can use agni sara (or A and P breathing)
lo intensifY the hatha yoga postures in which you are cornfortable. You will
have to breathe aster than usual, of course, because the postures wiII
increase your needs for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, You will al so
have to modify the patterns of exhalation according to the dernands of the
post ure . For example, in a deep standi ng forwa rd bend you can both see
and feel what is happening, but a standing backbend 01' spinal twist permits
lttle obvious movement in the abdomen. 'I'hat's fine . Either way, it's the
attempt to press in from below that generates the surge of energy. And for
all standing pos tures in which you are emphasizing an empowered thoraeic
inhal ation (chapter 2), you can not only increase your inspiratory reserve
volume by trying to inhale more deeply, you can use agni sara to exhale
most 01' all of your expiratory reserve volume, thus inhaling ami exhaling
your vital capaci ty (he volume of which is speci fic lo the particular posture)
with every breath.
After you have worked suecessfully with agni sara, bellows breathing, and
kapalabhati for sorne t ime, you can experiment with an agni sara type of movc-
ment during the exhalation phases of the bellows breath and kapalabhati,
Exhalaton will produce un upward-rnoving wave of contraction-a pushing in
and up sensat on, rather than a mass contraction of the abdominal muscles.
You can Ieel th is i' you span your hand across yuur abdomen with {he middle
Iinger on the navel, the thumb and index fingers above, and the ring fnger and
liUle finger below. You will feel the little finger on the lower abdomen moving
inward during exhalation, and little or no movement where the thumb is located
on the upper abdomen. Using this technique for the bellows and kapalabhati
creates a mild scooping-up sensation. It requires more control than the standard
f.echniques for bellows and kapalabhati, so you will need 10slow dO\vn-perhaps
lo as few as 60 breaths per minute. Vouwillnever be able 10do it as fast as the
standard tcchnique, but it is still a powcIful alxiominopelvic exercise and is
excellent fOl' training the abdominal muscles for more advanced practices.
UDDIYANA BANDHA, THE ABDOMINAL LIFT
Mula bandha scals the anatomica! pel"ineum, ami agni sara teaches liS S}X.'Cial
for using lhe abdominal musel!:?s. When you have bccome prolicient
In bot h, you are read}' to learn tohe second great luck in hatha yoga:
Uddiyana oondha, or the abdominal lift. To do it you musto exhale, hold
"
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L' 3 34b Cat slretch. The maximum inhalation (dashed line) with lhe heal
. . h . I b id . .
el right foot up in combination wlth 1 e maxnnum um ar or OSIS, IS super-
on the maximum exhalation with the head down and knee to nose
(halftone).
Figure 3.34a. Hands-and -knees pose. The i.nhalation (das hed
with head up and maximum lumbar lordosis IS supe nmposed the rnaxi rm n
exhalalion with head down and the back arched toward the celling (halto n
Ifyou are in ordinary good health a meaningful practice ofagni sara 1I
require at least 10 minutes at the rate of3-4 breaths per minute, and as -u
gradually increase your time you will achieve an enriched sense of w 1-
being, If you get up early in the morning and do agni sara before do Ig
hatha, it will give you a burst of energy and onthusiasrn. And if you 'e
unable for one reason or another to practico hatha yoga postures, Ub
111i
ra
1'}6 ANAIH\/1 (JI' 11"111.'1 j '( X . A
your breath out (as it's said in yoga), and create a vaeuum in your el st
that sueks your diaphragrn and abdominal organs to a higher than u. al
position in the torso. This can happen only if the body is sealed aboye Id
below-above at the glottis and below at the perineum. Without these s- tls
air would be drawn into the larynx and lungs aboye, and into the elimina ry
and reproductiva organs below. You hold the root loek reflexly and witI ut
having to think about it, but the glottis has to be held shut voluntarily
UDD IYANA BANDHA
The best time to practiee the abdominal lift is early in the mo rn 19,
certainly before breakfast, and idealIy after having evaeuated the bov Is.
The same eontraindications apply as in agni sam (seo the end of this ehap 1' ).
To begin, stand with you r knees slightly bent and your hands br ed
against the thighs. As with agni sara, t his stance lowers the abdorr ial
organs downward and forward. Exhale to your maximum. Notice that ou
do t his by pressing in first wit h the abdomen and t hen with the chest, '1 en
do a moek inhalation with the chest, c\osing the glottis to restrain ai r I un
entering the lungs, and at the same time relax the abdomen. You sh l id
fee l the chest lift . Ho lding the glottis closed for a few seconds, try hard- to
inhale, keeping tho abdomen relaxed. The upper abdomen will forrn a -ep
concavity that extends up and underneath the rib cage. This is ud di : na
handha (fig. 3.35). If you get eonfused about how to prevent air from ent t ng
the lungs, Iorget about t.he abdominallifi (01' a wcek 01' so and sirnply pI' ice
trying to inhale after full exhalations while you are blocking your m ith
and nose with your hands.
Figure 3.35. uddiyana bandha: A
maximum exhalation i5 followed by a
mock inhalation with lockcd glotti5
and ("hin lock in combinalion wi th
rclaxcd abduminal mU5des.
To make holding the glotlis shut lee! more natural and comfortable, a
t.hird lock, jalandhara bandha (the chin lock), can be estahlished by flexing
the head forward so the chin is tucked into the suprasternal notch, the little
concavity aboye the sternum at the pit of the throat, It is possible lo do the
abdominal lill without the chin lock, but its addition will make the closure
of the glottis feel more secure, and many teachers consider it absolutely
nccessa ry. Fixing the eyes in a downward position also cornplements both
uddiyana bandha and jaJandhara bandha. Try looking up as you try them
and you' lI quick.ly sense the efficacy of looking down.
Come out ofuddiyana bandha in two stages. First, while still holding the
glotti s shut, ease the vacuum in the chest by re laxing the external inter-
costal musclcs, which wiHlower the dome of the daphragm and the abdominal
organs to a lower position in thc trunk. 'l'hen, as soon as the abdominal
wall is eased forward, press inward st rongly with the chest and abdomen
until t he pressure aboye and below the glottis is equalized. You have to
compr ess inwar d just as forceful ly as when you first exhaled for uddiyana
bandha; if yo u don ' t , air will rush in with a gasp when you open the
glotti s. As soon as the pressure is equalized, open the glottis and breathe
in gentIy.
Where does the vacuum come from? In uddiyana bandha we are trying
lo inhale without inhaling. and this makes the thoracic cage larger, expanding
il from side to side and from front to back. And since no air is aJlowed in
the ai r pressure inside the chest has to decrease, which in turn creates
cnough 01' a vacuurn to pull the diaphragm up (provided it is relaxed) in
proportion lo the expansi n of the rib cage. Coming down from uddiyana
bandha, t he side-to-side and front-to-back expansions of the chest are first
relaxed and then cornpressed hack into their starlingpositions offull cxhalation,
and the dome of the diaphragm and abdominal organs move inferior\v.
ddiyana handha is the only practice in hatha yoga that frankly stretches
respiratory diaphraf.,'111. l1's true that you get a mi Id stretch ol' Ihe
d
1
aphra,, '111 when you exhale as much as possible in agni sara and for the
cxhalalion stage of uddiyana bandha. both of which push the dome of the
dl8phragm (from below) tu t.he highest possible position the abdominal
tnuseles can accomplish. But uddiyana bandha gocs beyond Ihis because
lhe vacu . th h h ' .
. um In e e est I at IS supenmposed on fun exhalation pulls the
d' Uphragm (from aboye) to Hn even higher position. \Ve can surmise Ihat
praclice ofuddiyana bandha will stretch. and in time lengthen the
(haphra ' Id '
gm s muse e an eonnecllve t1ssue fibers, as well as keep the zone
of ap . .
UIld (fig. 2:9) between the diaphragm and the ehesl walJ healthy
I shppery. You wlll be able to exhale more completely as you f.,rraduaJly
engthen the muscle fibers, and you will heable lo brealhe more comfortably
and efficiently as you inerease lhe diaphragm's mobility.
I'I
M
A/'17UMI ' 01' IIA711.4 10<;,.1
PROBLEMS
Many pcople, including yoga teachers, surprisingly, seem to have a gJ It
deal of difficulty learning uddiyana bandha. It is partly a matter of Ir
body awareness in the torso, but the most constant factor is simply y ir
history. Many youngsters grow up doing the abdominal lift in play, of ' 0
combining it with other manipulations such as rolling the rectus abdo m is
muscles from side to side 01' up and down. In a typical group of childr n,
almost half of them wiIl be able to do uddiyana bandha alter only a few seco Is
of inslruetion and demonstration, and in a beginning hatha class or
adults, those who did uddiyana bandha in playas children will usuall, le
able to learn the yoga version immediately.
If you're having trouble, you are doing one of three things wrong. F ;l,
you may not be exhaling enough at the start. The less you exhale, the ss
convincing will be the lift, You have to exhale the cntire expiralory rese ve
volume-onlv the residual volume of air should remain in the lungs. he
second possilJilily is a corollary to the first. You may be letting in a litlll rir
on your mock inhalation. You have to try to inhale withoul doing so. 1 at
is the whole point of locking the airway at the glottis. Thc third, nd
usually the most intractable, prohlem is that you are not relaxi ng he
abdomen during the mock inhalation. You must learn to distin sh
between pressing in with thc abdominal muscles, which we want onl: 01'
the preliminary exhalation, and aUowing the abdominal wall to be pi ed
in passivcly by the vacuum in the chest. Many students hold their m-
inal rnuscles rigidly 01' even try to keep pushing in with them duri nc he
lifting phasc of the practice, and this prevents the abdominal organs nd
abdominal wall from being sucked in and up. It is also cornmon for stu nts
to relax their abdominal muscles momentarily but then get mixed up md
try to assist the inward movemcnl with an active contraction. It n' t
work. You have lo relax the abdominal muscles totally and keep t m
relaxed to do this exercise.
Figure 3.3b. A
modified cal
strelch encouragcs
keeping lhe
abdominal muscles
relaxed during lhe
mock inhalalion
phase of uddiyana
bandha.
3 . AUfXIMI,\0/'HI 7C l'XI:HaSE.\ 1'1'1
Al'lOTHER MODIFIED CAT STRETCH
-
If you consistently have trouble relaxing the abdominal muscles for
uddiyana bandha in a standing position, try it in a cat slrctch, similar to
the one we used for exploring mula bandha (fig, 3.30), except more rclaxcd.
Rest on the knces and foreanns and lower the forehead down against the
cfOSSL-'<! hands. Press the shoulders toward the floor and increase the lumbar
arch as much as possible. This position pitches the abdominal and pelvic
organs forward and toward the chest. Now all you have to do is exhale as
much as possible (which rounds your back posteriorly) and hold your
breath at the glottis. Now relax, allowing the lower back to arch forward
again, and notiee that in this posilion it is unnatural lo hold the abdominal
muscles firmly. ddiyana bandha comes efTortlessly as your chest cooperates
with gravity in pulling the abdominal organs to a higher position in your
torso (fig, 3.36l. Finally, continuing lo hold your breath and keeping the
abdomen relaxed, slowly lift your head and shoulders, Come up on your
hands, walk them toward your knees and onto your thighs ever so delicately,
and carefully come into an upright kneeling posilion withoul tightenng the
abdomen. If you are successful you will be doing uddiyana bandha.
FIRE DHAUTl
Here is a simple exercise thal some lexts caU agni sara, and others refer to
as tire dhauti. Come into uddyana bandha (standing), and continuing to
hold your breath, alternately lower and again lift the abdominal organs by
dec reas ing and increasing the size of the chest cage with the intercostal
muscles. Each time the abdominal organs are lowered, the abdominal wall
is pushed out, and each time the abdominal organs are again liftcd into the
typical uddiyana bandha position, the abdominal wall is pulled in. It's a
pumping action, and it is sometimes done fast, up to two times per second,
but more frequently it is done about once per second.
. Doing tire dhauti, keep in mind that you see and feel mosl of the aetion
In the belly, but that the control of the maneuver depends on the chest as
well as holding your breath after a full exhalation. The abdominal rnuscles
thcmselves remain passive : they are pulled up passively by uddiyana bandha,
lhey pressed back out by gravity and by the aetion of the chest, You
eep holding the breath al the glottis, but the vacuum in the chest is diminished
even converted momentarily into a positive prcssure as the diaphragm
abdominal organs are prcssed inferiorly. You can do lhc pumping
nclJon r 1 Ii I 1 1 .
T' . o on y 01' t le eng 1 uf lime that you can hold your breath.
his pracllce is an excellcnt lraining exercisc for lhosc who are having
releasing lhe abdominal mu;clcs in uddiyana bandha, because its
Vlgorous up and down motion has the elrect of freeing you froro lhe habit
of holding lhe abdominal muscles rigidly.
200 AN,110.I/I ()F 1{,I 71'" IOGA
THE ABDOMINAL L1FT SUPERIMPOSED ON AGNI SARA
Agni sara pushes the abdominal organ s from below, and uddiyana bam la
lifts them from aboye. After mastering t hese two practices individu, y,
adva nced students will benefit from combining thcm. Start in the stand 'd
stance for agni sara and the abdominal lift, supporting the body wit h le
hands resting on the thighs, Exhale completcly by pressing in the abdom al
muscles in a wave from the pubis to th e rib cage, As soon as you h ve
exhaled lo the mximum, lower the chin lo the lop of the sternum, ( ' C
the glottis, and do an abdominal lift , Relax the abdomen and diaphr m
completely, and form as deep a eoneavity below your rib cage as you \O
manage. The moment you reach your lirnit of lifl ing, st art lowering. 1 -n
as 500n as you start the dropping acton, initiate a gradual mass contrae In
of t he abdominal muscles.
During t he lower ing phase you rnust develop just as much abdon ial
contraction as you felt bcfore you initiated thc lift. This is diffi cul to
accornplish smoo thly The abdominal organs are likc a ba ton t hat is l ng
passed . The abdomi na l muscles press them toward the chest, which T .n
grabs an d lifts them as high as possible with t he externa! intercostal mu s -s,
In prcparation for the releasing phase, the external intorcostals lowei he
abdominal organs eccentrically back to the point at which the abdo 181
muscles retrieve them gracefu\ly. As soon as the abdominal mu scles -id
internal int ercostal rnuscles leam up and re-compresa the chest, w .h
equalizes the pressure on both sides of the glottis, you can open it kn ng
that air will not rush into t he lun gs. This is important. If you don 't e ite
equalize the pressure you will hear a slight click in you r throat as the gil tis
opens. Finally, after opening the airway, re lease the ehin lock and he
abdominal muscles as though you were coming out of agni sara, first ist
below the rib cage , then in the middle ofLhe abdomen, and last in th e I er
abdomen and perineum. The whole exorcise should be done noiselessly nd
wit h infi nite smoot hness, so much so that an observcr who is not fam ar
with the practice will not realizo that you are doing an abdominal li or
restra ining inhalation.
A practice of 2-3 cycles per minute is reasonable for those who al in
good eondition. For example, if you are doing a complete cycle ir JO
seconds, or 2 breaths per minute, you can takc a bout 15 second, Of
exhalation, ') seconds fOl" the abdominal lift , and l a seconds for inhalat ,n.
You should develop a rhythm that .vou can maintain without obvious efl rt;
otherwise you are trying to do too muchoYou can do about. 10 cycles per lY
for tlle first week, and increase by l a each week as long as you re
comfortahle.
J. I1t I1KJMIIIOI'H I'Ic. t:xrRO SIS 201
gQ.DIYANA BAND HA WITH OTHER POSTURES
(fyou are well-practiced in both uddiyana handha and hatha yoga postures,
YOu can combine the two lo create a more aggressivo practice, As with agni
sara, when you are bending forward you will feel the effects as well as
notiee t he movemenls externally, and when you are bending backward or
twisting, you will feel the effects without secing thern. As in t he case of
combi ning agni sara with postures, this is not a practice for beginners,
because the vacuum developed in the chest and abdomen completely nu llifies
the intra-abdominal pressure we depend on to protect the back in stressful
posit ions. You should be confident in both the abdominal lift and your
hatha yoga postures before trying it,
NAULI
Naul i , which means "churning," is one of t he most rewarding, if not the
crown jewel, of the various abdominopelvic practices. '1'0 do it you must
Iirst do uddiyana bandha and t hen contract thc rectus abdomi nis rnusc le,
first on one side and then t he othor, creating a wavel ike, side-to-sde
motion in t he abdomen. The other abdominal rnusc les remain relaxed,
leaving concavities lateral to the rcctus abdominis on each side. To learn
the exercise, most people first learn to isolate both rectus abdominis mus-
eles at the same time after having established uddiyana bandha, Then, still
holding uddiyana bandha, t hey learn to contracl each rectus abdominis mus-
ele individ uaUy, and finally they learn to coordinate the side-to-side motion
for the fina l pract ice.
NAULI MADHYAMA
ddiyana bandha creates a deep concavity in the abdomen beeause aU of
the abdominal muscles are relaxed. Looking at someone in profile, the
abdominal wall has the appeara nee of an upside-down J, with the short
limb of t he J attached to the sternum, the are of the J sucked up by
uddiyana bandha, and the long limb 01' the J attached lo the pubi s. Th e rectus
abdominis muscles, which run vertically on eithor side of the rnidline
belween the rib cage and the pubis, are included in this inverted J.
Contract ing them selcct ively- t hat is, superimposing their contraction
Ooto uddiyana bandha-puJI s the inverted J into a straight line leaving the
resl ofthe muscles relaxed (fig. 3.37a, middle mage). 111is is lloul/madhyama
th
e
first step to learning nauli. It is anot he r ane of those practices
so .
metImes learn in play, and anyone who has done that can easi ly learn
nauli after a month of so of trial and error.
Several exercises may be necessm-y for learning to isolate the rectus
muscles. The most straightforward method is to apply uddiyana
andha lO the standard position wit h the hanos braced on the thighs. Then
202 ANA'I OM " (1/. l/tI lilA r(JGA
bring your attention to the lower abdomen and create in that regioll wh,
teachers sometimes describe as a forward and downward push. Althoup
muscles don't push, and in this case are merely pulled taut, 8 "push"
what the untutorcd observer sees, and the image seems useful for mal
students.
The most common problem with trying to isolate the rectus muscles
that the external abdominal oblique, internal abdominal oblique, al' 1
transversus abdominis muscles also tend to become recruited. But I
whole effort 10 pull t he rec tus musclcs forward is meaningless unless ,). I
keep the rest of the abdominal muscles relaxed. l f the nauli madhyai i
technique doesn't work, don 't struggle, but try it once a day on an ernj ,
stomach al' whenever you fecl adventuresome or energetic,
Another trick is to apply uddiyana ba ndha when you are in a supi
position: press your fingers into t he abdominal wall lateral to the rec
abdominis rnuscles on each side, and then lift your head up an inch 0 1' ' J
off the floor, As you start to make an effort t o lift your head, you will fl 1
the rectus abdominis rnuseles contract just before the rest of the superfk 1I
muscles. Adjust your effort so that you engage the rectus muscles wl e
keeping the others relaxed. If you make too rnuch eITort and lift the shoul dr 'S
along with the head, you will engage the abdominal muscles en ma.
which defeat s the purpose of the exercisc . Lift the head up and down o
explore this, Mechanical feedback also helps, for which there are t h oc
possibilities. You can give yourself sorne little punches laterally to re mo d
your other muscles to stay relaxed, you can squeeze your hands against e
rectus muscles from thc s de as you feel them become engagcd, 01' you n
roIl the overlying skin up and out to encourage the rectus muscles a
contract in isolation,
If all else fails, you may be able to learn how to isolate the rec IS
muscIes by coming into the cat slretch with the deepest possible udd iy a
bandha, and then arching your back up. The rectus abdominis muscles 'e
the prime movers for creating the arched posterior curvature, while at e
sarne time partially straightening out the inverted J. so they wiil le
activated selectively. Then all you have to do is concentrate on keeping le
rest of the abdominal muscles relaxed, Try supporting yourself with r le
hand so the other hand is free to Ieel the preferential contraction of le
rcctus muscles.
1 A(JI)(IMlfI(JI'{-J 1J( 203
in short order, Here's how. Holding nauli madhyama, place both hands on
the thighs just above the knees. Press diagonally in strong lunges first to
one side and then the other to activate the individual rectus abdominis
muscles. Do this one-two lunge at the rate of about )-2 times per secandoIf
you need to waggle the hips at the sarne time, that's fine. lt will look si lly
for a while, but after a month 01' so of practiee you wiIl be able to produce
the rolling movernent that is characteristic of nauli, and be able to do so
without rnuch hip motion 01' side-to-side lunging. Refining the practice, you
can go ten times from right (fg. 3.37bl to left, and ten times from left (fig.
3.37c) to right on one round of holding your brcath. You can start practicing
for one minute a day and add a minute each week. As with uddiyana bandha,
many teachers consider it important to hold the chin lock Ior this practice.
In any case, ifyou build up to 20 minutes a day you w;11 find out why nauli
is val ued so highly in hatha yoga.
NA ULl
If you can learn to superimpose the contraction al' the rcctus abdorrn s
muscles onto uddiyana bandha in various posit.ions, you will sooner 01' lai r
be able to do so in a standing position with your hands un your thighs, A
ir you cultivate this until it is second nat ure you will be ab le 10 learn nai
Figure 3.:l7b. Nau li
wit h contraction
of Ihe nght rectus
abdomi nis muscle
superi mposed on
Ucldiyan a ba nd ha.
Figure 3.37a. Nau li
madhyarna, with
conl rac lio n of both
rectus abdominis
mu sd es superimposed
un uddi yana bandha.
Figure 3.37c. Nauli
left, with contraclion
of let rectus
abdominis muscle
supcrimposed on
uddiyana ba ndha,
W' A/\',lHJMI (WIIA"I1/A lOCA
CONTRAINDICATION5
For practices in the first half of the chapter, conlraindicalions for legl if
sit-up exercises, and the boat postures are obvious: lower back problen
And it ought not surprise anyone that the peacock, as well as otl r
exercises that greatly increase intra-abdorninal pr essure, should e
explored with caution, at least by anyone who 8 not a1ready quite athle-
H is a myth, although a common one, that women in general should nol o
the peacock. For practices in the second half of the chapter, there aro o
contraindications for ashwini mudra and mula bandha, but agni S< r,
uddiyana bandha, and their derivalives are powerful exercises whi e
indiscriminate use 8 not recommended,
HIGH BLOOO PRESSURE
lf you have high blood pressure, even the mildest of abdorninopel IC
exercises should be approached gingerly Even if'you are on medication t l it
successfully lowers your blood pressure, all intense abdorninope: re
exercises should be avoided. Holding your breath at the glottis al -r
inhalation is always contraindicated. Holding your breath after exhalat '1,
as in uddiyana bandha, is less dangerous but also inadvisablc beca use 'e
would expeet it to quickly increase venus relurn, that is, the flow of bh Id
back to the heart.
ULCERS
Inle nse abdominopclvic practices are all contraindicated for everyone \ h
stomach and duodenal ulcers except in the case of practices recornrnen- -d
by a holistic physician who is willing to advise you.
HIATAL H ER NIA
The es ophagus passes through the respiratory di aphragm through le
esophageal hiatus (fig. 2.7), and under certain condi lions the up -r
part of the stomach may herniate through this region of l e
diaphragm into tho thoracic cavity. 'I'hi s is call ed hiat al herma. Ir ' u
have occasional di scornfort in that region after eating, or if you h e
acute di scomfort just under the lelt s ide of the rib cage whil e t I") ig
t.he peacock, uddiyana bandha, or igorous versions of the eobra it
may be t.hat the differential between intra-abdominal press ure (wh ' h
is higher) and intra-thoracic pressure (which is lower ) is causing le
problcm. Jt is important lo se ek medical counsel !'rom someone wh' is
conversant with hatha yoga bcfore continuing with any postun Ir
excr ci!ie that causes such sympt oms .
$. , IIJI Y i M I ,\( i / 'l:L I '/C I'..\TRC/ \"I S lOS
!!!9UINA L HERNIA
'[he inguinal canal, through which the testis passes around the time of
birlh on its way to the scrot um, is another regio n of weakness in which
abdominal organs, or more commonly a Jittle fatty ti ssue, usually from the
greatcr omenlum (fig. 2.9) can herniate out of th e abduminal cavity. This
condition-an inguinal izemia-ean also occur in women, although it is
les.c; common than in menoIf a liltle oulpouching of son t issue appears on
one or both sides of the groin when you are upright, and if that outpouching
disappears back into the abdominal cavity when you are lying down , it is
almost certainly an inguinal hernia.
Inguinal hernias will become more pronounced in any slanding posture
and in all exercises such as the pcacock that increase intra-abdominal pressure,
Bicycling, walking, running, and sun salutations also commonly make
inguinal hernias more prominent. But they are unpredictable: they can get
worse quickly or rernain about the same for months or years. Ifthe condilion
is not repaired surgically, a support (truss) that presses against the hernia
from t he outside may be effective in keeping the conlents of the abdomen
out of the inguinal canal. but in the abscncc of such a device, strenuous
upright postures and the peacock should be avoidcd.
MENST RUATl O N ANO PR EGNANC Y
No exercise involving breath retention should be practiced during
menstruation or pregnancy, but the regular and enthusiastic practico of
abdominopelvic exercises appcars to be helpful in preventing prernenstrual
symptoms and cramping. During pregnancy, most practices in hatha yoga
are contraindicated, especially those that increase intra-abdorninal
preS8ure but also t hose few that decrease it , such as uddiyana bandha.
A"hwini mudra and mula bandha are fine and are even recornrncndod
during pregnancy, but agni sara is cont raindicated beca use of it s inten sity.
One caution for expert hatha yogis who have j us t given birth: the fascia
tha t connects the two rectus abdominis muscles in the midline may have
become weakened by pregnancy and childbirth, and women who were a ble
lo do lhe peacock easily before having children are sornct imes unable to do
so afterwards becausc the roctus abdorninis rnuscles are now pulled uncom-
fortably apart in the effort lo come into the poslure.
BENEFIT5
knows lhat deveJoping st rengt h, improving aerobic capacity, and
Increasi ng flexibility is important for physicaJ conditiuning. ' Thc
qUestic f h l h h J . .
1Il U ow lo accomp 18 t ese goa s 18 less certalll. bul yogis insist
l hese are the benefits of leglifts, the peacock, agni sara, uddiyana
undha, and nauli. Why that happens is sti B sumet hing uf a mystcry, but
zo ANA"/DMI 'O/' IIAn/A IO(iA
we can call on our expcrience lo make sorne rcasonable guesses. Ir you are
hungryand tired, but. feel great after doing twenty leglifts and ten minut e>
of agni sara instead of eating and taking a nap, sornething ohviously
workcd-and anyone who has a little knowlcdge of anatomy and physiology
can make intolligent guesses about what, where, and how: you increaser
vour blood oxygen and decreased your blood carbon dioxide; you stimulate:
the adrenal glands to release epinephrine tadrenalinet and steroids; YOl
stirnulated t.he release of glucogon. from the islets of Langerhans in t h
pancreas; and the liver released extra glucose into the general circulatior
cutting your appetite and preparing you for geUing on with your day.
\Ve can also look at the physiology of any specific practice and comrn ei
on event that are certain to result, For example, we can note that al
activity that increases intra-abdominal pressure while the airway is beir
kcpt open will force blood more efficiently than usual from the venous syste
in the abdominal region up into the chest, Quantities can be debate
rneasurements taken, and opinions stated regarding how and why th: t
might be bensficial, but there can be no argurncnt about the reality of t '
effects.
':fi loh m O/IY- /IIrJ/l//J l o I7f -?I/..// Y I,I r rJ/l/n:./o'ld.11///III/lfl
/ ICCCj j OIY l o thtj { .ra'Y-/JE {p' U Jara)c/'/"/Y';;oI4'. YI?
110/ hCO/FIC dJCOINY7.?6d JlUI' t;I/o/1J In//'c
I.ra/);/I! !fea /l/. ..
- Swami Rama, in Exercise WilJlOllt Mouement, p. ')').
CHAPTER FOUR
STANDING POSTURES
.. } / :11 tf,ukl/iJ/:J IIIE/r /I/' / :tu /liAI.//II<//I. cnca lun;:J.
"'..'en: o/Iima/J o/tlt.? l o 1/ 'Ol k 0/1 AI/I<I k ?J. J7 II 'aJ o
ro.1I;;' o/t!J/l/". /.4;'/11 l o laA{ IY'/, o/Idl/JC an: JIIII/ ll'tyI?
1/I Jlob/IOd.:f $ " /II/ ll//lal ////I .YU/ I/ EIJlJ/'a! 0 1'0' o
mlli/I?'! a htjA tkpn:t; o/l# Uj/ ', NI /,4/
n.J.1IN/Y'tlI/I IhilIIIOIIl/llm!JI7n rren l lu'e.1/m/./ 0 / 1/ k. al l":afA
roIYl' a/te!f<ll I/'aa I /'Id. Ihe ' y u// ' 1/1 o
!b/.{k". d o.1t? Cf'lId'tI/(WJ ;/ltqt.ltl i.J 0 / 1/0 Iho/
{/loa/alCIJ//l/II<l./ld11ft /11'Oft.1JI OII</ ;'/pl/li'n'
. .Yhcl!"n n I/Ialkl,? ,1".14 ,.. ..
- Elaine Morgan, in Tlze Sean, oi Eoolution, p. 25.
C real ures with an upright two-legged posturc appeared along the coastal
regions of Africa 4-6 million years ago. How this carne lo be is still controversial,
but t he posture is one of the defining characteristics of the modern human
for moAnother is that we are ablc to stand erect with minimal muscular
acti vity in our thighs, hips, ami backs. By contrast, the stance and gait o'
a dog or cat, or of the occasional monkey who chooses to walk upright at
times on two legs, is dictated by joints in the supporting ext remit ies that
are always bent. 'I'his enables them lo pounce or run at a moment's notice,
hut it also requires th em to use muscular activity just to stand upright. The
SCCrct of our stance is simplc--we can relax when we sta nd because we can
lock our knees and balance on oUJ' hip joints without mueh muscular activity.
Most ofus are only vaguely aware that we can balance our weight on top
of the relaxed thighs, but evcryone learns about knees in junior high school
cafetera lines when someone sneaks up behind you and buckles your knee
as you are leaning on one leg. Your ensuing collapse shows you elearly that
you were depending on the locked knee joint to hold you up and that your
tor mentor caught your relaxed muscles off guardo
"Locking lhe knees" is a phrase that has twa implications: one is that
t he hamstrings will be relaxed, and the other is that additi ona l cxtension
wilI be b'lOpped by ligamcnt.<;. Instruclors in dance, athlctics, and the martial
arts generally caution against this, arguing instead that the backs of the
207
20 1\ ..t.\A7HIII Or/lA1/1A IncA ~ .\1il f\ /J/ ,\' (; /'( W/1 '/l ES ~
control your movement forward. Next, slowly come back up and feel the
gluteals suddenly relax again just bcfore your weight is balanced upright.
Our relatively relaxed upright posture is possible because a plumb line
of gravity drops straight down the body from head lo foot , passing through
the cervical and lumbar spine, behind the axial center of the hip joint, in
fronl of the locked knee joint, and far enough in front of the ankle joint lo
keep you from rolling over backward onto your heels (fig, 4.1). (Because the
anklejoints do not lock, keeping your balance wiII require you to hold sorne
ten si n in the ealf muscles. ) 'I'his architectural arrangement allows you tu
balance your weight gracefully from head to toe and accounts for why you
can stand on your feet without much muscular effort.
The fact that we can remain in standing poses when we are relaxed,
tensed, 01' anywhere in between often prompts spirited discussion among
hatha yoga teachers. One instructor says to relax in standing postures:
another says don't for a second relax in standing postures. Both can be correct,
and we'JI explore how and why later in this chupter, PuUing first things
frst, however, we'll begin with the skcJeton. We'lI followthat with the general
knees should never be thrust to the real' in a cornpl e.ely locked and hyp,
extended stance. Although this lhinking is widely accepted in the movem, tt
disciplines, and although it is certainly sound advice for all fields of stu ly
in which whole-body standing movements must flow freely, weary mount. n
climbers gratefully learn about a slow, choppy, "rest step," in which tl ~ y
stand for 2-4 seconds 01' even longer on a locked knee juint-just bones Id
ligaments-to save muscular effort before lifting their opposite I ot
onward and upward. And assuming that you are not preparing to pou ce
on sorneone at a social gathering, locking one knee is hard to faul t 0 1'
standing and engaging in quiet conversation frst on one leg and then he
other. This is a uniquely human geslure-a natural consequence .id
indeed the culmination of the evolution of our upright posture. An 11-
encompassing condemnation of the practice is iII-advised if not downr ht
foolish.
Hatha yoga directs our attention lo the knees in many postures-the sit ng
boats (figs, 3.22a-b), the superfish leglift (f g. 3.19b), sitting forward be .ds
generally (chapter 6), the eelibate's pose (fig. 8.25), and the fullest express ms
of many inverted poses (chaptcrs 8 and 9), just to mention a few-in w rch
generating tension in the hamstrings 01' releasing tension in the quadri. -ps
femoris muscles to permit frank bending of the knees would alter the fu la-
mental nature of the posture. In such cases there is nothing inhen tly
wrong with simply saying "lock the knees." On the other hand, mover -nt
thorapists are correct in noting that such a directive all too frequently ves
st udent s permission to absent thernselves mentally from the pos re.
Hather than experimenting with the nuances of partially relaxing the 1 m-
string muscles, and of a1ternating this with tightening both the quadr -ps
femoris muscles and hamstrings at tbe same time, sludents often tak he
lazy way out by simply locking their knees. They might remain un tI Ik-
ingly in a sitt ing forward bend 101' several minutes using a oombinat i- I of
tight quadriceps femors muscles and relaxed hamslrings, 01' they rht
hyperextend their knees in a standing forward bend and suppor : he
posture with no more than hony stops and ligarnents, The result: they nd
up in a few minutes with a sense of vague discomfort in their k -es.
'I'herefore, throughout the rest of lhis book, 1'11 acknowledge the CUJ 'nt
pI'eferences in movement studies by referI'ing nollo locking but to ext en Ion
l' th
of the knees, and I'1l suggest Ilccompanying this at selected limes
relaxed hamslrings-cssentially lockillg the knees without using lhat t.rOl ,le-
sorne phrase.
That we can stand with knees locked is obvious; scnsing how our we ~ h t
is balanct.'C.! over the hipjoints is mOl-e subtle. Fcel the softness in YOUI ps
with your fingertips as you stand erect. 'rhen bend forward J-S
o
from he
hip..<; and nolice that tcnsion immediately gathers in the glut.eal muscl e 10
Figure 4.1. A plumb
line of gravily drops
perpendicular to the
gravitational field of
the earth frorn the
crown of the head to
the feet in a frontal
plane of the body. This
plane passes lhrough
the cervical spine, the
lumbar spine, behind
thc axial ccntcr of the
hip [oints, in front of
the axial center of Ihe
knee [oints, and in
fronl of the ankle
joints. Thc disposilion
of this plumb line of
gravily allows us lo
balance upright in a
relaxed poslure excepl
for enough tension in
Ihe leg musdes (front
and back) to keep the
line perpendicular lo
earth's gravitational
neld -
-t---- cervical spine
- - - - lumbar spine
hip joint
.....---- Ihigh
- - - - - knee joinl
leg
ankle joinl
110 AI\'AHJ,\/I ornnru )( J<;A f . \7AS/JI,\ G '( AW7WJ-:\ 211
posterior
knee is proximal
to the ankle;
ankle is distal lo
Ihe knee
midsagittal
plane
transversa or cross-
sectional plane
coronal or frontal plane
ni E APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton for the lower extremities forms the foundation
for standing postures. From top to bottorn, it includes the peluic bones, the
femur, patella, tibia , [ibula, and the bones of the ankles and feet Oigo4-, u.
The pelvic bones and the sacr um cornprise the pel oic bowl (fgs. 2.8, j .z, and
3-4), which is thus an axial-appendicular combination of three bones. The
fernur is the single bone in the long axis of the thigh, and the patella is the
"kneecap." The tibia and fibula are in the leg. The anterior border of the
tibia-the shin-is familiar to everyone as the front surface of the leg that
is so vulnerable to painful bumps and brui ses. Thc fibul a is located
lat erally, deep to the calf muscles. The tibia and fibula remain in a fixed
positi on parallel to one another. the libia medial to the fbula frorn top lo
bottom. The bones of the ankle and foot include the tarsals, metatarsals,
and phalanges.
The appendicular skelet.on for the upper extremities is used for manip-
ulating objects in our environment and is often an important accessory for
bracing difficult standing poses. The bones of the upper extremity include
superior
t

inferior
Figure 4.2. Planes of
Ihe body, and Il'nns
for orientation of
body parts in space
and re lative to one
3nolher (Dodd).
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AND MOVEMENT
Every artist who wants to do figure drawing must first lea rn about t hr
skeleton-the shape and placement of the skull, rib cage, pelvis, and scapul a
as well as the rest of the bones of the extremities. Every curve, bump
indentation, and bulge in the body is superimposed on the underlyin,
bonos, and life-drawing instructors could hardly conceive of a hetter way 1
start their COUl'SCS than lo ask students to draw a skoleton covered wit
translucent plastic shrink-wrap-e-just skin and bones. Looking wilhin suc
a model, students would see two distinct skeletal units: the appendicuk
skeleton and the axial skeleton. The former refers to the bones of th
appendages (t he upper and lower extremities), and the latter refers t t]
bones that lie in the central axis ofthe body-the shull , the uertebral colum
and the rib cage, including the sternum, 'I'he appendicular skelcton, as ti
name suggosts, is appended to the axial skcleton-the upper extremiti
are attached to the sternum at the st ernoclauicular joints, and the lo r
extremities are attached to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints, Tak '1
together, the two units form the frame upon which the entire body is organi z- 1.
ITechnical note: lt i s notcworthy and perhaps surprising lo rnany that the p
joints, which ar e the sit os for flexing, extcnding, and rotating the thi ghs, do ,t
form axial -appendicular junctions, The reason is simpl e: both the femur and l e
pelvic bone are part of the appendicular skeleton, and it is the pelvic bone alone I lt
articulates with the axial skeleton.l
We'll discuss the skel etal system and movement. in more detail , but f st
we need to review sorne common anatomical terrns that we'Il be u!' Ig
routinely from this point on. "Ant eri or" re ers to the fronl of t.he be , ;
"posterior" refers to the back of the body; "l ateral" refers to the s e;
"medial" rneans toward th e rnidline; "s uperior" means above; "infer:
means below; "proximal" means closer lo the torso: and "distal" me IS
away from the t.orso. Sagi//al planes lie fmm front to back, lop to botl n ;
t.he one and only midsagittal plane is the sagittal plane that bisects le
body in two right -Ieft halveg, and pamsagillal planes include all sagi al
planes that are lateral and paralJel t.ot.he midsagittal planeoThe corona Ir
frontal planes lie from sirle t side, top to bottom, such as aplane that n l S
through the ears, shoulders, torso, and lower extremities. The transvers. Jr
cross-sectional planes lie from side Lo side, front tu back (Lig. 42).
principies that undcrlie standing postures, looking first al a few simple
exercises: the mountain pose, a side-to- side stretch, an overhead st retch,
a twist, three backbends, six forward bends, and four side bcnds. Then
we'Il study the more complex dynamics of triangle postures in detail . Last,
we'Il look at two balancing postures: the eagle and the tree.
112 AII.A TO,l/ 1 01 1/;177104 H IGA
nght
hip
bone ./
(pelvic
bone
in the hands
and wrists:
carpels.
metacarpals
and phalanges
Figure 4.3. The
appendicular
skelelon i!o
defined a. all
the borres of the
upper and lower
extremities, I
including the I
pelvic boncs, (
scapulae, and
c1avides.
(from
Heck)
left clavicle
left
yhumerus
left torear
is supi nat
/ left
left
ulna
(Iittle
finger r r
srde)
left tibia

in !he feet and
ankles: larsals.
metalarsals. and
phalanges
1. \ TA.\/ll.\(; PO!>7 1'RF.\ 11.\
the clavicle (the collarbone), thc scapulo (t he shoulderblade ), the humerus,
radills, ulna, and bones of th e wrist and hand tfi g, 4.3). The clavicle is the
only bone 01' he upper extremity that forrns a joint (t he sternoclavicular
joint) with the axial skeleton. It also happens to be the most commonly
broken bone in the body. If you fall on the point ofyour shoulder, the dead
weight ofyour upper body can snap the clavicl e like a dry branch.
The humerus is the single bone of th e arrn, and the radius and ulna are
the two bonos ofthe forearm.lfyou st and upright, palrns facing Iorward in
the "anatomical positi on;" the radius and ulna are parallol, with the ulna
on the medial sido near the hips ami the radius on the lateral side. This
position Ior the forearrn is called supination; its opposite is prono/ion. You
supinate your right forearm when you drive a wood screw into a plank
dockwise. Ifyou rotate the same screw out of the plank, turning your right
hand counter-clockwise, you are pronating th e forearm. During pronation
the radius and ulna shift to Iorrn a long, skinny Xso that the distal part of
the radius is rotated lo an inside position, and the distal part of th e ulna is
rotated to an outside position. Here ( fi g, 4.3) the left forearrn is shown
supinated and the right forearrn is shown partially pronated , The bones of
the wrist and hand include the carpels, metacarpels, and phalanges .
TH E AXIAL SKEL ETON
The axial skelcton forms the bony axis of the body (fi g, 4.4). In addition lo
the ver te bral column (the spine), it includes the skull, the rih cage, and the
sternum, 01' breastbone. Looking al the vertebral column from lts right
side revcals thal th e spine forrns a revcrsed double S, with one reversed S
on top of the other (viewed frorn th e len sido, envision a plain S on lop al'
the other), The tnp curve faces right, the nexl one left , the third one again
right , and the bottorn one again left (Ilgs, 4.lOa-b). This reversed douhle S
representa the four curves ofthe vertebral colurnn. Frorn th c top down, the
first and third convexities face anteriorly, and the sccond and fourth
convexities face posteriorly. These are also th e sites of the four rnain
regions of the vertebral eolumn: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral tfigs,
2.29a-e, 4.4, and -j.l O). A curve facing anteriorly is a lordosis, and a curve
facing posteriorly is a kyphosie. The curves alt rnate: cervical lordosis,
/horacie kyphosis, lumbar lordosi s, and sacral hyphosis. Each region
contains a specific nurnber of uertebrae : seven in the cervical region ( 1-7 ),
twelve in the thoracic regi n ('1'1-12), and five in th e lumbar region ( L I-S) .
The sacrum is a single fixed bone.
In the fetus the entire spine is curved posleriorly, as mimicked by the
child's pose (01' fetal pose) in hatha yoga lfig. 6.18 ). When an infant begins
lo crawl. and later walk, sccondary curvatures that. are convex antcriorly-
lhe cervical lordmiis and lumbar lordosis-develop in the neck and lumbar
ll. , 1I\ ATIl ,11I O/'/M"'M IrKi.l
. ~ ~ .
--
thoracic vertebrae ...-
(kyphosis) .
-, -,
saerum and eoecyx
(kyphosis)
Figure 4.4. The
axial skeleton
includes the
vertebral
colurnn, skull,
rib cage, and
ste rnum.
(from
Heck)
-, rib cage and
/ .... / ~ o m
4 . st w.otr: /'()S71 RES ll5
regions, while the posterior convcxities-the thoracic kyphosis and the
sacral kyphosis-s-are retained in the adulto The four eurvatures act togcther
85 a spring for cushioning the upper body from the impact of running and
walki ng. In standing posturas the curvaturas are easy to keep in their
opt imal configuration, neither too straight nor too pronounced, but in
cross-Iegged meditative sitting postures the lack of hi p Ilcxlbi lity makes
this more challenging.
ANATOMY OF THE SPINE
J ust as the spine of a book forms un axial hub around which pages turn, so
does the human spine Iorm the axial support around which the body
moves. It forms the skeletal coro of the torso, and it is the axial support for
all hath a yoga postures. \Ve cannot understand hatha yoga without under-
standing its structure and function. To begin, we'lI examine the individual
bones of the spine-the vertebrae-and t hen look at how they join together
to form the vertebral coIumn as a whole
TYPICAL VERTEBRAE
\Ve'U begin by looking a typical lumbar vertebra (L41 from above and from
its let side, Viewing it.s superior surface from front to back (fig, 4-5al,
anter iorl y we seo the upper surface of a cylinder, the vertebral body;
posteriorly we see a vertebral arch that surrounds a spacc, the vertebral
foramen, in which the spinal cord resides. Pointing backward from the real'
of the vertebral arch is a bony projection, the spi nous process. If you lie on
your back and draw your knecs up against your chest, you feel the spinous
processes of the lumbar vertehrae against the floor. And hecause this is
what overyone notices, laypcople ofien mistakenly refer to the tips of the
spinous processes as "the spine."
St iU looki ng at the upper surface of L4, we see that the foundation for
the vertebral arch is composed of two columnar segmenta of bone, the right
and len pedicles, which project backward from tho posterior border of the
vertebral body. From there, flatter segments ofbone, the right and len vertebral
lamillae, meet in the midline to complete the vertebral arch posteriorly and
provide the origin for the midsagittal spinous pmL'CSS. When surgeons have
lo gain access lo the spinal cord or to interuertebral disks in front of the
spinal cord, they do a laminectomy to remove the posterior part of the
vertebral arch, including the spinal process. Near the junction of the pedieles
and the larninae, the superior articulating processes are seen facing the
vieweI; and robust transuerse processes point laterally in a transversa
pIane, as their narnes imply. lt is possible tu fcel the latter frorn behind in
thl' lumbar regon, but it requires a determined, knuwing fingertip.
A lateral view of L4 from its le side (fig. 4.')b) shows two articulat.ing
21(, A.\'A1DM)'OFIlA7I/,1)'C)(;A
protuberances: the left superior and inferior articulating processes. The
bilateral superior articulating processes of L4 form synovial joints with the
inferior articulating processes of L3. and the bilateral inferior articulating
processes of 1,4 form synovial joints with the two superior articulaling
processes of L5. In this manner the arliculating processes connect the
vertebral arches to one another Irom the neck to the sacrum, 'I'he left
transverse process is visibl e extending toward the viewer; and a side view
of the spinous proccss juts lo the real: Looking from the left side of L4 also
confirms the cylindrical shape ofthe vertebral body. In this view lhe vertebral
foramen is hidden by the len side of the vertebral arch,
We saw in chapter 2 that the lumbar spine deeply indents the respiratory
diaphragm, and that its front surface (1.4 and L5) can be palpated through
the abdominal wall in someone slender who has a normal 01' overly prominent
lumbar lordosis-the abdominal organs just slip out of the way as YOl
probe. These two views of 1.4 reveal this anterior-most surface of the lumbar
spine, and if you ever have occasion to palpate it directly, the term "axial"
wiII gain new meaning. The spine really does form the axis of the body.
Moving up the spinal column, the top view of the seventh thoraci
vertebra (fig. 4.J reveals a smaller vertebral body than we see in t h
lumbar region. And near the ends of the transver sa processes we also see
tiny [acets (srnooth articular regions ) that represent sites for articulatiun
with the ribs on each side (figs. 4.6a and 'j.]3). A side view from the left of
the thoracic vcrtebrae (Ig, 4.7b) reveal s sharp spinous processes pointing
downward rather than st raight back, as weIl as vertebral bodies that are
composed of shorter cylinders than those found in the lumbar region. This
view also shows several other features: spaccs for intervertebral disks; sites
(Irom the left side) where the super ior and inferior ar tculating processes
meet; and spaces between the vertebral arches, the interuertebral [oramina
(again from the len side) through which spinal nerves '1'1-12 pass on their
way to the chest wal!.
Further up the spinal column, the cervical vertebrae have yet smaller
vertebral bodi es than those found in the thoracic vertebral' , but their
vertebral arches are wider than you might imagine (fg. 4.8). If you feel
your neck from the side and press deeply,you can fcel the underlying hardness
of the transverse processes o' the cervical vertebrae.
The top two cervical vertcbrae are specialized for articulation with the
skul!. Cl sits just underneath the skull, and C2 provides the axis around
which Ct plus the skuIl rotatc when the head is turned. We'I1 take a closer
look at those two vertebrae and their articulations in chapter 7.
SPlflOUS process
b.
left superior
articulating
procass
on right side of vertebra:
vertebral lamina.
superior articulating process.
pedicl e. and
transversa process
left inferior articulating process
thoracic rotation is
permitted around lhis axis
articular
facelon
transverse
process
left superior articulal i ;;
process
b.
tet transverse
process
leh infenor articulating process
spinous proe .s
on right side 01vertebra:
vertebral lamina.
superior articulating process,
pedide. and
transverse process
vertebral
body

a.
spinous
process
/
lumbar rotation is not
readily permitted
around this axis
vertebral
foramen
posterior
functional
unit
anterior 1
functional
unit
Figure 4.5. Superior view (frum above) of fourth lumbar vertebra (a) and a
view from its left side (b), The heavy dotted line in "a " indicates at the level
of a single vertebra the separation of the anterior functional unit frum th e
posterior functional unit. Notice also in "a" how the parasagittal orientation o'
the superior and inferior articulating processes, along with an axis of rotation
that is loeated near the base of the spnous prueess (Iarge dot), will be
expected lo inhibitlumbar twisting (Iram Morrisl.
4.6. Superior view uf th e seventh thoracic vertebra (a) and a view from
Its.l eft side (b), Notice huw thoracic twisting will be perrnitted by the frontal
Ortenlation of the facets on the superior and inferior articular processes,
Rot at!on of vertebral respect lo the next is also cncouraged by
an axrs of rotauon (large dot rn a ) rn the cerner of the vertebral body (Sappey),
ll X I1\WIYJ.III 0 ,.. /1117 / 1,1 lOCA j . .'JI1MJ/\ G l'()sn r.\ 2 19
f igure 4.7. Thoracie ve rtebral co lumn, fm m an anterior vicw (a), lat eral vicw (b
an d poste rior view (e). otiec in the middle thora ie regi on how th spinous
pro ccsscs point sharply dowoward (Sappey),
At t he base of the vertebral column is the sacrum, composcd of what
were originally five vertebrae that became fused together into one bone
during fetal development (fig. 4.9). It is pointed al. its lower end and has an
articular surface on each side that mates with the ilia for forming the
sacroi liac joints, You can feel the relatively Ilat posterior surface of the
sacrum against the (loor in the corpse posture. And if you are ab le to
-
__ inlervertebral dlsks
cranium
firm finger
pressure
against
metal disks
pal pate sorneone's LS vertebral body through their abdominal wall, you can
also leel the promontory (t he top front border) of the sacrum, Below this
promontory, the sacral kyphosis rounds so much 1.0the real' that you can 't
feel its anterior sur face , The coccyx (t he "tail borre") is attached 1.0 the tip
oft he sacrum (figs. 4.4 and 4 .10).
I-igur e 4.8. Ske lela l sl ruet ures of the neek in relal ion lo finger pressure againsl
melal disk!'> fro rn the side, drawn fro rn two roentge nograms (X-rays). The images
wer e taken frum the front. Compare wilh lhe a tlas and axis in fig. 7.2. Credits lo
Dr. DonaId o. Brnughton for the rocnlge nograms.
THE ANTERIOR FUNCTIONAL UNIT
The vertebral column is cornposed oftwo distinct functiona! units: an anterior
functional unit composed of a stack of vertebral bodies and intervertebral
disks t hat together form a flexib le rod, and behind the anterior functi onal
unit, a tubular posterior [unctional unit cornposed of a stack of vertebral
arches and associated ligament s. We' Ulook Iirst al the rod.
c.
posterior vlew of
thoracic vertebrae
b. a.
anterior view of lateral vi ew (from the leh
lhoracic vertebrae si de) of thoracic vertebrae
TI vertebral body T1 lransversc process TI spinous
process
21.0 11\-IlTOMI Ol'IIATIIA I'lX ,t l . \/il MJI!\;C ! ' OSnRD 22 1
figure 4.9. Anterol al eral view (on the left) and posterolateral view of the sacr o '1
(on the right), t he laller also showi ng the sacral surface of the righl sacroiliac
joi nt. The sacrum is concave antcriorly and convex posteriorly, an architectura
feature which is even more apparent in fig. 4.10a (Sappey),
If we were to locate an isolated spine and saw off all the vertebral archo
at the base of the pedcles, we would be left wit h a stack of vertebral bodi '
and intervertebral disks (fig. .j..lOa). Each intervertebral disk forms
symphysis between adjacent vertebral bodies that allows a small amount
cornpression, expansion, bending in al l directions, and twisting. 'I' h
flexibility of the anterior functional uni t, at least in isolation, is therefor
rostrained only by the integrity of the intervertebral disks and by ant erii
and posterior longitudinal ligaments that support the complex in front an
back (figs, a.ub and 4.1ja-bl.
Each intervertebral disk (fig. 4.11 ) has a semi-fluidcore, the nucleus pulposu
which is surrounded by a tough but elastic connective tissue exterior, II
annulus fibrosi s. The nuclous pul posus comprises only about 15th of ti
tota l mass, but that's enough lquid to allow the disk to act hydraulical ly
every time you shift the angle of one vertebral body with respect t o I
neighbor, the nucleus pulposus shits accordingly, bulging out the elas
annulus fibrosis 011 one side, and every time you twist, the nucleus pul pos
presses the annulus fihrosis outward a1l around. The tough fibroelas e
connective tissue comprising the annulus fibrosi s fuses each int ervertebi
disk to the vertebral body aboye and below. 'I'hey even run continuou,
Irom the disk in to the bone. That is why an intervertebral disk nev r
"slips." It can only rupture, exuding sorne of the gel-like nucleus pul pos s
t hrough a weakened annulus Iibros is, 01' degcncratc .
As with other connective tissues, intervertebral disks contain living ce s
which require nutrients Ior their survival and which produce met a bc IC
transversa
processes
01 thoracic
vertebrae
T7.T9.and
Tl1
c.
posterior
view of spine
anterolateral
view of spine
b.
cervical
lordosis
a.
spinous
process
ofT12
F.igure 4.10. Three views the spina! column: a lateral view from the right
slde. (a), an anterolatcral vrew from rtghl front tb). and a posterior view from
behmd (e). The middlc image (b) is enough from the si de that the four spinal
start becoming apparent. The anterior and pos terior functional
Unlts are shown separated from one anot her in th e figure on the l ef t (a). The
nature of the posterior u nctional unit, however, is apparen t only i n
vrews of i ndi vi dua l vertebral' from above (fig. 45) or from below (Sappev),
waste products that have lo be disposed of. But one thing is missing, at
[east after we have reachcd our mid-twenties, and that is blood vessels. The
eapil1ary beds that servieed the intervertebral disks during our youth are
lost during the natural course of aging, So in older people, how do the living
ceIls receive nourishmcnt, and how are waste subst. ances climinatc d?
side view of the four curvatures
and of the anterior and posterior
tunetional units o, the spi ne
spinous
processes: C7
and TI ------=:s:?"tr'
sacral
kyphosis
sacral articul
surface of rig
sacroiliac join
articular facets 01
superior articular
processes
median
sacrat
erest
sacral articular surface
for intervertebral disk
between L5 and SI
sacral
promontory
:!. 22 11/\1170"11 UF I/AnlA IIX;,I
'I'he biomedical literatura suggests that nutrients are "imbibed," or
absorbed, into the intervertebral disks frorn the vertebral bodies, which
themselves are well supplied with blood, but little is known about th is
process exccpt that healthy intervertebral disks contain 7o-Rof}( liquid and
that the spine gets shorter during thc day and longer during the night.
Taken together, these two pieces of information suggest that when th e
intervertebral disks are compresscd by gravity and muscular tension during
the day, liquid is squeezed out, and that when tension is taken off lhl
vertebral column at night, the vertebral bodies can spread apart, allowi ru
the intervertebral disks to absorb nutrienls. 'I'hs would help explain wh:
it has long been thought that one of the rnost effective treatmcnts for acu t
back pain is bcd rest, and why a thoughtful combination of exercise an.
relaxation is therapeutic for most chronic back ailments.
TH E POSTERIOR FUNCTIONAL UNIT
If we were to locate another isolated spinc and saw uff most of the anterir
functional unit from tup lo bottorn, we would be left with the posterio
functional unit-a tube made up of the stack of vertebral arches, all tl-
restraining lgaments between the arches, and just enough of the posteric
borders of the vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks to complete ti
tube anteriorly (figs. 4.5a and 4.lOa). The interior ofthe posterior function
unit is the verlebral canal, which houses the spina! coro and spinal nerv f-
Each vertebral arch forms small synovial joints with its neighbo
through the agency of little facets, 01' Ilattened joint surfaces, that al
located on adjacent superior and inferior articular processes, Like ot h
synovial joints, these rnovable [acet joints are characterized by joi
surfaces covered with cartilage on their articular surfacos, synov
membranes and fluid, andjuint capsules that envelop the entire cornplr
Figure 4.11. lhe intcrvcrtcbral disk. in a cross-section from above (Idt), and in
mid-sagiltal section between two vertebral bodies (right). In the figure on the
right. the nuclcus is being squeezcd antcriorly by a backbend
Twu inferior articular processes, une on each pcdicle, forrn facetjuints with
matching surfaees un the superior articular processes of the vertebra
helow, Although the orientations ofthe articular processes restrict twisting
of the spine in thc lumbar region (fig. 1.1JJ, their orientations perrnit it in
the cervical and thoracic regions, You hear and feel the facetjoints moving
when a skilled bodyworker cracks yuur back. And many young athletes can
twist their spine when they get up in the morning, and hear a sequence of
pops, indicating that facet joints are being releascd one after another,
Just in front of' the superior and inferior articular processes, and just to
the rear and to each side of the intervertebral disks, are the intervertebral
foramina, the openings in the vertebral column uut of which the spinal
nerves emerge (lig. 4.7b). In the lumbar regi nthe locations ofthese furamina
and their spinal nerves make them vulnerable to ruptured intervertebral
disks, which may impinge against a spinal nerve and cause shooting pains
cl own the thigh.
SPINAL STABILlTV ANO BENOING
The anterior and posterior Iunctional units are described separately to
clariy the concepts, but in fact they are bound together inextricably The
architectural arrangement that links them is propitiuus: it pcrmits spinal
movements and at the sarne time it insures spinal stability. For example,
backward bending will cornpress the vertebral arches togcther posteriorly
whilc spreading the front surfaces uf the vertebral bodies apart anteriorly,
and forward bending will pull the vertebral arches slightly apart while
compressing the intervertebral disks in front . 'I'hese movements, however;
can be taken only so far becausc the entire complex is stabilized by
ligaments (fgs, 4.12-13). As just mentioned, the anterior and posterior
longit udinal ligaments reinforce the flexible anterior functional unit,
and the joint capsules for the facet joints help hold the vertebral moches
together. In addition, there are yet more Jigaments superimpused on the
posterior functional unit-interspino/ls ligaments that run between
adjacent spinous processes, a sllpraspinolls ligamen! that connects lhe
tips of the spinous pl"Ocesses, nat elastic ligaments known as ligamento
/1ava that connect adjacent laminae, and the cel"Vical /luchal ligament.
which is an elastic extension of the supraspinuus ligament that reaches
the heud.
I:rechnical note: Quadrupeds such as dogs and cats huye well -dcveloped nuchal
hgaments whose ela sticily kceps their hende on axis wilhoul con;l ant expcnditure
ofmuscular energy. Because of our uprighl poeture, the significance of lhe nuchal
Iigament in humanli is greally reduce<! in comparison with thal of quadrupcds, bul
tl probably has a leasl a minar role in helping lo kcep lhe head pulled lo the rearo
/t'; no substitute for muscular eITort. howcv r , as evidenced by drooping heads in
a room fuI! ofslel'py medilalors.)
224 1I\'A"tnMI (Ir l/AUlA IIJ(',:"
THE SPINE AS A WHOLE
We've seen representative vertebrae at each segment of the spine, anr
we've seen how their linked front portions form the anterior function,
unit and how their linked vertebral arches form the posterior function,
unit. Then we lookcd at how the combination of anterior and posterir
functional units along with their restraining ligaments permts and YI
limits bending. Now we need to examine the spine as a whole within th
body (fig. 'l ..t>. The depth of the four curvaturas can be evaluated frorn n
side (figs. 4.loa-bl. [f they are too flat the spine will not have rnuch spri ,
like aetion when you walk and run, but if the curvatures are t I
pronounced, especially in the lumbar regin. the spine will be unstabl.
Excess curvatures are more common-an orthopedist would tell you that
"Lordosis" is an excess anterior curvatura in the lumbar region and that
"hyphosis" is an excess posterior curvature of the chest. And sornetirn
people have what is called a reversa curvature in the neck, one that
convex posteriorly instead of anteriorly.
Frorn either the front or the back, the spine should 100k straight. lf
doesn 't, it is usually because of an imbalance such as onc leg being short
than the other, which causes the pelvis and spine lo be angled off to the
side. This creates a side-to-side curvature known as scoliosis, a condition
which always includes a right-left undulation 01' compensatory curvatures
higher up in thc spine that ultimately brings the head back in line with the
body, These compensatory curvatures develop because our posture adjusts
itsclf to maintain the plumb line of gravity from head lo toe with the least
possible muscular effort, even if it results in distortions and chronic aches
and pains.
TH E DEEP BACK MUSCLES
\Ve can't make a posture with just bones, joints, and ligaments: something
has to move them. An engineer designing a plan for putting the body into
motion might suggest using three layers of ropc-and-pulley systems. The
innermost layer would consist of miniatura systems of ropes and pulleys
eonnecting the smallesl adjacent skeletal segmenta, the interrnediate layer
would consist of largor systcrns connecting bigger segmenta, and the
outermost layer would consist of the largest and longest systems eonnecting
the segmenta 01' the skeleton which are the furthest apart. And indeed, we
Figure 4.12. Views of the ligaments in the lumbar portion of the vertebral ca n
from inside looking out. On the left (a) is an mage looking poslcriorly toward
the vertebrallaminae, Iigamenta flava, pedcles (cut frontally), and transverse
processes. On the right (b) is an image looking anteriorly loward the posterior
longiludinal ligamenl, the posterior surfaces of the vertebral bodies, intervertebr-
disks (indicatcd hy dottcd lint.><;), and pedicles (again in frontal seclion; Morris).
figure 4.13. 5ide views (from th rightl of the ligarnents associatcd with tbe
cervical porlion of the vertebral column (a) and with the lumbar region (b).
(from Morris).
anterior
longitudinal
liqarnent
posterior
longitudinal
ligament
inter-
;vertebral
. disks

b.
inferior
articular
process,
L3
vertebral
bodyofT1
a.
spinous process 01T1
(vertebra prominens) b.
posterior longitudinal
ligament
pedicles
ntervertebraf disks
a.
laminae
superior
and inferior
articulat nq
processes
Iigamenta
nava
226 AI\ATUMI O/'IIA711A l/K;,!
can see elements of such a plan within the human body. The smallest an d
shortest muscles of the spine act betwecn adjacent vertebrae. The middk
layer of muscles-the deep back muscles-operates between the torso anc
t he lower extremities to hold us upright. To see them (fi g. 414 an d 55) yoi
would have to remove the upper extremities, i ncl udi ng the third aru
outermost layer of muscles that act from the torso to manipulate the scapula,
and arms (figs. 8.S-14)
The main component of the middle layer B the erector spinae, whic'
runs hetween the neck and the pelvis on either side ofthe spinous processe-
This muscle erects 01' extends the spine, as its name implies; it ah-
restricts forward bending, aids side bending, and influences twisting of t i
torso in conjunction with the abdominal muscles. And in statie postun
such as sitting upright in meditativo sitting postures, it acts as an extensi
ligament, holding the spine straight with a mild isometric effort (chapt
10). Our main concern here is how the deep back muscles operate eith er I
Iacilitate or restrict standing postures,
transversa process
0lT1
transversa process
01 L1
Figure 4.14. Deep
musdes of the
back and neck
(right side).
Uppcr and lower
extremities have
been removed in
their en tirely
(f m m Morris).
capitis
strap musdes o the neck
mtarnal abdominal
oblique
ihum
--acetabul um 01hip joint
SYMMETRY AND ASYMMETRY
'[he axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton, and muscles throughout the
body all contribute to determining OUT bilateral symmetry. For perfect
symmetry, every right-let member of every pair of bones, skeletal muscles,
joi nts, and ligaments must be identical on both sides ofthe body-right and
left knee joints, hip joints, femurs, and clavicles; and right and left erector
spinae muscles, quadriceps femori, hamstrings, adductors, and gluteals,
To check out the symmetry in your own posture, look at yourself frontalIy
in a full-l ength mirror; preferably in the buff. Place your feet about twelve
inches apart and let your hands han g relaxed. Look carefully. Do the right
and left extremities appear to be of equal length? Is one shoulder higher
than t he other? Do you lean slightly t.o one side? Do both forearms hang
Ioosely, 01' is one elbow more bent? Does the waist.line make a sharper
indentat ion on one side than the other, creating extra spaee bet.ween the
body and elbow on one side? Is the crest of the ilium higher on one side
tha n the ot.her? Is one nipple higher than the ot her? Ifyou draw an irnaginary
line from the umbilieus to the center of the sternum, is it perpendicular' to
the 0 001' , or sl ightly off?
Look clown at your feet, Are t hey eomfortable in a perfectly symmetrieal
positon, 01' would it feel more natural ir one 01' the other were rotated
lateral ly? Do the toes all spread out and down squarely, or do sorne of them
seem to cleneh in? Youare not trying to ehange anyt.hing; you are just making
observations . Don't despair if'your body is not perfectly symrnetrical; few are.
Most of us were born symrnetrical, but our habitual aetivities have
under mined our balance. Carrying a handbag on one shoulder, always
lower ing the ehin to the same side against a te lephone receiver, swi rnming
froestyle and always turning th e head in the sa me di rection for brcathing,
and countless other right-Ieft preferences create habitual tensi n on one
side 01' the body that eventually results in muscular and skeletal misalign-
ments and distortions.
o far we've been discussing unly stat ic anatomical syrnrnetries and
asymmetries. But these terms are al so used in th e con t ext of movement.
In th at realm a symrnet r ical muvement is one in whieh both sides of the
body move at the same lime and in the same way, while an asymrnet rical
movement is one in which each side of the body rnoves sequent ially. As it
happens, most of our everyday acti viti es are accompl ishcd asy rnmct rically
You don't hop forward two feet at a time- you walk, swinging your right
hand forward in concert with your left foot , an d swingi ng your left hand
for war d in coneert wi th your ri ght foot , Likowise, a boxer hits a
pu nching bag with one hand and then the ot.her, not with both hands
at the same time. And eve ry karate master knows that the power 01'a
pun ch with one hand dClJends on simultaneously pulJing thc oppnsite
228 Al\:47IJ.II1 O/'IIA'/71A 10(;,1
elbow to the real'. In swimming we see both possibilities-the buttorfl y,
the breast stroke, and the boginners back stroke involve symmetrical
movements; the freestyIe and the back stroke crawI involve asymmetrica
movements.
You can correct sorne right-Ieft asyrnmetries with patience, persistence
and a wcll-thought-out practice plan . In fact , right-left balancing is al
important quest in hatha yoga ("ha" is the Sanskrit word Ior "right ." an.
"tha" means "l eft"). And apart Irorn its importance in hatha yoga postur .
bodiIy symmetry is beneficial to our overalI health and comfort.
The best approach for correcting right-Iell. imbalances is lo concentra!
on asymmetrical postures and activities, working first with one side an
then the other, and watching for diffcrences between the two, If you sp
an imbaIance you can do the same posture three times , star t ing al
ending on the more difficuIt side, and over time this will tend to correct U
situation. SymmetricaI postures, by contrastoare often nut very effeetiv
for correcting right-loft imbalances. Both sides may get stronger and mo
flexible, bul they \ViII rernain different. In certain cases the differences c: 1
oven become exaggerated because making an identical efTort on both sid
may favor the side that is more flexible, and this leaves the constricted SI
even more out of balance.
If right-left imbalances are best remedied with asymrnetric post ur
front-to-back imbaIances are best remedied with symmelric postures. Le
say you can't bond Iorward and backward very far, 01' that yuu percei ve tI- l
your backward bends are more convincing than your forward bends, H I1
you can't detect any difference in tightness when you compare th e t o
sides of the body. The solution to this problem is to develop a persoi .I
program of symmclrical forward bends and backbends to red ress e
imbaIance. 13ut keep watching. These improvements are sooner 01' la ' 1'
likely lo uncover asymmeh;callimilalions which until lhat lime had b( 11
hidden: limi tat ions lo forward bending in the hip or hamstrings on ( e
side, limitations in the hip flexors on one side for eccentric backw: d
bending, 0 1' limitalions lo side bending on one sirle. Don ' t complain. ! 1
overoEnjoy.
STANDING POSTURES
In addilion t o correcting mu scular and ske letal imbal ances , stand g
posture:; as a whole form a complete and balanccd practice 1.1
inc1udes twisting, forward bcnding, :;ide bending, backward bendll ~
and halancing. A standing forward bend even serves as a mild inver t d
posture for those who are flexible enough to bend a l1 the way dO' l .
Befol' e st udyi ng specific postures, however, we mu:;t. examine SOl e
fundllmcntal principies.
l . \I:4.\lJI:\' G PO.\lH/ EI,' 229
DEVE L O PI NG A STRONG FOUNOATION
Should you stand relaxed, 01' should you purposely hold sorne tension in the
hips and thighs when you are doing standing posturos? This was our opening
qucstion, and the answer is not the sarne for cveryone. Through long experience,
advanced st udents know exactly whon and where it is safe to relax, so they
can do whatever they want. Beginners, however, who are embarking on a
course of standing postures should be told st raight out to plant their feet
finnly and to hold the muscles of the hips and thighs in a state of moderate
tension. The many muscles that insert injoint capsules keep them taut and
establish a st rong base for the posture, This not only reinf orces the joints,
it brings awareness to them and 1..0 the surrounding muscle and where
there is awareness there is safety. Tightening the rnuscles of the hips and
thighs limits the range of motion, it is true, but it prevents torn muscles
and injuries to the knee joints, sacroiliac joints, hip joints, and the lower
back. In addition to these irnmediate benefits, developing a strong base
over a period o'years builds up the connective tissues in both thejoints and
their capsul es, And as the joints become stronger, it becomes safer lo relax
the body more generally and at the sarne time intensify the stretches.
Expcrts takc this all for granted; they protect themselves without rcalizing
it and are often not aware that beginncrs unknowingly place thernselves
in danger.
SETTlNG PR I ORI Tl ES
For novices, standing postures are the best training ground for expcri encing
the principIe of learning to establish priorities from the distal to the
proximal parts of the limbs. This means you should construct sta nding
poses frorn your feet to your hips to your torso, and from your hands lo
your shoulders t o your torso, rather than the other way around. That's
desirabl e because your awarcness of the body gets poorer and youl" ability
lo control the muscles diminishes as you movc from di stal to proximal, and
if you first bend 01' twist lhe trunk and then manipulate t.he extrcmitics,
the latter movements take your attenti on away from lhe proximal stru<.tures
of the body over which you have less awareness. By contrast, if you settIe
the distal portions of your limbs first, you can keep them stable with minima!
effort while you place your attention on the central rore of lhe body.
~ T POSITlON
1he feel are the foundation for standing postures. This can be taken literal ly:
Small adjustments in how th e feet are placed will afTect your posture from
head tu toe. '1'0 see how this happens, stand with your feet logethcr and
parallel , draw lines straight down the front of your bare thigh!:l with a
markcr, and imagine parasagittal planes through ellch uf them. Whal we
r-
eS
2.W , 11\'l 7VftH OF /11,.,7111 I'OCI1
are going Lo see is that movements of the lines reflect rotation of Hu
planes, and that rotation of the planes reflects rotation of the thighs. S,
keeping the knees straight, first rotate your feet so that the big toes remai
together and the heels swing out 45 each (a 90 angle opcning to the real'
and then rotato them in the opposite direction so that the hccls are togethr
and the toes are out (again a 1)0 anglo. but now opening to the front), I
definition, the thighs will have rotated medial ly in the first case and lateral
in the second. We should note that in both situations the thighs aceount f
only about two-thirds of the total rotation-s-jo" at the hip and 15 at n
ankle,
This experiment makes it clea r that most of the rotation of the foot ,
translated to the thigh. If a foot slips out of position in a standing postUI
it indicates weakness on that sido, and to allow the weakness to rcnu 1
indefinitely can only accentuate problems throughout the foundation f
the body. Thc situation should be corrected, but dori't force ma tte
Instead of hurting yourself by stressing the weaker side, ease up on t e
healthier side and resol ve to take as long as necessary lo make long-t e n
adjustments. In any case, watch your foot position constantly.
FOUR SIMPLE STRETCHES
The best way to approach standing postures is tu start simply, and le
simplest standing stretches are those that do not requi re us to counter t
gravity by tightening our lower extremities beyond what s needec' o
balance upright. 'I'his means that the torso is not bending backwa f,
forward, 01' to the side. We'lI start with the mountain pose.
TH E MOUNTAI N POSE
The mountain pose is the basic beginning standing posture (fig. 4.15), fr m
whieh all others are derived. 1'0 begin, stand with the feet together Id
parallel, and the hands alongside the thighs with the forearms rnidv lY
between supination and pronat.ion (t he thumbs toward the front). Crea a
firm base by pulling the hps tightly togcther in ashwini mudra a nd )y
kecping the thighs tight all around. The quadrieeps femoris muscles k 'P
the kneecaps lifted in front, the hamstring muscles keep tensi n on
ischial tuborosities and the base of the pelvis, and the adductor mu
kecp the thighs squeezed together. Keep the knecs extended, but not h
extended beyond IRoo. Find a relaxed and neutral position for the shoul d
neither thrown back .wtificially nor slumpcd forward. Just stand sma Iy
erect. This is lhe mountain pose. lt will keep the abdomen taut without IY
spccial eITOI"l and produce diaphragmatic breathing.
ITcchnical noW: Most sludcntRdo not have to be worricd aboul hypert!xlensior of
the knees providcd lhey keep sorne tension in the hamstrings . Tite few individl Is
I .\ T,l .' lJ /S G 1'U.\71'RES 2.l 1
who can hypcrextend their knees beyond fROc should be watchful not to lock thern.
but lo maintain a balaneing tension all around their thighs-e-especially between
their hamstrings and their quadriceps fernoris muscles-which kecps their lower
extremities on axis . lt should also be mentioned that sorne instructors, perhaps u
minority, suggest keep ing the knees "son" for the mountain posture, by which they
mean keeping them ever so slightly bent. What's most mport ant is awareness. Do
whatever you want but be attentive to the results.]
TH E SIDE-TO-SIDE STRETCH
Next we'lI look at a simple side-to-sido standing stretch (fig. 4.16) . Stand
with your Ieet a comfortable distanee apart and tighten the muscles of the
hips and thighs lo make a solid pelvic base. Raisc the arms lo shoulder
height. Now stretch the hands out to the side, paIms down, wth the five
fingers together and pointing away from the body. Observe the sensations
in the upper extremities. At first you may tend to clench the muscles, trying
to force the hands out, but that's too extreme. Just search out regions,
especially around the shoulders, which, when relaxed, will allow the fingers
more leeway for reaching, You are still using muscular effort for the side
stretch, but the rnuscles you are relaxing are now allowing others fuller
sway. Gradually, delicate adjuslments and rcadjustments will permit your
fingertips to move further and further to the sidos.
Figur e 4.15. Mountain pose:
lhe basic standing posturc,
from which all others are
dl' rived.
2J2 or 1111 ru H IGA
1r you sus pect t hat th ere is something mysterious about thi s, that som
force other than your own muscular effort is drawing your fingertips OUT
a simple experiment will bring you back to reality, Stand in the san'
stretched posture and ask two people to pull your wri sts gently from eac
side while you relax. As the stretch increases, the feeling is altogethi
different from the one in which you were making the effort yourse
Stretching once again in isolation will convince you that nothing b. l
muscular effort is doing this work.
Like the mountain pose, the side-to-side stretch is excellent training f
diaphragrnatic breathing because the posture itself encourages it . The al' 1
position holds the lower abdominal wall taut and the upper chest restrictc
and t his makes both abdominal and thoracic breathing inconvenient. 'J, u
would have to make a cont r ived effort to aUowthe lower abdomen lo rel x
and release for an abdominal inhalation, and you would have to make n
unnat ural effort to force the chest up and out for a thoracic inhalatic
Students who tend to get confuscd when they ti)' to breathe diaphragmat i " 1 y
in other positions learn to do it in this stretch in spite of their confusir l .
AlJ th e instructor has lo do is point out what is happening.
Figure 4.16. Side-to-side
strctch.
Right-Iefl imbalances also become obviou s in t he side-t o-side st retch. lf
st udents watch themselves in strategically placed mirrors, they will be
acute ly aware if one shoulder is higher than the other, if extension is
[imited more on one side than the other, 0 1' ir there are restrictions around
t he scapula, oft en on one side. And with awareness begins the process uf
correctiun.
THE OV ERHEAD STRETCH
Next try a simple overhead st retch (fig. 4.17). Stand thi s time with your
heels and toes together, and with your base again firmly suppor ted by
cont racted hip and thigh muscles, Bring the hands comfortably overhead
with the fingers interlocked, the palms pressed together, and the elbows
extended. Stretch up and slowly pull the arrns lo the rear; lifting the knuckles
toward the ceiling. You can feel sorne muscles pulling the arms backward,
Figure 4.17. Overhead
stretch, a simple and
superb posture for
to use the
dIstal por tion s o the
extre mitics lo access
prOximal parts of the
eXlremilies and the
Core of the body.
lJ' AI\'tl /nlll ' ot: /IA77-1A IlX:,l
an d others resisting. Now you have lo watch the elbows, It is easy lo keo]
them extended in the first position, but as the arms are puIIed back, one ()
them may begin lo reveal weakness 01' restriction in its range of movement
or one forcarm may show weakness that perrnits the interlocked hands t
angle slightly off toward the weaker side, Take care to keep the posture 2
symmetrical as possible.
As you lift with more focused atlention, you will feel the effects of th
stretch Iirst in the shouldcrs, then in the chest, abdomen, back, and final
the pelvis. As in the side-to-side stretch, the posture requires selectiv
relaxation. Many students find this diflicult and will keep a1l their muscl-
clenched, but any excess tension in the neck, shoulders, or back will mal
it difficult lo feel the effects all the way down to the pelvis. If you only f( I
the posture affecting the upper extremities, you need lo make mo
conscious efforts to relax selectively.
In t he overhead stretch the extensors of the upper extremities will alJ
in a state of moderate tensi n and the flexor muscles wiII be in a state -f
relaxed readiness, sirnply countering the extensors. The postur- s
effectiveness will depend on how naturally this takes place. If the exten .r
muscles in t he arm and shou lder are noticeably limited by their antagoni
you may not be ab le lo straighten your forearms at the elbow joint. Or e n
if t he forearrns can be fully extended you may not be able to pullthe al rs
backward. And ir you feel pain in the arms and shoulders, you will not ,e
able lo direct much energy and attention tu the trunk. But if you pract 'e
this stretch regularly, you will gradually notice that your efforts are affect g
the central part of the body as well as the extremities,
'fhe overhead stretch is also one of the best postures for learning how o
work from distal to proximal beeause the proximal parts of the body 'c
afTeeted so clearly hy each successively more distal segment. As with r le
side-to-side stretch and the mountain pose, the ovcrhead stretch encoura 'S
diaphragmatic breathing. It doesn't restrid abdominal bl'eathing as mI 'h
as lhe side-to-side stretch (at leasl not unless you bend backward in admt lO
to stretching up), but il restricts lhoracic brcathing even more.
T HE STANDING TWI ST
'fhe last and mosl complicated of these simple stretches, and the only ' le
lhat is asymmetrical, is the simple standing lwist. Finit, to understand le
dyna01ics of the pose, try il whiJe holding as little tension in the hips l d
thighs as possible. We'lI call this a relaxed standing twist. With lhe med .U
borders of the feet about twelve inches apart, lwist lo the right, lead, Ig
with the hips, with the arms hanging. As you twisl, the opposit.e hip proj( ts
backward and you clip forward almost imperceptibly, as lhough you Wl e
planning a twisted forwaI'd bend fro01 the hips. This may not fed natur 1:
4 . stwanr: PO.'iTIIHI'"S 2JS
in fact, it shouldn't, because the healthy norrn is to hold sorne tension in
the hips and thighs when you twist. But this relaxed standing twist is a
concentration exercise in doing just the opposite. In this manner you can
gel a feel for what not lo do. Paradoxically, studcnts who are not very body-
oriented can do this exercise with Iittle 01' no prompting, in contrast to the
nthlete or hatha yogi who finds it odd to relax and allow the opposite hip lo
move posteriorly,
Now twist again, but this time Iirst plant the Ieot, hold the knees
extended, and tense the gluteal muscles on the side opposite the direetion
of the twist. When you twist to the right and contract the left gluteus
maximus, at leas t three things are noticeable: the left thigh becomes more
exlended, the left side of the hip is pulled down, and the torso straightens
up. Now tense the quadriceps femoris muscles on the front of the thighs,
paying speeial attention lo the side toward which you are twisting, This
complements the action of the opposite gluteus maximus. Last, tense the
adductors on the medial sides of the thighs. The entire pelvis is now strongly
supported by muscular activity (fig, 4.18). This is the correet feeling for a
standing twist; it comes naturally to those who are in good musculoskeletal
healt h but it feels artificial to those who are not.
Fig.ure 4.18. Standing
tWISt. In this and al!
other asymmetriGlI
Slretches, the text
descriptions refer to
What is seen in (and
fel! by) the model
since that is ordinarily
a student's frame of
reference in a c1ass.
Al! such post ures
should be done in
bOlh directic)I1S.
pectoral muscles - _
head not
--thrown back
excessively
femur pulled into congruence with t he hip socket as you reach your limi ts
of hip extensi n.
Tensing the quadriceps Iemoris muscles lifts the patellas and extends
the knees, and this allows you to drop backward only so faro To come back
fur t her you would have to bond the knees and bringyour lower body Iorward,
but we do not want that here. In this standing whole-body backward bend
we are thinking of beginning and intermediate students who should learn
to prot ect their joints, muscles, ligaments, and tendons before trying more
chall engi ng postures,
The fernoris quadriceps has another action that affects the baekbcnd
mor e subtIy. As we saw in chapter 3, threc of the four heads of this muscle
take origin from the Iernur and do not have a diroct effect on the pelvis, but
the fourth, the rectus fernoris (figs. 3.6, J.9, and 8.8--9), attaches to the ilium
at t he anterior inferior iliac spine. Thc rectus femoris is a football-kicking
muscIe, for which it has two roles: acting as a hip flexor for helping the
iliopsoas muscle initiate the kick, and then acting with the quadriceps
back muse/es
cont raer
concentrically
ischiofemoral ,
pubofemoral,
and iliolemoral
ligaments are all
taut
extended knees
leg musdes
and ankle joints
,/adjusted to
keep balance
gluteal museles
./" squeeze hips
together
patellar tendons _
quadriceps femoris tendons
rectus femoris muscles _
psoas and iliacus muscles
rectus abdornirus muscles _
Figure 4.19. Whole-bndy backward bend.
Tension al thp "it es indi cat ed limit and
define Ihe be nd fro m tu p lo hottom.
BACKWARD BENDING
WHOLE-BODY BACKWARD BENDING
It is logical to examine standing backward bends next because they arr
easy, si mple, symmetrical, and natura!. For beginners they are sirnply ar
extension of standing up straight.
Whole-body backward bending, more than any other posture, demonstrates t h
pri ncipie of setti ng priori ties from distal to proximal. Try this experimen
stand, lift your hands overhead, and clasp you r hands and fingers togetl u
firrnly. Press t he palms together solidly, making sure that the hands do m
angle to the right or left. Now extend t he forearms at the elbows. Loe
them fir mly. With t he heel s an d toes toget her, grip the floor gen t ly with tI
feet. Tighten all the muscles of th e thighs, lifting t he kneecaps with ti
quadriceps femori, tensing the adductors medially and the hamstri ru
posteriorly, and squeezing the hips toge t her. This stabilizes the knee joi n
and pe lvis, ereating a stro ng base. PulJ your a rms backward as far
possible and lift your hands toward the ceiling. If all of the priorities ha
been set in order, t he lifti ng feel ing in the posture can be fel t progressivc
in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.
Now, with all th e distal -t e-proximal priori ties established, you can ph
your attention on the totality of the postura. Bend backward in a wh
body are, but without throwing your head back excessively, You wil1 fee .\
whole-body bend as you access the core of the body. Hold you r attention r I
t he abdomen. Tissues are pulling on your torso from fingertips to toeti ps
fingers to hands, hands to forearms, forearms to arms, arms to shouldei
and shoulders to chest, abdomen, and pelvis; toes to feet, feel to legs, It s
to t highs, and thighs to pelvis an d vertebral column. Notice the whole-bo
tension, especially on the front side of t he chest, abdomen, and thighs I f
4.19). Brcathe evenly; do not come back so far that you have a desire to h. rJ
your breath at the glottis or that you hesitate to exhale. Within thr
limits, as soon as you are settled, pulI back isornetrically lo exercise 1I J
strengthen the back rnuscles, With every breath, inhale deeply with thora - e
inhalations that explore (within the limi ts of the posture) the fullness If
your inspiratory capacity.
Nurnerous mechanisrns protect you in a who le-body backward ber 1.
Eccentric lengthening and li naJly isometric contraction of the iliopsr s
muscles turn them into extensile ligaments, and these rnuscles, acting
short but powerful cables, resist excess extension at the hip joint. In t e
case of the iliacus lhey act between t he fcrnur and the pelvis, and in t e
case of the psoas they act between the femur and the lumbar region. TI . V
are not alone, of course. The spiraled isehiofemoral, pubofemoraI. al
iliofemoral Iigaments back them up un each side, keeping th e head of ti '
femoris rnuscle as a whole Ior extending the lcg at the knee joint and assisti m
completion of the kick. The rcctus femoris acts isometrically, however, in ;
standing backward bend, helping the ilopsoas muscles stabilize the pel vi
and spine, and helping the rest ofthc quadriceps femoris stabi lize the kn et
Wit hout its tension the knees would bend and the top of t he pelvis wou l.
tip backward, thus pitching the trunk to a more horizontal position aru
accentuating t he lumbar portien of the backward bend, which is not ou
aim in this beginning posture,
Lift ing the hands overhcad and pulling the arms back as much as possi b
protects the upper half of the body and provi des lift and traction to ti
chest and abdomen. The rectus abdominis muscles resist th is strctch in h
ways : they provide further stability to the pelvis by way of their attachmei
tu the pubic bones, and they support the role of t he rectus femoris muscJ ,
in preventing acute bending in the lumbar region . What we want, and wh
our efforts give us frorn top to bottom, is a continuous are of tension I
muscles, tendons, an d fasciae between t he Iingertips and toes. And that 3
why it can rightfully be called a whole-hody backward bend.
It is important 10 keep your head upright in this posture and in an < C
wit h the rest of t he vertebral column beeause the head has more dens v
t han any ot her part of the body and is situated at the end of the most flexi e
part of t he vertebral column, Allowing it 10 drop backward brings ye r
attention to the neck and shits your center of gravity to the rear so t I t
you have to bend more in the lumbar region lo keep your balance. J -t
draw the arms backward and kecp t he head between them if you e 1;
otherwise, keep the head in a natural line with the rest of the spine. 1 s
precaution will also help prevent lightheadedness and fainting in t h e
with low blood pressure.
The effects of gravity in this bend depend on the individual. Those 10
are strong and flexible will are their bodies back and be aware of h w
gravity is affccting them from head to toe, but those who have a hard t le
standing up straight will be working against gravity just trying to 1 111
themsclves upright from a bent-forward position. Even so, it will stil le
useful for them to make the effort because it will improve their Ilexibi Y
and help them balance their weight more efficient!y in day-to-day life,
up pe r extrernities alJows mure bending because the rcctus abdominis
muscles are under less tension, and relaxing the lower extremities takes
tension 0fI' the iliopsoas and quadriceps Iernoris muscles, which in turn
takes tensi n off the pelvis and the knees. 'I'ho main place where stress and
tension are felt is the lowcr back. For this reason, it is apt 10 call this a
backbend rather than a backward bend.
A relaxed standing backbend such as this, with slight ly bent knees and
an arched-back lumbar region, places you more in the grip of gravity than
a whole-body backward bend. But this gravitational assist is unwelcome
unl ess you have a healthy lumber region as well as strong abdominal
muscles and hip Ilexors, Even advancod students may find they are not
comfortable holdi ng t hi s post ura for a long time. So keep a watch on the
lower back, and do not bend beyond your capacity to recover
gra cefull y.
TH E ROLE OF BREATHING IN STANDING BACKWARD BENDS
One of the secrets of successful standing backward bends is to maintain an
cven breathing pattern , but this cannot betaken for granted among beginners.
Those who are not comfo rtable will tend to hold their breath after an
inhalat ion. and this will obviously limit the time thcy can hold the post ure.
Teachers can spot at least three breathing patterns that should be avoi ded.
accentuated
--- - ---lumbar lordosis
A RELAXED STANDING BACKBEND
When you are thoroughly confident with whole-body backward bends, ,u
are ready 1.0 dcepen the bend by cxploring the nuanccs of rclaxation il a
standing backward bend. There are many poses t hat illustrate t his prinCJ I e,
but for l>-tarters place your hands overhea d without lifting them fully, a d
then bend backward withuut tensing the muscles of the thighs (fig. 4.2 l.
Notice that th is post ure is entirely differen! from the last one. Relaxi ng t e
Figure 4.20. Relaxed
standing backbend.
Toisposture is
only for
Intennedi ate and
advanccd studcnts
because of the stress
placed sclect ively on
tOe lumbar region.
-- slighUy benl knees
he
le-
LIlt
mt
140 AII',110.llIOFIMIIIA I()(;A
Sorne students will close t he glottis entirely but come out of the postur-
with an "aaagh." Others will keep the glottis partiaUy closed but make
soft grunting sound when they exhale and come up. Yet others will res is
exhaling but without closing the glottis. Teachers may not notice this la'
pattern unless they are watching for it because it doesri't make noise. BL
in any case. students who hold their brcath 01' breathe aberrantly in standir r
backward bends speak their discornfort and anxiety clearly. at least to tho.
who have educated eyes ami ears, If students cannot inhale and exh
smoothly in the posture, it is better for thern 10 limit the bend-breathi r
constantly, keeping the lungs open to the atmosphere, and consciou-
depending for security on strong and heallhy pelvic and respiran
diaphragms, abdominal rnuscles, and hip flexors.
A simple experiment will show two distinct ways that breathing c n
work in standing backbends. Ask a c1ass ofbeginning students 10come ir o
the whole-body backward bend with their hands clasped overhead and lit .
Then ask them to breathe gently and notice that their hands move forw 'd
during inhalation and 10 the real' during exhalation, After they have co le
in touch with this, ask them to notice when they feel the most dscomf t,
01' if not discornfort, wariness, Most of them willsay it is at the end of exhal at n,
when their hands drop to the real'. It so happens that this is the mome In
the breathing cycle that corresponds to the least tension in the abdom al
muscles and in the respi ratory and pelvic diaphragms, which furni sh le
rnost important support for the posture in everyone who is keeping the 11'-
way open. Because the spine is most vulnerable when tension is ralease in
these supporting muscles, many teachers wise ly suggest an alternar 'e:
that students consciously reversa their natural breathing patte in
relation lo the bend. Instead of letting inhalation restrict the bend nd
exhalation accentuate it, they wil! suggest that students inhale t sir
maximum inspiratory capacity during the deepest part of the bend nd
then purposely ease forward dur'ing exhalation.
FORWARD BENDING
There are three big issues in forward bending: gravity, the site when
body is bending, and breathing. Gravity plays only a minor role in w
body standing backward bends, but it becomes somewhat more impO!
in relaxed standing backbends, and it becomes an overwhelrningly impol
issue in forward bending. The reason for the latter is obvious: the u .er
part of the body i tipped far 01T axis. With this in mind, our first con ' 1'0
is whether to bend forward from the waist 01' from the hips, and our nd
roncem is how to use breathing to purposely further our aims.
If you watch people bending for.vard in daily life, you will notice lat
they nearly always bcnd from t he waist. This is the more natural movem lit.
YOll would look very odd indeed ifyou kept your back stnght and bent forward
from the hips lo pick up an object Irorn a coffee tableo It is also easier to
bend from the waist because there is less upper body weight above the
waistline than ahove the hip joints. In hatha yoga we use both options.
Bending forward from the hips is nearly always considered more desirable,
but it is also more difficult, not only because there is more weight lo control
but also because by definition it requires a reasonable measure of hip
Oexibility, and this can't be taken for granted.
Our next concern is how to support the bend. Do we support it within
the torso itsel, which we'lI call internal support, 01' do we support it, with
the help of the upper extrernities, which we'lI cal! external support, If you
brace a forward bend externally with your hands on your thighs, it's natural
to relax the torso, but if you slowly bend forward while allowingyour hands
lo hang freely, your torso has to support itself internally all t.he way down,
and under those circurnstances it will be anything but relaxed, Every
sta nding backbend, forward bond, and side bend should be considered with
respect to these matters. As in backward bending, breathing is an important
related issue: the more a postura is supported internally, the more it wiII
have to be assisted by adjustments in the way you breathe.
FORWA RO BENOS FROM THE WAIST
We'll begi n with two simple and easy exerciscs in which you can experience
t he difference between externally and internally supported bends. Lean
forward, bend your knees slightly, and, bending forward from the waist,
slide your hands down the Iront of the thighs, gripping all the way. Settle
your hands in place just aboye the knees, lower your head forward, and
observe your pasture. Your back is slightly rounded and relaxed, which is
possi ble because you are supporting the torso with the upper extremities
rather than with the back muscles (fig, 4.21). Your brcathing is al so relaxed
OC'C8use your respratory diaphragm. pelvic diaphragm, and abdominal
muscles are not. having to contribute much 10 the posture.
Next, carry this proeess one step further. Drop your handsjust below the
knees and grip your legs firmly. Now we'll start to see big differences
students. Ifyou are strong and flexible you wiII still be relaxed, but
If you are stiffer you wil! start to fee! some pulling in your erector spinae
tnuscles. II' that pulling is uncomfortable you will not be eager to go further
down. So try to find a position that is just right, one that crcates a litUe
but that mini miz s discomfort. Next, sense the level of relaxation
In )'our back, in your abdomen, and in your breathing, and then slowly
release your hands without dropping further forward. The moment you
lart to release your hands. observe carefully and you will notice that you
llave automatically tightencd up your lower back, your abdomen, and your
242 A.vA nJM I UF IIA//l.1 l nr.A
respiratory and pelvic diaphragms (fig, 4 .22). The dfference bet ween braci
the posture with your hands ami releasing your hands without droppi
down is the diference between an e}..1erna1Jy and an internally support r
forward bend. If you are explaining and al the same time demonstrat in
this exercisc to a class with the hands settled in place j ust above 01' ju
below the knees vour voicc will be at ease before you release your hand
but the second you release thcrn and yet hold the posture, your breathii
and voice will become ncticeahly more labored.
Now that you can feel the diferences between the two kinds of bend
stand in a relaxed position and roll forward slowly from the head, nec
upper back, lower back, and last of a11 from the hips. The hands can sirnj
dangle. As you gradually pitch your upper body forward, you will sense tensi.
gathering in your back and abdomen as well as in the respiratory al
pelvic diaphragms. Work with this tension rather than struggling to res
it. Notice that the deep back muscles lengthen eccentrically and cont r
your descent, but that purposely tightening the abdominal muscles and t I
respiratory and pelvic diaphragms provides the all important increas
intra-abdominal pressure that makes the movement safe. Come back IIp
reverso order, that is, beginning with the hips, and without too much del
Muscles throughout the torso are already in a state of stretch and tensi n
from supporting the posture internally, and they willlift you up natu
Be aware of concentric shortening of muscles in the back as you lift up. I
at the same time focus on the abdominopelvic unit as a whole, whicl IS
bounded by the abdominal muscles, the respiratory diaphragm, and the pel e
diaphragm. Activating this regioll will protect the lower back by spread g
the vertebrae apart hydraulicaJly, as described in chapter 3 Being attenu c
to the abdominopelvic unit will give you the sense of controlling e
posture rather than the posture controlling you.
..\TN\ m .\(, / ' W ,7 1 /l ES 243
lt is bet ter nut to explore your limits at thi s stage. -Iust repeat the down
and up movernent seve ral t imes with out a lot of concern about stretching,
Finally, 1'011 down to wherever gravi ty earries you and explore the fcclin
stifTness and discomfort if you are not accust orned to these st retches, a
deep pull and comfortable tensi n ir you are in good condition, 01' more
complete relaxation ifyou are in execllent condition. Again, come up naturally.
FORWARD BENOS FROM THE HIPS
As you improve your hip flexibility, you will soon want to accornpli sh the
more elegant forward bend from th e hips . Let's star t wit h an internally
supported bend Ior beginners. Stand in the mountain posture with your
feet either together 0 1' ( 10 inches apart and parallel. Establish a st rong
base in the lower extrernities, and be aware that the lumbar region of the
back is convex anteriorly. You are going to try to keep that arch intact as
you bend forward.
Now bend forward from the hips. Average beginners wiJl be abl e to hend
about 10-30, but advanced students with excellent hip Ilexibility may be
able to bend up to ')0 0 1' even more. As with forward bending from the
waist, if you are not bracing the posture with your upper extremities, JOU
wil! have lo support it with your back muscles, abdominal muscles, and res-
piratory and pelvic diaphragms. Even more than befare, pay attenti on to
pressing in gently but purposely with the abdominal muscles. Be aware of
when you reach your limit of hip l1exibility, and bend frorn the waist from
that point on. Let the arrns hang 01' interlock the hands with the opposite
forearrns. Do not tug against the ankles 01 bounce your torso up a nd down.
Relax as much as you can and still rnaintain your posture. Even though
YOIl started with a str ong foundation and kept it while you were bending
from the hips, you had to relax to sorne extenl when Y0l! stRrled bending
Figure 4.21. Extemally
supported forward bend.
With the posture supporled
by lhe upper extrel1lities ,
lhe back, abdomen, lower
extremilies, and respiratory
and pelvic diaphragms can
al! rernain relaxcd.
Figure 4.22. Internally ~ u p p u r l
forward bend. With the upper
extremities dangling. abdominal
rnuscles. hack muscles, amI Ihe
respiralory and pelvic diaphragms
rnust support the posture along
with the muscles, bones, and
jllinls of Ihe lower extremities.
general effort for pressing in; they will assist the hip floxors
synergistically in clrawing you fOl"WI.Ud. Hold this pose, breathi ng as evenly
as possible (f g, 4.23). As in (he earlior exercise, each inhalation willlift you
up and each exhalation will lower you clown. To come out of the posture
case yourself up a liltl e bit a t th e hips and in the lower back, press in
purposefully with the lower abdominal rnuscles, and then come up in
reverse order ; first lifting the head, then the upper back lo creatc a good
lumba r arch, and finally ext ending tho trunk back up from the hips. lt is
important to keep tension on th e hamstring muscles as you come up to
pr epare for the extra tensi n on t hern when you mise th e upper part of the
back,
This is an impressive posture. lt place s so much t.ension on the muscles of
the abdomen, pelvis, and thighs that you will hardly notice the accompanying
increase in intra-abdominal pressure and increased tension in the deep
back muscles. Nevcrtheless, it's all there-an experience of entering and
exiting a forward bencl frorn the hips that envelops you from head lo toe.
Advanced students can take this postura one step further. Go into th e
forward bend exactly as in th e intermediate postura, bending first frorn the
hips and coming down with gravity, but then grasping the ankles 01' feet
and assisting gravity with a combination of the abdominal musclcs, hip
flexors , and upper extremities (fig, 4.24>' Once settIcd, thi s posture affects
your breathing differently from the beginning and intermediato variations
because now you are holding the trunk in place with the hands during
inhalat ion. You'lI sense lit tle or no movement, ooly an increase in t ension
during exhalation and a dccrease in tension dUling inhalation. Finally, if
you wish to come out ofthis posture with an arched back, you should ease
off the stretch slightIy before lifting the heacl and upper back, exact ly as in
the intermediate version.
2.l4 tll\ATOMI o/ l/A11'"1 H )(;,1
at the wai st. Your kneecaps are no longer lift ed, and the harnstrings are il
a state of relative rel axation, although your nervous syst em is keepi
thern in a holding pattern of activity. Depending on your flexibility anr
conditioning, the deep back rnuscles may be Iairly relaxed 01' they may bf
active, eccentrically lengthening as gravily slowly cases you down. If y
are in excellent condition you will be relaxed as soon as you are set tler
everyone else will stil l be resi sling gravity with the back, hamstrin
rnusclos, and the triumvirate of abdominal muscles, pelvic diaphragm, a
rcspiratory diaphragrn.
Stay in th is posture, hr eathing evenly. The lumbar area is flexed forwai
as part ofan are oftension exlending from the upper back lo the heel s. TI
tensions shift as you breathe. Since the crus of the diaphragm takes or ig.
Irom the relatively stable lumbar vertebrae, and since the contents of t I
abdominal cavity are slightly cornpressed from the forward bend, ca
inhalation lifts the base of the thoracic cage, producing a slight lift i
effect in the upper body and a slight increase in intra-abdorninal pressui
Each exhalation then lowers you down slightly and relieves pressure frc 1
the diaphragm against the abdominal organs, Just feel that happeni ng 1 r
about 30 seconds, and then gently roll up out of the posture whi le pressi a
in mildly with the abdominal muscles. Do not do any kind of inten e
manouver such as lifting the head, then the upper back, and then st raig -
ening up from the hips; just 1'011 up naturally.
This version of Iorward bending assurnes that you are able to rern. n
relatively relaxed in the posture. If you are stmggling, all you'lI noticl s
marked intra-abdominal pressure, difliculty breathing, and a tense bf {,
abdomen, and respiratory diaphrabTJl1. 'rhe posture is for healthy beginm
and is contraindicated for anyone with acute lower back pain. Ifyou go Ir o
(his poslure wilh pain in the lower back, you are likely to come out with me
After you are comforta ble in the begin ning internally supported fm"W. d
bencl from th e hips, you are ready (01' th e intennediate ven;ion. Star t h
lhe feet logether. This time develop a lnn base and kecp it , with the f t
solidly on th e 0001', lhe kneccaps liftcd, and the hips st rong. Hold ten. n
in the l highs, not only in the quadriceps femori but in the hamstring muS( s
and adduct ors as wel!. Bend from lhe hips as befare. Now, however, wl n
you reach your limits of hip flexibil ity, keep a st rong as you cont il e
to bend al the wai st. Hold tension purposely in the hip s. thi ghs. , d
a bdominal muscles as you bend down. Let gravity pull you down , d
notice tha!. you are aware of more subtleties of th e posture, especit y
al'ound the pelvi s, thighs, and knees, than in the previouH version.
Alter 15- 30 seconds, experiment with assist ing brravity by pulling you rl' If
down act ively toward the end of exhalat ion using the hip Oexors Cili opse s
musdes ). The abdominal muscles will now operate aboye and beyon , 1
abdominal museles
can assist gravity in
pulling your torso
down and back
figure 4.23. Inlermediate
forward be nd. Unless you
are holdi ng on firmly,
each illhalation lifts you
up and each exhalation
drops you down. Be sure
lo keep lension in lhe
especially in the
. amSlrings. Never sland
Ina position like this wilh
lhighs reJaxed and
<'Omplet ely locked.
- hip f1exors (i1iacus
and psoas museles)
can aid lhe bend
concenl rically
hamstring
muscles
Standing forward bends scparate everyone roughly into two groups
Those with good hip flexibility have a gratifying experience: if their hip
are flexible enough to press the chest against the thighs with the knoo
straight, the torso is inverted and the back is only mildly bent. The postun
is rcwarding and relaxing for this group of students bccause the fu11 inversi o
ofthe torso, which is now hanging passively from the hips, allows the spin
to streteh, much as it would if you were hanging upside down. In rno-
people, however, short hamstring rnuscles and pool' hip and back flexbilit
prevent this, and the torso ares out from the lower extremities in a b
semicircle. Teachers who huye always bcen flexible enough to bend fully
their hips often find their students' situation incomprehensible.
MEDIAL ANO LATERAL ROTATORS OF THE HIP
Up to this point we have dwelt only on the fundamentals of bending fn 1
the waist and from the hips. We'l1 now turn lo the more subtle aspects 1
how shifts in foot position afTect Iorward bcnding. We saw earlier ti t
rotating the feet out (toes out, heels in) rotates the thighs laterally, a J
that rotating the feet in (t oes in, heels out) rotates the thighs medi a {.
What is more, rotating the thighs laterally stretches their medial rotatr
and rotating the thighs media11ystretches their lateral rotators. And tl u e
shifts are a11 important to us in forward bending. We'U soon see that h< h
the medial and lateral rotators of the hips resist deep forward bending It
least in those who are not very flexible, so anything that stretches th TI
even mildly at the start willlimit performance of these postures.
The medial rotators of the hip joint are the gluteus medius and glut IS
minimus, which lie beneath the gluteus maximus, take origin frorn le
back of the ilium, ami insert on the grcatcr truchanter (figs. 3.8b, 3 I
l
,
Figure 4.24. Adv;nced forward bend.
Wilh lhe chesl pressed lighlly
againsl Ihe Ihighs. i n l ~ l i o n cannol
lift you IIp significanlly; 1I merely
Ilcreases Icnsian in Ihc lorso.
,. vr .uvotr: t-ost! RES 247
1\.9-10 , H.'2. and 1t14l of the fmur, which is located laterally, posteriorly,
and inferiorly to the bulk of the muscle. This architectural arrangement
enables these muscles to both rotate the thigh medially and lift it out to the
side for abduction. Thrce experiments will clarify their roles. First, stand
with your heels together (for adduction of the thighs), toes out (for lateral
rotation of the thighs), and knees straight (so that our experience with the
medial rotators wi11 be superimposed on stretched harnstrings). Now bend
forwaru and notice how far you can come clownand where you Ieel the tension.
It's mostiy in the hips, whose medial rotators will be rock-solid and resisting
the bend from start to finish. Seeond, bring your feet parallel lo one another,
and you will immecliately come further forward. Third, swing your heels
out and toes in, ami down you wi11 go even more. What has happened is
simple: when you rotated your thighs medially, you took tensi n off the
gluteus medius and gluteus minimus, which were being stretched in the
beginning by adduction and lateral rotat on, and this perrnitted you to
come further Iorward,
The main antagonists to the gluteus medius and minimus muscles are
two of the lateral rotators of the thigh: the adductor longu and adductor
magnus (see figs. j.8-t) and 8.1.3-I.j for general treatrnent of adductors) .
These muscles take origin from the inferior pubic rami and insert posteriorly
enough on the back of the fernur to rotate the thigh laterally as well as
pu11 it in (01' adduction. To test their actions, we need tu start with them
in a stretched position, so stand with your feet about .)-4 feet apart Ior
abduction of the thighs, and with your toes in and heels out for medial
rotation. Then bcnd forward and pinpoint the site where you fcel the most
tension, which will be in your inner thighs. Next, swing your toes out
enough to make your fcct parallel, and notice that you can come furlher
forward. Finally, swing your loes cven further out to create lateral mtation
of the thighs, and this wiII lowcr YOIJ down cven more. Again, what has
happcned is straightforward-the exact counterpart to the experiments
with the gluteus medius anel gluteus minimus: when you take tension off
the adductor longus and adductor mab'llUS musc1es by mtating lhe thi ghs
laterally, it pennits you lo come more deeply into the forward bend.
!!:!E ANGLE POSTURE
Anexcellent e1ementary posture, the angle pose, is a forward bend fmm one
i ~ that further' illustrates how foot position can allect forward bending.
Wlth the feet a comfortable dist.ancc apart, rotate the righl [oot 90 to the
right and the leO. foot slightly to the righl (ahout 30). Keep them both
lirmly plantcd. Swivcl the hips around so you are fat:ng directly over the
fight foo1. Grasping the right wrist behind your back with the len hand tu
help pull thc tor;o around, hend backward slightly, and then bend forward
241' A\,A.,HMI t II.H7IA I()(.A
1, .\7Al\V I l\'C l ' OSI7 'Nr,s 249
first from the hips ( fi g, 4.25) and then at the waist ( fi g. 4.26). Keep the
forearms flattened agains t the back for this variation. fu; you come into the
posture you will be bending primarily at the right hip joint, so this is where
it is most natural lo place your concentration. Unless you are unusually
flexible, you wiII notice that there will be a slight twist in the spine. Come
up and bend back again moderately before swiveling around and repeating
on the other side. Because you do the posture in both directions it is excelIent
for working with right-to-left imbalances, first and again last on the less
flexible side . If your forearms are flattened against the back, this pose wil
be especia1ly easy and you will be able to relax more into it. The alternativr
posture (fgs. .za- b) 01' liting the arms away from the back is mor
dernanding and will create a more intense experience.
righl fool is rotated
90 lo !he righl
Figurl' 4.25. Angle
posture, intermediate
stage. Forearms here
are shown flat against
the back. Hips are
swiveled to lace the
righl oot.
Figure 4.26. Angle
posture completed,
wilh lumbar flexon
addcd lo ftexion 01
the rigllt hip oint.
bend IromIhe hip'
Inilially as much a
possible
left foot i
rotated
/
aboU130
lo lhe ngl
Again returning to the importance of foot positi on, the angle posture is
easiest if your rear foot faces st raight out to th e side, but when you rotate
it somewhat medialIy, as suggested, or even more (up to 60) , it places
increasing stretch on the lateral rotators ofthe thigh (the adductor longus
and adductor rnagnus), and this starts to limit your forward bend. This is
surprising: we might at first think that only the thigh which you are facing
would limit a forward bend, since that's what's getting the hamstring
stretch, but experimenting with different angles for the rear foot will make
it plain that the rear lateral rotators can easily become the limiting elernents
to the bend.
The rear foot brings attention 10 the roles of the lateral rotators, but the
front foot, the one you are facing, brings awareness to the medial rotators
of the thigh (the glutcus medius and minimus) in addition to the obvious
stretch in the hamstrings, The medial rotators are in a neutral position
and are only moderately stretched any time the foot is pointed straight
ahead, as is usual for this posture, and they will be relieved even of that
tension if the foot is rotated medially 10-15. For something really dlfferent,
try rotating the front foot latera1ly, and you'lI quickly sense the role of
t hese muscles as medial rotators, because they instantIy tighten up and
limit the bend. 'I' hese experiments reveal that analyzing the angle
post ure only with respect to the hamstrings of the front thigh is fine Ior
an introduction to the posture, but just the beginning for anyonc who is
int erest ed in serious study.
51DE BENDING
In day- t o-day life you bcnd forward to pick up objects, bend back
moderately to stretch, and twist to look and rcach. But except for
cocking your head sideways, you do not often bend your spine to the
side. We call t hi s movement lateral fl exion . It is unnatural in daily
life and uncommon in hatha yoga, a t least in comparison with other
bends, but is usually just sli pped in here and there during the course
of more complex postures. Here wc 'lI look al i t in its pure forrn so we
can recognize it within more intrieate pos es.
note: The idea of a " pure" side bond is an oxymoro n. The re is no su ch
thmg bec.ause the vertebral colu mn, in adapt ing lo lateral Ilexi on , act ually
rotates shghlly both ab ove and below the main region of the bend rather than
generating a st r ict ly lateral rnovemunt . The sarne thing can be seen in a
?lechanical mod el in which metal cylinde rs rep resent vertebral bodi es a nd
Intcrposed shor t represent intcrverteh rul disks. In accommodat ing
lo a bend, the combmatlOn 01 metal a nd cork cyli ndcl's lwhich together model
anterior functi on al unit of the s pinel reveaI s mir...,r imuge rotal ions un
erther side of the middle sl'cti on of the bend .1
l 50 AI\A/U.II1 (JI' /11171/11 IIK;11
THE STANDING SI DE BEND WITH FEET T OGETHER
For a whole-body sido bend, stand with your feet together, including both th c
heels and big toes. Lift your hands overhead as in the whole-body hackwa rr
bend, with the fingers interlocked and the palms tightly together. Lock t hs
forearms and then pull the arms backward until they are even with the ears
Create a firm base with the lower extremities by tensing all the thigl
muscles and squeezing the hips toget.her as tighUy as you can. Then lit'
and stretch the upper ext remities, and at the sume time bend lo the sido i
a mini mal are (fig, 4.27). You should lift so strongly with both arms an
hands that when you bend to the right, the right arm does not feel weak .
comparison with the left, and when you bend to the left, the left arrn do,
not feel weak in comparison with the right. You wiII feel a whole-body ben
from your ankles to your fingertips, with stretch throughout the side opposi
to which you are bending. Don't relax anywhere; if you ease up on YOl
effort even slightly, the emphasis changos frorn a whole-body bend to a sil
bend that is feIt rnostly in the lower thoracic region of the vertebral colum
rigure 4.27. Whole-body side
bend, wilh priorities set by
concentraling on lifling the
hands as high as possible as in
the overhead stretch (fig. 4.17)
and mainlaining equal slrength
in the Iwo upper extrerniti es.
Assuming thal both Ieet are
planted finnly and Ihal the
lower extrernities are the same
length, no bending can occur at
the hips. U's all in the spine.
Notice as well that the posturc changcs character ir you place your red
even a few inches aparto
STANDI NG SI DE BENDS WITH FEET APART
Now we'll turn to side bends that are comparable to externally and int ernally
;upported forward bends . The movcmcnts for side bending are more limited
than for forward bending, but sorne of the principies are similar. '1'0 iIlustrate:
with your feet a cornfortable distance apart (about two feet) and parallel, bend
straight to your right while grasping your right thigh. Keep the body true lo a
frontal plane: bending straight lo the side implies that you are keeping the hips
facing the front , By contrast, ir you let the right hip drop to the rear as you
bend, you wiIIshift from a relatively pure side bend to a combination of a side
bend, twist, and fonvard bend. Watching carefully, notice that part of the bend
is taking place at the hip joint on the side to which you are bending, and that
the rest is taking place in the spine, fu; with supported forward bends, settle
your right hand in a position on the thigh that allows you to remain relaxed
Figure 4.28. Side bend
5Upported by the right
upp er extremity. As with
extemally supported
forward bends, this is a
cornparatively relaxed
Posl ure. Wilh each
thigh abdu led abouI
15, onlv Ihat much
~ n i n g (by definition)
15 occurrmg al the hip;
!hp rest is laking place
In lhe spine,
(Iig, ,p XI. You'll not reach past your knee unless you are especially flexibl e
Then do the sarne experimenls as for the forward bcnd-sequentially releasin,
and re-establishing your grip several times, noticing the effects on you
abdominopelvic region in each C<L-"C, and finally releasingyour grip and comin
up. Repeat on the other side.
Next, again starting from an uprght position, make blades with YOIJ
hands, palms Iacing the front, and bend to your right while keeping YOL
right little finger near but not touching your right thigh. Now you will 1
supporting yourself inlernally all the way down, and because of that y<
will not need lo make special preparations for coming up-your intern
support system rernains primed frorn start lo linish. Come up and repe
on the other side,
Side bending is more complex than forward bending. For one thing si
bending is asymmetric by definition, so lo keep in balance you havo lo be! l
first lo one side and then to the other, For another, forward bendi ~
involves f1exion of both the spine and the hips, but sido bending invoh
lateral flexion of the spine and abduction of the hip on the side towa :l
which you are bending. Think this through: In a whole-body side bend \ \ 1 1
the feet together (in other words, with the thighs adducted), the pelvis ( 1
only rcmain perfectly in line with thc thighs (fig. 4.27)-lhere is no SI 1
Figure 4.29. Advanced side bend,
minimally supportcd by the rght
upper extrernitv, and a fairly
relaxed posture for anyone this
flexible. Nearly all of the side
bend is in the spine,
1 .\ 1i11\[) /.\'(; 1 ) ~ 7 1 '/{Ii.\ 2;.1
thing as a side bend al the hip except in proportion lo how much the thighs
are abducted (fi g, 4.2X). Even in the case of an extreme 70side bend in
someone who is quite flexible (fig. 4.29), no appreciable bending takes place
at the hips when the feet are kept together,
To come in touch with the "side bending" movement. permitted at the
hip joint, locate the greater trochanters (figs. ].5-7 and 8.13-14) with your
fingers and press your thurnbs in the grooves just above them on each side .
'I'hen, keeping your spine straight and standing on one fool, swing your
opposite foot lo the side, noticing that the groove just above the greater
trochanter is the site where the bend hinges. Abduction of' the thigh al this
joint vares frorn as little as 20 to as much as yo o in a full side-to-side splits
position.
SIOE BEND WITH ONE KNEE ON THE FLOOR
Here is an alternative side bend that curves the entire spine to its maximum
in lateral flexion (about zo" each in the lumbar and thoracic regions, and
35-45 in the cervical region), and that also produces maximum abduction
at the hip joint. Although this is not strictly a standing postura, it allows
you to bend further than can be accornplished standing up . Assume a
kneeling position. Kceping the left knee on thc floor, stretch the right fool
out lo the side and slide the right hand down the right thigh and lego Al the
same time stretch the left arm up and ove!' the head, with the palm down,
and bend to the right (fig, 4.30). Keep your right foot flat on the Iloor in the
Figure 4.30.
I<necling side
bend.Kecp
Ihe hips in line
with a frontal
plane through
the body, but
allow the righl
foul to rotate
lo the mosl
Comfortable
Position.
2')4 ,\\ATOMl OI' IMI7IA I OGA
most cornfortable position (probahly rotated out about 45), but don't permit
the hips to rotate out of t he frontal plane. Come back up and repeat on the
opposite side.
The overall sense of this posture is one of relaxation, in contrast lo thr
standing side bond with the feet tugether 0 1' to externally and internalf
supported standing options. For this pose you maintain only enough tonsioi
to keep the body grounded in its frontal plane. In most students the postun
is restrictcd in the lumbar region, mainly by the rib cage (in this case, th
eleventh rib) butting up against the ilium. You can feel this for yourself 1
you insert your fingers bctween the rib cage and the ilium as you benr
Lateral ly, you can fee1 the tip of the eleventh rib, and just in fronl of th:
you can feel the inferior cdge of the tenth ribo but the twelfth rib en
posteriorly beneath the erector spinae muscle, and you wiII probably not r.
able to locate t his one unless you are slender and Iightly muscled.
WHAT MAKES POSTURES DIFFICULT?
Thc standing postures we have discussed so far illustrate the principl-
that underlie standing strelches, bends, and twists, but they are n t
general ly demanding. As we havo seen so far in t his chapter, the simple t
and safest thi ng anyone can do standing is to stretch without eith r
twisting 01' bending, and this is why we started with the mountain post u
the side-to-side stretch, and the overhead stretch. Then carne stretcu
and twisting al the same time, but still without bending.
Next in difficulty are the three bending postures (backward bendii
forward bending, and side bending) in which we have to be concerned w 1
two more cornplications: how and to what extent we counteract gravity, a i
how bending affeds ur breathing. First we discussed backward bendi.
the most elementar)' of lhe lhree, in which the hip joints don't permil : u
to go back very fal: in which gravity is not a major issue, and in wh h
breathing helps you regu1atc your capacity for stretch. Ncxt carne forw' d
bending. in which hip flexibility and the pull of gravity beeome all-imporU1 t,
and in which perhaps half the middle-aged shldents in a beginning d. 's
start asking themselves sel;OUS questions about the safety of their bar s.
Last carne side bending, the least common movement in ordinary life Id
une in which the anatomicaI restrictions thal prolect you are not a w 1-
honro and dependable as those for forward bending and backward bendl '.
\Ve have focused on simple movement.s so far 1.0 iIlustrate fundament o ,;.
but more demanding standing postures are also widely practict>d. Ap /t
from genef"dlly requiring more strength. aerobic capacit.y, and tlexibil Y
than the poses so far discus.,o;cd. what specifically makes them challeng Ig
is that they usually involve complication. :ombining twisting- with bend n
doing twists and hends when sorne particular joint is in an unnatlll .1
., .\ TA\' /J/ \ G' rosnua 255
posiliun uf stress, coming into a diflicult internally supported stretch in
which strength becomes a primary issue, and going from the final position
of ene difficu lt posture directly into another difficult posture. The triangle
postures that follow illustrate all of these principies.
THE TRI ANG L E POSTURES
Imagine two sticks, their bottom ends planted into the ground about three
feet apart and their upper ends insertod loosely into sockets on either side
of a ball, sockets which wi11 allow the ball to rotate and swivel frorn side to
side. Then imagine a flexible rod fixed to the top of the ball that can twist
and bend to the front, back, 01' side in all possible combinations. Last, imagine
a bamboo pole that runs perpcndicularly across the back of the roo near its
upper end, forming a cross. The sticks are the lower cxtrernities, and the
ball with which they articulate is the pelvis . The sockets that permit
swivel ing on either side uf the ball are the sockets of the hip joints. The
flexible rod is the spne, with the head on top and the pelvis on the bottorn,
and the pole is a combination of the two upper extremities that will remain
lifted straight out to each sido in one line in the triangle postures. In the
advanced c1assic triangle, the rod-and-ball combination is bent straight lo
t he side so that one end of tho bamboo pole touches the boltom end of the
stick on the same side, In the revolving triangle, the rod-and-ball combination
is bent forward and then twisted IRoo. so that the end of the pole touches
the bottom end of lhe opposite stick.
THE PRELlMI NAR Y 5 TANC E
In all of the triangle postures you will abduct the thighs, rotate the fcet
asymmen;cally, and then complete the specific pose. And bcc<'luse the b;angle
postures place un usual asymmetric tensions on the hip joints and on the
muscles of t-he thighs, we'lIlook firsl al. how we create internal resistunce
tu:;imple standing twists with the thighs abducted. Sta.!'t with the [eel parallel
and about lwo leet apartoAs usual, tighten lhe thigh muscles all around.
Then twist. This should be easy; nearly e"eryone can create a comforlable
resistance to lhe twist if the feet are this clase logethel: Now increasc the
to three feet, and a few people will star!. to get mildly uncomfortable
In their hips and lower' back. Finally, ifwe incrcase the distance to four fecl,
eVen good athletes may not lind it I'easonable lo remain twisted for more
than half a minule 01' so. The idea is tu settle on your own personal stance,
One that will aIJow you to keep the lower extremities comfortnble and yet
firm while twisting right and lhen left for a half minute each.
Next, with a stance established that allows you to keep lhe thigh
rnuscles firm, turn the right fool fuJly to the right and the left foot about
30 to the right, that is. lacking floo of being in line with the right (001.
256 AI\ 'A10M) OF II A"llIA 1(}( ; ,1
o .H'l .\'1)f\"G I l H 7 H / ~ 257
n
lt
o
Slowly Ilex the trunk to the ri ght, being careful not to allow the right hip
to swing to the real' any more than you have too Letting that happen will
enable you to bend more, hut only al t he expense of changing the side bond
lo a mixed side-and-forward hendoThis is hard to avoid: just realize that
any additional bending that you exper ience, al least over and aboye the initial
sidebend that is delined by abduction of the right thigh, is in reality a
forward bend. To complete this stage of the posture, bring the right hand
tmvard the right thigh, knee, leg, ankle, 01' fool-whatever you can reach
easily-keeping lhe palrn facing forward and not making contact with the
little finger (fig. 431). Move slowly; this will be an internally supporled
posture all the way down and up. Point the len hand st r aight up and twist
your head to look up at it, but go only as far into the postura as is reasonable.
The idea is lo construct a personal posture that explores your comfortable
limits while you are hreathing evenly without pauses 01' jerks. If you are
straining or feel you need lo hold your breath, you have gone too faroSlowly
come up and repeat on th e other sirle.
Figure 4.31. Inlernally
sUpporled Iriangle for
Oeginners. Oon't drop
down so far in Ihis
Poslure thal il is no
longer primarily a side
bcnd. lhe pelvis
should remain in line
wilh a fronlal plane
lhrough Ihp hody.
THE INTERNALLV SUPPORTED TRI ANGLE FOR BEGINNERS
Stand wit h the feet parallel and 2-.' feet aparL Turn the ri ght foot t o le
right l)OC, and for this particul ar varation of th e triangle keep the len
facing st r aight to the front. Establ ish a solid base. Stretch the hands o
the sides and hold thcm at shoulder height with t he palms facing fo1'\\< !l.
Bring lhe lingers logelher to make hlades of lhe hands. '1'0 prepare for Oex ,n
of t he trunk lo the ri ghl. st retch out, reaching toward lhe right side am It
th e same time crealing a reeling of \ifl in the torso. This will automalic< Iy
creal e a priorily for emphasizing the existing bend at t.he right hi
prefcrencc lo the spi ne , and lhat. is whal we wanl.
Assume this position, however, without swiveling the pelvis and perrnit tii
the right hip lo move markedly to the real'. The right thigh will be rotatr 1
laterally and the left lhigh will be rotated medially. The medial rotators (U
gluteal rnedius and rnini rnus) of the right hip will now be in a state r
stretch and resisting lateral rotation. Ifyou are not convinced of'this, alk
the right hip to rotate back medially by swinging your right toes in, and y 1
will notice that this instantly relieves tensi n in the right gluteus medi
and rninimus. On the left side, the lateral rotators-e-the adductor longus a
adductor magnus-will be in a state of st retch and poised for resi sting mr e
medial rot ation, And if you are not convinced of that, just allow the left ~ )
lo rotate back laterally lo a more neutral position and you will notice ti 1
this immediately relieves tension in the len inner thigh. Instructors, If
course, never describe the prelimnary stance in this much detail , They USUL y
just say "try to keep your hips in line with your chest and facing the froi- "
Notiee that you can't hold the preliminary stance properly unless le
left gluleal muscles rernain tensed, If you are flexible this tension wiII It
be too noticeable, but if you are stiff and relalively inflexible, you will m
to contract the gluteals strongly 01' the posture deteriorates. You sho d
also Iirrn up the quadriceps fernoris muscles, first on the right and then .n
the left, which lifts the kneecaps. Then tighten the hamstring muse s,
again first on the right and then on the left, to make sure that the k 'e
joints do not come into an undesirable state of hyperextension. Don't tigh -n
the hamstring muscles enough to flex the knees, but take the effort U}: o
that point, The only thing remaining is to check the placemenl of the t i s,
making sure you feel all of them solidly against the floor,
Finally, maintainng your stance, raise the arms and forearms until 1 'y
and the shoulders are in a si ngle line Irom right fingertips to left Iingert IS.
The shoul ders, arrns, chest, and hips s hould all be facng the front. DI 't
hend; just st retch the fingertips laterally, Repea t every t hing on the ot ' 1'
side. ' I'h is is the hasic preliminar)' s ta nce. \Ve'lI now examine sevi 11
different ways to complete the posturas.
'1 here are many things to notice about this posture. As in the preliminr
stance, to keep frorn swiveling the hips while flexing lo the right, beginni g
students have to keep the right quadriceps fernoris muscle and the l. 1
gluteal muscles strongly engaged. Test this by allowing the hips lo rol e
slightly into more neutral positions, and then tighten these muscles, especia Iy
thc left gluteals, to rnake the correction.
You initiate the move lo the right with muscular activity on the 11
sido of the body, and this stretches the skin, fascia, and muscles on the I l.
Then, as gravity carries you further to the right, the left sido of the lx Iy
resists that force and keeps you from tipping to the right too suddenly 'o
l'eel this, it is irnportant to come into the postura supported internally IY
the abdominal muscles and the pelvic and respiratory diaphragms, Id
without resting your right hand on the right lower extremity. (If yo lo
that, the left side of the torso wiIl no longer need to restrain the movem nt
to the right, and you will be doing the next posture-t.he extern Iy
supported triangle for beginners.)
The muscles and lasciae thal are stretched on the side opposite the l::- Id
define your progress and stability in the internally supported triangh If
you are bcnding to the right, the left abdominal muscles, deep 1- ck
rnuscles, and latissirnus dorsi all lenghen eeoantrically, keeping the begii .er
from lowering too fast into an unfarniliar posit.ion. With more experi i ce
these muscles yield to gravity, and the emphasis is now felt in the sir eh
of their eonnective tissues. The left adductor longus and magnus muo es
are not slretehed in this poslure because the len l'oot lli pointing slra hl
tDlhe fronl and the left thigh is not rotate<! mediaJl)'. This is easily pro ' n.
lfyou come up momentarily and rotate lhe toes ofthe left 1001 in, an ri I len
return lo the poslure, you'JI feel a substantial increasc in tension in t I ISC
muscles.
In the inlernally suppor ted trmgle the diaphragm tends to Ii ft he
lrunk during inhalalion and lower il down during exhalation, and h Ice
you can drop further into the posture at the end of each exhalation. '1 n,
during cach ensuing inhalation you \Vill feel additional tension from grn ty,
which will be resisting the diaphragm's tendency to lift you up . 1 se
effects will not be obvious unless you refrain from inhaling for a mon -nt
or two at lhe end of exhalation.
One 01' the lessons t,hiR poslure teaehes is the samc one we explored Ith
internally supported forward bending and side bending: you do nol ha\ lo
makc uny preparations to come oul of it. Facing the palms forward an d 101
touching the lower extremity forces you to evaluate your capacity n-
stantly as you are flexing to the side. And sinee you are supporting YOUl elf
intemaliv the whole time, you can c'Ome out 01' the poslure withoul readju" og
lension. intra-abdominal pre"sure, 01' breathing.
Beginners will probably beconsciously resisting their flexin reflexes on
the side of the budy that is being stretched, but experts move smoothly and
unerringly into tho finished posture with their lexion reflexes remaining
wcll in the background. The muscles being stretched resist gravity without
stress or strain, the connective tissues 01' the body limit the posture to a
safe, predictable, and comfortahle stance, and the action of the diaphragrn
works on those tissues when they are in a state o' balance and equilibrium.
THE EXTEANALLY SUPPOATED TAIANGLE FOA BEGINNEAS
To do an externally supported beginner's triangle, keep the same stance,
with the right foot still yoo to the right and the len. Ioot straight forward.
Strctch the arrns and forcarms out, face the palms down, and lower the
right hand to the right thigh. Grip it Iirrnly Then bend, sliding the right
hand down the thigh and leg, but gripping and re-gripping all the way
Raise the left hand and look up al. it. It is easy to come into this posture
because you are support.ing the weight of the torso with the right upper
extremity, ami the natural reaction of'thc torso lindel' these circumsances
is to rernain relaxed (fig. 4.32). As a result you are more confident in the
figure 4.32. EXlcrnally
sUPporled Iriangle for
The righl
toup will usually have lo
!nove slighlly lo Ihe
real', bul adjusl Ihe
hand posilioo high
enuugh 00 Ihe leg lo
keep lhe hips fadog
Ihe frool as much as
Pussible.
260 ASA/O,11I I JI' 1//1"11//1 (l A
posture and can move more deeply into it, ncreasing the commitment t
side bending at the right hip joint. lt should be menlioned that rnany rnoder
schools of yoga rccommend resting the lowermost hand on one 01' mor '
blocks 01' wood, which accomplishes the samc end.
One important lesson 01' this posture, like that of extcrnally support
forward and side bends, is learned coming out of it. Because you are su
porting the posture all the way down with the arm, forearm, and han
whcn you decide to come out 01' it you may be in trouble, like the cal t h
is able to climb a tree but unable to come back down. 1'0 come up yo I
have to release your hand, and when you do that you will have to suppo t
the weight 01' the upper hall' 01' your body using only the internal muscl "
01' the torso, which may not be prcpared for the cfforL The solution ,;
twofold: first, don 't go down very far until experience tells you that you c n
come back up gracefully; second, before you even attempt lo come up, prep, e
yourself by tightening the muscles ofthe legs, thighs, and hips. This cmt
wiII naturally recruit more muscles in the pelvis and torso, and you 1I
soon I'eel enough confidence to release your hand and come out ofthe post u
T HE C LASSIC TRIANGLE
As defined here, the classic, 01' standard, triangle is more 01' a balanc g
posture than the previous two because the left foot is turned 30 to le
right (as in the preliminary stance) rather than pointing straight ah e :1.
Stretch the arms out al shoulder height and I'ace the palms down ins u l
01' tu the I'ront. Keep a sense 01' lirmness in the lower extremities an a
sense 01' stretch in the uppcr. Reach lo the right and then bend, keepir a
lifting sensation in the upper hall' 01' the body. As you go into the POStl e,
twist your head around so that you are looking up al the outstretc -d
thurnb, and contact the floor (fig. 4.33), Ioot, 01' ankle with the right ha d.
Kcep a strong stance. Be aware that the glulcus medius and min u rs
remain under tension on the right side because the lateral rotation 01' le
right thigh stretches lhe gluteals on that side. TenRion should also bl' Id
willfully in the left inner lhigh, the quadriceps Icmori on OOth sides, Id
the hamstrings, especially on the right side. The focus 01' the post re
should be on the thighs, lhe hip joinls, and the vertebral column. Jus to
experience what nol lo do in this l'egard, relax as much as you can wil h ut
falling down and notice 1l1at this allers the dynarnic of the posl l I:e
completely-the hips will tend lo swivcl, the knee lo which YoU!' ben
l
IS
dil'ected may become hyperextended and stressed, and the focus sh l ts
away from lhe foundation of the hOO)'.
As you bend, keep the arms and forearm strelched out lo form a si n le
line, with lhe forearm 01' lhe upraised limb supinatcd and the fmgers a d
thumb togcthcr in the same plane. lf you canllot go very far, thaC" fine, b it
1 . t-osrrm 26 1
tI')' to find sorne position in which you can berelatively comfortable for 5-10
seconds. Remember, in the bcginning you are not going to try lo accomplish
any sernblance of a finished posture, Your primary objective is lo learn lo
move into and out of the pose withoul hurting yourself and without being
in a state 01' pain 01' anxiety. If you bend so far that you are not al peace,
you have gone too faro
Come out of the posture as you carne into it, but make sure your stance
has not deteriorated before you do so. 11' the pose has become slovenly, the
movement back to the upright position presents new hazards, and a different
pattern of sensations and nerve impulses will emerge from the muscles and
joints of the lower extrernities, Ifyou have allowed the arm to act as a strut
to support the pose you have two choices: cither relax and ease yourself
back up as gently as possible, 01' prepare lo come out of the posture more
confidently by first lirming up the rnuscles of your extrernities and torso.
Inter mediate students can work with the classic triangle with the I'eet
wider apart, so that the lower extremities approach a 1)0 angle from one
another. But if the feet are so wide apart that you cannot maintain good
control ofthe muscles ofthe thighs, back off. The triangle is the worst posture
in the world 1'01' getting compulsive about increasing abduction 01' the hip
joints : with the left adductors stressed frorn medial rotation, increased
abduction, and gravity, it's too easy to pull a muscle in the groin.
Figure 4.33. C1assic
Iriangle. Bringing
Ihe righl hand all
Ihe way lo the floor
will necessitat e
the righl
hlp to drop even
furlhe r to Ihe rear
Ihan in Ihe case of
Ihe externally sup-
POrled triallgle for
beginncrs. but at
leasl Iry to keep in
Ihe spiri t of a side
bend rather than
leUing Ihe hips
sWivel fn'ely.
A:;, you become stronger and more comfortablc in the posturc, you e 1
intensify your efforts to bend, stil\ bei ng careful not to allow your base 1
deteriorate. By now you should have lea rned to use the postural muscl . f
the torso to control moving into the postura, using the hand as l guide, 1 t
as a stick for rest ing. An interrnediate studenl may stay in t he posture 'r
30-60 seconds before repeating on the ot her side.
In this posture t he effects of breathing will be a liUle different fr n
what we saw in the internally supported triangle for beginners. Since , 'u
will be rnai ntaini ng your hand position, inhalation will no longer lift you p
and cxhalation will no longer drop you down. Nsvertheless, as you b Id
toward your limit you will notice that each inhalation bri ngs an increas .n
tension in t he torso. Each exhalation then brings a release of len!' n,
which gives you t he option of slipping your hand down a lit tl e fur t -r,
Gravi ty draws your head and chest downward and is suflicient to huId he
upper half of the body in t he lower posi t ion during the next inhalation. he
t issues of th e body gradually adj ust to the increased tension and come lo
a new steady state. The complex unilateral dynarnics of t he classic tri ar le,
as we ll as the manner in which this posture is affected by gravit nd
respirat ion , are what make it a more advanced posture than the inten Ily
su pported t riangle for heginners, in which therc is no chance to get iJ a
position from which you cannot gracefully r isco
Alter sorne practice it will be possi ble lo come into the pose wit -ut
compromising t he dynamic aspects of maintaining it , and yet find JI 60
seconds oquiet and silence in the posture. An intermediatc student sI' "Id
now take a Iitll e time to simply enj oyo You can come into a provi:- 11al
stance, Lhinking molOtly about maintaining your base. 'rhen you Cal .Ise
it
breathing lo ease your body more completely into th e posture, obsel
one-pointcdly, and then slowly come up.
The manner in which you come out ofthe posture is important. IfyOl 'lve
established the habit of maintaining your baseeven while you are in n lse,
you can just keep everything solid and come out ofthe poslure as you can in.
But ir you have not maintained your base, coming out of the pose sho be
approached with care, especially if you have pulled yourself more fully i o it
with deep cxhalations. If you have inadvertently relaxed the thigh and , ",i r
mU8cl)ature, it may be hazardous to suddcnly tighten everything up b, re
ible
rising becau:oeyou will be 80mc of the deepcst. and least aece.
muscles of the body when it is in an awkward position. So ir you have re leed
those cr itical muscles, it will be better to simply rise out ofthe posture as h
fully as you can. 0.1' al th leru:;t, back off fIrst into a position in whieh YOI are
more L'Omfortable, re-eRtablish a lirmer base, and thcn come out dynam
'
\Iy.
Altcrnatively, ifyou are feeling too stressed, unother pm;sibility for exiti t he
post urc l'afcly is to bend the lIutst retched knee befure coming up.
The feel of the advanced student 's lriangle is yet more refined Irorn that
of th e intermediate student's triangle, It is the same posture, but you are
now flexible and strong enough lo go gently into it without much effort,
placing your palm on the loor and looking directly up at the outstretched
thumb. Because your thighs are more fuUy abductcd, a greater proportion
of t he bend takes place in the hip joinl. Now, as yo u breathe, your
adjust ment s are almost al l internal, and outside observers wou ld not be
mislaken if they thought that you looked cornfortable. Each inhalation
stiJI brings a slight increase, and each exhalation a slight decrease in
internal tension, but little of this results in changes in the position of
th e t r u nk al' extrerni ties.
THE AEVOLVING TAIANGLE
The revolving triangle di llers from t he classic triangle in so many ways we
could argue that it is completely un related, Ideally, the classic triangle is a
modified side bend combined wit h hip abductio n and torque-like stresses
which act to minirnize forward lexion and twisti ng, By contrast, the
revolving triangle is an extremely complex postura which involvcs forward
bending wi th the lower extremi ties in a partial sp lits position plus an
additional twist of the t runk to the rearo
Th e Iirst difference between the two t r iangles is in the placemcnt of the
feet . lf you start with a bcnd to the right side (feet 2-3 feet apart for t he
beginner), t he right loot is turned fully to t he right (in this case lateral ly),
and the left foot is turned lo lhe right (in this case mcdiaUy) about 60, thus
lacking only 30 of being parallel with t he ri ght foot. For beginnel's the 60
rolation of the len. foot makcs t his posture even more wobbly than the classic
lriangle, in which Lhe foot is rotated only 30. And more than that, the
extreme medial rolation ofthe len lOot will increase tension in the adductors
of the left thigh (recall: these are lateral rotators) even beyond lhat found
in the classic triangle.
. Th o next step is lo twist to the righl so that you arc facing over your
nght t high, much a; you did for the angle posture. Everyone says 'twist,"
but. for thosc with excellent mobi lity in their hips this is nol so much of a
twilOt as it is a swivel, one in wh ich the pelvis rotates 90 (lig. 4-34), causing
t highs to move from a posi tion of abduction 1.0one in which the right
thlgh is flexed wilh I"espect to thc torso and the left thigh is hyperexlcnded.
In this scnse the revolving triangle is diamctrically opposcd to thc classic
triangle, in which you maintain the abducted hip. - more 01" less in line with
the frontal plane of the trunk.
For lhe next stage of the revolving triangle, draw un imaginary line
through the pelvis from side to sid(. that is, perpendicular lo thc body's
tnidsagittal plane, and slowly bend forward around t hat axis. Now wc
to see fundamental differences between beginning and advanced studont
For advanced studcnts it is easy lo bend forward around that ideal axis (fi
4.35>, but those who are less flexible can come into the for ward bend on
by twisting their spines at the sarne time. Be watchful: either forwa, 1
bending 0 1' t wist ing may be safe by thcmselves, but combining the two wi 1
your right thigh already flexed nearly lo its maximum may not be wit h n
your reasonable capacity,
Ifyou Ieel confidenl in continuing, you can move into the revolving trian <!
in one of two ways. In the first, bend forward from the hips with the an s
stretchcd out lo the sides, Procced lo your limit of orward bending, an d s
soon as that is reaehcd, initiate a spinal twist so that you are facing e
real'. Bring the left hand lo the right leg or ank.le, and swing the right hr d
upward in the same line with the left. Look up at the outstretched lu d
(fig. 4.36). The second an d mor e common way of eoming into the postur- is
to simply take t he len. hand to the right ankle in the most direct course possiJ e,
thus combining a forward bend wit h a spinal twist in one movement . T is
is more custornary and natural, but the piecemeal method is more USl .11
for precise explorat ion and analysis. After coming out of the posture .n
reverso order, re peat on the other side.
Flexible and not-so-Ilexible students will have comp letely differ nl
experiences working toward this final stage of the revo lving triangil' . TI-- se
Figure 4.34. Revolving
tr iangle, first position.
This posture is identical
to lhe heginning posi lion
for lhe angle poslure
excepl lhat lhe lef l foo l
is rotaled ahout 60 lo
lhe right insl ead uf 30.
1 .\ TANIJ UvC /'OST! RJ .\
who HIe cspeeially flexible can twisl enough so that their chest will be
facing to the rear and their upper extrernities will lie in one line, just like
the bamboo pole in our inlroductory description of the triangles, But those
who are stiff will not be able to go nearly that faro First, it will be impossible
for them to hend forward all thc way down lo the right thigh: second, their
spines will already he twisted maximally j ust lo come mode rately forward,
so t hey wiIl not have much chance of furthering the twist in order to face
their chest to the real'; and third, because their chest is st ill more or less
facing the floor; they will have no chance of bringing thcir upper extremities
int o one line when they reach the left hand to the right foot and extend the
right hand up in the airo
When we bend forward in the revo lving triangle, almost every right-left
member of paired muscles and ligaments on the two sides ofthe thigh and
hip is stressed differently. As in any forward bend, the hamstrings are
resisti ng stretch with a constant influx of nerve impulses. but. much more
so on t he right side than t he left. Likewise, the rectus femoris and ilopsoas
muscl es will be more active on the right than on the left , espeeially if you
use t hern to pull yourself forward ac tively. T'he adductor longus and
magnus wll be placed under extreme tension on the left but not so rnuch
011 the right.
The stretches for the calf muscles on the two sides are also reversed,
With the left fool pulled around to a 60
0
angle and the left ankle flexed
accordingly, the gast rocnemius and soleus rnusclcs (the rnusc les thal make
up the bulk ofthe calf; figs. j .ioa-b, 7.6, HoY-lO, and 1\ .12) on the let side are
strelched maxirnally, but on t he right side. in which the ankle is extended,
the calf muscles are not stretched in the least, Slight changes in the angle
of the left foot alter the stretch 00 the calf muscles rnarkedly: if the left
foot is only al a 4'1 angle, the strelch on the left calf rnuscles is greatly
modcraled.
4.35. Revolving
lrtangl e, intermedialc
Posilion. Agai o, this
of lhe revolving
lrrangle is imilar fo the
angl e pose except fnr
realhing forward wilh
Ihe upppr exlremi lies.
2(,6 A.\'lln,\/1 O/'IIA711A HKiA
As you bend forward, the ligaments of the hip joint are abo affec h
differently on each sido. As discusscd in chapter J, the ischiofemor.
iliofemoral, and pubofernoral ligarnents form a taut spiral when the th i '1
is extended; when it is Ilexed, the spiraI unwinds. So during the course ,f
swiveling into the revolving triangle facing the right, which lea ves tho r i!,
thigh flexed and the left thigh extended, the spiral of these three ligarner s
is loosened on the right and tightened on the left. The resulting slack in t e
right hip joint is not cause for alann-indeed, it would not be possibl o
come Iully into the revolving triangle without the release of t h. -e
ligaments-but it does caution us lo watch the flexed hip joint careft y
because that is the sito where injuries are rnost likely to occur.
The all-important issue of hip flexibi lity is the main reason this post ve
is difficult. Beginning students who have gone to their limits in twist 19
just to get into a forward bend position over their front thigh can' t e
expected to twist an additional 1)0 to swing their chest, shoulders, Id
arrns into one line. This is not a posture for them lo stay in for more t . an
a fewseconds. The pose is so complicated that just attempting to approxin te
it requires Iull concentration.
lntermedate students wiIl be more comfortablo, Their feet can nd
should be further apart, Experience will allow them 1.0 rnaintain st re n -th
Figure 4.36.
Revolving
Iriangle. The
additional
(wisl uf Ihe
torso needed
lo complele (he
final
makes Ihis a
challenging
puse for every-
one who is not
strong and
flexible.
in the hips and thighs, and the posture will feel energizing instead of
[rustrating. This will start lo happcn when it becomes possible to hold the
upper extremites in line with the shoulders and with one another. As the
lower hand reaches Iurther down and the upper hand reaches further up,
inter mediare students are ernpowered to work harder and with more
directcd conccntration-reaching, stretching, brcathing evenly, and exploring
the postural base. Fina1ly, advanced students are able to find repose in this
posture without struggle 01' stress.
POST URAl SEOUENCES AND TRIANGLES
Coming into a single posture, supporting it intema1ly, and returning the
same way you went in is the safest way to explore standing postures, but
many instructors teach sequences of triangles and related poses. These are
fine for interrnediato and advanced students who have had a lot of
experience, but they present particular dangers to beginners. Going from
one strenuous position directly to another will require you to revise your
musculoskeletal priorities al the same time you are being challengcd,
sometimes maximally, and this may require too much simultaneous foeling,
analysis, and decision-making for novices,
We'll consider two examples, one CH.">y and one hard. If you start in the
classic triangle, you can confidcntly come into the forward bend position
and work yourself into the revolving triangle. A1I you have to do is ralease
the torque that is holding your hips facing the frunt, allow them to swivol
around, and twist your torso to the real', letting your arms Iollow nat.urally.
lt' s easy. Coming from the revolving back lo the classic triangle is another
matter. You can come out of the twisted position of the revolving triangle
into a forward bend withoul dilliculty, but pulling you!" hips back il1lo a
straight position from the swivelcd position, and at the same time I'cversing
your arm positions, will creatc extraordinary stl'ains in lhe hips and
spine-strains for which the beginner is ill-prepared. Beginning students
should try thi::; kind of exercisc only by moving back and forth betwcen
par tial positions. If you go only halfway into a revolving trianglc, and then
go. back halfway into the regular LJ'iangle, you will gradually develop the
skJ1 and confidence to do more demanding sequences.
TWO BALANCING POSTURES
AII standing postures are baJancing postures-it's just a maller of how
much emphasis is placed on this property. But t1suaJly when we lhink of
postures in a standing position, we think of st.anding on one fooL
rwo sllch postUl'es are the eagle and the lree.
THE EAGLE
In the eagle posture you stand on one foot as a sentinel , with one thigh, Jp
and foot intertwincd around the other, It's easy for those who are stron
slender, and flexible, but rnost students find it difficult to wrap thc
extremities around one another even when they are not balancing on 01
foot. To give it a try, stand first on your lefi foot, bend your len. knee al
hip slightly, and if you are a rnan, place your genitals either forward 01' )
the real: Then swing your right thigh forward and puIJ it tightly arou I
your left thigh. Last, wrap your right ankJe tightly behind your left leg a d
interlock your right foot even further around to the medial side ofyour J 1
leg. Sometimcs this is referred lo as "double-locking" the legs. To compl- e
the beginner's posture, swing your right elbow across to the near sidr If
your left clbow, pull the Iorearms together, and interlock your wrists . d
hands (fig. 4.37). Fix your gaze, breatbe evenly, and hold as long l I
comfortable. Come out of the posture and repeat on the other sido.
This is as much as rnost people wil\ want to do. But to continuo int l
more advanced posture, bend your left knee and hip joints as mucl IS
possible consistent with keeping your back straight and upright (fig, 4. -).
You miss the point of the posture if you bend your back and head forw: d.
Figure 4.37. Eagle posture.
Interlocking the upper and .
lower extrcmities are the rnam
challenges of this halancing
pose.
'/. \/i!!\"/)t:\c. rosrum fu)
This ver'sion of the eagle should be approached with caution, If you hold it
for more than a few seconds, it may create cardiovascuJar effects that can
cause you to faint when you come out of the posturo, especally if you do it
after othcr strenuous postures 01' exercisos, Develop your capacity to lower
your weight and increase your time in the posture over a long period of
time.
If you consistently have trouble with baJancing in the eagle, try the
posture only at the end of leisurely hatha yoga sessions. Students who have
difficulty at the start of a class may be able lo do the postura easily at the
end. And the eagle will also be more difficult if you have just had a strenuous
musculoskeletal workout which has left you in a momentarily weakened
condition. .
THE TREE
After the complexity and contrived natura of the lriangles and the eagle,
we'Il end this chapter with the rnost popular of all balancing postures-the
tree- which is simply standing quietly on one Ioot, This pose speaks
volumes not only for your state of physical balance, but also for your
cmotional and mental balance. Standing quietly on one fuot is not as easy
as it sounds.
F'
4.38. Advanced eag!e,
you are certain of yourself,
e wary of carr!iovascular
as you come out of
Ihl
s
posture, especially if you
tell1ain in it more than 15-30
!ieconr!s.
27 0 I1N,!1n111 (JI" 1111 '11 l A VGrI
Begin by standing on both feet, breathing evenly. As soon as you a
calm and centered, lift one foot and place it on t he opposite extremity y, L1
can use one of several foot positions. In the beginning it is best lo place u
foot on the opposite ankle, but alter a little experience, lifling th e [001 o
the inner thigh (fg, 4.39) or into the half-bound 101usposition tfig. 440 s
more stahle, At Iirst the hands can be in the prayer position in the cen -r
of the sternum (fig. 4-, W), but as you develop confidence they can be rai s d
overhead, with the palms together and the fingen; pointing away from le
body. You can keep your eyes open and focused on a spot on tho floor ab. i t
six feet in Iront of you, 01' you can focus on sorne point in the distance, '1 le
room should be well lighted-for a real challenge, go to the oppo e
ext reme and elose your eyes,
Youhave lo keep the knee extended in the tree posture, and you autom .-
cally create a solid pelvic base and root lock. And since bol h the hip and k .'e
are extended, only the ankle is in a state uf uncertainty. Alter you are abl l o
stand quietly and eonfidently, you can st ar t lo examine how the musch uf
your supporting toes, foot, and ankle balance the posture, You'lI notic e I al
as your weight shifts you cornpensate with muscular effort lo avoid JI 19
your balance; with experience t he shifts in position becorne less obvious
fig ure 4.39. Tree ':'
plumb linc of gravlty In thlS.
ba lancing posture has an axial
center in a slight ly tilted off-
sagitta l plane that runs Ihro ugh
Ihe navel.
' / ..\7i1;\lJI.W. I'O.\1 /1/<F.\ 271
YOl,';s toll us that the t.ree postura is both grounding and centering, and
that it will generate a sense of deep calm and endless paticncc. The lower
extremity is like the trunk of a tree; the arms overhead are like its branches:
and if you stand in the posture for ten minutes or so dai ly, you will
if your toes are rooted in the earth.
BENEFIT5
A few hundred years ago, when everyone in agrarian societies walked and
worked for hours at a time on their farrns, there was littJe need to begin or
end a day with standing yoga postures. But today most of us have sedentary
jobs and are sorely in need of more exercise than we can get sitting at a
desk. Standing postures, coupled with a moderare amount of aerobic excrcise
such as walking, running, or swimming, can fill t he gap .
r"
. Igur e 4.40. Tree posture,
lO a half-bound lotus. A
plumb fine of gravily
COmes closer to being in
the mid-sagi ttal plane of
Ihe body Ihan in the case
of Ihe previous posture
the right knee is
thrust out so far lo the

272 ur IIA'I1IA I()GA
Standing postures develop overaH strength and flexibi Iity, mi ld y
stimulate the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and accustom 1 e
nervous system to a range of body positions that are otherwise ignori 1.
They flood the nervous system with information from all over the bo
and lhey integrate the energy of the body from top to bottom and f r . n
inside out. They integrate the limbs with the torso, and they br - g
awareness to the respiratory and pelvie diaphragrns as welJ as l o 1 e
deep rnuscles of the abdomen, pelvi s, and back. You can sat isfy you r- lf
of their special value by practieing them in the early morning for a I w
weeks, and then skipping them for a week, substituting sitting postu s,
Iying-down postures. and inverted postures. When you reinstale tI
into your routine you 'lI know what you were missing.
" t"t'di 11fl/1I a/ lcdlm-J &flpdul} YJ//l tlalt:m
"'/ a/14 trile-
I O//l /;rJ, f./'t"ll a If?1 cea/re (p'ap / { r a
/lan W /.' tfJ( . . ll fl.l'(' JI/Jf/. ///.iltl.; di.y, (/,y l? 11"r .'
:.Jt./'NIJlnlclio/1 1/ 1 g;o,?/y'j,1, .fle . 1Ia/ 1/1.f'/'/1I/'/1I' / -ey'N / J IN/Y
lr/J/I/I&//- 'nf-c /J!all/f,ay N /'all Ja l. ' ..
_ Elaine Morgan, in The Sean; of Eoolution, pp. 2f 27
CHAPTER FIVE
BACKBENDI GPOS1URES
u 9:iJCt' IJe. 9JC/;//'Iy. 9/'fLtfi. . k ru lt' / rI/?/, /'E., ./ ill,
./ /.JfLah "ly. lbl tlrr Jt a/l d l/ty', . ;'/l -allm//./II/'/II I /r
/l!/N a/NI .Yi/Jl a/;ltl.y-. j I' //I/'/lIa/ /bJlra.rlJIlJ /N'C llr
/,/NtIt//l/,/II.1- t/t'c'/'/!, 1//IJlra/ll/l r'.N p/ I// IM,
IJII/'//ip/1 and / ' '7' t/'a l /r'/t an 1,11 a W,/lfNlf?/f_1 ry' {/r
tIt:;ll'a r {/ (w .1---- . / P / (la:/' ;A'rf'/l l f:tJ/I. lA/" /lrar!//'I o/l'rle
./IL I/YIII.yl/lr e/lry o/ /,1./. //I t/ld CO/II.('J ;Y'//I IJ!
d-fJc!ClmotllJ/p'/ldJlrf. /'1'/1,/m:J.1INI. j/'jI. /J/f d /l a d/Yllt"ljl
I.-: j1?//tIt//P I/./' .ytk/'t.1 t'// tI'ca Jf/./,?, //flirl. 1'1:1'/1/.(". lUid /Jl
/ r .yu:cl JI 4 -
- Bengal Baba, in The Yogasutra of Patanjali , pp. 15- 17.
T he next three chapters bring us to the heart of hatha yoga-lo postures
that involve backbending, forward bcnding, and twisting, Of th ese three,
backbending is the logical place to begin our discussion becausc it is rclatively
simple. Hut th e two categories of backward bending and forward bcndi ng
postures form a pair: th e muscles that resi st the bend in one category are
the same muscles that pull us into th e bend in the other category, and we
need to see and understand thcm in reference lo one another. 1'0 keep the
cornparisons in pers pectivo thi s chapte r will be about 90Cff backbending
and lOo/r forward bending, and th e next chap ter wiUbe about l}ol7c forward
bending and backbending.
The plan here will be to first sum up the possibilities for forward and
backward bending in the standing position, concentrating on Iirnitations in
the hip joints and lower baek, and th en lo build on our discussi on of th e
vertebral colurnn by examining the spinal limitations to backbending in
more detail. Next, we'lI look at the rel ationships bet wecn breathing and
backbending, and linally we'U turn to the myriad for rns ofbackward bending
in hatha yoga, beginnng with the famous prone backbending postures-
lhe cobra, locust , boat, and bow-and continuing with more speciali zed
P"tUl'CS such as the fish, the whcel, and the camel. Two more hackbending
postores, the arch and th e bridge, are lrnditionally part of lh e shoulder-
;l.and seri es and will be defern.. '<i lo chapter l).
271
Sorne of t he postures discussed in this chapter are on ly for those who are
in excellent musculoskeletal health. A few guidelines are given in the
course of the descriptions, bul if in doubt about whether or not to proceed
take note of the specific conlraindications al the end of t he chapter.
THE ANATOMY OF FLEXION AND EXTEN510N
To understand any funct ion, envision being without it, For example, wr
can sce at a glance how vertebral bending, both orward and backward
contributes lo whole-body bending by oxamining how sorneone would bem
if their spine were fused from thc pelv is to the cranium. This is not ti
academic hypot hesis. One who has had such surgery for sovere osteoarthri t
will bend orward only al the hip joints, just like a hi nged slick-arrr
dangling, head, neck, and torso stuck out straight and stiff as a board. Al
yet this person may be cornfortable and relaxed enough to practically tak
a nap. He may be able to bend Iorward up to 1)0 and hyperextend to t i
real' about 100- entirely from th e hips.
THE HIPS AND BACK IN COMBINATION
Hip flexibility in isolation is only of t heoret ical interest lo uso at least f
t he mome nt, but t he quest ion 01' how hips and backs operate togethcr fe
backward bcnding is erninently practical. Begi nning wit h extreme
occasional circus performers-always women in images I've loca ted-e-r
able to extend thcir spines baekward plastering their hips square '1
against their upper backs. Images of IRoo backbending can be seen in f
7.) of Alter's Science o{ Flexibilitv, as well as in a beautiful sequence ,f
video frames 7-H minutes into the tape of Cirque du Soleil's NOll V(' 'e
Experience.
Maximum hip hyperextension appears lo be about 450, which is SI n
in occasional women who can drop down into the wheel pnst.ut'e a rI
th en scamper around on their hands and feet looking like daddy-long- leg
spiders in a hurry. Both extrcmes-i-rxo" 01' back extension and 45 of hip
hyperextension-e-are anomalous, and it is not advisable for anyone to
attempl extending either the hips or the spine this much unless one's
profession requires it. Evcn high ly flexible dancers, gymnasts, and hatha
yogis rarely try to bend backward more t ha n 1)0, ordinarily cornbining 20
of extensi n at the hips with an additional 70 of extensi n in the lumbar
region. In this case the right angle between their thighs and their chests is
mor e than enough lo pcrmit thern lo touch their feet lo their heads in
advanced hatha yoga post ures (fi g, 5.12).
Unl ike the outerrnost limit s fOI" backbendi ng, the outsi de lirnits for
forward bcnding are a11 within a normal range for anyone with excellent
general flexibility. Dancers, gyrnnasts, and hatha yogis, including both rnen
and wornen, can often bend forward up lo \20 al t he hips with the lumbar
lordosis arched and t he knees straight (fig. 5.1), These same people may
also be ab le to bend an addit ional co'' in the lumbar region, ma king a total
01' 210. Since 180 is all t hal is required to lay the torso down against the
thi ghs in a silting forward bend (fig, 6,12), their full capacity for forward
bending can't be tested except by measuring hip and spinal Ilcxibility
separately
Figur e 5.1. 120 f1exion. at the
hips a co mmon ma.xlmum,
and is cnough for laYll1g t he
chest down easi ly againsl lhe
thighs when accompanied .hy
modcrat e f1 e xiun of the spll1e.
Figure 5.2. A rel axed standing
?ackbend with straighl knees
Indudes aho ut 20 of lumbar
bending and 10 of hip
for a total of
30
0
uf "backbending."
Next , let.' s consider the lirnits of'backward and forward bending in sorne
one more typical, say a thirty-year-old male bcginning hatha yoga studcnt
who has always been athletic and in good rnusculoskeletal health, but whc
has never shown an interest in any kind of stretching. He wori't be able t,
bend backward very far, and what he can do is hard to appraisc because h.
will invariably bend his knees and exaggerate his lumbar lordosis i l
preference to hyperextending the hips. Without a sharp eye it is difficult lA
differc ntia te among t hese t hree components.
To assess this young man's capacity for hip versus spinal backwar
bending as best we can, first have him warm up with an hour of vigorou
hatha so we can see him at his best. Then, to make sure his knees do m
cont ri bute 10 the bond, as k hi m to du a relaxed stand ing backbend with h
knees extended. His chest will probably be off vertical by only jo", whic
suggests a combination of about 20 of backbending in the lumbar regir
with about 10 uf hyperextension in the hips (fig, 5.2).
Forward bending in this same student is easier to evaluate. You can ~
him lo bend forward from the hips while keeping his lower back maximal
arched. Then, just before his lumbar lordosis begins lo flatten you can estima
the angle between his torso and thighs, which is likely lo be about jo". TI
represents for wa rd bending at the hips (fig, 5.J)' Then ask him lo re l
Figure 5.3. A moderately
flexible young athlete can
lypically bend only abou l
30 al the hips while
keeping a sharply defincd
lumbar lordosis
(sirnulaliun).
5 IvlU\HI'I\/JI,\'G 1'().Hl !RE5 271
down and forward to his capacity, If he can bend forward H total of <)0,
which allows him to reach down a little more than halfway betwecn his
knees and his ankles, it suggests that has achieved the additional 60 of
fOl'ward bending in his lumbar spine (fig. 5-4).
CERVICAL. THORACIC. AND LUM BAR F LEXI B ILlTY
The spine's flexibility varios from regon lo region. Starting with the neck,
the cervical region is especially mobile. If you have normal flexibility, your
head can extend backward on the Irst cervical vertebra about 20, and you
can flex forward at this same site about 10. The rest of the cervical region
can bond backward 60 and forward another 80, in t his case touching the
chin lo the sternum. We'lIlook at these movements in detall, along with rota-
tion, in chapter 7 Just below tho seven cervical vertebrae, the thoracic region
permi ts little forward 01' backward movernent bccause the rib cage is too
rigid . This means that most of the backbending in the torso takes place in
the lumbar region hetween the bottom of the rib cago a nd t he sacrurn, that
is, between Tu and SI. That 's whcre we' ll conccn trate our attention.
You ng peoplo with good flcxibility who have been practicing hatha yoga
regularly (Table s.i) might reveal a total of 60 of lumbar Ilexion for forward
bending and 45 of lumbar extension for backben di ng. 'I'his is in addition to
hip loxibility which we' Il say is 90 for forward flexi n an d 15 for backward
bending. 'l'he knees, of course, must be kept straght lo get accurate
measurements. Someone wit h hip Ilexibility t his good will be able to do an
intormedato level posterior stretch (fig, 6 .15) and wiJI be able to arc h back
comfortably to touch their fcct in the camel (fig, 5.Yi). If we break this down
we can estimate the approximate rnubility for flexion and extensi n that
wouk be perrnittod between indivi dual pairs ofadjacent vertebrac (tabla 5.1).
Figure 5.4. Lirniled hip f1 exibility
prevents this young man from
r ~ h i n g further down, This
Slrnulalion reveals a combi nation
of about 30 of hip f1 exion with
60 of spinal f1exion for a total of
90" of forward bending. Such a
sludenl can and should bend th e
knces slightly to find a more
rewarding pose, one Ihal al least
allows him lo grasp his ankles.
AtlAH)IIIl"OFIIA"f1M HIGA
WHAT LIMITS BACKWARD BENDING?
In chapters 3 and 4 we diseussed the muscles and ligarnents that lim
backward bending in the hips. These include the psoas and iliacus muse!
tfigs, 2.R, ].7, and R.IJ); the quadriceps fernoris muscle (gs . 1.2, J.9. R
and 1'.11), especially the rectus femoris component (figs . ].9 and R.H-
the abdominal muscles (figs. 2.7,2.9, ] .11 -1], R.R, H.II . and 1'.13), especi a v
the rectus abdorninis (Iigs, J.II-IJ and 8.11); and the spiraled ischiofemor
iliofemoral , and pubofemoral ligarnents (fig. 3.6) .
Turning to the torso, the main structural lirnitations lo backbending .1
the thoracic region are the rib cage (figs. 4.3-4) and the spinous preces os
(figs. 4.6b and 4.7b), which extend so far inferiorly in the thoracic reg n
that they quickly butt up against one anothor during extensi n. And n
the critical lumbar regin the first line of resistance to backbendi ng s
muscular-intra-abdominal pressure generated by a combination of le
respiratory diaphragm (figs, 2.6-9), the pclvic diaphragrn (figs. ] .24- J,
and the abdominal rnuscles (figs. J.lI-1J, H.R, R.II, and R,13). As Iar as m, Ir
skeletal and Iigamcntous restrictions lo lumbar bending is concerned, ti re
are four: the physical lirnitations of the vertebral arches (igs. 4.58, +-68. Id
4.12-1]), the anterior longitudinalligament that runs along the front sido f
the anterior Iunctional unit (fig. 4.IJ). the intervertebral disks, whose run lei
pulposi are driven anteriorly within the intervertebral di s
(fig, 4.11), and finally, the superior and inferior articular processes (Iigs, 4 t
and 4.IJb), which become tightIy interlockcd during extensi n.
It 's anyone's guess as to which of these structures yield to permit 0
0
backbcnds in circus perforrners. It is possible, although 1have not person lIy
checked this out in anyone, that unusually mobile sacroiliacjoints (chap 6)
might account for sorne of the capability of laying the hips down agai st
the shoulders. In any event, after the bend is an accornplished Iact he
heavy spinous processes characteristic of the lumbar regon (figs , , .b,
4.\Oa, and 4.IJbl are probably butting up aganst one another,
sites where be!. be!.

be!. be!. bet. bet. al t 1.
lIexion aOO T12 l1 L3 L4 L5 T12 the le
extensin are and and and and and and and hip < j
permitted l1 l2 l3 L4 L5 51 81 joints t' s
-
degrees fiexion 5 6 8 9 14 18 60 90 1
)
-
degrees extension I
4 4 4 9 14
I
10
I
45 15
Table 5.1. This chart estimates the degrees of flexion and extension perrnitter
between individual vertebrae between f12 and the sacrum in someone wh u
moderately flexible. With !lOo uf addilional f1exion at th hip oints, lhe total
forward bending permitted between f12 and the lhighs is aboul 15()O, which
amounts tu about 2.5 times as much forward bending as backward bending.
WHAT FACILITATES BACKBENDtNG?
Whal limits backbending is generally slraightforward. but ir you wcre to
ask what assists backbending, the answer would have to be, "It dependa,"
In standing backbends, as well as in passive supino backbends, which we'lI
eover later in this chapter. the answer is gravity. Standing, you simply lean
your head and upper body to the real', thrust your pelvis and abdomen
forward, and let gravity carry you into the hackbend. lfyou bend backward
naturally, you also bend your knees, and that is why you have to extend the
knees fully to evaluare backward bending in the hips and spine.
suboceipital muse/es
(see fig. 8.20)
ISChial
tUberosity
Deep back muscles exposed in successvelv deeper dssectlons
b ,removal of and lo",,:er extremities. The erector spinae are
y defmlllon the combmat lon of the spmalis, longissimus, and iliocostalis
ISappeyl.
In pronc backbending we are lifting one or more segmente of the bod
against gravity In this case the bend is accomplished by the deep back mu o
eles (which lift you actively by extending the spine) or by the arrns am
shnulders (which can support a semi-relaxed prone backbend in any one (
several waysl. As we saw in chapter 4, the erector spinae muscles ar
responsible for extending the spine. They ron from the pelvis lo the cervic
regi n and are cornposed of a complex of three muscles on each side-t1..
iliocostolis, the longissimus, and the spinalis (fig. ) .5). Continuing into ti-
neck are the spleniue ceruicis muscles, and to the back of the head, ti
spleniue capitis (fig. 5.5). Thesc latter rnuscles, which are also known
strap muscles from t heir characteristic appearance, run longitudinal
Deep to them are small, short muscles t hat run more 01' less obliqui
between t he spinous proeesses and the tra nsver se procosses-s-t
semispinal is (fig. 8.14), multifidus , and rotatores muscles, Deeper y .[
are the inierspinales muscles between adjacent spinous processes, a I
the intcrtraTlsuersarii muscles between adjacent t ransversa prucess ,
(shown in fig. 5.5 but not specifically labelcdl.
BREATHING ANO BACKBENOING
lt is obvious that rn uscles and gravi ty play majar roles in creating hat a
yoga postures, but anyonc who has stood, lain, or sat quietly in a .>OSf' .r
a few minutes knows that something else is superimposed upo n s
equipoise. That sumething is brcathing. A formal statement of the mal -r
might run as follows: nder most circumstances of normal breath g,
inhalations will either lift you more fully into a posture or create m 'e
tension in the body, and exhalations will either relax you further JI o
the posture or reduce tension. From the perspective of the first f Ir
chapters of this book, we can now examine this statement with resl ct
to backbending.
In whole-body standing backbending (fig. 4.19) we saw that it was nat al
to allow exhalation to lower you maximally lo the rear (relaxing you furt er
into the posture). l nhalat ion then lills you up and lorward (creating lJ re
tension in the body). \Ve also saw that you could reverse this pat.terr m
purpose by pulling backward more vigorously into the posture dUl 19
inhalation (taking you more ful\)' into the posture), and then relaxing Id
11 'JI
easing off the posture during exhalation lthereby reducing tension). v'
see variations on these principlps in all the remaining postures in t is
chapter. In every case the diaphragm eit her restricts backbending, wh h
we' lI cal! diaphragm-restrictcd backbending, or assists it, which we'lI IJI
diaphrabrm-assisted backbending.
DIAPHRAGM-RESTRI CTED BACKBENDING
When you are breathing naturally, inhalation restricta a standing backbend
and exhalation assists it tfig, beeause the diaphragm increases intra-
abdominal pressure as it presses the abdominal organs inferiorly during
inha lation. As we saw in chapter 3, it does this in cooperation with the
abdominal muscles and the pelvic diaphragrn: the increascd intra-abdominal
pressure restricts the bend by making the torso a taut, solid unit, thus
protect ing the critical lumbar regi n by spreading the vertebral.' apart
hydraul ically and easing cornpression on all the intervertebral disks
between the rib cage an d the sacrurn.
A simple experiment demonstrates daphragm-restricted backbending.
Stand up straight and interlock your hands behin d your head, take a deep
inhalat ion, and hold your breath while keeping the airway open. Then pull
to the rear as har d as you can by t ight cning t he muscles on the back of the
body from head to heel (but don' t pull your head back beyond the natural
are creat ed by the to rso). If yo u ha ve t aken a deep breat h a nd your
re spiratory diaphragm is healt hy, yo u' ll fee l t he diap hragrn stop the
backwa rd bend alrnost before it gets underway. Next, let just a Iittl e air out.
and notice that your efTortslo pull to the rear will be met with less resstance,
Keep the airway open lo make sure it is the respiratory diaphragm, acting
in cornbinat ion with the abdominal muscles, pelvic diaphragrn, and the
hydraul ic nat ure of the abdominopelvic cavity, that is restricting and then
easi ng the backbend. lncreasing pneumatic pressure in the chest by closing
the glot t is would eliminate tension in the diaphragm and invalidate the
experiment.
A pro pped backbcnding stretch will iJlustrate the same phcnomcnon.
Stand with your back about two feet from a wall, and swing the hands
overhead and backward to make contacto Adjust the distance so that. you
in a comfortable backbend. \Vork the hands down the waUuntil you'are
Just short of your comfOl,t..able limit of extension, but keep the knees
straight. Afler you have relaxed and made you rself comfortable in the
PDsture for 10-20 seconds, not ice that cach inhalation will diminish the
bend in t he lumbw' region and straighten the body a" a whole, and that
each exhalation will allow your back to become more fuJly arched. More
specifically, inhalation does two things: it pulls l he thighs and legs slighUy
the r ear, and it lifts the chest and shoulders up and forward (fig. S.). It
IS to prejudice these results, however, and a fal' tes t of diaphragm-
restncted backbcnding requires that you keep constant tension in the
upper extremities at all times and search out your most natural inclinations
for bending and breathing. As we saw in chapter 4, you can easi ly reverse
the rcsults by purposely pressing more decply into the bend dUl'inginhalation
and then consciously casing off duri ng exhalation.
s. BACI\H/,\V/I\'(; 1' (),W7!NI S 2/lJ
DIAPHRAGM-ASSISTED BACKBENDING
You can feel the opposite phenomenon ifyou tacethe wall, bend forward fron
the hips, and support the bent-from-the-hips posture with your forearms. Kcel
the lumbar regi n arehed forward, making the posture a backbcnd from th.
hip joints up (fig, 5.7). Breathe in the posture and watch carefully. The rnos
natural result is that inhalation dcepens the backbend and that exhalati
cases it. Keep the abdominal rnuscles relaxed during inhalation, If you ten -
them the dome of the diaphragm can't descend very far; and you willlose IJ-;
sense ofbeing able to assist the backbend with inhalation. Ifthere is any que
tion about the r esults, aid exhal ation with thc abdominal rnuscles, and this w I
immediatelyand rnarkedly diminish the lumbar lordosis (chapters 2 and J ).
with the propped backbending stretch facing away from the wall (fg, ) .6), Yl I
have to keep all conditions constant except for rcspiration. You can a1ways pI 1
yourself down consciously during exhalation to increase the lumbar bond, b 1
that rniss es the point. Here we want to examine the efTccts of inhalation a :i
cxhalation in relative isolation.
The rnechanisms underlying diaphragm-assisted backbending a
straightforward. Fir st of all, the depth of the backbend has been defi i
initia1ly by the position ofthe foet on the floor and the forearms against 1 e
wall. This means that the abdominal muscles do not have lo be tenscd o
keep you from Ialling, and i t also means that intra-abdominal pressure \\ .11
not be as pronounced as in a free-standing, interna1ly supported backb d

, .
, ,
, ,
, I
. ,
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.
,
.
. . .
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,
.
,
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1

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1
Figure 5.7. Diaphragm-assisted
backbend. In this forward
from the hips, inha lation
mercases the dept h of the
lumhar lordo sis provided lhe
abdominal muscles are kepl
rela.xed. The relaxed posi lion
agamst Ihe wall permits the
abdomi nal muscles to come
fOrwar d and allows inhalation
lo oceur free ly, in contrasl lo
Ihe case of diaph ragm-
bac kbending thal L
rll uslrated in Hg. 5.6.
(lig. 4 11)) or in the propped standing backbend (fig. 5.M. What is more,
since the rib cage is relatively immobilized by the arm position, the crura
of t he diaphragm can only puIl forward on the lumbar lordosis during
inhalation to deepen the backbend. It's a thrce-part situation: the stat ic
body position defines the extcnt of the backbend in the first place,
decreased abdominal tension and pressure allows the diaphragrn to deepon
it, and an irnmobilized rib cago requires the diaphragm to deepcn it.
One more variable determines whether the diaphragrn assists 01'
rest r icts backbcnding in general, and that is how much the lumbar region
is arched forward on the start. If students are st iff and wary, the arch will
not be pronounced, the abdominal muscles will be tensed, and inhalation
will crcate more stability, thus rcstricting the bend. That is what we usually
see in beginning classes, With stronger and more flexible students, inhalations
are more likely to increase the backbend, deepening it in proportion to how
readily they can release intra-abdominal pressure and al low the iliopsoas,
rectus fcrnoris, and rectus abdominis muscles to lengthen. As we experiment
with the prone backbending postures that follow keep all possibilities in mind:
notice t hat the descending dome of the diaphragm will either maintain
rostrictions in the torso and create diaph ragrn-restricted backbending 01'
depending on the student's flexibi lity and on the positions of the upper and
lower extremities, the dia phragrn wiII force the front of the body forward
dur ing inhalation and deepen the bend.
"
, ,
, .
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I
-,,''"'- ' "
,-
"
,
,
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,

,
.
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Figure 5.6. Diaphragm-
restricted bac kbend.
Inhalalion pu lls the legs and
thighs slighlly to lhe rear, lifls
lhe chesl and shoulders up
and fonvard, and increases
inlra-abdominal pressure, all
or which combined slraighlen
lhe ho dy as a whole and
diminish the backbend.
THE COBRA POSTURES
Of the many forms of backbending postures, the prone backbends-t h
cobra, locust, boat, and bow-are the most widely practiced in hatha yog'
In contrast 10 standing backbends, in which gravity assists your movemei
into the postures and resists your efforts to come up, in the prone backberu
you lift parts of the body away frorn the floor against the pull of gravity al I
then rcturn tu your starting position with the aid of gravity. Prono backbenr
are harder than standing backbcnds because you are trying to overeon
the resistance o' connective tissues and skeletal muscles on the front si,
of the body while simultaneously opposing thc (orce of gravity, hut thcy l
easier because coming out of the postures does not have to involve anythi ~
more than dropping slowly to the floor,
The cobra posture is named for the manner in which the magnifice -t
king cobra lifts its head and lattens out its hood in preparation for striki g
its prey. It is probably the most well-known prone backbending pose n
hatha yoga. Considered along with all its variations, it is worth the attent n
of everyone from beginners to the most advanced students.
Every variation of the cobra and its close relatives begins from a pn e
position and ends with the neck and back extended. In contrast to the caut n
we exercisod in extending the head and neck in standing backbends, we h, e
no reason to restrict that movernent here, and we can work confidently h
the cervical region without being concerned about losing our concentration n
the rest of the posture or getting lightheaded from cardiovascular respo s,
Other characteristics o' the postures vary. Depending on t he spccific exerr
from the top down, you can start either with the forehead 01" thc chin 011 le
floor, the deep back rnusclcs either active or relaxed, the hip and ti h
museles finn or relaxed, the knees extended, relaxed, or flexed, and the I -t
together or apart.
THE CLASSIC BEGINNING COBRA
To introduce the series of cobra postures, we'll begin with the classic beginn 19
pose even though it is not the easiest one. Start with the hands alo ng- le
the chest, with the palms do...m, the fingertips in line with the nipples. le
heel s and toes together, and the elbows c10se lo the body. In this post re
arch the neck enough to the rear to place the forehead against the nI Jr,
thus creating a reverse cervical curvature (fig. 5.R). If that positior is
uncomfork'lble, you can start with the nose or chin a.,'ainst the floor. On n
inhalation, slowly lift the forehead, brush the nose and chin against le
floor, and lifl the head, neck, and chest slowly, vertebra by vertebra. I ft
mainly with the back and neck muscJes, using the hands only as guides
you extcnd the spine, try to create a lengthening feeling. You shoulcl bL l o
case; if you are slraining you have com up too faroTry to remain in t le
5 IIAO,fI/;Nf)ffl,(; 'OY/1 1<1-:\ 2/15
posturo, breathing evenly, for 10--20 seconds, and then come back down in
reverse order; ending with the forehead against the floor, This is the classic
beginning cobra (fig. 5.9). If you are a novice, you may do little more than
raise your head, and it might appear as if this involves only the neck muscles.
But even this slight movement wilJ engage the deep back muscles from the
head lo the pelvis, and over time you will slowly develop the strength and
llex ibility to come up further.
To relax you can turn YOUI" head to one side and rest. Ir that is toost ressful
for your neck, you can place a largo sot pillow under your chest and head,
which permits your head 10 be twisted more moderately. Or another
alternati ve is to twist a Iittle more insistently and at the sarne lime press
t he side of the head firmly against the floor with isometric contraction of
the neck musclos, which will stirnulate the Golgi tendon organs and cause
reflex relaxation of the associatcd muscles. In any case, turn in the other
direct ion after the next variation, and then alt rnate sidos each time you
do another,
Teachers often tell students to place their heels and toes together but lo
stay relaxed while coming up into the pose. That can be confusing because
anyone who tries lo do this will find that holding tho hcels and toes together
Figure S.ll. Classic cobra, starting posilion.
i ~ u r 5.9. In the classic cobra posture, lhe upper extremities serve maiol as
gU.' des, and lhe head and shoulders are lifted using the deep back musd:
Pnme movers. lhe muscles of Ihe hips and thighs lhen act as synergistsf o ~ as
moderalcly bracing the pelvis.
l Xt\ AI\'A10MI" 0(" IIA'I1/,1 HIGA
in itself requires muscular activity. It is best to exp lain at the outset th.
the classic cobra should be done with no more than mod rate tension in ti
lower extremities, and that the aet of holding the heels and toes toget h.
serves this purpose. Students should also pay close altention lo tho
breathing; they will notice that each inhalation lifts their upper body al I
creates more pu ll in their lower back and hi ps .
TH E COBAA WI TH TIGHT LOWEA EXTAEMITIES
Now try a variation of the cobra with the lower extremities fixcd solid
With the chin against the floor, place the hands in the standard positic
Then, keeping the feet togel her, tighten all the muscles frorn the hi ps u
the ankles and [in up as high as you can with the back muscles, leadi g
with the head and looki ng up. With the sacrurn and pelvis stabi lized by t e
tensi n in the lower extremities, you will be using only the erector spin e
muscles to create the init iallift . As sonn as you are up, each inhalation \\ 11
lift the to rso even more, a nd each exhalation will lower it cluwn; bl h
rnovernents result from the action of t he diaphragm, Inh al e and exh. e
maximally if you are confused. The respiralory motion is more appar r t
here than with the classic cobra bccause the lower oxtremities are h d
mure firrnly in position. Except for the hand position, this posturr- I
ident ical to the cobra variation we did in chapter 2 (fig. 2.10) . There t le
movements of the upper body wer e discussed in terrns of lifting the bas lf
the rib cage in diaphragmatic breathing. 'fhe sarne thing happens h. e
except that now we're cal ling it a daphragm-assisted backbend.
A AELAXEO COBRA WITH MILO TAACnON IN THE BACK
Ifyour luwer back is tender lhe c1assic cobra will be uncomfortable, and le
most natural way to prulect and slrengthen the region will be lo ti gh n
everylhing from t he waist down as in th e previous variation. But th er is
an alternative- you can push up mildly inlo the cobra with the arms 1 a
modifi ed crocodile position. lnstead of using lhe deep back LO
extend lhe spine, which pull s lhe vertcbrae c10ser together and compre. 's
lhe intervertebral di sks, we'n push up wilh the anns lo lift lhe should s,
place lraetion on the lumbar region, and remove t ension on the intervertet al
disk::;.
Start this posture with lhe hands on lop of one another just undernel h
the forehead and with the elbows spraddled oul lo t he side, or plHcc I le
hands l1at on the floor with the thumbs and index fingers making a diamol d-
shaped figure, th e tips of the thumbs under the chinoThen, keeping le
elbows, forearms, and hands planwd agclinst the naor, lifl the head aet i, y,
push up with your arms, and create a gentle isometric pull with the an IS
as you were wanting tu pu ll yoursclf forward. At lhe same t iJ e
observe th at th e leg, thigh , hip , and back rnuscles all remain relaxed. You
are not going anywhere with the isometric lifl and pull with the arms:
you are only creating a mild traction in the back that encourages relaxation.
'I'hi s cxercise protects the lower back ju st as ellectivcly as keeping th e
hips and thighs firm because the back and lower extrernit ies automatically
stay relaxed as you lift up. The oddity of protecting yourself with both
mechanisms at the same time will be obvious if you come into the posture
and then tighten muscles gcnerally from the wa ist down.
Notice how this posture affccts your breathing, The tension on the chest
frorn the arms and shoulders keeps it imrnobilized, in contrast to the
diaph ragm-assisted lift in the classic cobra and the previous variation.
Most of the re spiratory rnovement is felt a" abdominal breathing exactly as
in th e stretched crocodilo posture (fig, 2.23): the lower back lifts with each
inhalat ion as the dome of the diaphragm descends, and the lower back drops
toward the floor with eaeh exhalation as the dome of the diaphragrn riscs.
CREATI NG TAAcnON WITH TH E HANOS ANO AAMS
For t hi s variation start with t he hands alongside the chest, the hec1s and
toes toget her, and the chin rather than the Iorehead on the floor, 'I'hen,
instead of creating traction with the elbows and forearms, create it by
pressing t he heels of the hands toward the feet isometrcally This is similar
to creating traction by pulling from the elhows, but the action is more
difficult t o control. You started this posture with just enough tension in the
lower extremities to hold the feet together. Now try to let that mel t away.
Also try lo minirnize your tendency to push the torso up with lhe hands,
cven th ough lhat is harcllo avoid while you are creating tension for pulling
forward. This is a dcmanding whole-body com:cntration exel-cise. Nol ice
haw yaur breathing diffe rs from that in the previous variation. Th e che-t
is not restricted-lhe diaphragm both nares the chest wall from ts lower
border and lifts the upper body, creating diaphragmatic rather than
abdominal breathing.
AAISING UP ANO OOWN WITH BR EA THI NG
For this variation, starl wit h your chin on tlle 11001: the hands in the standard
POsilion alangside lh e chcst, the heels and toes and the hips
squeezed loge ther. 'fhen inhale whil e Iifl ing your head and shoulders, and
exhale back down unlil your chin touches the floor, brcathing at the rate of
about four breaths every ten seconds. You can experiment with keeping the
hips somewhat relaxed, but it is more natural to kecp them rm so that
inhalat ions \ift you higher. This exercise diffel 's from the c1assic cobra in
that it involves conswnt movement. YOl! com all the way up and aU lhe
way down us ing a combination of the diaphragm and the back museles,
zllll ASA"OJ\/ OF 11.'117/.'1 H)GA
while in the cobra you hold tho position as much as possible with the bar
muscles alone ami allow the diaphragm to bob you up and down from ther
A nice variation on this exercise is to turn your head lo one side or ti
other with each inhalation: inhale, up (right); exhale, down tccnte
inhale, up (left); exhale, down (center): and con tinuing with a natui
cade nce for 10-20 breaths, During each successive inhalation, twist rru e
insistently, lift more insistently, and expand your inspiratory capacity s
much as possible with ernpowered thoracic breathing. 'I'his is a power tl
ami yet natural and cornfortablc exercise.
THE DIAPHRAGMATlC REAR L I FT
The next severa! variations of the cobra depend on revewing thc diaphragrn: IC
rear lift (fig. 2.111. Summarizing frorn chapter 2, come into the stand. d
preparatory posture for the classic cobra except that now the chin ins u d
of the forehead is against the floor, Relax the entire body, especially bel w
the chest, and then breathe deeply while kecping the chest and chin agai st
the 0001'. Provided the deep back muscles, hips, and thighs are all free lf
tension, inhalation will arch t he back and lift the hips, and exhalation 11
allow the lumbar region to flatten and drop the hips back down. At ti t,
breathe quickly, almost as in the beIlows exercise, and then slow YI Ir
respiration down to observe the finer changes in tension and movement n
chapter 2 this exercise illustrated the connections of the diaphragm. 'e
it illustrates how lifting the hips (instead of the base of the rib cage ) \\ h
the diaphragm creates another variation of diaphragm-assisted backbendi g.
ANOTHER COBRA WITH RELA XED LOWER EXTREMI TIES
'l'his next variation involves doing the cobra with the lower extrerrn es
completely relaxed, which is a posture that will challenge the concentrar 111
of even advanced students. Start with your chin on the Ooor and let . Ir
feet fall slighUy apart into Lhe position in which you will be most rel d
(heels in and toes out. or vice versal. Then slowly lifl the head and c t ,
monitoring muscles in the lower half of the body to make sure they do ot
cont-jbute to the lifling effort. This is easy enough al. first, but it start to
feel unnatural as you rise more fully into Lhe posture. Come up a<; ffu :l S
you can, hold, and then come down slow!y. Keep chccking tu make surc u
do not. feel a wave of relaxation on your way down, indicating that IU
tensed up as you Iifted into t.he posture.
It's the gluteal muscles th8t are the most diflicult Lo hold back in L is
pose . When you Iift up into the cobra, you ordinarily support the effo elf
the deep back musclcs by bmcing the pelvis with the gluteus maximus muse
and this insures that the erector spinae and other decp back muscles will ft
on!y the upper part uf Lhe body. 13ut if you relax from the waist down, I e
') DACKDL\'/)/\G POS17 RE.... ll)
erector spinae muscles have t wo roles instead of one. They still lift the
upper half of the body by way of their insertions on the chest, but now they
also pull on the ilium and sacrum from above, deepening the lumbar
lordosis and rotating the coccyx to the rear for an anterior pelvic ti lt . Ifyou
have ever had back problerns, this exercise will at once make you aware of
your vulnerability, so do it only if you remain comfort.able Irom start 1.0
finish.
Not surprisingly, the diaphragrn contributes irnportantly to this posture;
it acts in perfcct cooperation with the erector spinae rnuscles by lifting both
ends of the torso al. the same time, thus assisting thc backbend both from
above and below. As we saw in chapter 2, this happens bccause the costal
portion of the diaphragm lifts the rib cage and bccause the right and len
crura lifl the relaxed hips,
TH E COBRA WITH REVERSE BREATHING
For an even more difficult concentration exercise, He prone with your
hands alongside your chest in the standard position, and come in and out
of the cobra posture whilo reversing the natural coordination of diaphragrnatic
inhalations with the concentric shortening of the back muscles. Do this as
follows: First, keep Lhe chin on the floor while inhaling. Then exhale while
t ighte ning the hips and thighs (which holds them against the floor), and at
the same time raise the head and shoulders. Next, inhale and relax the hips
complet ely (which causes the hips lo rise) as you lower the head and shoulders.
Putt ing it differently: raise t he head and chest during exhalation, and
lower them dur ing inhalation; tighten the hips and keep thcm down
during exhalation, and relax them and permit t hem Lo rise freely during
inhalation. This is disorienting until you master it. 'I' he exercise will work
best if you take about one breath every Iour seconds.
After several exhalations up and inhalations down. try breathing more
'lowly. Relax completely during a deep but leisurely inhalation, and allow
tho crus of the diaphragm to dccpen the lumbar lordosis from below. As
exhalat ion begins, tighffin the gluteals so the back muscles can lift the
upper part of the body concentrically from a sLrong base without any help
from the diaphragm. Then, during the nexL inhalation Lhe chest will drop
61.o
wly
to the Ooor, and the diaphragm will ag'din lin Lhe 10wer spine and
hlps as the back muscles and lower exLrcmities reJax. 'f'his is a diflicult
exercise, but afier you have mastcred it, along wiLh the other variations of
lhe cobra, you will have experienced all the possible combinations of
breat hing in relation to lifting up and down in the cobra. This posture
?elps place all the more natural possibilities in perspective. And apart from
lts valu as a training 1.001, once you have succecded in leanting 1.0 do the
'qUtmce smoothly and rhythmicnlly, the exercise is very soothing.
THE SUPPORTED INTERMEDIATE COBRA
Here is a good way to prepare for the advanced cobra. Lying prone with ti
chin on the floor, stretch the hands overhead with the arms and Iorear
parallel and the palms down. Keeping the elbows extended and the hec
and big toes together, lift the head as high as possible, and pull one ha r
and then the other back toward the head in srnall incrcmcnts. This will l t
the upper half of the body. The back is passive; it is not doing the work .f
lifting you. One arm braces while the other pushes tho body up, inch v
inch. When you are up, find a relatively relaxed position with your weig t
resting on a combination of the hands, the lower border of the rib cage, al d
the pelvis. 01' you can suspend the weight of your chest and abdo m n
between t he hands and pelvis if that feels comfortable (fig. 5.10). Keepi g
the elbows extended is a feature of this posture alone. We'll dispense WI h
doing that when we come to the full expression of the advanced cobra,
Most beginners rnake two rnistakes in this exercise, One is to hang p. -i-
sively betwcen their arms, Don't do that. Lift the chest and puIl the scapu le
down and laterally With experience, you can find a position in which you : 'e
kceping the pelvis, 01" possibly the pelvis and the rib cage in cornbinatk 1,
against the floor without hanging passively. The other common error is lo t
your attention stray from lhe forearm extensors, which permits the o
become slightly flexed.
Everyone wiIl have a different limit to how far they can lift up and at t le
same time keep the pelvis on the floor. It will depend, obviously, on h w
much passive extension lheir lumbar spines can accommodate, Sorne ' 11
end up with lheir shoulders liftcd up off the noor only a few inches; ot h. I'S
may have enough Oexibility lo fat.'e lhe ceiling (lig. 'j. JI). If you are inflexil e,
notke that you feel vulnerable with the back muscles relaxed. Find a posiJ 'n
Figure 5.10. Supporled intermediare cobra. In this pose the ha.nds are
back incrementa lly (always keeping the elbows exte nded) un td the pelvIs IS
aimost Iifled off the Ooor. lhe head is pu lled backwa rd and the scapulae are
pulled down and laterally (see chapter 8. for details of scapular movcments),
being careful not to hang lhe chesl pass,vely be tw en lh(' sho ulders.
5. IIACABI'/\IJf.W; 1'0.\"11 /lES 2Y I
in which you can Ieel sorne of tbat vulner'lbill'ty and t . '11
< ye remaln sti
without parn 01' anxiety. As in other of th b 1 k d
< " e co ra, a e eop
empowered thoracic inhalations.
As soon as you are accuslomed lo the relaxed posture, puJI the head
furtber and engage the back muscles isometricaJIy. Now the inner
feel mg of the pusture changes. 'rhe engaged back muscles makc it feel
safer even tbough your poson has not shifted T'h
. en. as soon as you
have accommodated to this new feeling, bend the knees carefully, drawing
the heels toward the head whilo keeping the elbows fully extended.
Dori' t hur t your knees. 'I'his is an unusual position for them. lt is fairly
safe t he back you have engaged the erector spinae muscles,
but hftmg the Ieet rncreases the intensity of the posture, so be watcbful.
You also. ha.ve to concentrate on keeping the elbows straighl because
neurologie mtel"connections between motor neurons for flexors and
exte nsora are such that the act of Oexing the kneos reflexly inhibits tho
neu.rons that innervate the extensors of the Iorearrn (chaptcr 1),
especal ly if t he movement causes the slightest pain in the back k
. . H I 01' nee
J0Il11s. o d the postura for 10 - 20 seconds if you can do so confidently.
Then slow.'y lower the feet back Lo the flonr and slide the hands fonvard
to the begmning position.
If are not VClY flexible the lumbar region is bellt to its maximum,
especl ally when tbe feet are l'aised, and you will nolice that breathing
not create marked external effects on the posture. Inhalation
mcreases <and exhalalion decreases) internal lension, bul we do not see
accenl ual ion 01' t1attening of lhe lumbar region. In campany witb
It may feel appropriate to bl"eathe cautiously ir you al"e at your
And ev.en il' you are flexible and comfortable, breathing deeply in
IS nol easy because the rib cage is constraincd by lhe al'm
if you would like to expand your illspiratory
paclty (chapter 2), mhaJe thoracically as much as the posture permits.
Figure 5.11.
cohra
acmg Ihe ceiling.
Flexible studenls
Can bend Iheir
pines enough
(abOU170 in this
4lse) lo face Ihe
Ceiling and yet
k
eep
th('ir Ihighs
OnIhe floor.
2\}1 A"'Il -mMI (11, /1,1"171.1 IOGA
THE AOVANCEO COBRA
To do the advanced cobra, start from the same beginning position as he
classic cobra, with the forehead on the floor and the fingertips in line th
the nipples. Next, brush your nose and chin along the floor and slowly ~ U1.
lifting the head and chest with the back rnuscles. 'I'hen, keeping th e 1- ck
muscles engaged, slowly start 1,0 straighten the elbows until you 1 ive
extended the back and neck 1,0 their Iimits. The extent to which the eH ws
are st raightc ned wiUbe a reflection 0(' how much the spine is exte nder as
well as a reflection of the lengths of the arrns and forearrns. Beginners vill
not be able 1,0 come up very ar, and it wiII be rare for even advai 'ed
students to st raight en their elbows complctely It's not necessary any ay.
The idea of this posture is to kecp everything active. The deep I rck
muscles, specifically, should be monitored constantly 1,0 make sure the ire
su ppor t ing the Iift and not relaxing as the forcarrns extensor s irt
contributing to the posture.
Keeping the back muscles active sounds like it ought lo be easy, bu for
those whose spines are inflexible these rnuscles wiII be working again- he
antagonistic actions of the iliacus and psoas muscles, which rnaintaii ~ h e
first line of protection for restricting tho bend, as well as the abdor nal
muscles, which stay tight to maintain the intra-abdorninal pressure t i t is
so important for minimizing strain on the intervertebra1 disks, lt ,; a
natural ternptation 1,0 simply relax and support the posture entirely ith
the upper extremitie . Dori't do it. 'l'hat 's more like the next postun t he
upward-facng dogo
As you progress in your practice of the advanced cobra, you will grac illy
becorne confident and flexible enough to allow th e iliopsoas muscles md
the abdominal muscles to lengthen eccentrically and even relax wi t mI
releasing tension in the back muscles, and when that happens lhe lck
muscles will contribute 1,0 extension more effectively. The last step. l er
acc1i mat ing 1,0 Lhe posture in il s essential form, is to draw the fcet to' ,rd
th e head (fig. ) . 12) .
Figure 5.12. In the advanced
cobra, highly flexible studenls
can bend lheir lumbar spines
90 and louch their feel lo
Iheir head. For mosl sludents
spinal and hip inflexibilily
(along wilh resistanl hip f1ex-
ors and abdominal mu!>c1es)
Iimil coming fully nlu lhis
pU!>l..
5, IH U (/I/ ::\,D/"C PU,'i"l1'RE'> l\}J
As with the suppor ted intermediate cobra, it is rnost important to kcep
the chest lifted and the shoulders pulled down and back. Nothing will
violate this posture as certainly as allowing the chest to hang passively
between the arrns. And if you take the option of bending the knees and
pulling the feet toward the head, be careful of st ress ing the ligaments that
surround the knee joint.
Breathing issues in the advanced cobra are similar to those for the
supported postura, The diaphragm will contribute to keeping the pose
stable and restrict the bend for those who are less flexible, and it will deepen
the backbend for those who find themselvss flexible enough to come
convincingly into the posture. In general, the advanced pose will not be
very rewarding for anyone who is not flexible enough to sense that the
diaphragm is either deepening the bend 01' creating tensi n for doing so, as
well as getting out of the way of empowered lhoracic breathing.
THE UPWARD FA CI N G 000 POSTURES
The upward-facing dog is not a cobra posture, but it begin s in the same way
and then goes one or two stops beyond. It is like a suspens ion bridge. The
arrns and forearms support the posture frorn aboye, the knees or feet
support it from below, and the chest, abdomen, pelvis, and thighs are
suspended between. Four variations are presentad here, and in each one
you support your weight differently.
'ro prepare for th e upward-Iacing dog, st art with the chin on the floor,
the hands alongside the chesl a Httle lower th an for the cobra, the feet
loget her, and the toes extended. Slowly lift the head and then the shoul-
ders, kceping the muscles of the lower extrcmities engaged. As sonn as
you reach your lirnit of lifting with the back muscles, cxt end the elbows
slowly, lifting your body even higher until your wcight is supported by the
arms, knees, and the tops of the feet. It is important to do this without
relaxing the back muscles (lig. 5.13). The pose should be active front and
back. Those who are especially flexible will have to keep th e abdominal
muscles engaged to avoid dropping lhe pelvi s t o th e floor; those who are
not flexible will not have this difficulty because their abdominal mu sc1es
~ e ~ r e y tense. As in the advanced cobra, lift the head. neck, and chest.
On t allow the chest to hang passively between the shouldcrs. Come
do
wn
in r everse order, taking a long time t o merge the r eleas ing of
rorear t ' . .
m ex eIHilon mto suppor t mg the post ure entire ly wil h the deep
back muscles .
Now try the sa me exercise with the toes flexed instead of ext ended
I\ee . .
r. Plllg your knees on the floor and supporting yourself on th e ball s DI' lh e
eet at the same time makes this a ti ghter posture bccause now th e
gastrocnemius muscles in lhe back 01' lhe calf are stretched. This places
the pelvis. Then, as you arch up Irom that site you can begin to look right
and left like a real cubra appraising its envronment. Coming yet higher,
the iliopsoas ami abdominal rnuscles finally become the main lino of resistance
lo the concentric activity of the back ami neck muscles,
CO B RA S FOR THOSE WlTH RESTRICTED MOBIL/TY
The vertebral columns in older people sometimes become bent forward
structuraJly, reverting to the fetal state of a single posterior curvature. The
main problems with this, apart from not being able lo stand IIp straight,
are that the intervertebral disks have lost their Iluidity, the joint capsules
have become restrictcd, extraneous ami movement-restricting deposits of
bone have accumulated near joints, and muscles have become rigid. Those
who have this condition are rarely able tu lie comfortably on the floor in a
prone position. But if they lie on cushions that support the body in a slightly
flexed position and ifthe height of the cushions is adjusted carefully, all the
simple variations of the cobra are Ieasible and will have benefcial effects
throughout the body.
Figure 5.13.
Upward-facing
dog with knees
down and toes
extended.
Come into this
Iirst of four
dog postures
systematically,
and never
hang between
relaxed
shoulders.
Figure 5.14.
Upward-facing dog
wilh knecs up and
toes f1exed. Whole-
bOdy tcnsion is
tequired cxcept in
Ihose who are so
inflexible that their
body structure
keeps their Ihighs
off Ihe flnor. The
Pose is like a
suspensiun bridge.
THE OPEN-AI R COB RA
This exercise requires good strength and athletic ability, healthy knees, lid
a prop made up of two cushioned planks; une (cushioned on top) is sev: -al
feet off the floor; and another (cushioned on its underneath side) is slig' ti}'
higher and situated to the rear of the first, The front plank wiII support " le
body al the level of the mid-thighs, and the rear plank wiII prevent the ki .
from flexing and the feet from flying up . Such a contraption is often foui 11 in
health clubs. You will climb into the apparatus and lie in a prone pos it m.
The thighs will be supported from below by the front plank and the ca es
will be anchored in place from aboye by the real' plank. First, you allow he
torso tu hang down, nexed fol'ward from the hips. From tbis position, JU
stmighlen the body and mise YOllr head and shoulders as high as you
'('he body from the thighs IIp wil\ be suspended in mid-air as 800n as you
away rom the 1100r.
This exercise is an excellent cxample of the manner in which gra ty
operates in rclatinn to muscular activity. Little effort is required to ini tl te
the movement lor swinging the torso up the fjrst 45. Then. as the b
comes toward the horizontal position you start getting more exercise. '1 15
fcela similar to the c1assic cohra posture, excepl that it is more diffil" It
because you are lifting the body from the fulcrum of the thighs inatead lf
additiunal tension on the quadriceps femoris muscles, which (among th r
other roles) are antagonists lo the gastrocnemius rnuscles, the tension n
the quadriceps fernoris is in turn translated to the front of the pelvis IY
way of the rectus femuris. The tensi n from the rectus femoris ti n
restricts how Iar the pelvis can drop loward the floor. It's easy to prove Ir
you go back and forth between the two postures you'll feel irnmedi at ly
how the two alternativo toe positions affect the pelvis-toes flexed .d
curled under, the pelvis is lified; toes extended back, the pelvis drops,
In the fulI upward-facing dog, the knees are extended and you re
supporting yourself between the hands and feet instead al' between t ne
hands and knees. This is a whole-body commitment requiring a lot m re
muscular tension in the quadriceps femoris muscles than tho sirn -r
posture. You can support your weight on your feet either with the t es
flexed (Iig, 5.14) or with the toes extended to the rearo Try both positir is,
Neither one is stressful if your feet are comfortable.
Brcathing mechanics in the upward-facing dog are different from '1Y
other posture because the body is suspended in mid-air. You can easily r ck
back and forth 01' move from side to side like a suspensi n bridge in he
wind , and this freedom of movement allows for deep thoracic inhalat i -ns
and yet permits the diaphragm to deepen the hackbend even in stude .ts
who are not very flexible.
ud
alf
ile
ASHWINI MUORA ANO MULA BANOHA IN THE COBRAS
fu hwini mudra (chapter .\ ) is more natural in the upward-Iacing dog ti In
in any other hatha yoga posture. The urogenital triangle is exposed. le
genitals are isolated frorn the floor, thc muscles of the urogenital triar le
are relaxed, the gluteal muscles are engaged, and the pelvic diaphragr IS
automatically pulled in. Mula bandha (chapter 3), on the other han is
natural in a1l of the postures in which the pelvis is resting against the fl Ir,
which means all thc postures just covered with the exception of he
upward-facing dogo Anyone who is confused about distinguishing betv en
ashwini rnudra and mula bandha can go back and forth between he
upward-facing dog and an easy-does-it versi n of the classic cobra (in lis
case with the heels and toes together but with the gluteal muscles rela ),
and their confusion will vanish.
THE LOCUST POSTURES
' I'he locust posture is named for the rnanner in which grasshop, -rs
(locusts) muvc their rear ends up and down. The locust postures compl ot -nt
the cobras, lifting the lower part of the body rather than the upper, but ley
are more difficult because it is less natural and more strenuous to Iif he
lower extremities from a prone position than it is lo lift the head and shouh -rs,
\Ve can test the relative difficulty of one of the locust posturas w a
simple experiment. Lie prone with the chin on the floor and the bac of
the relaxed hands aganst the (loor alongside the thighs. To imitan he
cobra, lift the head and shoulders. Look around. Breathe, Enjoy. his
exploratory gesture could hardly be more natural, Notice that it dOl n' t
take much effort to ifi up, that it is easy to breathe evenIy, that the u Jer
extremities are not invo lvcd, and that the movement doesn't threater he
lower back. By contrast , to imitute the locust we'U necd three ti mt as
many directions and cautions. Starting in the smne position, point lhe .es,
extend the knees by tightening the qlladriceps femoris muscles, and ex Ile.
Keeping the pelvis braced, lift the thighs without bending the knees. I n't
hold your breath. and be careful not lo strain the lower back. t a
difference! While almost anyone new to hatha yoga can do lhe firs1 exeJ 'ise
with aplomb. the second is so difficult and unfamiliar that neW stud nts
have lo be guided from beginning to end.
THE HAlF LOCUST
The easiest locust posture involvcs lirting only one thigh at a time im
of both of them simultancously. 1'his is only about a tenth rather than
as hard as lhe full locust because one extremity stubilizes the pelvis Yo
lhe other one is lifted. and this ha-; the effect ofelirninating most ofthe te . 0 0
in the lowcr back. '1'0 begin, lie prone with the ehin on the the a nS
alongside the chest, the elbows Iully extended, und the backs of the fists
against the Iloor near the thighs. Point the toes of une foot, extend the
kn ee, and lift the thigh as high as possible, but do this without strongly
pressing the opposite thigh against the floor (fig. 5.15). Breathe evenly for
ten seconds, come down slowly, and repeat on the other side.
The halflocust is a goodroad map for the full postura because we see similar
patterns of muscular activity, but it is easier to isolate and analyze the VMOUS
sensations when one thigh is braced against the floor. '1'0 creatc the lift, the
gluteus rnaximus and the hamstring muscles hyperextend the thigh against
the resistance of the abdominal muscles, the ilopsoas muscle, and the
quadriceps femoris, The hamstring rnuscles don't insert directIy on the
thigh. They insert on the back of the libia, but in this case they act only on
the pelvis because their tendency lo Ilex the leg at the knee joint is prevented
by strong isometric contraction of tho quadriceps femoris muscle, which
keeps t he kneejoint extended. It is as ifyou have attached a rope to the rnost
distant of twu boards that are hinged cnd-to-end; the Iar board is the tibia,
and the near board is the femur. You want to lift the lwo boards as a unit to
keep t hem aligned, but the rope goes only to lhe distant board. So another
sct of supporting lines has to run on the Iront (locking) side of the hinge lo
prcvent the boards from folding up. The hamstring muscles are the ropes;
the quadriceps femoris muscles are the supporting lines.
The half Iocust pusture is worth more attention than it usuaJly gets. In
a slightly different Iorm it is commonly prescribed by physiatrists and
physical therapists fbr the recovery period that follows acute lower back
pain. If you are on the mend from such a condition, and if you are able lo
lie in the prone position without pain, you can rapidly alternate what
might be caBed thigh the knccs and raising them (one at
a time) an inch off the floor al the rate of abou1 four lifts per second. If you
repeat the exercise twenty t thirty limes severa! times a day. it will
"trenf., rthen the baek muscles from a position that docs not strain the lower
back.
Figure 5. 15. t-1 alf locusl. This postu re, which should be done wi lhout pressing
lhe upper ext remities and Ihe opposite Ihigh strongl}' agains l Ihe Ooor, is
l'xcell e nl for leisurel y analysis of cOlllp lex muscular and oinl actiuns.
~ l A,\ATO"'I (J'" IIA 7HA n K, I\
THE SUPPOATED HAlF lOCUST
A more athletic postura supports the lifted thigh with the opposite leg a d
foot . Le in the same prone position with the chin on the floor. Place 1 e
right fist alongside the right thigh, with the back side of the hand agai i st
the flOO1; and place the left hand, palm down, near the chest, Twist y. n-
head to the left and bend the right knee, flexing the right leg 90. Th n,
using an any-which-way-you-can attitudc-in other words, the easiest \ IY
possible-swing the left thigh up and support it on the right foot just al e
the left knee. Nearly everyone wiII have to lift their pelvis off the floo to
get the left thigh high enough, and that is the purpose of twisting the b Id
to the left and of having the left hand near the chest to help you bal ar c.
Try not to end up with the entire body angled too far off tu the right, howr ~ r
Use your breath naturally lo support coming into the posture, tak u a
sharp inhalation on the lift, and then breathing cautiously but evenly w ile
thc Ioot is supporting the thigh. Even though you carne into the post re
with a swinging movement, try to come down slowly by sliding the r ht
foot down the left leg. Hepeat on the other side,
You can refine this exercise to make it both more difficult and lT ire
elegant if you come up slowly instead of with a swinging moven rt .
Conc ntrate on breathing evenly throughout the effort and on keepi ng he
pelvis square with the Iloor, Settle into the postura by slowly reiaxi nc he
abdominal muscles and hip flexors, which increases extension of the t 'k.
Finally, if you are flexible enough, deepen the backbend with your bn h-
ing, supporting the fulI posture both with the diaphragm and wit h -ep
thoracic inhalations (fig. 5.16).
THE SIMPLE FUll lOCUST
As soon as your are comfortable with the halflocust you can begin to pral Ice
the full locust. The basic posture, which we'll call the simple fulIl ocu is
a difficult pose, but we place it tirst to give un idea ofthe postlll'e in its Ire
formo The last three variations form a logical sequence which we'Hcal he
beginning, intermediate, and advanced locusts.
To do the simple fulllocust, place the chin on the floor, the arms al n .de
the thighs, the forearms pronatcd. and the backs of the lists again.:l he
0001: lfyou want to make the posture more difficuIt, supinate the fon!. ms
and face the backs of the lists up. In either case point the toes to the ar,
tighten the gluteal muscles. and last, keeping the knees extended, h. .el'-
extend both thighs, allowing lhem to become comfortubly abducted 8 he
I' th
same time. Do not try to aid the clTort for hypcrextension ofthe thighs
the arms at ths stage. Thal wilJ come later. If you are a beginner you lay
not have el10ugh strength ro make any external movement at all. 01' nl!
may barely be able to take sorne of the weight off the thighs, bul you 'iJl
5 IJACIiH(,VfJ/f,C / '0\77 'RI-S l ~ ~
feel the efects in the lumbar, lurnbosacral, sacroiliac, and hip joints, and
you will still benefit from the cffort,
When you raise the thighs in the simple Iull locust, you are trying to
hyperextend thern with the gluteus maximus muscles acting as prime
movers. and doing this with both thighs at the same time rnakes this postura
a great deal more difficult than the half locust: you are Iifting twiee as much
weight, the pelvis is reacting to the muscular tension instead of stabilizing
the posture for lifting just one side, and the lumbar lordosis is accentuated
in one of the most unnatural positions imaginable. To make this seem a
litUe easier you can take the option of allowing the knees to bend slightly.
which will have two efTects: it wiII permit the hamstring rnuscles to be more
effective in aiding extcnsion of the th ghs, and it will facilitate their roles as
antagonista to the quadriceps femoris muscles. The reason for alIowing the
thighs to become abducted brings us back to the hips; the gluteus medius and
glutcus rninimus (Iigs , 3.Xb. j.ioa-b, 8.'), KI2, and K14) are abductors, and
holding the thighs adducted keeps these rnuscles in a stretched position and
generalIy impedes hip hyperextension. 'l'he simple full locust is a chalIenging
posture if your measure of succoss is external rnovement, but if you practico
it daily you wiII 800n be able 10 lift up more convincingly.
THE BEGIN NEA ' S FULL lOCUST
The next variation, the beginner's fuIl locust, is the easiest in the series.
Keeping the elbows straight, place the fsts under the thighs, pronating the
forearms so that the backs of the Iists are against the Iloor; and pulI the
arms and forearms under the chest und abdomen. Again , keeping the heels.
toes, and knees togcthm; try lo lift the thighs while holding lhe knecs fairly
traight (fig. 5.17). This variation wilJ affect a higher position in the lumbar
region than the first prn,"ture, and your attention wiII bedrawn to the genitals
Figure 5.16.
Supporled half
locust. Beginning
tudents can leam
lhis posture by first
lurning the head in
the same direction
as. Ihe thigh Ihal
wdl be raised, Ihen
Swinging the Ihigh
u ~ and catching it
Wrlh the opposile
rool; refinements
In provide for
more grace and
e1egance can come
Ial er.
.100 A /\I1TOMI OF IIA17 /A }()(,A
rather than the anus, favoring activation of mula bandha over ashwi r
mudra.
The beginner's full locust is easier than the simple version because ti .
fists provide a fulcrum that allows you lo lift the thighs into extension fr oi 1
a partial\y llexed position. In the simple version of the full locust in whk 1
you are trying lo lift your thighs frorn an extended to a hyperextend I
position, most of your efort goes into the isometric effort of pressing t
pelvis more firrnly against the floor. 1"01' unathletic beginners this is the e l j
of the posture, But they should still experience both-the simple fulI loci t
to feel the essence of the basic pose, and th e bcginner's ful\ loeust to fe' a
sense of accomplishment.
THE INTERMEDIATE FULL LOCUST
You need lo develop more strength in your shoulders, arrn s, and forear 18
for the intermediate variation of the loeusl. It is exactly likc the prevn IS
posture except that you use the arms, forea rms, and interlocked han d o
press against the floor, and this helps you lift up much further. It req u , ' S
a whole-body effort involving all the muscles on the anterior sides of le
arrns and shoulders, plus the deep back muscles, the gluteal muscles, Id
the hamstrings. The intensity ofthe cornmitment needed to raise the kr 'es
just a few inches off the floor is likely to surprise even a good athlete. 1 ut
lift as high as possible and hold (g. 5.18). Many benefits are gained jus J}'
increasing the isometric tensi n in your personal end position.
Evcn though this posture requircs a whole-body efTorl, you feel il r .st
significantly in the lower back. Youcan check this in someone else by pla g
your hands on either side of their vertebral column as they initiate the {l .
In everyone, you wilI fcel the musclos in the lower half of the back br 1ge
strongly to the real', and in lhose who are able to lin. their knees six ine es
or more ofl' the flaor, you will notice the buJge spreading throughout he
back as mor e and more of the erec! r spinae is recruited inlo the effol
Figure 5.17. This beginner's fulllocust is easier than the simple fulllocusl (01
illuslrated) because lhe position of lhe fisls under the upper porlions of the
lhighs permits lhem to ael as a fu/crum for lifl ing Ihe lhighs. This posture al
favors holding mula bandha over as hwini mudra lwhich is more in character or
lhe simple full loeus\}.
5. I1ACA'JI-\/J/M, / '0.\77 .\ 01
One of several unique characteristics of the locust postura is the extent
to which the pelvis is braced. AH of your efforts t o lift are countered by
numerous rnuscles acting as antagonsts from the anterior side of the body:
the rectus femoris pulls on the anterior inferior spine of the ilium;
the psoas pulls on the lumbar spine ; and the iliaeus pull s on the pelvis. AlI
of these muscles and their synergists act together from underneath to
brace the body between the knees and the lumbar spine. And with this
foundation stabilized, the gJuteus maximus mu scles, hamstrings, and
erector spinae operatc together lo lift the pelvis and lower spine as a unit.
The gluteus maxirnus muscles will first shorten concentrically and then act
sometrically Lo place tension on the iIiotibial tracts, which run between
the ilia and the proximal portions of the tibias and fbulas (figs. J.8-9 and
8. 12). 'I'he actions of the gluteus maxirnus rnuscles are supported synergis-
licaJly by tho hamstrings, which, like the gluteus maximi, pull between the
pelvis (in this case the ischial Iuberosities) and the legs.
By themselves the gluteus maximus muscles and their synergists would
not take you far; as in the case of the simple and beginner's fulllocust, but
when the arms and forearms are strong enough t o help drive you up, the
muscles on the back side of the body are able to act more efficiently. 'I'his
is a powerful postura but one of the most unnatural postures in hatha yoga,
and since much of the tension for raising tho thighs is brought lo bear on
the lower back, it is for intermediate and advanced st udent s only.
The whole-body muscuJar offorts needed to maintain the intermcdiate
full locust are intensa, and since the abdominal rnuscles and the respirato ry
pelvic diaphragms have to support the effort Irorn beginning lo end,
mhalat ions will not be very decp, and the externally visible efTects of
breat hing will be negligible.
'"
5.18. This intermediale
ull.locust is manageable only
by Intermediate and advanced
those who are nol
ot h Slrong and flexible will
be able lo lirl Ihis far off
e flour. In any case, what
hfferen liales the posture from
1 e beginner's fulllocust is the
Ihe pose is supporled
US1ng Ihe upper exlremilies.
\ 0 2 /11\,17 0 .111' (JI' l l A n l A IIX;A
THE ADVANCED FU LL LOCUST
The advanced ful! locust is one of the most dernanding postures in ha la
yoga. To do it , those who are able to lift thernselves up moderately in le
interrnediate practico now roll all the way up in one dynarnic moverm it ,
balancing their weight overhead so the posture can be maintained with ut
much muscular efTort. This is only for at hletes who are confident of t 'ir
strength, flexibility, and the sou ndness of their spines, Those who can 1 it
always seern to be al a 1088 Ior words when they try to explain what ey
do-speaking vaguely about concentration, breath. flexibility, and inten In.
It 's a whole-body effort, If any link is weak the posture cannol be don
To press up into this posture, nearly everyone has lo lock the elbow, nd
then interlock the hands underneath the body in sorne way. Youcan inte ,ck
tho little fingers an d keep the rest of the fingers and palms aga ins he
0001'.01' you can clasp the fingen, together as in fig. 5.IX, starting the Ion
wit h the hands cupped around the gcnitals. In either case, lift up inl he
interrnediate posi t ion using the arms and back muscIes. And then, wit .i ut
hesitating, inhale, bend the knees, press the arrns and forearms HJl. 1
floor more forcefu lly, and in one fluid movernent li n into the final po 'e
with the feet straight up. Ideally, this is a balancing position. Once yoi re
in it you wi l! need to keep only moderate isometric l ension in the rck
muscles, you will not havo lo keep pressing so vigorously with the ms,
and you can f1alten t he backs of the hands against the flaor. Flexibili for
backhending really pays off here, the more the hetter, and the easi er I ill
be lo ba lance without holding a lol oftension in the deep back muscle You
can either keep your feet pointing straight up 01' lower thern lowar l he
head (fig. 5.IY), which makes it even easier to balance.
Breathing is one ofthe most important elements of the advanced le ust,
and most students will find il. necessary to take a deep inhalation to :;ist
the action of coming up into the pose. Afler that there are two SChl s of
thought. One is wexhale as you come up and kcep the airway open acco l ing
to the general rule for hatha yoga poslures. This is the bes! appl .nch
because the pose is executed and suppor ted by a combination of the lper
extremities, the deep back muscles, and intra-abdominal t by
inlrathoracic pressure (chapte r 3). But if you can't qu ite do th at y<" can
close the glottis to lift up and then hreathe frcely once you are hal an. d.
If you do not have enough flexibility in the back and neck lo lain
comfortably balanced after you 3rt' in the posture, you t'8n place th e Ims
flat ag-ainst the floor, bend the elbows slightIy, and ::;upport the lo\\'el I1r
t
of the chest (and thus f,he whole body) with the arms and e1bows. Thl wiIl
enahle you to bui ld up time in the pose.
'rhe advanced locust places lhe neck in more extreme, and foreed , h per-
extellHion lhan any other pORture, and to prepare for t his studenls will rind
5. 1JAe.t;m AlJl .\ (; rostt -e rs JOJ
it not only lo work with backbending postures in gen eral, but al so
wit h special posturas that extend the neck 1.0 its mximum. Th e cobra
(figs. 5<)- 12), the upward-facing dogs (figs. 5. IJ-I' ), and the
scorplOn (fig. H.J lb) are all excelIent fOI" this purpose.
AJl.hough the advanced locust has to he treated as a dynamic whole, lry
to do i t slowly. Many students have been hurt by falling out of th e postura
when they have to tOS8 themselvcs up into the full pose before they
have developed sufficient strengt h and control , lfyou are almost able to do
the advanced locust, you will 800n be able to master it by developingjust a
litt le more lumbar lexibi lity in combinalion with more strength in the
arms and back.
THE PRONE BOAT POSTURES
The prone boats curve up at each end like gondolas, lifting both ends ofthe
body at the sume time, and in thi s manner they combine elernents of both
cobra and the locust. We discussed a simple prone boat in chapter 1 lo
illustrate movernents of the body in a gravitational field, And since these
postures work against the pull of gravity as wel! as against muscular and
t issue restraints , they can be difficult and discouraging to many
he
glT1nJ
.n
g
students, who often cannot even begin to lift up into them.
To add insult to injury; instructors may telI students lo come up into the
posturas and relaxl We'lI remedy lhis by starting with sn easy version.
Afier a few wceks of regular praetice, all of them bccorne easy.
t In the first version of the prone boat, lie with your chin against th e floor.
he heels and toes together, the arms along lhe sides of the body, and the
back the hands against the noor. Point the toes to the real', lighlen the
femori s muscles to extend the knce joints, and simultaneously
the head, neck, chest, shoulders, thighs, and hips (fig. 5.20). Ifyou bave
p of strength, Iift th e hands as we" (lig. 1.1' . Breathe and
nobce ho lh . . '
w e rcsplratory diaphragm lifis hoth the chest and the Jower
F'
.5.19. advanced fuI!
CUst /s eaSler In certain
respects than the intermediate
\er .
bar beci!use here one is
. anong rather than supporL-
the pose with mus ular
Ort. No one should try Ihis
however. who is not
nn(dent in their athlctic
ero\Ve s and 90 f1exibility for
ackbending.
,\ 04 AI\ ,lTtlM I O/'-/IA71/A IO(,A
extremities with each inhalation and lowers thern down slighUy wit h eac
exhalation.
In the seco nd version, which is a lit tl e harder t han t he first, again I
with your chin against the floor, with the heels and toes sti ll together, bi t
now stretch the arrns out perpendicular to t he body, pal ms down. Mal
blades 01' the hands, stretch the fingers, point the toes, extend the kner
and si multaneously lift al l four extrernities,
The third and rnost difficult versi n 01' the boat (fig, ').21) is t he same lo
the second except t hat t he hands are stretched overhead with the elbo
extended. Beginners usually resist this if you ask thern t o do it first, bu if
you start by leading them through the first and second versions they n IY
besurprised to find that they have generated enough energy and enthusir m
to try t he t hird. And rather than t clling students to relax in the post 'e,
instructors can suggest th at they imagine th ey are lengtheni ng the bod- in
addit ion to lifting at both en ds. This sornehow enables t hem to rai se- .rp
more efficientIy and to feel more at case.
Figure 5.20. In this easiest verson of the p r o ~ boal (with oars coasting in 11
wal er), muscles are held firm on lhe back side of lhe bod y. Supcrimposed 11
that effor l, Ihe respiralory diaph ragm lifls both Ihe upper bod y and the 1m, l'
exlremilies concen lricall}' during each inhalalion amI drops them eccenlrk .Iy
during each exhalalion, making t!lis is a whole-body, diaphragm-assisled
backwa rd bend.
Figure 5.2 1. Ihis Ihird version of the prom' boat is the most difficuh one, al I
few sludenls \vill be able to litl up Ihis far, bul ir stude nls slart with the first \,\,0
versions as preparalory poses, this one becomes easicr.
s. IlAel\m.\/){,\r; /'()YI'I 'RI'\ \ 05
As with the cobra postures, many older people who are chronically bont
forward can benefit from a propped-up prone boat by placing supporting
cushiono under the torso, If the cushions are chosen and adjusted perfecl1y,
th eir heads, arms, and Ieet will be in a cornfortable beginning position.
They can then lifl up at both cnds and be rewarded with a bcnefcial exercise.
THE BOW POSTURES
When an advanced student has come into the bow posture, it resernblcs a
dr awn bow: the torso and thighs are the bow, and the laut upper extremities
and t he legs are the string, which is drawn toward the ceiling at the junction
ofthe hands and the ankles , The beginner's posture is not so eleganL Most
of its length is Ilat tened down against the 11001'. and the pose is acutely
hinged a t the knee joints,
THE BEGINNER'S BOW
1'0 begin, le prone, Ilex t he knees, ano grasp the ankles. 'I'ry to lifl yourself
inlo a bow, not by hac kbending with the deep back muscles, which rernain
rel axed in the beginning posture, but by attempting to extend the legs at
the knee joints with the quadriceps femoris muscles. An attempl to
straighten the knee joints is little more than an attempt, since you are
holding on to the ankles, but it does lit the t highs and extend the knees
moderatel y (fg. ).22).
It seems extraordinary that t he quadriceps fomoris muscles (Iigs. J .9.
8.R, and 8. 11) are the foremost aclors for creating this posture, but t hat
is th e case. At first they are in a state of mild stretch because the knees
are flexed . Then, shortening t hese muscles concentrically against lhe
resi stance of lhe arms and for ear ms creates tension Ihal begins to pull
th e body into an arc. The quadriceps muscles are performing three roles
simulta neously: extending lhe knee joints from a flexed position, lifling
lhe thighs, am) crcating tension thal draws the bo\\'. 'fhe tensions on the
knee joints can be daunting for a beginner, and many students do well
just to gr-ab lheir ankles. If that is lhe case, lhey may not lift up at all
but merely conlract the quadriceps muscles isometrically. 1'hat.'s line.
Just doing this every day wiII gradually t;lrengthen lhe muscles and
lOughen the connective tissuc cap:mles of lhe knee joints enough to
eVentualIy permit coming up furt.her into the poslure.
~ INTERMEDIATE ANO ADVANCEO BOWS
!ntermedi ate students will appmuch the bow wilh a different emphasis.
r ~ y may use the quadl"cep , femoris muscles to lift lhe knces in the begin-
nlng, but Ihey aid lhis mo\'ement by engaging the deep back muscJes (the
erector spinac) tu create an internal arch. 1'hen. as t hey come higher lhey
.\06 AIVA7IJ.III 01' us rus IOc;.1
will use the gluteal muscles in the hips to provide even more lift ..And a
the gluteus rnaxirnus muscles shorten concenlrically for exte nding t h.
hips, they lift the pelvis away from the floor and indirectly aid extensi n
the knee joint.
As advanced students lift into the posture, the lumbar region becom
ful\y extended and the hips become hyperextended. Such st udent s wil\ l
dividing their attention among at least five t asks after they t he
knees and grasp their ankles: paying altention 1,0 st retch and tensin of l!
quadriceps; mainlaining a strong connection between the ankles . al
shoulders; watching the knee joints, which are roceivin g an unconvention
stress' overseeing the eornplex muscular interactions between the quadrice
femori s muscles on one hand and the gluteal muscles that lift he tlu g
during extension of the hip joints on the other; and whi.ch
rocking the upper half 01' the body up with each inhalation and droppmg t
forward with each exhalation (fig, 5.23). Once these conditions are establish 1,
advanced students can take the final option 01' drawing the fect toward t e
head.
The ncrvous system orchestrates all 01' this complex musculoskek
activity. In beginners, the quadriceps fcmoris museles, deep back muse S,
and gluteals do not receive clear rnessages to lift strongly into the post .
Inst ead, they are inhibited by numerous pain pathways that take on n
Irorn the joinls (ospeclally the knees), and frorn the front side 01' the lx Iy
generally. Such reflex input should not be overridden by the power 01' \\ 11.
Even advanced students who are able to lt up more strongly may find 1 rt
discomforl in the sacroiliac, hip, and kneejoints lirnits the posture, Ex t s
honor these signals mindfully. Then, as soon as there is no longer any I 1t
01' pain, the only limitations lo the poslure are muscle Id
connective tissue constraints. Advanced students, hav ing pracllced the l w
thousands 01' times over a pcriod of years, know exactly how much ten ,n
can be placed safely on each joint and how lo come down from the pos re
without harro.
Figure 5.22. In Ihis
beginner's version of.lhe
bow posture, lhe mall1
concenlration is on
liflingthe body using.
Ihe quadriceps femoTls
musdes (knee extensors
on lhe fronl of lhe
lhigh!ol.
THE KNEE JOINT
Studying the bow posture in detail leads us frst and most obviously to the
knees. When the knee joinl is extended (fig, ) . 24) it is almost invulnerable
1.0 injury bccause all of its eomponent parts fi t together perfectly and protecl
the joint from torques and impacts Irorn all directions. 'l'he flexed knee
joint is anot her matter. Its internal and ext ernal support ing ligaments have
to become loose to perrnit flexi n, and any tension superimposed on the
Ilcxed joint, whelher from extension, twisting, 01' even addit onal Ilexion,
can make the joint vulnerable to injury.
Standing postures, oven with the knces flexed, are rarely a problern. The
knee joint is the largest and st rongest joi nt in the body, and toting our
weight around from place to place is its fort e. Under ordinary circum-
stances it can suppor t tremendous muscular stresses- hopping up and
down a flight 01'stairs on one 1'001., running down a mountain, and 1'01' those
who are prepared, jumping to the ground from heights of fi ve feet or more.
AH 01' these activites require only moderate Ilexion, and the knee joint is
made lo order for them. The problern comes with yoga backward bcnding
post ures that flex the knee under unnatural circumstances,
The bow posture is a case in point. The beginning pose must start with
a flexed knec joinl which is then forced into extension from an awkward
and unfamiliar prone poslure. Indeed, it is hard lo imagine a more unnatura!
or demanding role Ior thisjoint than to use it as the primary tool Ior lifling
into the bow. The intermediate and advanced postures are not so much 01'
a problern because they make more efficient use 01'the erector spinae muscles,
the hamst r ings, and the respiratory and pelvic diaphragms for coming up
int o l he posture. They use knee extension merely lo aid the lift , and they
do so from a less completely flexed position lhan in the bcginner's bow.
The t wo advanced cobra poses stress lhe knees in an enti rcly diITerent
way. We come into these postures with the knees straight, which does no1.
stress them at all, but once the rest of thc body is settled we can take t he
addi tional option of bending the knee. and puJling lhe feet toward the
figure 5.23. In lhi advanced
bow (the slring of lhe bow is
drawn to the rear at the junclion
of lhe hands and Ihe anklesl, lhe
lumbar region is extended (10
and the hips are hyperexlended.
lh e quadriceps femoris muscles
are nol nearly o important as in
lhe beginner's bow; lhey can
help initiale coming up as an
bul lhey are not
Imporlanl as prime movers for
lhe final pose.
r
. . . "24 On the le ft is an anlerior view of a superfi cial dissection o f the 1t
Igurl ". . h . I . ., (r S 1
e"le ndc.d kne e joilll. ami on 1 e ng II 15 a poslpnor vlew rom . "ppcy .
fat
pad
suprapatellar bursa femur anterior lateral
cruciate femoral
ligament condyle


(semilunar
r
posterior
cruciate
ligamenl
medial
femoral
condyl e
tibi! fbula tibia
Figure 5 2" O h I f . . .
. : .' . n t e e I IS an an te r ror vr ew of a deep dissecton of the lexed l eft
(f e and on Ihe right i5 a sagittal cut Ihrough the ex te nded knee ont
r OIT] Sappcy).
have a slippery surface for pennitting flexion and extension. In addi ton,
donut-shaped wafers of Iibrocartilage called the medial and la/eral menisci
(or medial and lateral semilunar corti lages), cushion the mating surfaces
uf t he condyles (fig. 5.25). Torn menisci are difficu lt lo treat because they
have lost their blood supply by the time we reach our mid-zos, and if they
are damaged after that t ime, usually in dance or athlet cs, they are essentially
irrepar able. This is why "torn cartilages" are greeted so apprehensively by
adult at hletes,
The menisci move frecly during the COUl'8e of [lexion. Ths is not ordinarily
a problem because we assume that they wi1l come back into their horne position
when the kneejoint is subsequentlyextended. But that does not always happen,
and if it doesn't t he menisci can get crushed by the opposing condyles. This
might happen when you kick a bal101' start tu gel up Irom a squatting position,
and if you ever encounter unusual resistance lo extensi n under such
eircumstances, carcfully sit clown and rnassage t he knee before you try to
straighten it, If you crush t he menisci t he only rernedy muy be tri rnrning
them surgically, if not rernoving th ern outright.
I
ar)
teral
lent
.aad
)1
bula
J5US
ead
oc-
-eps
noris
ldon
hb la
latera'
of ga'
nemll

/ '1 (fit
co
lig.
temur
poplteus tibia
medial head of
gastrocnemius
vastus
medialis
tibia
femur
fbula
THE MENISCI
'I'he two hones that stand in end-to-end apposition to one another in t
knee joints, the t ihia and the femur, can withstand the repetitive shocks
walking and runnng because they are well cushioned . The lower ends f
the femurs (femoral cOlldy les) and the upper ends of the tibias (l ib l 1
condyles) are covercd with thick layers of articular h:raline carlilage th t
,"' AH),\/\ (JI-' I ft1U ft1 \ (J(,A
head. This increases tensi n on the quadriceps femoris muscles at the sa rru
t ime t he joint ligaments start 1.0 become lax. nfamiliar and
sensations warn us promptly tu be wary, and only after much experreno
will st udents not have misgivinb'S about completing t his last refinement ()
the cobra. 1'0 understand how the strongest joint in t he body can be
vulnerable to injury, we rnust examine the anatomical components of t h
knee that often create problerns. We'll hcgin with the menisci.
THE CRUCIATE L1GAMENTS
'I'he femur and tibia meet together in a hinge, and two internal ligaments, ti
anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (fig. ';.2';), keep the bones in ali g-
mento Viewcd frum the side, the cruciate lgarnents form an X. The antera ..
cruciate ligament runs from the back of the femur lo the front of the li h d
and constrains anterior disp lacernent of t he tibia in relation lo the ferm r,
while the posterior cruciate ligament runs from the front of the femur to 1 e
back of the tibia and constrains posterior displaccment of the libia.
The cruciate ligaments, especially the anterior cruciate liga mcnt, e
commonly stretched 01' torn in knee injuries, and even thuugh they do .t
lose their blood supply entirely, as do the menisci, they are still so poc Iy
vascularzed that they do not easily heal. Many professional foot l IU
careers have been brought to an abrupt end by an anterior cruciate inj i y.
Envision a linebacker in a crouched position, c1ipped from behind by 111
opponent who throws his full weight against the top of the unsuspec Ig
tibia. This will certainly tear the anterior cruciate ligamentoIt woul d he
surprising, to say the least, to hear of anyone injuring a cruciate ligan. nl
doing advanccd hatha yoga postures, bul someone with an old injury m ht
find that certain postures bear watching.
5. _111
front of tho knee. The patclla is important in any activity in which the knee
is supporting the weight of the body in a partally Ilcxed position. You can
imagine how useful it is in a standing lunge (fig. u), 01' when you are rising
up from a half squat with a barbell on your shoulders. In these aclivities
your entire body is supported by the quadriceps fernoris muscles, quadriceps
tendons, patellas, and patellar tendons.
The up and down movement of the patella is made possiblo by the
suprapat ellar bU1"1m, a lubricant-fi1led sack that is situated between the
pat ella and the underlying tissues (fig, ';.25). Bursae are comrnon accessories
lo many joints whose attaching tendons move in relation to their underlying
tissues. If adhesions resulting frorn diseaso, injury; 01' inactivity develop wthin
a bursa, the tendon can no longcr slip back and Iorth easily And this, in the
case of th e suprapatellar bursa, is one of the commonest causes of a "stiff
knee" following traumalic injury. A circular problem may develop-you
can 't flex the kncc beeause of t he inj ury, the bursa develops adhesions, and
the adhesions further inhibit mobi lity. Again, lhe practical concern in
hatha yoga is with old injuries. If they flare up, students so alTccted shouId
be caut ioned not to do any postures that stress the knees until the prob lem
is resolved.
THE MEDIAL ANO L ATERAL COLLATERAL L1GAM ENT S
The other two commonly injured ligarnents in the knee are the medial 'Id
lateral collteral ligaments (fi g. 5.24-25), which are important acces Iry
ligaments on thc medial and lateral aspccts of t he joint capsules. Thesc ire
frequenlly injured by weekend alhletcs playing sports in which the b 1 is
wrenched and twisted in a direction al cross-purposes lo foot positiu It
might be touch fouthal l, l'acqucthall, 01' any sporl in which your conscioul' ..,ss
is directe<! away from your foundation. The collateralligaments are I en
sprained under ,'Uch conditioIlli, meaning that sorne oftheir connedive L , ue
fibers have been torn away from their bony attachments. Such injuri p re
slow loo heal. If someone says they have a "trick knec," it is often af! r a
long hislory of collateral ligament sprains. As with cruciate ligal ' nt
injuries, yoga poslures are less likely to create new injmies than to in ' ate
old ones.
THE PAT EL LA AN O BURSA E
'fhe main role ofthepatella, or kneecap (figs. 5.24-25), is to make extcl
of the knee joint more efficient. Tt is a sesamoid bane, that is. abone
is inserted in a lendon, in lhis case betwecn the quadriceps fcmoris tl' r
and lhe patcllar tendon ffig. 5.24). During flexion it slides down the i 1
condylar note/, a deep vertical gutter between lhe femoral condyles
articular cnd of tIJe femur); du ring exten;ion il aets likc a pulley on
Ion
' ,at
0 11
er-
he
he
MI NOR KNEE PROBLEMS
What can be done to prevent a nd resol ve minor knee problerns? The
answer is simple-regular and prolonged muscular tension applied to the
extended knee joint. nder those circumstances a1l parts of the joint fit
logether perfectly, allowing it to withstand intensa isornetric contraclion of
sur rounding muscles. If you have knee pain which is not duc to serious
Jnternal injuries, the followIJg series of standing pustures can be highly
therapeuti c.
Keep the fcet parallel and as widely scparaled as possible while holding
muscles lirmIy, especially the adductors. Extcnding the knees
y 18 fme providcd you do not hyperextend them beyond I/lOo, and provided
you hold te . . th h .
. nSJonll1 e amslrmgs as well as the quadriceps femoris muscles.
a firm base with isometric tension is the whole puint of this series
. WISt right , then left, then face the fronl; in each direclion bend
holding each posi lion for 2-7 breaths (about secondsJ.
at s SJX combo t ' H Id h -
. ma IOns. o t e arms in various positions lbows
h
JJe<! bchmd lhe back (lig. 7.17a-f) ; arms and forearms slrctched lalerally.
and s In a . . b h- d h '
beh' prayer posltlOn . ' ll1 t e back; arms overhead with forearms
ba, Ind the head and catching the eIbows ; hands interlocked bchind lhe
h
ck
and pulled lo lhe rear; arms in a cow-face position firsl one wa d
t en th th d h' yan
ei e.o . el'; an ands on thc hlps (fig. 7.18a-gJ. TIJat makes six limes
ght w}uch equals forty-cight poses.
ne
Start modestly, doing the postures only five minutes a day, and then
gradually increase YoU!' commitment. If'you spend fifieen minutes a day 00
this series, you cannot he lp but strengthen the musclcs that insert aroun
the knee and place a healthy stress on the eapsule of the knce joint, as wel
as 00 its associated tendons and liga rnents . And this works wonders, Art e
a few months 01' regular pr acticc, the connective tissues 01' the joint wi
have gained enough strength and integrity, at least in the absence 01' serio
medical problema, to withstand not only reasona ble stresses on the knee
in flexed postions, but also the stresses of sit ting in cross-Iegged medi tati
postures.
SUPINE BACKBENDING POSTURES
'l'he standing and prone backbends play an obvious role in hatha yoga. B t
what is a supine backbcnd? How can one do such a thing? Oddly enoug 1,
t his is indeed possible, and sevoral of the rnost important tradit ional bac
bending pos t ures in hatha yoga, inc luding the fis h, t he wheel, and 1 e
bri dge, either start 01' end in a supine 01' semi-supina position. In addi ti n
lo that, in more reeent times postures that support the back with a bols '1'
01' a ball have become regular fixtures in many pract ice plans, especi: Iy
those with a therapeutic orientation.
Like t he prone backbending postures, we can divide supine backbend 19
postures into t wo categories, active and passive, depending on whethcr Jll
lft yourself internally into a backbend 01' le supine on a prop t hat all- vs
you to relax. '111e sirnplest active supine backbending posturo is to lic in
your back and lifi the abdomen toward the ceiling. \Ve can call this a lun ar
lifl , and that's where we'll 5tart.
THE LUMBAR L1FT AND LUMBAR PRESS
1'0 do the lumba r lift, lie in the corpse posture, relax your abdomen. nd
arch lhe lower back forward by t ightening the decp back muscles . he
effect of this is to drag the real' al' the pelvis and coceyx along the /01'
toward the shoulders, and lhus increase the lumbar lordosis. 1'his post re,
however, is not entirely stahle: you can't maintain it except by conti n ng
to pul\ on the hips from above. '1'0 creatc a posture that you can ohse at
)'our leisure, hcavc YOllr hips up away from the f100r whi le holding lur
weight momentarily bctween your heels and shoulders, and at the
time lug the hips forcibly towm-d the head llsing the deep back mu. eS.
Then mainL'lining that tension with the back musclcs, drop lhe hips Ick
lo the floor. Il'you do this two 01' thrce times in succession, readjusting 1 Ich
lime to a d !Cper backbend. you will create a stable lumbar arch.
Once you acclimated lo it, you will notice thnt this posture is l >D<I
iIIuslralion ol' how inhalatiollS eithe' take you further into a postur 0 1'
> lJ,lc:li ll/ \'IJ/SG I'UST/W/.\' .\1,\
increase internal tensi n, and how exhalations either relax you toward a
neutral position 01' decrease internal tension. lf you keep the abdominal
wall relaxed ater you have lifted up, a deep abdominal in halation pushes
the abdomen furt her out and merely increases intra-abdominal pressure;
if you hold moderate t ension in the abdominal wall after you have lift ed up,
a full diaphragrnatic inhalation increases internal tension, accentuates the
lumbar lor dosis, and takes you further into t he posture (fig. 5.2l. Each
exhalation, by contrast, eithe r decreases intra-abdorn inal pressure in the
case of ab dominal breathing, 01' relaxes you down slightly toward a neutral
position in the case of diaphragmatic breathing.
When you are breathing diaphragmat ically the lumbar lift becomes
another diaph ragm-assi st ed bac kbend, and except t hat il is supi no, the
posture is comparable lo a prone diaphragrnatic real' lift , In both cases it is
impossible to cr eate the lift ing efTect with inha lation unless the gluteal
muscles are relaxed, and t hat is why it helps to pull you r hips forcefull y
into a higher settled posi tion. After feeling t he efTects of breathing in the
new posture, you can come out al' it by t hrust ing your hips back infer iorly
to Ilatten your back toward the floor. Then relax in the corpse posture and
nolice that t he diap hragm is no longer affecting the spine.
Thc opposite and compleme ntary posture t o the lumbar lift might be
ralled a lumbar press, and this is another challenging exercise in concen-
tration and awareness. Again start in the corpse pos ture, but this time
exhale whil e you f1 att en you r back against the 0001' (fig. 5.27) using t he
abdominal muscl es (figs. 3.11-1] , Kg , 8. 11, and R.13) , as discusscd in chapter
3 Then keep th e back immobile as you inhale, and notice the adj ustments
you must make internally to accomplish thal. Each inhalation tcnds lo pu ll
the lumbar lordosis forward, and that has to beprcvented wit h extra intra-
abdominal pressure a nd te nsion from the rectus abdominis muscles, even
lhough tbis pressure and tension restrains inhalation. It 's a balancing acto
Exhalat ion is also a balancing ad because it tends to create a slight release,
and ir you a re not watchfu l t he lower back will sL'lrt to ret urn to its slighUy
arched neu tral posi t.ion. So in t he end both inhalation and exhalaton have
5.16. lumbar A full uiaphragmat ic inhalalio.n su pe rimposed on having
sI dragged lhe pelVIS loward Ihe sho ulders and havrng relaxed lhe gluleal
rnuscles is iIIuslraled here l he po e is a diaphragm- assisl ed backhend lar row)
." 4 ANA7VMI ' UF IlA771A "OCiA
arched, the head and neck extended, ami the anterior surface of the chest
just aboye the surface of the wat.er. Under these circumstancos the body
will rise and fall in the water wit.h each inhalation and exhalation,
Alt.hough the fish is a backbending posture, we also placed it in chapter
3 because an advanced abdominal exercis the supcrfish leglift (fig.
3.19bkan be derived from the pose. \Ve'JI analyze the simplest beginning
fish here, and cover other variatiuns ofthe posture with the shoulderstand,
with which it is traditionally paired as a counterstretch (fig, 9.19). '1'0 start,
lie supine with the hands under the hips (palms up 01' down as you choose) ,
knees extended, and feet together, Lift up on the forearrns, arching your
back, head, and neck, and then place a little of your weight on the back of
the head, just enuugh to touch the floor, Extend the spi ne as much as possible
as you support the posture with the forearms (fig, 3.19a).
Respirat ory responses in the fish posture depend on the extent of your
lumbar arch and on how active you chuose to be in the posture. In students
who are not very flexible, the costal insertion of the diaphragm cannot
move the base of the rib cage because its bottom rim is already open , and
the crural insertion cannot lift the lumbar lordosis because that region is
already arched to its maximum. The only thing that can obviously move is
the abdominal wall, which moves anteriorly with each inhaJation and
poster iorly with each exhalation. Advanced students who are more flexible
and able to arch up more convincingly \ViII have an altogether differcnt
experience. They will be doing diaphragm-assisted backbending, and their
relaxed posture in cornbination with a favorable arm position also permits
them lo enlarge their upper chests for empowered thoracic breathing more
convincingly here than in any other posture.
THE WHEEL
Tha wheel is one of the most dynamic whole-body postures in hatha yoga.
Its Sanskrit name, chakrasana, implies that it activates the body from head
~ toe. In its ful1est circular expression, with the hands touching tho heels,
It is the backbend of backbcnds.
The conventional way to come into the whecl is to lie supine with the
feet flat on the fioor and as close to the hips as possiblc. Place the palms
ng
ure
5.28. This c1assic fish
POslure with Ihe fcet in lhe
IOlus position is rewarding
only for advanccd sludenls.
Olhers will enjoy lhe more
e1crncnlary poslure wilh Ihe
fpeI OlJ tslretched (fig. 3.19a).
I
TH E F I SH
Most fish regulate their buoyancy with swim bladders into which oxyg is
secreted from the blood (which helps them rise toward the surface), Id
from which oxygen is absorbed into the blood (which helps them desee 1).
Human beings do something similar: if they barely have enough body at
to enable them to float, they can regulate their buoyancy in the wate by
the amount of air in their lungs. And so it is that one of the most efli ve
ways lo stay afloat is lo settle into the classic yogic fish posture (fg, ~
with the feet folded into the lotus position, the lumbar region d ' ,Iy
to be rnonitored eonstantly to keep the back pressed against the floor
Another compl cating factor is that must students conc ntrate on the press
so intently that they forget their extremities, and this wiII usually mean
tensing them. Try not to let that happen. This is a breathing and con-
centration exercise for the lower back and abdomen.
The lumbar press is more delicate than, but otherwise similar to, tlu
preparatory position for the basic supine double leglift (fig. 3.17). There w
were preparing for a tremendous amount of tcnsion on the lumbar lordosi
from the hip flexors, and we had to make a no-holds-barred effort lo kee
the lumbar regi n flat against the floor. Here we are looking at somethin
more refined, We are Iying supine with the lower back pressed to the flor
and exploring an exercise without rnovement, holding the lower back fl. t
against the floor during both inhalation and exhalation.
The lumbar lift is obviously contraindicated for anyone with lower ba
problems, but the lumbar press is a difTerent matter. Anyone who can masr '1'
that posture will have a potent weapon for dealing wrth low back problen
The exercise will strengthen the abdominal rnuscles along with the pel' e
and respiratory diaphragms, and one can gradually lcarn to use hreat hi ~
to bring conscious awareness to the abdominopelvic regiun. Coupled w h
mild prune backbending postures that strengthen t he back muscles, re
lumbar press is a powerful means to lumbar health.
Figure 5.27_The lumbar prcss is a demanding brealhing and concenlration
exercise for Ihe back and lowcr abdomen in which Ihe lendcncy of Ihe
diaphragm lo pull the lumbar region forward is fully countermanded by
inlra-abdominal pressure lhal slrongly presses lhe lower back againsl lhe fl< .r
(arrow) and thal reslrains inhalalion.
.11(, AI\i1 tost 01-" IIA77L I }'OGA
near the shoulders with the fingers pointing down, Then lift the pelvis aru
push the hands aga nst the Iloor, straghtening the elbows to complete tl l'
posture. Let the head hang passvely If you have limited strength but plent
of flexbility (fig. 5.29) you can easily come up, and if you have lots r
strength but lirnitcd f1exibility you can push yourself up int o so m
sernblance ofthe posture with brute force. Ifyou are limited in both real rr
the posture will be challenging, and a1l you may be able to do is pu-
against the f100r isometrically,
Given average spinal flexibility, the key lo the posture is efficient use f
the triceps brachii rnuscles. But the problem is that when the shoulders a e
against the Iloor, the extreme position of the upper extrernities (with t e
wrists extended !)Oc and the elbows fully flexed) challenges the ability of t e
triceps brachii rnuscles to extend the forearms, If students find themsel -s
strugglingjust lo lifi their hips, they will probably find that extending th .r
elbows to complete the posture is impossible. And even if they can pi -h
themselves partway up, the iliopsoas and the rectus femoris rnuscles, act Ig
as extensile ligarnents, will start lo limit them and prevent the requi e
hyperextension of the hips. These problerns are not insurmountable, Id
the usual remedy is lo kcep trying every day, gradually increasing stren h
and improving the backward bending capacity of the spine and hips, lU
can also lift up on your fingertips and the balls of the feet to make it ea -r,
Sooner ur later everything comes together and it becomes possiblt t o
partia1ly extend the elbows, and when lhal happens the lriceps bm l ii
muscles will be more eflicient in lifti ng you up. How the posture appear at
that point will depend un the arnount ofhackward bending in the spine nd
hips. With moderate flexibility the posture resembles an arch bridge, ,Id
with excellent f1exibility it becomes chakrasana.
figure 5.29. l he wheel poslure
requires a combinalion of sacroiliac
nulalion (see chapler six), moderale
hip hyperexlension, 90
0
of lumb?r
extension, and enough slrength In
Ihe arms (cspecially the triceps
brachii) lo push up inlo Ihe poslure.
Allernatively, tllose whu are
especially Oexible can drup
Ihe fmm a standing posll lon .
<;- IIAUo,'Jlf-MJ[I\(; N1\1/ RE!> 3' 7
We know that the diaphragm generally lirnits backbrmding in those who
are not flexible, and this is especially true uf the wheel, where the need for
muscular effort overwhelrns the ability to deepen the backbend with
inhalations. Advanced students who are lifted up in the posture dori't have
that problcrn, 'I' hey can easily adjust their breathing 50 that inhalations
arch them up more powerfully.
If you are an advanccd student 01' gymnast who can drop backward into
the wheel from a standing postura, you wilJ find this an excellent studv in
re-ordering priurities. Instead of establishing a solid base and moving ;OUI'
attent ion and efforts frorn distal to proximal (chapter 4). you lean backward
from a standing position, exhale, and drop into a provisional backbend with
your focus on the Iower back. Then you alter the positions 01' the upper and
lower extremities, moving thern close r together to bring the coro uf the
body under tensi n.
As you lower yourselfinto the posture, the quadrceps femori come into
t heir own, resisting all the way. The pectoral muscles also cume under
increascd tension and impart that tension to the chest. AHof this happens
Iast , but you are able to do it because you have prepared for a long time and
are confident t hat the abdominal rnuscles, the respi ratory and pelvic
diaph ragms, and the psoas, iliacus and rectus femoris muscles wilJ have
cnough strongth to protect the lumbar region.
Advan ced students wiUalways exhale as Ihey drop into the wheel from
a standing position. Intermediate students often do not have that much
confidence, and if they are unccrtain of themselves they tend to hold lheir
breat h a" f,hey drop back, knowing consciously or unconsciously that lhis
will protect the back. As they stiffi.y lower lheir hands to the Ooor, oflen
with a plop, it is obvious lhat they are guing beyond Ihcir reasonable capacity.
Such students should concentmte on coming into lhe wheel from the
l:iUpine posture until they are more f1exible ami confident.
I30th inter mediate and advanced students wilJ find that they nel>dto be
of their knees, especial1y if they wish lo lift fmm the whccl back
lIlto a standing posture. The quadriceps fernoris muscles are aIready exerting
101. of tension on the lrnee joints in a flexed position, and lhat tension wiH
lJlcreID;e during the forward-thrusting maneuver to sumd up.
SUPINE BACKBENDI NG
The deep muscles lhat ordinarily hold the spine crect also keep it
compressed, and it is only when you are Iying clown thar they can relax and
all
o.
,,: lhe vertebral bodies to spread apart (chapter 4>- Any reclining
Po81\lon can accomplish this aim lo sorne extcnt, hut ir is especially useful
10 relax in a passive supinc backbend in which you Iie on a bolsler that
Permils your spillc to extend without muscular invoJvcment.
I IX Mil7Tl,\/I' orustu HJC.A
In hatha yoga classes we can accomplish this by lying passively on a bal
placed underneath the spine anywhere between the pelvis and the head
This wi ll open and re lease the facet joints of the su perior and in fer io
articulat ing processes, and you can relax and let gravity do the work (
stretching the spine, with the ball acting as a fulcrum all the way up al'
down the vertebral column. 'I'he idea is to relax muscles frorn the knees t
the head on hoth the front and back sides of the body. It is a good idea
be wary of doing these exercises too much in the bcginning. They a
deceptively simp le. 'I'hey increase back and neck mobility, and they streu
you out more than you realize. It is easy to do too much and not know t
until the next day.
You can experiment with di fferenl types and sizes of balls, b
standard 8 1/2 inch playground balls (sumetimes called fuursquare ba s
or action balls) that contain 1-2 pounds of air pressure per square ir h
work woll. This size and type ofball is excellent ifyou are in good to avert e
condition. lt is relatively soft, it does not press too sharply against I e
spinous processes and back muscles in any one place, and it's big enou h
to give rnost people a good stretch. Basketballs. vol1eyballs, and soc -r
balls are too hard or the average persono Softer plastic balls can be foi d
for those who find the standard playground ball too hard. But don ' t "Y
these exercises at all if you have acute back pain or a recent historj If
ehronic back problems.
First place the ball under the pelvis with the knees extended, and ,JI
frorn side to side to mobilize and stimulate the sacroiliacjoints, apply 11g
pressure to different regions of the pelvic bowl and noticing I or
not you can relax (fig. 5.30). lf you can'1, it means that you are havm to
protect yourself for sorne reason, and you may want to use a smal1er nd
sofier ball or place sorne pillows under the hips and shoulders to l . 'n
lhe stretch. 'fhen, afier working with the pelvis and sacroiliac joints. n
the body down an inch at a lime so the ball makes contact with L5,. t ' n
lA, amI on toward lhe mid-Iumbar region. continuing to roll from SI to
side in each new position. Take your time and explore the sensul
l l
l S.
You may feel sorne discomfort posteriorly as well as muscular resist: ' loe
in the thighs, muscular resistance that pulls downward on the frOl of
the pelvis. This tension (on both right and left sides) he
reetus femoris muscle. which pulls inferiorly on the anlerwr 11l {i 'or
iliac spine (of the pelvis), and from the sarlorius whicb: ati he
longest muscle in the body, pulls on lhe I
spille al1 the way froro the medIal border 01' the tibIa.. No.tlce t a
breatbing has little impact on the posture: your lumbar reglOn lti alrt: ,dy
arched so deeply Ihat the crura of lhe diaphragm cannol furt el'
increatie the lordosis.
S. /l ACI\HI \DI.\(; 1'Il..\71/HES .119
You will have diflerent sensations when tbe ball is under the mid-Iumbar
regin (in cornparison with the pelvis) because this segment of the spine
pcrmits a lot 01' backbending. If you have any lower back tenderness, your
weight on the ball at this site will expose it quickly, but ir you are entirely
comfortable you will soon feel relaxation spreading down the body. First
the shoulders relax and the upper chest sinks toward the floor; then the
abdominal muscles start to relax, which allows your breathing to become
slow and srnooth; then the hip tlexors (the psoas and iliacus muscles) begin
to relax, along with the quadriceps femori, the adductors, and the
hamst ring muscles. As that happens the relaxation deepens and the back
conforms more and more to the curvature of the ball (fig, S.jl).
When you mil the ball to the lumbar-thoracic junction, the lumbar
lordosis becornes less pronounced but is capable of more mobility, and deep
inhalat ions will accentuate its arch. Now it becomes more difficult to roll
from side to side, but stretching the arms overhead adds to the stretch in
the chest and opens the rib cage. This creates a perfect moment to take
deep t horacic inhalations and expand your inspiratory capacity, 'I'he work
in this regin will now start to affect the neck because the head drops back
passively, and the neck will have lo be strong and flexible to support its
dead weight. If you are uncomortable you can place one or more pillows
under your head to temper the stretch and tension.
As you rol1 the ball under the rniddle and upper thoracic region you can
gradually lower the hips to the floor and slowly feel resistance melt away
(fig, 5.32). As soon a" that happens the lumbar region will become passive
and will not be afTccted by your breathing, and you will notiee that the
exercise mostly afTects the neck and rib cage, As you relax with the hall
under t he chesl, you may fcel small adjustments taking place at tiny {acet
joinls located between the ribs and the vertebral bodies, and between the
ribs and lhe transverse pl'ocesses (figs. 4.6a, 4.7a-b, and 5.33). This can be
helpful ir a rib has become dislocated al the site ofthese joints by a sudden
unusual movement when the spine is in a hent position. Someone who
understands the anatomy of the joints belween the ribs and the spine can
the head of the rib back into ils conect position and bring relief. but
J)aSSlve supine backbending on a ball can also al1eviate minor dislocations.
5.30. Passive supine backbend wi th an 8 1/2 inch playground ball under
. e pelvis and mUed slight ly to one side. Her e we are t imu lating and mobiliz.
/lIg lhe sauoiliac joints.
\ 20 A\i\ H ),lfl Of" 1M711A 11K,A
5, {'0\11 .12 1
Kneel with your thighs al right anglos tu lhe floor with your weighl
placed on your knees and the bottom surfaces of your flexed toes. Next,
place the hands on the hips, fingers down. Stretch the pe/vis forward .
Keeping enough tension in the quadrieeps femoris and iliopsoas muscles
to kecp Y0l! from falling backward, lower your head to the rear and extend
the spine backward until you are al the limit of the quadriceps and iliop-
soas muscles' abi/ity lo hold the position comfortably. Walch your breath:
if you have to restrain it al the glottis to protect you 1"spine, you havo gone
loo far,
At this point look and reach back with only one hand, swinging the
ot her arm Iorward fOI" balance. Do this Iirst on one side and lhen on the
other (fig, 534), making a mental note of how diflicult it would he lo place
both hands aguinst the heels 01" anklos al. the same lime. Now nv the same
exercisc with your toes pointed to the real'. It is quite a bit harder, Because
the hee ls are dosel" to the Iloor you have lo reach baek further than Y0l!
do wilh the toes flexed, and reaehing back Iurther will require more
stretch and strength of the quadriceps femoris rnuscles, which are already
being worked and perhaps overworked just lo support the posture. Finally,
With the ball under the neck you should lry lo relax from the lowor
chest down. At first you may experience sorne pulling sensatiuns in lhe
upper chest that are difficult to release, bul after you have worked with tlu
various postures in the shoulderstand series (chapter 1) and your neck has
become strong and flexible, this poslure becomes so comfortablo that YUl
can easily fall asleep in it . Do be watchful uf this. It is easy lo develop a sti
neck ifyou stop paying altention to what you are doing.
After you have gotten used tu placing your weight straight bac
symmetrically, you can roll the head and neek from side to sido again.
the ball , mashing down against it actively, working your way down t b
transversa processes of the vertebran between CI and Cz. This is bol
st.irnulating and relaxing, and it is an intenso but effective rernedy ti
stiffness, Jt can be done softly againsl a spongy ball by someone who
delicale, more vigorously against a playground ball by the avera
person, and even more aggressively againsl a soccer ball, volley ball. r
basketball by bodybuilders.
A KNEELING BACKBEND--THE CAMEL
A carnel's back is about seven feet off the ground. Forlunately Ior its ridcI a
camel can kneel, so one does not have lo embark and disernbark to and fr m
that heighl, and thal is where this knccling hatha yoga posture gets
name, Only intermedialc and advanced students should try the full vers n,
and oven they should do the following test exercises if lhey have not done le
posture before.
Figure 5.31. A ball placcd dire('t1}' under Ihe lumbar region is supremcly rel ! ng
if the lower back is healthy, bul if Ihe subjecl s unable to relax Ihe abdomer
and thighs, Ihis is evidence for currenl or incipicnt lower bal.:k problcms.
head of Ihe rb
lamina
spinous
---- process
lacel jomt cavrty
between rib and
Iransverse
process
facel ont cavity between
nb and vertebral body
intervertebral disk
figure 5.32. A ball placed under Ihe mid-chest region permits the pelvis lo
drop to the Ooor, and mobilizes the face t joints bctwcen the ribs amI thorac
vertebral bodies, and between the ribs and Ihe thoracic transverse process('
(!lee figs. 4.6-7 and 5.33).
Figure 5 33 A . '.
\liew .. : cross-sectlon Ihrough a mld-thoraClc vertebra and two ribs. lhe
\1 pOlnl 15 from aboye, and it portrays an intervertebral disk along with the
arch. pedides, laminae, and vertebral canal. four synovial facet joint
b Ihes are also apparent, two between Ihe heads uf lhe ribs and the verlebral
and two more betwcen the ribs and the transverse proccsscs (rom
Orrts). See also figs. 4.6a and 4.7a-b.
.122 tI /\ :47T).\1\ 01' /fA IHA \ OCtI
ir you are comlortable in the test exercises and confident t hat you can o
the full posture and come out of it gracefully, flex YoU!" toes again, re" h
back, and either touch your heels momentarily with your middle fingi ' S
or re st your hands on your ankles. You can easily come out of eit l -r
position by pushing up asyrnmetrically from one side, Come up, th en co e
back down into the posture and push up from the other side first. It di
be harder on the thighs to come up symmet r ically, lifting up and av IY
frorn both ankles at the same time. When you can finally come in and u
of this posture gracefully, either one si de al. a time, or from both le
symmetrically, start all over and work with the pose with the toes ext en -d
(fig. 5.35).
The camel posture might be considered a modification of a staru 19
backbend, except that it is more advanced because you can't come int it
halfway. You' re cither in it, or you 're notoIn a standing backbend you an
arch back to within your reasonable capacity, stay there for a while, nd
then come up, but the only way you can do the camel is lo reach back tor
your heels or an kles, and keep on reachi ng unti l you make contactoTI ' re
is another less demanding alternativa if you are a beginner, and ti is
to support the lower back with your hands and arch back as far as ur
capacity permits. Over time, you will develop enough conlidence to r ich
Ior one heel,
The camel generally places the body in an unusual combination of mt
positions-hyperextension of the hips, stress on the knees from t ensii in
the quadriceps femori, extcnsion of the ankles, and extension of the SI I le.
You have to focus your attention from hcad lo t oe, and at the sa me ti mo ou
figure 5.34. Beginner's training
pose for the carnel. Reaching
back toward the heel (toes
llexed) with one hand whi le
the other is reaching forward
for bala nce is easy for healthy
beginners.
5. /l tl C/\/lF V ISC 1'O.. \71!1(' :'i ~ 3
nave to intuit how lar to reach back in order to touch your ankl es, Just
as important, you should come out of the posture t he same way you carne
in, but now you are pulling up and forward with the already-stretched
quadriceps Iemoris muscles, which are now at a mechanical disadvantage.
Even though it may he difficult to pull yourself up and Iorward with those
muscles, it's not a good idea to simply coJlapse down becau se that places
even more st ress on the knees.
CONTRAINDICATIONS
By most standa rds of hatha yoga, the cobra exercises gi ven through and
induding the section on rai sing up and down with breathing are mild,
mea ning that anyone in average condition can do thern, The rest of the
cobras, however, as well as many of t he other backbending postures that
follow, including most of the locusts, boats, bows , the lumbar lift, the fish,
the wheel, passive supine backbending, and the camel, may be overly
st ressful for anyone with a history of chronic back pain, 01' even worse, for
anyone with acute back pain. Therefore be conservative, and consider
those postures contraindicated for such conditions.
Any posture that increases intra-abdominal but not intrathoracic pressure
may exacerbate hiatal hernia, and rnany of the more challenging back-
bending postures create these exact pressure differentials. If you
sometimes have pain in the upper abdomen on the left sido, especially after
eati ng, re-read the discussion on hiatal hernia in chapter 3 so you can form
your own judgment about doi ng the backward bending postures. And i f you
are still uncertain, seek medical advice.
F
Igure 5.35. Carnel posture.
BUifd up lo it cautiouslv and
Syslemat ically frorn the half-
carnel, lrst with Ihe fcet and
toes f1 exed and finally with
th
ern
extended, always making
sUre you can come out of the
Pllsture gracefully.
J24 A/\"AHl'\/l or IIA"I7/,l I'(C,'l
BENEFIT5
Backbending, forward bending, twisting, inverted, and standing poslu ' S
each have individual and group personalilies. Among these, backbendi Ig
postures are the most exhilarating and invigorating. As yoga postures t I 'y
stimulate the syrnpathe ic nervous system and prepare you for activi ty ln
ordinary life activities, mild backhending relieves the tedium of si tt Ig
hunched over a desk, the stress from manipulating objects in the anvironrm it ,
and the habit of loo much resting and rcclining. ln backbending you ext id
yoursel, Iiterally and Iiguratively, by liftingyour posture, ra sing your spi ts,
and preparing yourself for action.
jllJ,ILJj 6"l'LEn l a oj/l//aJlI.rt' -
j:;lli'l/J.1 lJ t'37 lcnlff iJ d ,
j{J/II rt-E'l tI u'hlrh rmL.1d //.1 OI/Hl / IOHl lf{l l() /I('I{/' t:' tNally CI#'II
I1I 11{' IIJiJr . n l r ryIOY/.ti/JII J /1.l'e /'0 ; ;tl:-/' /'id o/(,i
llU:r/tla/:'/t- "
_ Bengal Baba, in The Yogasutra of'Patanjali , pp. .\4-35
CHAPTERSIX
FORWARD BENDI G
POSTURES
"J0 a O//I.rt7.f/ lrlY' a .Ja/I/1,;'0// hy/ Ir' t//14,1:1/rN, dyour
('II/JI/ ;,';,4 /.ltpt/./.I;?C. ./4'r {;;4 a'rN';'/M /Ij 0 1(1//
/7/ld.-f//{'J{/I.1/ltl!elhalh ea l t:J ;t?/!/
/ UJI. %{(,I' I///cntn/ /Y'p'l/Ia frj Jlow' je,;{ 4 k /lnrcI Jc(J,
{'//Id{INN' &4 klJy /lll h l /llL' tj,{lOII/C e.n::n:/JI/I? / {')o I/Nch.
/'-c JkCIt/I? / {')OmurA: am/ j o jbdA. .,
- Pandit Rajmani Tigunait, in Inner Quest , p. H.
"eun you touch your toes?" Flcxibility is equated first and foremost with
"Ilex-ability," and flexing forward-s-reaching for YoW' toes-is its universal
standard. It is what a hatha yoga teacher first seos, whal a high school
track coach on the alcrt for hamstring injuries is aware of, and it is the first
thing personal trainers check when they measure your flcxibi lity in health
clubs. For testing purposes it means forward bending with the knees
stra ight ; if the knees are bent most people can fold forward almost
complel ely.
Whet her we are bending our knees 01' keeping them straight, we make
vas t ly more use of forward bending than backbending. It is common
enough lo face an object, reach forward, and pick it up, but few can reach
backward from an uprighl posture inlo the wheel, and even those who are
able to do so wou ld never reach over backward lo retrieve somet hing frorn
t he floor. We also spend hours every day in siuing forward bends-in front
of CXImputer screens, in car seats, in movie theaters, 01' on couches--generaUy
with our backs roundcd to the real' and our hips Ilexed, Everything
considered, forward bending is more deeply ingrained in our bodies and
nervous systems than any other posture.
In chapter 5 we saw that backward bending takes place mostly in the
Vertebra! column, and t.hat forward bending ineludes hip and ankle flexion
as well as spinal bending. And because we can bend Iorward generously al
lhe hips, we see many more forward bcnding lhan backbcnding post.ures in
hatha yoga, They are ineludcd in one form 01' anot.hcr in practically every
chapte r 01' this book.
32(, ANATOMI UF }(l(,'A
We'll start by looking at the anatomy of al] the si tes where forward
bending can take place, from head to toe. Then we'lI focus on severa!
forward bendi ng post ures in detail: t he posterior stretch and its varia
tions, the down-facing dog, and the chi ld's pose. And finally, becausr
forward bcnding relies so heavi ly on sacroiliac and hip Ilexibility, we' l
t ur n to the various postures and exe rcises that encourage movement i -
the sacroiliac joints and that open the hip joints and make them mor
accommodating.
FORWARO BENOING: HEAO, NECK, ANO CHE5T
We saw in chapter 5 that the seven cervical vertebrae permit about 9
of forwa rd flexiono In an upright posture, you can initiate a forwa I
bend of the head with the t iniest nudge from the sternocleidomaeto d
muscles (fig. S. ll), which have a dual origin on the sternum and 1 e
clavicle and run Irorn there up and back to the heavy bony protubr r-
ance (the mastoid procese) just underneath the ear. After init.iat i Ig
the bend wi t h t hese muscles, gravity carries t he head further forwa i,
controlIed (as should by now be familiar) by eccentric lengthening of
extensor rnuscles on the back side of the neck, as we ll as by tensi o In
the elastic tissue in the ligarnenta flava and the ligamentum nuc de
(chapter 4).
As soon as the head comes forward, you can rest in that position id
explore how the tissues respondoThat is enough. It would be unnatur, to
make an extra efort tu flex the neck while you are focused primaril: n
bonding in the lower back and hip joints. Our main concern with th e 1 -ck
is that i t be comfortable. Pain in one part of the body often has effects 1 .,e-
where, and neck pain doesn't have to be very serious before it stops urr
desire to do anything else,
'fhe art iculations of the ribs with the twelve thoracic verl e -ae
post eriorly (chaptcr 4) and with the costal cart ilages and urn
anteriorly (figs, 2.5 and 4.3-4 ) creares a hollow basket, a fixed unit hat
cannot easilv accommodate either forward, side, 01' backward benr ng.
Forcing the 'thoracic vertebrae and the rib cage inlo such curves uld
only break ribs, disart.iculate costal cartilages, and collapse the c 's.
Onlv about 10 total of forward to backward bending can take place ' th-
in the normal thorax of an average twenty-year-old, which mean!' hat
the front-to-back mobility of t he upper part of the torso depends al .ost
cnlirely on spinal flexibility in the lumbar regin, sacroiliac mol' jty,
and hip flexibility.
1> H}/(Il /1RD 1If.,\ 'IJIfl.G l'OYJ7 ND 327
LUMBAR ANO LUMB05ACRAL FORWARO BENOING
In chapter '; we saw that most forward bending in the spine from TI and
below takes place in the six intervertebral disks in the lumbar area
between the twelfth thoracic vertebra and t he sacrum. Up to 90 of Iorward
bending is occasionally seen here, but 30-80 is more common. A moder-
ately flexible young athlete might reveal 40 of flexibility in the lumbar
region plus 75 01' flexibility in the hips, and just be able to grasp his toes
with his outstretched fingen, (fig. 6. 1).
Students who havo good spinal Ilexibility might be able to bend
forward more than 50 in the lumbar area, but they will not ordinarily
choose to do so in hatha yoga postures. It is more convenient for them
t o bcnd forward at the hip joints, whcre cart.ilage slips against carti-
lage in synovial fluid, than to perturb the six intervcrtebral disks
betwee n 'fu and SI. For the average person hip flexibi lity does not
perrnit this, and such people usualIy try to compensate by trying to
bend forward more in the lower back. Yoga teachers know that this is
a for mu la for trouble, and that is why they always say "bend from the
hips."
THE DEEP BACK MUSCL ES
It t a kes only one glance at a class of novices attempting sitting for-
war d bends to see why it is not a good idea to force such postures:
the resist.ance of the deep back musclcs compresses the vertebral
column, stresses the intervertebral disks, and strains ligaments
from t he sacrum to the head. So if this is the case, what do we want
fr om the spine and deep back muscles? The answer is strcngth and
adapt abil i ty: decp back muscles that can relax completely in the
corpse postura, play their rightful role as extensilc ligaments for
maint ai ni ng an upright poslure, and still act slrongly as agents for
bending and twisting.
Figure 6.1. This
forward bend
illust rates 75
of hip flexion
and 40 uf
lumbar flexion
in a moderately
flexible young
alhlete
(simulation).
32X A.\:ITU.t/1 orn-vm lULA
5ACROI LlAC NUTATION AND COUNTERNUTATION
Even though the sacroiliac joints are synovial joints, their opposing surface
usually fit together tightly enough for evcry movcment of'the pelvis to alTeett h
sacrum (and therefore the spine as a whole), and for every movement of ti
sacrum to afTeel the pelvis. 'I'his view-that the sacroiliac joinu are cssential
immobil has practical value, and it was in fact the only view until the 19j C.
hut it is an oversimplification: the synovial struct ure of the healthy sacroili
joint is now known lo provide its groove-and-rail architecture (figs. 3-3and 6. 2
with the capacity for a small arnount of slippagc---movements that havo b
called nut ati on and counternutat ion by the French orthopcdi..st LA Kapand]
Even though nutation and countornutation are oftcn minimal, tJ1< e
movements are important 101' doing hackward bending, forward bendi .j ,
and seated meditation posturcs with the niceties and refinements t rt
expert hatha yogis take for granted, The difficulty is that few hatha YI IS
(01' Ior that matter exercise specialists of any variety) have encounu, -d
discussion of how thc movernents function in posture, athlctics, and d y.
to-day life. To understand how and why nutation and counternutation re
important to us, we must look al their scope and nature in detail.
NUTATION AND COUNTERNUTATlON
Nutation and countemutation are not cornplicated concepts as long as ne
understands three points: The first is that the sacrum rotates roughly 1 a
sagittal (front-to-back) plane uiithin. the pelvic bowl. Nutation rotates he
promon/ory (the top front border) of the sacrum anteriorly (t owarc he
front of the body) and it rotates the coccyx posteriorly (toward the b UI of
the body) ; counternutation rotales the promontory of the sacrum post ei -rly
and the coccyx anteriorly, It is irnportant not to confuse these speca eed
sacroiliac rotations with anterior and posterior pelvic tilts , which are moven nts
of the pelvi s as a whole. Nutation and counternutation are sacroi liac ul-
and-groove slippages ofthe sac r um betuieen the pclvic bones (fig. fi .U! ) ' 01.
tilts of the entire pelvic bowl.
The second point to understand is that the plan es in whi ch the sacr ac
joints le are not parallel to ono anot her, If they were-if the joints ere
sit uated in exact parasagittal planes (parallel to the midsagittal pl a i of
the body)-the sacrum could rotate without disturbing the configurat f 1 0C
the pelvi s as whole. That doesn't and indeed can't happcn becaus- t he
sacrum has a broad wedge-like shape with th e leadi ng face of the \ Ige
pointng lo the real'. And since the mating surface s uf the sacroiliac j nts
always remain in c10se apposition, nutation pull s the ilia c10ser togt he
r
(t hat is, toward the midlinel as the promontOl")' of the sacrum ro teS
furward, and countcrnutation for'ces lhe ilia laterally (that is, away I orn
the midlinel as the promontory orthe sacrum rotates to the real' (fig (, a).
6. f URII ARf) BEl\ /)/M. " 0.\/7 RM 3!Y
left ischial
_ tuberosity
I- igure 6.2a. The gross movements of the pelvis and sacrum that are involvcd in
sacroiliac nutation are indicaled by arrows. The promontory of the sacrum is
lhrust forward ('), the i1iac cresls are shifted med ially(..), and the ischial
luberosities are spread apart (' l. For counternulalion, the shifts are in the
opposile direction: the i1iac crests rnove laterally, the sacral prornontory moves
poster iorly, and the ischia rnove medially (rorn Kapandji, with pennssion).
Figure 6.2b. Enlargement of fig. 3.3 showing Ihe matching ral (un the lefn and
g r ~ l v (on the right) architecture uf an idealized sauoiliac juint. Such a joint
rnlglll permit up to 10 of slippage (essentiallya rolationl between full nutation
and full counternutation. l he pelvic bone (Ieft) has been dis.,rticulated fmm the
sacrUI11 (righO and f1 ipped horizontally tu reveal the articular surfacL'S and to sug-
Rl'st how a heallhy sauoiliac joint cuuld permil this much movemenl (SappeYl.
J3
0
AI\AT()MI 01- lfA77/A I(K;,1
Final ly, remember from chapter J that each pelvic bone (one on ea h
side) is composed ofthe fused ilium, ischium, and pubis, with the ilia on 1 p
al the waistline, the pubic components in Iront aboye the genitals, and 1 e
ischia with their tuberosities below and behind (figs, 32-4) . When th e la
are pulled loward the midline during nutation, the i schia and iscl LtI
tuberosities have to swing laterally, and when the ilia are spread apart IY
counternutation, the ischial tuberosities rock back toward one another. Te
should note that even though nutation and counternutation were narnei 10
recognition of the movements of the sacrum a lone (nutation me lI S
nodding forward, in this case nodding forward of the promontory of fte
sacrum), the accompanying movcments of the pelvic bones are eq lIy
important (fig, 6.28).
The way these movements are orchestrated during childbirth fun ier
clarifies t heir function. Again, according lo Kapandji, during the rly
stages oflabor counternutation draws the promontory ofthe sacrurn lr he
roar and sprcads the ilia, making more space for the baby's head , il
approaches the birth canal. 'I'hen, as the head enters the vagina, nut : Ion
draws the eoccyx to the rear and spreads the ischia, opening the base ( the
body and easing delivery
NUTATION AND COUNTERNUTATl ON IN HATHA YOGA
Four fundamental movernents illustrate how the concepts of nu t ion
and counternutation apply to hatha yoga. First., to create maxi um
nutation, stand with the thighs abducted (feet perhaps 3 feet apart ind
come into a forward bend purely from the hips. To avoid forward bet ling
in the spine, most people should reach out to a desktop or wall ( fi ').7,
except with the thighs abducted) . Gel settled into a comfortable pP ion
in which you can monitor your pelvis and vertebral column, and l hl ' try
to lhrusl your coccyx even more posleriorly and the promonlory f the
sacrum even more anteriorIy. Ifyour sacroiliacjoints permit. you WI leel
sorne peculiar shifts within the pelvis, shifts which Oexible stu ~ n t s
report as "spreading the sitti ng bones" or "feeling the thighs me
apart." Such descriptions are not metaphors; these movementl ae lally
happen during lhe coursc of nutation. You may be able to feel t h n in
yourself, and you can certainly appraise them in a highly flexible p, ner,
d f h
'hial
either by placing your thumbs againsl the insi es o t ~
luberosilies from behind, 01' by lying down on the floor and placln 10 u r
b bl
feel
hands against the inside oftheir upper thighs. You may not e 8 e l
the
the movements of your partner's sacrurn, but the movernents I
b E
. the
ischial tuberosities and ofthe femurs are unforgetta le. asmg up 1
posture will produce counternutation and pull the ischia and IJper
thighs back t.ogether.
F()HII AHf} BE/\/)/.\(, 1' 0.\''/7 HI 'S JJI
Next, consider relaxed standing lumbar backbends (Iigs. 4.20 and ').2).
which provide yet another example of nutation. As you bend lackadaisically
to the rear you can easily imagine that the ilia are pulled backward and
medially in relation lo the upper part of the sacrurn. The top 01' the sacrum
moves backward as well , but its promontory is squeezod [oncard relativa
ro the ilia. The coccyx, by contrast, moves to the rear in relation to the
pelvic bowl, and t.he ischial tuberosities spread apart. These conditions all
define nutation-the nodding forward of the promontory of the sacrum. It
rnay seem counter-intuitive that nutation accompanies a relaxed standing
backhend, but that. is whal happcns.
Third, in contrast to forward bending from the hips and relaxed lumbar
backbends, easy standing forward bends from the waist result in counter-
nutation. Here the ilia are first pu lled forward and laterally in relation to
the upper part of the sacrum. which means that the sacral promontory
moves backward (again relative lo the pelvic bowl). And as the ilia are
spread apart, the coccyx moves forward and the ischial tuberosities come
closcr toget her,
Four t h, recall Irorn chapter ') that most hatha yoga teachers ask students
to squeeze their hips together and create whole-body backward bends
rather t han relaxed lumbar bends. Squeezing the hips togethcr, along with
keeping plenty of eccentric tensi n in the iliacus and rectus fernoris muscles,
main tains lhe attitude of counternutation by holding the ischia close
together and by keeping the promontory of the sacrum pulled to the rear
ra ther than allowing it to be squeezed forward. Yoga teachers intuitively
recognize thal it's a sharper, safer posture, especially for beginners.
Reiterat ing: to avoid getting confused. the rcader rnust constantly
remember thal nulation and counlernutation describe movcments of the
sacrum and pelvic bones purely in relation to one another. and lhat lhese
movemcnts may or muy not be the opposite of pelvic bowl movements dul"ing
lhe course of backbending and forward bending. For backbends in general
as weH as forward bends in general. movemenls of t.he pelvic bowl as an
entity are exactly what one would figure out logically: the Uppcl' rim ofthe
pelvis li lts backward during backbending (a poslerior pelvic till) and
forward during forward bending (an anterior pelvic tilO. Jusl don't forgel
1l1at such pelvic tilts are entirely separalc from the shifts bctween nutation
and countemutation.
It is difficult lo fcel and mensure the movements ofthe ilia dUJ;ng nutation
and counlernutation, but the medial and lateral excursions 01" lhe ischial
tuberosit ies and lhighs provide us wilh windows thal allow us to evaluate
lhe olher components of these specialized movemenls. Assuming that you
llave sorne sacroiliac mobility, place your middle fingers tightly against the
medial horders of your ischial tuberositics, and ask sorncone to measure
J.n 11,\' ,I1DMI UF flA77/A 10(;A
the distance between your lingernails during a relaxed standing backbe
What they'lI find is that this span rneasurcs about 2 inches in the male a l"
3 1/2 inches in the female, which represents mximum nutation (ilia 1
ischia out; Iig. 6.2a). It is important to stay relaxed for the measuremei
however, because ifyou tighten your hips, the gluteal musclcs will pulI yc
fingers closer together and skew the measurement to the low side.
Next come all the way forward (bending from the waist ), keeping ye r
fingers tightly in position. Now a flexible young man might show 11/2 inc] s
across the sarne span between the fingernails (a decrease of 1/2 inch), t d
a flexible young woman might show 2 1/2 inches across the same span a
decrease of I inch). 'l'his representa maximum counternutation (ilia t,
ischia in; fig, 6.2a) .
Now you know, or can at least imagine, why yoga teachers ask yoi o
bend forward Irom the hips (fg. 6.10--11). In contrast to what happens a
forward bend from the waist, the first thing you will accornplish, or at le st
try to accomplish, is nutation. Ifyou have sufficient sacroiliac mobility, lis
takes place automatically even before you bend at the hips, And the o 1{)-
site is true of whole-body backbends. For such bends, the safest attit le,
especially for beginners, is full counternutation (fig, 4.19>' 'I'he nuta un
that is established as a priority in relaxed lumbar backbends (fig. 4.2( is
best reserved for experts who are fully confident in their lower backs nd
who need full nutation for coming into extreme backbending positions .ch
as the advanced cobra (fig. ').12) or the wheel (lig.5.29).
FORWARD BENDING AT THE HIP JOINT5
If your ability to bend fon\'ard were to be tested casually or even ohject 'Iy
with devices that measure how far forwal'd you can rcach in a sitting fOl ro
bend. little or no distinct.ion wOllld be made between how much of lUt
flexibility is in the hips and how much is in the lowcr back.
ITI.'Chnieal not e: Under these circumstanees. no considcration would be giYPl1 ' l he
pos.<;ibll.' role ofsacroiliac movcments. Thal'sjusl as well. beCHuse whethe.r nut 'on
or counternutation is more significant will depend on the person: nutatlOll \ be
more prominent in lhose who haye good hip nexibility. and counlernutalion . be
more characleristic oC lhose who have to bend mo. tly from lhe waist. &ce Iiac
movcments take care 01" themselvcs naturully and will thercfore be ignored I l he
lollowing discussion.1
If you are unllsually flexible and can lay your chest down against lur
lhighs while kecping the knees straight, we can eslimate that t\1l' rst
stage of the bend will be about 120 of flexion at the hip joints anrl t ha he
se<.'Ond stage wiII be abollt 60 of flexion in the back. 'fhe fact lhat SOI11' Ine
who is trus flexible can bend twice as much in lhe hips as in the IUl lar
spine gives sorne idea of how important hip flexibility is lo forward heno ng
in general, llld it also accounts 101' why yoga tcachers place so n Ich
6 . '()Rllrl/(/J IJI.'.\IJ"'C, Po.\/I'1<E\ lJJ
emphasis on it : they know how useful hip flexibility is to thern personally.
Here we'll focus un its rnain impediments-hamstrings and adductors-i-for
those who are not so flexible.
THE HAMSTRING MUSCLES
'I'he hamstring muscles include the bceps [emoris, the semimembranosus,
and thesemiterulinoslls muse/es, and except for the short head ofthe bceps
femoris, which takes origin from the femur, Ihey all take origin from lhe
ischial tuberosities ami run Irorn there along the rear of the thighs al!
t he way to the bones 01' the leg-the tibia and fbula (figs. j .rob, H.9-10,
and 8.12).
Because the hamstring rnuscles bypass the distal end of the fmur; lexing
the knee joint brings their insertions closer tu their origins and releases
tensi n throughout the backs 01' the thighs during any forward bend.
Extending the knecs in a forward bend, on the other hand, stretches the
hamst r ings and generates tension that pul!s on the underside ofthe pelvis.
This in turn rnakes it difficult to rotate the top ofthe pelvis forward (in an
anterior pelvic tilo and rernove tcnsion from the Ilexed-forward lumbar
regon.
A simulation uf these effects in a flexible young man will clarify the role
of the harnstrings in forward bending. First he should lie supine with one
knee straight and the other knee flexed, and then he should draw the bent
knee toward the chest without pul!ing it so far that the pelvis is lirted away
from the floor. Keeping 1he knee flexed relieves hamstring tension so
effectively that the hip can now be flcxcd through a rango of about 150
0
fr om its supine starting posit.ion, cl'eating a .lo o angle with the floor
(lig. 63). 'I'hen B.o.; he extends the knee, the hamstring muscles will first be
pulled taut and then force a partial extension of the thigh to a less acute
angle, perhaps to a nearIy stmight up Ho
o
(fig. 6.4). This means lhat when
his knces are extended the hamstrings limit hip Oexion by 50.
!.!::!E AOOUCTOR MUSCLES
me ofthe adductor muscles ofthe thigh (ligs . 2.H, 3.8-1), and 8.13-
14)
have
a hamstring charaeter. That is, in addition to drawing the thighs toget.her
they pull them posteriorIy. And since sorne segments of the adductors
(chapler 4) take orign on the in/crior pubic rami near the ischial tuberositics
Ichapter 3), it is obvious that. lhey will limit forward bending exactly as the
hamstrings do-by exerting tension on the underside 01' lhe pelvili and
crealing a posterior pelvic tilt. II is also plain that tbe adductors will be
'lretched lhe least when thc thighs are together and the most when the
~ are wide apart. Therefore, with the thighs adducted, the limitaliolls lo
hl
p
Ilexihility are mostly [rom the hamlilrings (figs. 3.lob. 8.1)- lO, and /(12)'
.1.\4 .1N,\ mMI OFIIA71 /A HK;A
Abducted, any additional restriction to forward bending can unly be fl In
the adductors, How this operates depends on the persono As shown h. 'e,
the adductors limit hip flexion the most in those who start with less ip
flcxibility (figs, 6.5-6) .
FORWARO BENOING AT THE ANKLE5 ANO IN THE F EE
If you have average flexibility in the ankles, you will be abl e to flex tdors !X )
the foot no more than 20-30 and extend iplantarflex ) th e foot no more an
30-50. But you need to flex th e ankle 45 to drop the heel s to the fll in
hatha yoga post ures such as th e down-faci ng dog (figs. 6.17 and 8 . 2( as
well as to sit in a squat (especially with the feet parallell without Liftin he
heel s (fig, 6.7). Mobi lity for extending the ankle is also needcd Ior pos I I ~ S
such as the upward-facing dog (Iig. 'j .13) and for sitting comfortahly o he
heels with the toes pointed lo the real : The pained facial expression, n a
( l VI/ li A R}) nesou. I'II\ lIiHM 335
room filled with heginning hatha st udent s trying Lo s it in such a posture
rcflects how rarely it is used in \\'eslern societies.
Flex ion and extens ion at the ankle takes place at the talocrural joint ,
which is located between the distal ends of th e t ibia and fibul a on one hand
and one of the tarsal bones of the foot , the talus, on the other (fi g, 6Ji). The
distal ends of the tibia a nd fibul a forrn a hcm -cylindor (a cavity sha ped
roughly like half a cylinderl which articulates with the pulley-shaped upper
surface of th e talus. The rest of the bones of the foot permit little
movement except for th e metatarsals and phalangcs, which become
impor ta nt when the feet and toes a re Ilexed (t.hat is , when th e fect are
dorsiflexed and the toes are curled toward the headl and whcn th ey are
extended (that is, when the feet are plantarflexed and the toes are
pointed away from tho body) .
As in all joints, movern ents ofthe ankle are lirnited by muscular tension ,
ligaments, and bono, and it is tension in the soleus a nd gastrocnernius rnuscles
(figs. 310, 7.6, 8.<)-1 0, and H.12) on the back ofthe leg that first prevents you
from pressing the heel s to the floor in an attitude of flexion (that is
,
Figure 6.3. Hip f1 exion of up to about 150
0
is permitted when tension on t
hamstring muscles is released by f1exing the knee.
Figure 6.5. Wilh
the thighs
adducted, the
hamslring muscles
permil about 80
0
of hip f1exion.
Figure 6.4. When the knee is hel d fully extended, the hamst rings limil mo
people lo less Ihan 9()" of hip f1exion, in this case a simulated 80
0

figure 6.6. With the

!highs abdu ted, the
'ncreased tension on
lhe adductors (sorne
or which have a
harnstring character)
can furth er Iimit hip
flexion, in this case to
about 6Uo
6. FOIIII ,"'/) IJ/:',\,/)/;\"(i /'"Y/7 337
f ' (, 8 lile 28 bones and 25 joints associalcd with each fout and an kl
Igurl l 'the weighl of Ihe body and accomodate lo uneven 'iurfaces for \
l he lalocrural joint is Ihe one .which we are.constantly
hatha yoga because Ihal is where we the f1exlon an d
the ankle needed (ami frequently lacklllg) for so many postures (Sappey)
6.9. Squatting with
e feet well apart and
out is one of the
ti rnethods to gradually
ankle f1cxibility for

CLlNICAL MATTERS AND CAUTIONS
LOW BACK PAIN IN GENERAL
The causes 01' low back pain are legion, and attempling to consider them in
detai l is beyond the scope 01' this book. Nevertheless, a fow comrnents un
locating the pertinent anatornical hot spots are appropriate. Looking Irorn
above down, lumbar and lumbosacral pain appear just aboye the pelvis and
lose to the rnidline posteriorly. If pain just lateral lo this region is found
only on one side, it may be due to stress and wcakness in one 01' t.he
quadratus lumborurn. muscles, which are interposed hctween the psoas
muscles on one hand and the erector spinae and abdominal muscles on the
ot her, and which strengthen the all-irnportant connections between the ilia
and the rib eage (figs . l.7. 3.7, 5.'), and KI4). Allernatively, and possibly a
littl e lower and more precisely localized, tensi n on the iliolumbar
liga men/ s, which run between the fourth and fifth lumbar vcrtebrae to the
pelvis (fig. 3-4), may manifest as a slight pulling which cxtends from the
Contraindicabons to forward bending are obvious. Don't do any forward
bending postures if you have acule back pain: instead, get yourself under
the care 01' a professional, who by tradition will probably tell you to go lo
bed and rest. Hut there are many grey areas that indicate caution rather
than contraindication. Muscular tension sometirnes edges over into mild
discomfort 01' pain, and even if you have come into a posture carefully you
rnay still experienee sensations that you do not know how to interprel.
Explore these carefully and try to analyze their nature and source. Try to
discover ifthey include pain, stretch, 01' a comhination of' the two, and then
try to localize the specific sites 01' the sensations, 'fhe idea is to learn where
the forward bend is being limited so you can attend more speciically lo
that sito. You may decide to limit yourself to being watchful, 01' you may
decide to plan a program 1'01' working with the reginn more actively.
In)
he
Ikng
of in
of
gs,
ed,
ice
13) .
ms
lTlg
Ides
'ity
At
dely
lave
and
5 rnelatarsals lateral
malleolus
fibula __
Figure 6.7. Excellen t
ankle f1exibility for
f1exion b required Ior
squatting f1at on the
f100r wilh t he feet
together and parallel .
dorsiflexionl in the down-facing dogo Extension (that is, plantarfle
is more likely to be checkcd by ligaments and bone, although tensi n IJ
flexors, which a.re situated on the anterior sides of the bones in t.he
will curb extension in everyone whose ankle Iloxibility is scverely lin
O el' time. oxtension of the ankle joint takes carc of itself with the pr a
of postures such as the upward-facing dog with the toes extended (fig.
Developing the capacity for flexion is more difficult because the gastrocm
and soleus muscles, as well as the ankle joints, have developed lil
habils Ior functioning within limited lengths and rangos ofmotion. El
the down-facing dog, possibly the hest practice for correcting an inca
for l1exion is simply to sil in a squat for l-_' minutes severa! times a d
first you can squat with YoU!' Ieet well apart and your toes angled out I
enough to permit your heels to reach the floor (fig. 69), and after you
ucclimated to that you can gradually bring your feet closer togethi
parallel.
.n
ll
:! \AIOMI orn.vrn IlX,,1
lowest two lumbar vertehrae laterally to the crests ofthe ilia on both SI' -s.
These importan1 ligaments stabilize the lumbar region in relation to le
pelvis and augment stabilization of the sacroiliac joinL One 01" of he
iliulumbar lgaments is occasionally stressed, generally un one side of he
body, and is a common source of low back pain. If you experience . ne
relief from digging your thumhs into the grooves just medial to the cr of
the ilium on each side, especially while you are doing a standing backl nd,
YOII are probably a1leviating strain on these ligaments.
Foreshortened hamstrings, adductors. and hip flexors are o en
contributing elements to low back pain. Because our ordinary activith do
not keep these muscles stretched and flexible, they can gradually Ix , me
shorter, oceasioning chronic tensin, injury, and subsequent rnuscle s Sol
in the deep hack muscles and hips, not tu mention a general resistan to
forward bending. A long-terrn course of stretching and strengthening .. it h
emphasis on the latter, is indicated.
SACROlllAC SPRAIN
Continuing inferiorly, maltunctional sacroiliac joints are also fre qi ntly
associated with low back pain. Their architecture varies, not only from J -son
to person, hut from one side of the body to the olher. Only one charact, istic
is constant-reciprocal mating surfaces that match one anothor (fi
and .zb). An indentation on one surface of the joint always ma te ...s 8
tubercle (bulge) on the other, and a ridge on one sido always rnau es a
groove on the other. If the matching surfares are smooth, movemCI will
be free, but if they are irregular, wilh many peaks and valleys, mo I lcnt
will be limited, and over a long period of time we would not he surpr -d to
see thal fibrotic connections have formed t1lat hind the opposing Sil ces
together. If lhal process is not interruptcd with daily exercise, mg,
t t and
and hatha yoga postures 1hat an' designed to encourage nu a 1
coun1ernutation, anllylosis (that is, partal or complete fusion) of tb ,ints
may develo and if that happens, as mentioncd earlier, any disl ( Ition
can produce extreme pain and trauma.
Pain from dislocations of the sacroiliac joint appears lower and e <htly
bo al
ilio-
more lateral to sites tbat are exhibiting lumbar, lum sa.cr , a
lumbar' ligament pain. miUalIy more on one side than the ot,he: the
d 1
t tndcr
surrounding musclcs do not keep 1he joint proteete w len 1 18
h
th sirle
stl
' CSS, the fibrous tissue that binds the sacrum to one 01' t e o (
l r S ir
of the lium can be torn, with repcrcllssions that can last for t1led
the injury is not diagnosed and propcrly trealcd. This . ' e
sacroifiac sprai1l, muy be so painful that the surruunding muscles ,mm'
tI e
ol nt Then as such a spram heals, the ofTendedjoint. often beeomes ,ck
. 1 J . , litY
whi le t he one on the opposite side compensates with too mueh 010 I .
6 IOHl! .1RIJ IWJ\VII\C 1'0\ 71 Rf.\ J.\Y
If thal happens you can try to restrain movcrncnt un the side that is overly
rnobile and promote movernent on the side that is locked, and if you get to
work on the condition before the joint becomes cornpletely fused, you may
be able to gradually regain mobility and balance. Asymmetric standing
post ures are ideal, as is the pigeon, which wc'l1 cover later in this chapter.
You can work with these postores three times. favoring the tight side first
and las t , so long as you keep in mind that any program trying to deal with
anything more than rninor problcms should be approvcd by a professional,
SCIATICA
There is one more thing to ccnsider--the sciatic neroe (Iig. j.roai-c-that is
loosely associated (at least by the general public) with lower back problems.
Most nerves course alongside and arnong the flexor muscles of joints, so
that folding the joint releases tension on the nerve, But the sciatic nerve,
which pas ses posterorly through the hip on the extensor side, is a glaring
except ion: hip flexion places it under more rather than less tensi n. This is
ordin arily not a problem, but when muscles deep in the hip are injured,
scar t issue forros during the healing process and frcquently restricts rnove-
ment of the sciatic nerve somewhere along its COUl"SC through the muscles
supporting the hip joint, This usually happens in the region of the
piriformis muscle (Iigs, j.xb, j.ioa, and 8.12). The result is scialica-pain
that radi ates down t he back ofthe thigh. Ir, after a seemingly minor injury,
you gel a dull persistent pain in one hip and thigh when you are forward
bending, or even just walking or sitting, it is probably sciatica. It can last
for days, weeks, or even ycars, but assurning the source of the problem is
in the hips, it can uSllally be trcated successfully by manual medicine and
budywor k, ofien in combinalion with a program of stretching.
LOW BACKS : LIVING ANO l E ARN I NG
Wurking with alllower back problems that do not go away with a few days
uf rest and recuperation is likely to require commitment to a long-term
ProgramoTo be on lhe safc side, drop false expectations and think in terms
of ?-20 years of consistenl, patienl effor1. Here are your specific aims:
reheffrom and healing of low back pain in the short run, strengthening the
and abdominal muscles in the intermediale span of lime when you are
hkely lo he afflicted with chronic stiffness, !,'Tadually increa....,ing flexibili1y
In t he long runo and above al1, professional care from beginning lo end.
urgery? Maybe, but do your own rescarch and get a second and even third
P1nion. And no malter what, get attcntion from someone who is truJy
Interest{. 'C! in working with these problems in a three-way partnership:
th
e
pr ofessiona1. the patient 's interest Hnd cnthusiasm. and the aggra-
Vated back.
THE POSTERIOR STRETCH
lf a traditional hatha yoga instructor were to teach a student onl y f e
postures, they would probably be the headstand, the shoulderstand, le
sitting half'spinal twist, the cobra, and the posterior st retch- t he defin ! e
forward hendoThe post erior st retch can be initiated properly on ly after rll
nutat ion of the sacroiliac joints; ater accornplishing that, its essenco U1
be known only if the pose is hinged primarily at the hip j oints Id
completed with a rni nirnu m amount of spinal flexion oAlthough 11
discuss posterior st retchcs for students with a wide range of ski lls, he
plain truth is that the fulI experience of this posture is denied ever ne
who lacks good sacroiliac and hip flexibility.
To do the posterior stretch, you start in a sitting position with the J .ck
straight, the knees extended, an d the hee ls and toes together (fig, o).
Strctch the hands overhead and t hrust the sacral promontory for II"d
t hrough the action of the psoas rnuscles in orde r to ernphasize nut. m.
Then, keeping the prornontory of the sacrurn forward, t he ilia ( .er
together, and ischia apart, fold forwa rd slowly from the hi ps. As soon a vou
have reached your limits of hip flexion (fig, . I I ), bend forward in the h bar
regin wit h the aid ofgravity. This movement should not he pass ive: it '1 .uld
be accompanied by actively lengthening an d stretch ing the torso . Fin l . as
you Ilatten your chest down against your thighs (fig. 6. 12) , the sac iliac
joi nts slip back into a neutra! position betwcen nutat ion and counternut ion.
mthe final posture, the knees are straight, and the ankles, feet, and t are
alI Ilexed, completing a literal posterior stretch from head to toe.
Figure 6.10. Beginning
position for posterior
stretch for advanced
studenls. Notice that
Ihe mude l starts with
hi!> hipo f1exed aboul
100 (10 beyond
verlical) merely by
reaching slraighl up
wilh his han!>.
SEGINNI NG FORWA RD SENDI NG
The above instructions are fine for a select few, but preposterous for the
avera ge persono In the frst place, when they are sitting on the floor in the
starti ng positon, inflexible beginning st udents begin the pose with their
sacroiliac j oint s in full counternutat inn instead ofnutatiun. They probably
won' t he aware of this, but t hey will be acutely aware and frustratod that
they are already bent forward at their hips to their limit just trying to sit
up straight, They also won't he very appreciative of the instructor who soft!y
intones "let gravity gent ly carry you forward" when gravity is pu lJing them
nowhere hut backward.
StilJ, an alternative is needed for tho e who are not flexible enough to
roll forward into the classic post ura, and t he best is a natural sequel to one
of the st-up exercises in chapter J. Sil. a t on t he floor with the knees
extended. the head forward, and the back rounded, FOI" now, at least, forget
about sacroiliac movements. Pl ace each fist in t he opposite ar rnpit , and
slowly pul l forward using the hi p flexors (the iliacus and psoas rnuscles).
figure 6.11. An inter mediate
position for the posterior
stretch in which the hips are
nexed about 130
0
The
model has now "bent
fo",vard from the hips"
aboul 30 (from 100
0
lo
130). Even so, the lumbar
lordosis has already slarted
to f1altcn in comparison
with the fuU lumbar arch
sh?wn in fig. 6. 10, which is
eVldence for having already
~ u n the process of bend-
IngfOrward "at the waist."
Figure (J.12. The
Completed poslerior
Slretch, with knecs
Slraight and Ihe
chesl f1altened down
ilgainsl Ihe lhighs.
142 ANA n 1M' 01' 1/,\ 111.1 '"OCA
6 . HJIllL-l/m /11',\'1)/1\'(, /'O.\ '11!IlfS .14.1
Locate the pu lling sensation from these musc1es deep in the pelvis . Tln is
easy since they are doing nearly a11 the work. It is also important lo k 'P
the knees fully extended and the thighs in place by tensing the quad r k lS
Iernori. \Ve want those muscles to stabilize the thighs and knees, t IS
enabling the iliopsoas muscles lo act only on the pelvis to pull the torso I"-
ward, (If the quadriceps femoris and iliopsoas muscles were to act in he
other direction lo lift the legs and thighs, we would end up in one of he
boat postures, as discussed in chapter 3, rather than a sitting lor rd
bend.) When you have flexed forward at the hips as far as you can, hol d he
bend lo your comfortable capacity (fig. 6.13). This posture is excell en 01'
beginners, not only becausc everyone can do it, but also because it bi igs
attention to the piares where the postura is being limited: the lower bac k he
pelvis, an d the hip joints. It is safe as well as rewarding.
The hip flexors pull you forward concentrical1y in this exercise, but l ey
also cccentricalIy resist dropping to the real' ifyou slowly roll part way ick
while keeping the head forward and the lumbar regi n l1exed (fig. 6.14 Do
not lower yourself so far lo the real" that you don't, have cnough stre gt h
to lift up gracefulIy. Go back and fortb between the two posit.inns (a
way forward and moderately to the real') 5-10 times to becomc fai liar
with the sensations. If you wish you can always 1'011 all the way dowi md
Figure 6.13. The hip
flexors (iliaeus and
psoas muscles) and the
rectus femoris musd es
are (he prime movers
for rulling forward
coneentrically, while
the quadriceps femors
muscles as a whole
keep the knees
extended.
Figure 6.14. Leaning
slowly lo lhe rear wilh
the fists slill in lhe
armpits, the hip f1exors
and rectu femoris
musdes lengthen
eccenlrically lo restrain
lhe movemenl. lhen, as
you come back up and
again pull forward, lhe
same musdcs shorlen
conccnlrically.
exhalation
perrnts
downand
forward
movement
/ inh

po.
up
ba<
Ilion
le
lre
ld
combine the exercise with yoga sit-ups, Just make sure that you can come
back up without having lo hold your breath and throw yoursel'up from the
supine position.
The next stage might be callee! a posterior slretch moditied Ior beginners.
'Io do it , rest your hands on your thighs and draw the toes toward the head.
Reach forward with the hands, flexing the neck, and bend forward by
flexing the lumbar region and the hips at the sarne time, concentrating on
using the hip flexors exactly as in the exercise in which the fists were in the
armpits. Create mod rate lension in the quadriceps fcmori to braco the
kn ecs against the floor. T'hen, after sliding the hands down the lower
extremitics, settle inlo a cornfortable position holding on to the legs,
ankles, 01' whatever you can reach without pulling 01' tugging. Remain in
the posture for 1-5 minutes. Ir you are not comfortable it mcans you have
ensconced yourself into a pose that ls beyond your reasonahle capacity. In
any case, to come out of this beginning posture, slowly ron up, releasing
first in the more vulnerable hips and lumbar spine, and then in the rest of
the body. As in the previous postura, don 't be overly concerned with saeroiliac
movements.
TH E I NT ERMEDI AT E POST ERIOR STRETC H
Once you have achieved a little hip Ilexibi lity and are familiar with the
operati on o' the hip Ilexors, you can try a real posterior stretch. Sitting on
the Iloor with the knees extended, the feet together, and the hands
stretched overhead, try to bend forward leading with the promontory ofthe
sacrum so as lo start, at least, with your full capacity for sacroiliac mutation.
What you are doing is trying to keep Lhe lumbar lordosis intacl as long as
possi ble. This may be diflicult bccause ifyour hamslrings and adductan; are
too short, they wiII keep the top o' lhe pelvic bowl tilted to the real' in a
posteri or pelvic tilt. The hamstrings and adductors are not an impedimcnt lo
lhe previous exercises ror bcginners, in which you were purposeIy rounding
to the rear, but here they prevent those who are inflexible from even
slttlllg up straight, rnuch ess flexing torward at the hips. 'l'here is no quick
remedy fOl' this state of affairs, and you wiII probably have lo work witb lhe
hamst r ings and adductors for a long time before yau sec much difTercnce in
YOUr forward bending.
. Stretching yOlJ1' hands overhead as high as possible in the starting position
Wll! bring you an immediatc understanding of your limts in this posture.
:ryou good hip flexibility, you will Ceel the back arch forwm'd in the
reglOn and /in pelvic tilt mercly by stretching up. In
s case, your torso mlghl be at a nght, angle fmm the floor, dcfining a 90
Q
rorward hend from the hips. It is more likcly, however, that you do not have
thut much hip ncxiblity, and just trying to come inlo the nitiaI strctched-up
nd
ors
ose
he
. he
'1' 0 pin down for certai n t he exte nt lo which these four paired rnuscles
are limit ing your furward bending, sit on the floor with your knees extended
and your feel far enough apart for the big toes to barely touch when t he
thighs are rotated medially as much as possible. ' I'hen bend forward, taking
note of exact ly how far you can come into the posture a nd of how much
later al pulling this produces in the hipo Then come up a lit tle, swing the
toes out (which rotares the th ighs late rally), and again bend forward. This
relieves t he tensi n, allows you to come further forward, and demonstrates
how much the latera l rotators were limi ting your bend,
'I'he piriforrn is, obturator internus, and gemelli muscles are loeated
beneath t he su perficial gluteal rnuscles . Even though they are deep, it is
easy to envision their roles if you understand that their origi ns are located
on th e anterior side of tho sacrum, and that they pass ac ross t he hi p to
insert on the lateral side of t he femur from behind. In an upright posture
they funetion to rotate t he thigh laterall y, but in a si t t ing position with the
thigh s Ilexed 1.)0 they becorne abductors as well. Therefore, t hey are
stretched th e most when t he thighs are adducted , ro ta ted medially, and
flexed, Don't confuso the actio ns of these muscles wit h the other lateral
rotators of the thighs, the adductor longus and adduclor magnus (see figs .
3R-9 and R.13- 14for general treatrnent of adductors). As we saw in chapter 4
those muscles are st retched most effect ively when the th ighs are abducted
(r at her t han adducted l, rotated mcdially, and flexed . To undcrstand how
the two sets of la teral rota t ors di ffer in limi ting forward bending, go back
and for th bctween l he slanding test wit h thighs abductcd (chapter 4) and
lhe sit t ing lest j us l described with t highs adducled.
8ecause most of us are not perfect ly symmetrical, the pirifol'mis,
obturator internus, and gemellis are oll:en under mor e stress on one side
than the other, and sooner 01' later this resuIts in shorler muscles on lhe
stresscd side. If right and left footprints are asymmetrical, this is suggestive
of suc h imbaIances: lefl footprints t ha t angle out l o the side more than
r i ~ h t footprints ind icate" ti ght er left la teral rotators. The posterior stretch
wlll also reveal muscular imbalances because t he disparity will leave the
foot on t he casy side upright and the !Got on the problematic side droppcd
lo th e side. For example, if t he righl foot is ml:ated out and the left foot is
u.Pright in t he posterior s t r t ~ h it means that thc lat er al rotators of t h ~
rlgh. thigh are under more tension l ha n those on the len.. 'rhe diagnosis is
clear, the remedy obviolls: asymmetric postures of all kinds that attend
more insistently to t he l ighler sirle.
!.!:!..E HAMSTRINGS
Ifthe lateral rotators of l he thigh are not undel' too much stress, lhe hamo
trings are t he muscles mosl likely to limil the postel'ior stretch llince lhey
THE LATERAL ROTATORS OF THE THIGH
After thc intermediate levcls of thc posterior stretch havc becn ex n
enced, it wil\ be he lpfu l tu explore the musclcs lhat impede your pr '
more systematically. We'l\ start with ccrtain of the lateral rolaturs l
lhigh that also ad as abductors in sitting positions. Coming int <
posterior stretch with your heel s and loes together, you may notice a
of lateral pulling deep in the hipoThis comes from stretching lbul ' r
muscles: the piriformis, the obturator illlerrlllS, and lhe superi or
inferior geme/li (fi;s . 3.Hb, 3.lOb. and R.n), al\ of which are lateral rol
of the thighs.
Figure 6.15. l he inlermediate
st udenl working on Ihe
posle rior slr etch should sti ll
co ncenlra te on inlernal work
with lhe hi p f1exors and
reclus abduminis musdes
rathe r Ihan tryng lo pull
for ceably nt o lhe puslurc
with lhe upper exlremilcs.
postura w111 stretch your hamstrings to t heir limit s. In any case, to complet
the posture as graceful\y as you can, maintain as much lift as possible wit
the upper extremities, keeping t he knees extended and the feet togethi
and bend forward slowly, allowing gravity to he lp the back beco me round
As soon as you reach your limit of bonding with the upper extrerni u
stretched out and forward, drop the hands to the thighs, knees, ankles, r
fect , and remain in that position for a mi nute 01' two. Relax. Most studei
wil\ t ry to tug on their Ieet 01' legs with their hands lo pull thernselves dov
but t his should be discouraged. Only when you have achieved good 1
flexibility is it advisable to pull on the feet with the hands (fig, 6.15), d
even t hen the object should be lengl hening and stretching t he back, lt
forcibly flexing t he lumbar spine. Sitting on a cushion will also help becai se
it will take sorne of the t ension off t he hamstrings and permit the pel vi to
rotate forward at t he hip joi nts without depending so much on spinal flex n.
'ro come out of the poslu re intcrrned ate students shou ld think fi n, of
le ngthening t he back, firmi ng up t he lower hal l' of t he body, and l -n
stret ching orward from a Ieeling of strength in t he abdomen and lo el'
back. From thcre t hey can lift the arrns, ra ise the head, and unold al he
hi ps, Coming up this way adds lo the tension in the lumba r regi n I1d
hips: this is inadvisable for bcginners but should work for expone ed
students. If there is any doubt, forego the elegance and re lease the rse
initial\y in the hip joints and lower back as recommended for beginne
.\.1(, Il,\ , l T(JMI (JI' HA77lA HKiA
extend all the WHY 1"1'0111 Lhe ischial tuberositics to the libia. If you fl' I
stretch in the tendons on either side of the knee joint and in the musch
on the back sides of the thighs when you bend forward, you are feeling U
hamstrings (figs. 3.10b, lt9-IO, und 1'1.12). '1'0 test this, bend the knees slight
what roleases can only be the hamstring muscles and the adductor muse! "
that have a hamstring-like character,
THE PSOAS, ILlACUS, ANO RECTUS FEMOAIS
The psoas and iliacus muscles are c1assically thought of as hip Ilexors IS
when they flex the thighs in leglifts from a stabilized pelvic bowl (cha l' ' 1'
3). But whcn the thighs are fixed against the floor in the posterior stret h,
the origins and insertions of these rnuscles are reversed, with origins on le
femurs and insertions on the ilia (in the case ofthe iliacus) and the lurr- al'
spine un the ca. e of the psoas). Those muscles are responsible, along \ th
the rectus fomori (figs . 3.9 and H. 9), for pulling the torso forward at he
hips in the sitting forward bend.
The iliacus, psoas, and rectus fernoris rnuscles all act synergistical to
create forward bending at the hips, but they act al different sites o he
torso. The action of the iliacus is the most straightforward. From he
stabilized femur it pulls on the inside of the ilium, tilting the top of he
pelvic bowl lo flex the pelvis forward on the thighs al the hip joint. W, -an
think of the iliacus muscles as pure pelvic bono flexors in rhis posture. nd
since they pull forward exclusively on the ilia, they also create a tend I1CY
for counternutation (fig. 6.2a, movements opposite lo the arn s),
Ultimalely, however; since the spine is attached to the pelvis al the sacn liac
joints, the vertebral colurnn (and thus the resl ofthe body) follows the for ard
movement of the peh;c bones.
The action of lhe psoas muscles is more complicated. Because hey
attach lo lhe lumbal' vertebral hodies they puB forward only on th e oe,
and since the spine includes the sacrum they pull its promontory fOl ted.
In contrast to the aclions of the iliacus muscles, lhe psoas muscles puI the
sacrum forward between the lwo iJia (independently of the IS a
whole), and in so doing they creare nutation, le8\;ng lhe iHa behind lere
they \Vil! be drawn medially, spreading the ischial tuberosities apar! l nd
opening the base ofthe pelvis lfig. 6.28, arrows). (Recall thal this Sitl ion
is opposite from what we saw in a standing forward bend from lhe list,
which created counternutation instead ofnutation.l The movements the
iJia are difficult lo feel. bul the psoas-induced lateral movemenl ' the
isehial tubemsilies in those who have good sacroiliac flexibility are ,.i iI)'
discernable. AHyou have lo do is place one finger under cach silting JOoe
and bend forward from the mps . If you plae> the Htrongest possible eml las
is
on keeping the lumbar region arched forward as you initiate the ben. yOU
wiII feel the schial tuberosilies spread apart Iaterally
The action of the rcetus Iemoris is similar to that of the iliacus. When
the knees are fully extended and the thighs are fixed aguinst the floor, the
only thing this muscle can do is pull forward on the anterior inferior iliac
spine, making it, like the iliacus. another pelvic bone flexor, The main
difference is thal the iliacus acts from the upper part of the femur and the
rectus femori acts frorn the extended knee joints.
THE ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
Even if you can bend forward 100-120
Q
at the hips, you will still have to
bend forward in the lumbar region betwecn 1'12 and SI (chapter ,O1.0
complete the posterior stretch. Gravity can assist flexion of this regi n if
you are Jimber enough, but the main aids lo completing the posterior
stretch are the abdominal muscles, especially the two rectus abdominis
muscles (figs. J.11-13 and H.lll. 'I'hese run between the chest and the pelvic
bones, nol between the chest and the thighs, so they act purely between the
pelvis and the rib cage lo flex the lumbar regon forward t fi g. .15). Therefore,
they complete the forward bend without having the slightest effect on hip
flexiono
1'0 translate this discussion into experience, assume the preparatory
position for the posterior stretch with the spine perpendicular to the Iloor
and the knces extended, but with the upper extremities relaxed and the
hands resting in a neutral position. Slowly come forward, bendi og as much
as possible from the hips. Slarting from below, nolice threo patterns of
muscular tension on each side ofthe body: frst , a line oftension in the rectus
femoris muscle running along the front of the thigh between the patella
and the pelvic bone; second, another linc of tension wilhin the iliacus
muscle running from dccp within lhe upper thigh to deep within the pelvis;
and third, a (ine of tension within lhe psoas muscle rllnning between the
upper parl ofthe thigh and lhe lumbar vertebrae.
Now try two more experiments that are designed to show you exactIy
what is happening in the thighs. First try to bend furlher bul now keep lhe
th' h '
19 s relaxed amI notice that pulling forward will tend to bend the knees
so slightly. This is because the stretched hamstring muscles are
between the ischial tubrosities and the far side of lhe knee joints,
the knees to buckle. 1'0 sce the contrast, again re..establish tension
Jn the quadl;ceps femoris muscles on the front side of the thigh. The four
of the qlladriceps, operating together, kcep lhe kl1(.'Cs fully extended
whrle the rectus femoris head of the quadriccps again pulIs on the pelvis
from the frant.
With the pelvis and knees once more stabilized from below, most of the
remaining impetus for pulliPg down and fiwward is pmVldcd by the abdominal
.1.\11 A.\"rIlVMr VI' I/tUI/A IOGr!
muscles. You can feel how these op rate by lifting up slight ly and pokin
your fingers deep into the abdomen, first in the regin ofthe vertical hant
o' the rectus abdominis muscles, and then on the sides of the abdomen. .
you make the specilic efTort to pull forward the reetus abdominis rnusch
pu sh the f'ingers out s t r nngly, while the other three layers f
abduminal muscles twhi ch are located more laterally and posteriorl yl pu 1
the Iingers out less vigorously.
COMPLETING THE POSTERIOR STRETCH
Let ' s say you are an advanced intermcdiate student who is flexible enoi h
to come most of the way into the posterior stretch using the iliopsoas, 1
tus femoris, and abdominal musc1es. You have had enough experiencc o
know your weaknesses and vulnorahilities, and yuu have analyzed le
postura enough 10 know approximately how much you are bending at l' -h
site. For example, if you bend 90 at the hips and 70 in the lower back. JU
will have 20 to go to make a tRoObend. 'I'hat's not so much, and you sh. ild
now be ahle tn complete the posture by pulling yourself down the rp: of
the way with your upper extremities-interlocking the fingers around he
feet and flexing the hips an additional 20 to pul! yourself the rest of he
way down. Hold or as long as you are comfortable.
When the most flexible students complete the posterior stretch witi he
upper oxtrernities, they will gain an additional 30 of bending at the ps,
or 120 total at that site, But this would fold them a total of 190. wh 1 J.S
neither necessary 01' even possible. What actually happcns is thal a:; ley
come forward, their backs become less rather than more rounded 1 lhe
real', and they settle into a final tRoObend by easing off la in the lu bar
region (fig. .12l. Pulling fonvard with the hanos is not advised 101' ose
who do not have good hip Oexibility because when they try lo comple! t he
posture with their upper ext remities, they will increase rather han
decrease the lumbar portion of the forward bend, and this can stra t he
back.
b tI
' ing
Coming out of the posture, beginners should exit y gen y unr
from the top down; intermediate st udents can begin to explore cornil out
with a little mure authority; and advanced students will feel conl lent
enough to reach fonvard fmm their most extreme bend and lift up fn the
hip s.
and lift t.he pelvi s un til you r body comes into on e plane Irorn head
tu foot. Alternatively, for increased stretch in the forearm Ilexors, you can
point your fingers to the real' (fig, 6.1(l) . 'I'he plank posture is accomplished
with the sa me muscles that were st retehed in the posterior st retch-t he
deep back rnuscles, the gluteals, and the hamstrin and holding them in
an isornetric positi on, as you mu st in this posture, brings a welcome rel ief
from the posterior st retch.
THE DOWN-FACING DOG
After the posterior tretch, the down-facing dog Is posaibly the most
funda mental and widely taught forward bending posture in hatha yoga,
but it is completely different frorn the posterior st retch in its st r uct ure and
mood. lt's apure nutation and hip flexion stretch, 01' at least it should be,
not a lumbar bend, and it's a more active posture bccause it requires use
ofboth upper and lower extremities.
In its ideal forro the down-facing dug assumes the shape of an upside-
down V, with only the hands and feet touching the floor, 'l'he hips are Ilexed
sharply, the ankles are flexed '15, and the lumbar lordosis is kept intact.
The posture is related to a standing forward bend initiated from the hips,
but it is safer and more ellective because leverage from gravity will not
strain the back, as can happen in the standing position.
1'0 do the down-facing dog assume a hands-and-knces position with the
arms, Iorearms, and thighs perpendicular to the floor; the lingers pointing
fonvard, and the toes flexcd . Lift the hips into a V lollen called a pikcd
position) whiJe keeping the lower back archcd and attending to nutation of
the sacroiliac joints as a lirst priority. The upper two-thirds of the body
from the pelvis up contains one plane of the and the thighs and legs
THE PLANK POSTURE
Afler coming out of th e posterior st retch, students at alllevels can COI
balance that pose wilh lhe plank posture. it with your feet outstn
in front of you , bring the ht..'els and toes together, place the hands (
0001' behintl you with the finger pointed toward the feet (not iIlustl
6. 16. The plank poslure complements fon.\lard bending poses because it
oS the deep back g!uteals, and (all just previously
.by forward bendlllgl III a slate of IsometrlCcontraction in a straight
!>d e poslllon.
contain the other, joined to one another at a CF--900 angle at the hi p
(fig, h. 17). This representa l}o-1200 01' hip flexion oThe hecl s should be on
reaching 1'01' the floor, It rnay not be possible 1'01' beginncrs to assume t h
position, and instead of Iooking like an upside-do
wn
V. the posture wi
more Iikcly resemblc a croquet hoop, with the arms and forearrr
conslrained lo an obtuse angle from the torso , the lumbar region roundi t
to the rear, the hips Ilexed only 45-60 instead 01' 90-120, and the hecls lifu 1
olrthe floor, Such students can make thc pose more attractive by bendi-
their knees lo lake tension off the hamstring muscles. That's fine. Doi g
this will perrnit more hip flexion, kcep the lumbar regi n flatter, a d
anchor the pelvi more offectively in sacroiliac nutation (fig, 8.27)
[Tech nical note: Recall that the arnount ofhip flexi n by dcfinilion refers to ie
angle betuieen t he pelvis and the t highs (which is a mcasure uf the angle dlsp.l d
by the V in the advanced sludent's down-facing dog), but lo the tota l excursto uf
lhe thighs (from thc anatomical position ) relative to the pelvis: why 1J( uf
hip Ilexion reveals a 70 angl o between the t orso and the thighs III the expi 's
down-facing dog (lig. R.2h).j
In intermediatc sludents t he lower back is probably l1at rather t ID
arched forw ard, and the arms come more in 1ine with the shoulders. he
heels may sti ll be off the floor but t he piked posi tion begins lo appear, ' th
perhaps a 10 0 anglo between the two planes, which represents 80 01' lip
flexion ,
In an urdinarv standing 01' sitting forward bend, beginners us lIy
round the baek ;t lhe expense of the hip joints . In the down-facing >g,
however, they can lin their hecls, whieh takes te nsion off thc calf mu les
lthe gaslrocnemius and soleus) and allows them to arch the back. The\ 'an
then rocus on trying to achieve more hip flexiono
Figure 6.17. This simlllalion of an inlermediale level down-facing dog (the
are still slightly off the noor) 'ihould be taken as sornc!hing lo work towar
lhe beginncr, who will probably lo h a hoop-shaped di
posture until developing beller h.p and ankle nex.blhty (see fig. 8.26 ror lh
advanced pose).
(, IORII IRIJ l 'O.. \nIRE\ .151
To understand why lifti ng the heels helps you flex thc hips, we have lo
look at the design of the lower extrernities as a who le. Frst, beeause the
gastrocnemius museles take origin frorn the femur just above the knee
joint and insert (along with the soleus muscles) on the heels (figs. 7.6 and
R.1O), they have two act ions : extensi n of the ankles and flexion of the
knees. Sccond, the hamstrings, which are the prirnary limiti ng elernents to
hip flexion, also have two actions: extensi nof the thighs and flexion 01' the
knees. And since the gaslrocnemius and harnst ri ng rnusc les share one of
these functions-flexion 01' the knees-it follows that if you lift the heels
and bring the insert.ions ofthe gastrocnemius muscles closer to their
origin s (thus rcducing tensin on them) , this will allow you to stretch the
hamst rings in relativo isolation. And that is exactly what hap pens when
you lift your heels in the down-facing dogo11' you try it you can instantly
feel the lumbar lordosis becorne more pr onounced and allow inc reased
flexi n at t he hips, Then as you lower the heel s lo the 0001' vou can feel
tensi n increase both in the gastrocnernius muscles and in thc' hamst r ings,
which in lu rn causes the lumbar region to flatten 01' even become rounded
to th e real'.
1'0 pul t hese pr incipies into practice, sludents should Ii fl up on the balls
of the feet as they come into the piked position, arch the lower back
forward l o cstablish bolh nutation ofthe sacroiliacjoints and a convincing
lumbar lordosis, and then try to pres; lhe heels toward the floor while
keeping t he back arched. 11' l bis is diff<:u lt they can bend onc knee and
press the opposite hee l to lhe floor, making an asymmetrical posture in
which th ey streteh one side at H t ime and incidentally take pressure oITthe
lumbar regon and t he opposile hipo
Thd f ' d ' e own- acmg og IS supported equally by the lIppcr am} lowel"
extremit ies, but a common beginners' error is to compromise the spiri t of
thi .
s prmciple and Icave the arms and shoulders re laxed. 'rhe extended
!mees automatical1y kcep the lower haIf 01" the body in one plane, but the
seapul ac, which conneet lhe arms to the torso. are held in place almost
entirely with muscular altachmcnls (chapter R), and 101' the down-facing
d.ogto be properly supporlcd, thesc muscles have to remain engaged al a1l
h.
rnes
. As you extend the arms and aclivc1y flcx your hip joinls into the
Plked T h
th IOn, t e scap.ulae should be pulled down !Od latcral1y; ot herwise,
1 ey wlll be dr awn m and up, causing t.he post.urc to degenerate.
correct this by tcl1ing students not to let thoir chests
ang betwccn thelr arms.
T In the down-facing dog, tension should also be maintained in the hands.
;cfingen; should be spread with the middle fingers paraUel, and
P essure should be exerted agamst lhe naor with the en tire hand Th'
l .t' . 18
e Ivates flexors 01' Lhe w!'sts and hands when they are in a modcl'ately
.\ 50 AI\:A7V\/1 01' l/AUlA "(K;/1
contain the other, joined to one another at a ()Q-90 0 angle at the hips
(fig. 6.17). 'I'his represents 9(}-120
c
of hip flexionoThe hecls should be on or
reaching for the floor, It may not be possible for beginners lo assume thi -
position, and instead of looking like an upside-down V; the posture wil
more likcly rescrnble a croquet hoop, with the arrns and forearm
constrained to an obtuse angle from the torso, the lumbar region rounde
to the rear; the hips flexed only 45--60 instead of 90-120, and the heels lifu
off the floor. Such students can make the pose more attractive by bendit
their knees to take tension off the hamstring muscles. 'I'hat's fine. Doir
this will permit more hip flexion, keep the lumbar regi n flatter, a r i
anchor the pelvis more effcctively in sacroiliac nutation (fi g, 8.27)
[Technical note: Recall that the amounl of hip flexion by definition refers not to e
angle betuieen the pelvis and the thighs (which is a rneasure of the angle displ a .J
by the V in the advanced studcnt's down-facing dog), but to the total excurs uu lf
the thighs (from the anatomical position l relative to the pelvis. That's why II ( of
hip flexion reveals a 70" angle between th torso and the thighs in the expe 's
down-facing dog (fig. X.2).J
In inlermediate students the lower back is probably flat rather t m
arched forward, and the arrns come more in line with the shoulders. le
heels may st ill he offthe floor but the pikod position begins to appear, th
perhaps a 100 anglo between the two planes, which represents 80 01 Ip
!lexion.
In an ordinary standing 01' sitting Iorward bend, beginners u. I illy
round the back at the expense of the hip joints. In the down-facing og,
however, they can lift their hoels, which takes tensi n off the calf rru les
(the gastrocnernius and soleus) and allows them lo areh the back. 'I'he -an
then focus on trying to achieve more hip flexiono
ngure 6.17. This simulation of an inlermediate level down-facing dog (th . 'lecls
are still slightly oH lhe noor) should be taken as something to work towa by
lhe beginner, who wil! probably to be a .g
posture unli l dcvcloplllg bcttcr hlp and ankle r1exlblhty (see flg. 8.26 for ti e
advanced pose) .
6 . I.()/{I\ I I/ID HI-i\/JI,\'G "0.",1 HU .\ 51
'1'0 understand why lifting the heels helps you Ilex the hips, we have to
look at the design of the lower extrernities as a wholc. First, because the
gastrocnemius muscles take origin from the femur just above the knee
joint and insert (along with the soleus rnuscles) on the heels (figs. 7.() and
8.10). they have two actions: extension of the ankles and flexion of the
knees. Second, the hamstrings, which are the primary limiting elernents to
hip flexion, also have two actions: extensin ofthe thighs and flexion ofthe
knees. And since the gastrocnemius and hamstring muscles share one of
these functions-flexion of the knees-it follows that if you lift the heels
a nd bring the insert.ions of the gastrocnemius muscles cIoser to their
origins (thus reducing tension on thern), this will allow you to stretch the
hamst r ings in relative isolation. And that is exactly what happens when
you lift your heels in the down-facing dogo If you try it you can instantly
feel the lumbar lordosis become more pronounced and allow increased
flexion al. the hips. Then as you lower the heels to the floor you can feel
tension increase both in the gastrocnemius musc1cs and in the hamstrings,
which in turn causes the lumbar region to flatten 01' even become rounded
to t he real'.
'1'0 put these principies into practico, students should lift up on the bal1s
of the feet as they come into the piked position, arch the lower back
forward to establish both nutation of the sacroiliac joints and a convincing
lumbar lordosis, and then try to press the heels toward the floor while
keeping t he back arched. Ir this is difficull they can bend one knee and
press the opposite heel to the floor, making an asymrnetrical posture in
which they stretch one side at a time and incidentally take pressure off the
lumbar region and the opposite hipo
'fhe down-facing dog is supported equally by the upper and lower
extremiti es, but a common bcf"Ynners' error is lo compromise the spirit ol"
this principIe and leave the arms and shoulders relaxed. 'rhe extended
knees automatical1y keep the lower hall" of the body in one plane, but the
scapulae, which eonnect the arms to the torso, are held in place almost
entirely with muscular attachments (chapte,' 8), and for the down-facing
d.og lo be properly support<.'<l, these musclcs have to rernain engaged al al1
tl.
mes
. As you extend the arms and actively flex your hip joints into the
plked .. h
posltlon. t e scapulae should be pul1ed down and laterally' olherwise
they '11 b d . d' "
WI e rawn In an up, causmg lhe posture to degenerate.
Inst r uclors correct this error by tclling students nol to let their chests
h
ang
passively bctween their arms.
In the down-facing dog, tension should also be maintained in the hands.
'rhe finb'"ers should be spread out wilh lhe middle fingen; parallel, and
pressurc should be exerted against the floor with tlle enlire hand. This
arlivat.es nexors of the wrists and hands when they are in a mod rately
\52 , I,\ AH J,I II ' 01' HA 17lA }(JCA
BREATHING ANO FORWARO BENOING
Breathing in forward bending postures will be experienced differently by
those who are relatively stif than by those who are stronger and more
flexible. Advanced students have rnany options, but those who are inflexible
in the hip joints have to tense the abdominal muscles just to maintain the
posture, an d this creates many repercussions.
BREATHING IN THE POSTERIOR STRETCH
In the pos t er ior stretch for beginners, the abdominal organs are
cornpresscd by the Iorward bend, and if you are holding lightly onto your
thighs, legs, 01' ankles with your elbows slightly flexed, each inhalation will
lift your torso as the dome of the diaphragm descends. Each exhalation
then Iowers your torso baek forward and down.
If you are an intermediate student and are committed earnestly lo the
posture, you wiII probably be holding tightly onto the lower extremities
wit h your hands to maintain a deep fonvard sb'etch that is dose to your
limits, and under those circumstanees it is harder for the diaphragm to lift
you up during inhalation. Thcrc is increased tension during inhalalion as
the diaphragm presses down ag'dnst the abdominal organs and a release of
that tension during exhalation, bul you are still not in the full posterior
strctch, and you are still at the merey of a pneumatic system that tends lo
up and dOWll. Under those condilions this bent-fonvard postllre
wlth IIlcomplete hip flexion can never be perfectIy stable 01' satisfying.
F' . .
mally, If you are able to complete the posture by flattening your torso
clown aJ.,"8inst your thighs ami holding jt (iJ'mly in place with your upper
extremities, you will have yet a thil'd experienee. The Jixcd and flattened
torso prevents the posture fJ'Om lifting and lowering during inhalalion and
exhaJat ion, and lhe resulling scnse of stabilily llnd silence is I he reward rol'
YOUr efTorts.
As soon as you are eoming close to this third expcriencc. YOll can use
bteathi ng to incrcase your capacity. Come into the lorward bend with the
Those who have good Ilexibility in the spine and healthy hip and knee
joinls wilI not havo trouble with the child's pose, but sorne people wilI be in
discomfor t. The remedies are simple-one 01' more pillows between the
torso and the thighs for a stiff back, another pillow between the thighs and
the legs for tight knee joints, a small pillow just underneath the ankles Ior
feet that resist full extensin, and a cushion for the forehead. With one 01'
more of these props the child's pose can be adapted to alrnost anyone and
st.ill yield its benefits. If it is done with eare the posture can also be a
welcome palliative for those with ehronie back stiffness because it places
the lumbar region under mild traction.
bul
Figure 6.18. lhe lul! cxprcssion 01 t.he child's is sometimes a
one that is casily remedied by placmg Ihe ha nds m a more neulral poslllor
alungside Ihe head and by Ihe use of props such. as a small pillow
ankles anolher one helween Ihe legs i1nd Ihe Ilughs. une al' two Ihlck plll,
Ihe Ihighs and Ihe lorso (cspedally hdpful for sliff backsl. and ye
anulh(>r small pillow under Ihe
THE CHILO'S POSE
\Ve'U end this section with the simple child 's pose-simple that is, ir ou
are as flexible as a child, for the posture requires the entire body to be Ji cd
in on itself in t he fetal position, You can come into the pose from a ha Is-
and-knees position, with the feet and toes extended, by Irst sitting bac on
your heels, thus lowering t he thighs t ightly down against the calf muo 1 "
and then flexing the torso down against the thighs, resting your fo -ad
on the floor in front of your knees, Ordinarily, you will lay your oer
extremities alongside the Icgs, with the palrns up and thc fingers h tly
flexed (fig. 6.IRl, but if you have need of a mildel' posture that docs no old
you so completely into flexion, you can place your hands alongsid lur
hendo 'rhe postme i::; relaxing Hnd refreshing, and so long as you do nr fan
asleep. you may hold it for as long as you like. The child's pose i::; ofte n me
between other forward bending posturL'S hecause il stretchcs the ,ine
from end to end in a non-lhreatening manner.
stretched and extended position. Special attention should be paid o
tensin in the thumbs, index fingers, and the medial aspects of the arrns a d
forearrns. Holding the arrns and shoulders correctly will also create a rm 'e
substantial stretch in the pectoral muscles on t he anterior surface ofthe eh, 1.
Students who are having difficulty with the down-facing dog becau sr if
stiff hips and ankles can try sorne preparatory stretches. They can su d
with the eet 2-3 fect apart, slide the hands down the thighs and legs, b d
the knees, plant the hands on the floor; and walk the hands forward 11 il
the body is in the shape of a hoop. From that poi nt they can explore in 1Y
one of several directions to create stretches that prepare for the full post 'C:
they can walk the feet further apart to create an adductor stretch; hey ID
walk the Ieet closer together to focus on the hamstrings: and they can nd
one knee at a time while pressing the opposite foot toward the floo to
stretch the gastrocnernius and soleus muscles.
IS. A,v,lTOMl m: ustu 1'()(, ,1
knees extended. Rclax the shoulders and arrns, and rest the hands on t e
ankles or eet. Breathe in and out normally, and confirm that inhalatioi IS
lifting you up and creating more tension in the trunk. Now, in one e. <y
sequence, breathe out to your full capacity (as in agni sara), and al th e l d
of exhalation pull YOUl' torso forward with the rectus fernoris, ilacus, PSI 113,
and rectus abdorninis muscles, Then grip a lower si te firmly and hol d le
posture, inhaling and exhaling several limes until your body has adj us -d
to the new stretch. You are not pulling yourselfinto position with the ul er
extremities, lnstead, you are using the hands only lo hold yourself' , a
position established by the rnuscles of the torso and the proximal mu- les
of the lower extremities. Repeat this sequence scveral times. If you i rt
with reasonably good hip flexibility, you will be amazed al how muc h ou
can draw yourself forward.
No rnatter what YOUl' Ilexihility, if you pull yourself firmly cnough ir o a
forward bend with your hands so that your breathing cannot lift you (; of
the posture, you will notice that tension from inhalations, especially um
deep inhalations, spreads throughout the body and is rcdirected nlo
stretching the calf rnuscles, hamstrings, and the deep back muscles, a::- eH
as joinls and musc1es throughout the upper extremities. During exhal IOn
the diaphragm permits a release that lu lls the stretched muscl cs rt o
submission. Hatha yoga teachers are speaking literally when they tel ou
to let the breath stretch the body.
BREATHING IN T HE DOWN FACI NG DOG
Breathing in the down-facing dog is different from that observed in fI IVof
the other forward bending postures. Since this pose is serni-invcrte: t he
diaphragm presses the abdominal organs toward lhe ceiling during ach
inhalation in addilion to drawing air into the lungs, and duri ng ach
exhalation the diaphragm eccentrically resists the fall of the abd I inal
organs toward the floor. And finaJly, the weight of the abdominal ns
agai nst the underside of the diaphragm causes you to exhale !Or e
completeIy. This ilIuslrates a paltern of brealhing that we'U see in a lOre
extreme form in lhe headstand and shoulderstand.
Since beginners will be forming a relaxed hoop in this posture r t her
than a V with a taut abdomen, lheir bellies will remain relaxed w t hey
will be breathing abdominally. Respiration simply pooches the abd men
h
e uf
out during inhalation and rela-::es it during exhalation, so 1 1S ml
breathing has IiUle effeet on lhe posture.
lntermediatc and advanced studcnts who do the down-facing dog llore
elegantly have a different experienee. They press enthusiastically in o (l1l
upside-down V, coneentrating on maintaining lhe deepest possible lu lbar
10rdO!iis. The arch in lhe spine crcates a backbending posturc superim .sed
on 9O-
120 n
of hip flexiono ami when these students are al the same time
working consciously with the breath, the result is diaphragm-assisted back-
bending (chapter 5). 1'0 experience this, come into the posture keeping the
lumbar lordosis intact, lifting high IIp on your toes if that is necessary, and
take long, deep inhalations while al lhe same lime eommitting yourself to
coming more completely into the postui that is, accentuating the acuteness
of the angle between the pelvis and the thighs. You will irnmediately sense
that the diaphragm is a powcrful influcnce for assist.ing this cffort.
BREATHING I N THE CHILD' S POSE
This is an easy ono. Because the body is folded upon itself in the child's
pose, inhalation increases tension throughout the torso, and exhalation
decreases it, Both inhalation and cxhalation are active. In addition to drawing
air into the lungs, inhalalion has to press against the abdominal organs,
which are incompressible (chapter 3), and that is why you feel a sense of
increascd tension, Exhalation is also active, or it should be, because you are
breathing evenly, and even hreathing requires that you not exhale wth a
whoosh. The point is easily preven if you take a deep inhalation and then
suddenly relax your respiration; lhe air rushes out, and you realize that
you normallv resist this.
5ACROILIAC FLEXIBILITY
Sacroiliac flexibility has until now been overlooked by those who write
manuals on exercise and flexihility, and the terrns nutation and counter-
nutation are rarely encountered. This is not surprising since the sacroiliac
movemen t s are lirnited to only S-10 (except during lhe end stages of
pre/:, '1lancyl, and these are oven,hadowed by lhe grosser movements of the
spine and pelvis as a wholc.
Even lhough the range of sacroiliac movemenls is narrow. however
and mobile joints make for safer, sharper' postures:
ndeed, the proper executlOn and fuH expression of backward bending,
for ward bending, and sealed meditation postures presupposes the ability to
establish nutation and counternutation at will. And becausc the concepts
are unfamiliar and complex, sorne rciteration and review is in order. Firsl
recall where the movemenls t.ake place. 1'hey're not spinal movemenls (as
happen at intervertebral disks and other joints in the spinel , and lhey're
nut movements at the hip joints (as happen at the acet.abula between the
pelvic bones and the femurs). Rather, they are Iiterally lhe ollly movements
Pennitted between the axial skeleton and lhe appendicular skelelon for the
lower extremitics (fig. 6.2a, anows for nutation, and imagine their
for counternutalionl. And they are subtlc: think of movements
W:1 thin the pelvis itself. If you want to understand lhe concepts. you wiJ1
have to both think the movernents through inlellectually and apprai
t hem expe rientially, and you also have tu do this while envisioning tlu 11
not only in isolation but wit hin largor bendi ng gestures that involve t e
spine and the hip joints. These are not minor challenges.
NUTATlON IN FORWARO BENOS
For both intermediate and advanced students, ostablishing nutation a a
Iirst pri 01; ty in forward bends can be summed up easily: whi le maintai r g
the arched-o rward lordosis in t he lumbar rogion and while keeping le
iliacus components of the iliopsoas complex relaxcd, create a selective .111
in t he psoas muscles. You will sense little external movernent, but the p as
rnuscles pull sharply forward on the lumbar regi n, and this in turn I ls
the promonlory of the sacrum forward, which favors nutation. The ili: re
left be hind and pulled medially by default as a result of keeping the ili -us
museles re laxed . Alt hough not ordinarily verbalized in this way, t h is
whal hat ha yoga teaehers wanl you lo do. H is t he preferred beginnin ep
for forward bending, whether standing 01" sitting, Only alter this SI t ic
rnaneuver is accompJished should you bend Iorward at the hips and tlu in
t he spine. As you bend forward at the lat ter sites, the sacroiliac joint- -ill
readjust themselves, moving to a more neutral position between nut on
and counternutation.
'I'he down-Iacing dog works especial ly well for evaluating and ser ing
sacroi liac movements in advanced studcnts Oigo6.17, and even more il lig.
IU6) , bccause experts have enough hip flexibility to settle into Ihe po ure
with an arched-fonval'd back. From this position, t hey can go bac md
forth between counternutalion tpu Iling the ischia tighteni t he
abdominal muscles, and pressing the promontory ofthe sacl 'um to th -ear
in relation to the ilial and nutation (<:harply pulling lhe lumbar lor Jsis
and sacral promonlory lonvard wilh t he psoas muscles, re laxin t he
abdominal muscles, and allowing the ischia tu be drawn apart)o Tt is ti ful
fol' the advanced student tu keep the thighs abducted k tite
posture, because as desclihed carlier, an observer can monitor the mov.el nts
of the uppcr thighs by lec!: they shift medially during countemutlitl.OI and
laterally dUl;ng nutalion. Keep in mind, however, thal the dOWl1-facm dog
does not work well 101' those who are not flexibll' because the hoop-shapt dog
.rty
po
st ure favors puHing the ilia lateralIy and rorward, thus creating .a pI'
ds h
Jble
for l"ounternutation. 'rhe remedy is simple: place the han on a e mr or
so t.here is plenty of leeway to keep a prominent lumbar lordosis. .
One of the most useful forward bcnding postures for stressing nutatJ 1, U;
weHas a posture that is acces."ible to bcginning and intcnnediate studel s, is
the one to illustrate diaphntgm-l:L';Sisted backbending (fig. ').7) Chis
po!:ie, which was alrp,....ldy mentiuned in the section on anatomy, corr, DeS
6. IOllll "AHIJ B/,\/nSGI'(J:'l l1HI-.\ 357
three elements: a forward bend at the hips, a backbend in the uppcr hall"of
the body, an d full nu tation of the sacroi liae joints, (As in th e case of t he
down- facing dog, il is helpfu l tu come in to the pose wit.h abducted t highs.)
Be eareful lo keep the abdominal muscles re laxcd; ir you don't, they wiIl
dr ive the lumbar lordosis to the rear ami compromise your effort. With that
enveat, this is one uf the best postures for getting into the most extreme
nutation you can manage. You can select a hand positon on the wall that
permits full relaxation of the abdominal muscles, your mus t expressive
lumbar lordosis, and a specific effort wit h the psoas muscles that rotates
the pro mont ory of the sacrum forward, the coccyx up and back, and the
ischia aparl-all with rnin imal alteration to the appearance of t he posture.
We also see good potential for nutation in many other POStUl"CS that conlain
element s of forward bcnding from the hips. For t hose who are flexible
enough t u keep a deep lumbar lordosis du ring the course of forward bends
such postures incJude the superfish loglit (fig, 3.19b) a nd t he straight -
backed boat (fig. j .zzb) . And Ior those who are less flexible, simple and
useful postures include cal st retches wit h mximum lumbar lordot ic
curvatures (figs. 3.]0, 334a-b with the dashed lines, and J.3), sitt.ing on
your heels o.n a bench in the adamantino posture (fig. 10,1), and any
scated. rnedi tat ion postur e in which you can demonstrate a deep lumbar
whether you accornplis h this by vir t uo of excellent na tiva hip
flexib ility 0 1' a support ing cushion (chapter 10). I n t he cat st re tches and
si tting postu res , even begi nners can learn to relax the abdominal
musc1es, pilch the lumb8l' region and the promontory of the sacrum
forward with a selecti ve contraction ofthe psoas muscles, permit the ilia
to come closer together, and spread the schia. And one more added
benefit is that these s imple postures permil yuu to a llernate fu ll
with full coun ternulation: pushing t he l umba r region
maxlrnally for wa rd favors nulation, and pushing it maximally lu
the rear favors cou nlernutation.
IN BACKBENOS
lf you have a healthy back, yuu can do relaxed symmelrical backbending
I
Pst ures to encouragc nutation. These include all lhe gravitalionally-aided
lackbending b " . h
POSl.-'S, egmnmg Wlt the relaxed standing lumba r bend Ijusi
ment loned in t he section on anatomy as well as in chapler .) ' I . }
nut t ' .. , m w llC 1
a Ion accentuates t he lumbar lordosis, squeezes the prumontory uf the
Slcrum fOl"Ward bctween t he ilia, anel spreads the ischial tuberosities (fi
4. 20). Or try this: stand wit h the lhighs comf011ably abducted and
;;:ur hanas astride the ilia with the thumbs against and di rectly th:
p of the sacrum. Relax and bend backward to produce maximum nutat'
Yo
u
100.
may not be aItogclhel" cel-Lai n of fecli ng t.he lop of th e sacrum moving
.IS
H
AI\i170.. I/I ' 0''''',1'111/1 I '(}(;A
forward in relalion lo the ilia as you bend backward, but as you slowly si ft
orward from the cxtremily of the backhend and move into eounternutat i 1,
ou'lI Ieel a dramatic shift of the ilia as they move forward and laterally o
either sido of the sacrurn. lt almost Ieels like a genr shifting in the man 11
transmission of an automobile. .
Another excellcnt posture favoring nutation is the proppcd, diaphrai, -
restricted backbend leaning against a wall (fig. ,.6), except that here IU
modiy the posture by aiming for a diaphragm-assisted You lo
this by bcnding the knees, working your hands somewhal further down le
wall, and relaxing the abdomen so as lo permit the diaphragm lo aecent te
the bond. This creates full nutation by squeezing the promontory of he
sacrum forward in relation to the ilia.
Next, try the varialion of the upward-facing dog in whieh the feet id
toes are extended (the tops of the Ieet facing down) and the knees ft
on the oor (fig. 5.13). In this posture gravity does the work of droppi ru he
pelvis, with the promontory of the sacrum lcading the ",-ay ere, ng
nutation. If you move slowly, you can also gel the same fechng with th c es
Ilexed, resting on the balls of the feet, knees, and hands.
Next, try lying supine with an R1/2 ineh playground ball under the IUJ Jar
region (fig, Ifyou can re1ax the abdominal musclcs allow gn i ty
to lower the upper baek and pelvis toward the floor, lhls posturc "ill
eneourage nutation; otherwise you ,viII proteet your baek with an .de
of counternutalion (resistanl abdominal and iliaeus muscles, straJ' ler
body, squeezed-togelher hips, and spread-apart ilia). .
Finally, for lhose who are flexible enough, push u
p.
mto \\ eel
P
ost ure from a supine position (fig. ,.29), and aBow nutatlOn to take I :lee
ed
IOd
as a first priority, with lhe promontory of the Hanum squeez.
the isehia pu1lcd apart. The abdomen and hip flexors, especla1ly the
muscles, must be relaxed, for only under those circumstances wil
. . A d it
nutation complement maximum spinal and hlp .. .n
1 ls hat
happens, lhe preferenee for eounternutation, or even sacrol.mc
J
O\l.l
are frozen in that attilude, is a eommon impediment to pushlOg up mI. t he
wheel for manv studenls.
h d . d gymna,;t ... ho
ITcchnical note: The most advanced st udents. suc as lIncen; an k in [he
are ext raordinarily flexible, may be able t? du this posture Ible
sacroiliac ' oints in an lIuitllde of partla) counternutatl?n. e mos ven
. d 1 fad may feel thi s is dcsirable for protcctll1g themsel
ves
, f a
ma)' take pla('c t'>O readily forothcir. comf0r.t. \:e can
. f ' ' b' lil ies for the whee) pusture: mflexlbl e begmmng SIUl
contlnuum o pOSSI I . . d' t t denls whu un
1 'h rtU or no sacroiliac movement; mterme la e s u . d
w 10 H OW. 1
1I
1 the wheel by pushing lo their limits 01' nutallon; udva
comc parlla y In O . . r bl ' th Ire
d t ' l h xcellenl sacroiliuc mohlllly who fccl comlOrta e In e p . r
sII
w1
t cl' ' on' and last those who' have more sucroili ac nexihilil lor
wll u nu al, ,
nulalion Ihan lhey feel comforlable uSlIlg. 1
(, rou Aut llN\IJII\'C; rosnIRF,,\' "SI)
COUNTERNUTATION IN VARIOUS POSTURES
Nulation is natural in upward-Iacing dogs in which you support the
posture between the knees and the hands, but counternutation is more
nalural when the upward-facing dog is supported between the feet and
the hands. For the latter, squeeze the hips together while keeping the
toes either Ilexed (fig. 5.14) or extended. The main object here is to engage
the abdominal. glutcal, and deep baek rnuscles strongly enough lo
initiate eoming into the posture with a relatively straight body and the
fullest possible eounternutation. You can feel it: the ilia are pulled
forward in rel ation to t he sacr urn by the iliacus rnuscl es , and that
movemenl is supporled by squeezing the hips together afong with the
ischia. Once this postura is established, lower the pelvis carefully so as
not to release the counternulation. The abdominal muscles (along with
the respiratory and pelvic diaphragrns) will act synergistically with the
iliacus muscles lo support counlernulation: t.hey will resist
lowering of the pelvis eeeentrically but powerfully; and because in
combination they maintain a high intra-abdominal pressure throughout
the breathing cycle, they wi1l also assist in keeping the lumbar spine
straight and keeping the promontory of the sacrum we1l to the real' in
relation to the ilia. Again, you can feel all of these tendencies ir you have
a elear eoncept of the anatomy.
The most common postures that support eounternutation are standing
and sitting forward bends from the waist. AlI you have to do is flex lhe
spine forward (as opposed to nexing the hips), aud this will encour-age
countemutation. Health-club crunch exercises (fig. 3.1), the lire exercise
(fig. 3.16), yoga sit-ups (figs. 3.2Ia-b), the round-bottom boat (fig. 3.na), the
phase of standard eat streh::hes thal push the lower baek toward the
ceiling with the abdominal muscles (figs. 3.34a-b, halftones), a rclaxcd aud
externally suppo,tcd standing forward bend for beginners (fig. 4.21), and
the beginner's fonvard bend with lhe fist s in the armpits (fig. 6.13) all
foster countemutalioo-keeping the ischia together, the ilia apmt, and
lhe promontory of th e sncru m to the real' . And these postures are a1l Hafe
and easy.
'rhe olher supremely standing postures that supporl eounter-
nUlation were mentioned earlier: standing whole-body backbends (as
Contrasted to lumbar backbends) in which the hips and ischia are
queezed logether and the main pl"iority is keeping the promontory of
the sacrum to the rear and lhe Iia sprcad apart (fig. 4.19). [t's another
Poslure for those who requirc maximum lumbar protection, particularIy
the maximum bend is aceompanied by deep empowel'ed thoracic
Inhalations.
In general, counternutation is prcferred by thosc who are 11I1Certain of
3
6 0
AI\ A fU\/I (JI //A 71/, 1 IO<;A
themselves. They keep the hips squcezed together, the pelvis tucked un, -r
in a posterior pelvic tilt , and maintain tense abdominal muscles, a l uf
which are classic postural adjustments for everyone who has a ff
back. 11' this del;cribes you, don't fight the reality: go with it. This is le
work you need to do. Arter ayear or so 01' conditioning, you I el
inclined to pursue more posturas that release counternutat on Id
favor nutation.
ASYM MET RIC POSTURES AND THER APEUTlC APPROACHES
11' one sacroiliac joint is more restricted than the other, you can e
asymmetric posturas to free up the joint on the tight side. But you I ed
to be careful, because it is easy to make a mistake and work selecu -ly
on the wrong side. So to be certain 01' your diagnosis, first go back nd
forth for 2o-W minutes between postures that favor extreme nu t, on
and others that favor extreme countemutalion. Then watch ami wan .or
24 hours, If you have sacroiliac discomfort only on one side in th e rm
01' a vague ache in the regi n 01' the sacroiliac joint, it m 1115
that the sacroiliac joint on that side is more restrictcd than it IS UI he
other, Do make surc, however, that you are not feeling sy mpt nns
discussed earlier in this chapter-unilateral iliolumbar ligament si in,
lower back pain on one side, or sciatica.
As soon as you know which sacroiliac joint is more restricted. -ep
working mostly on symmetric postures, but think 01' adding som
are Bsymmelric. The preliminary pigeon, as well as folding 1'01' ird
from that poslure (figs . 6.1.58-b), are excellent , ami wiU tend to opc up
lhe sacroiliacjoint associat ed with the front knee. Do them three t I les,
first and last for Ihe tight side. 'fhe best and simplest asymrr. tr ic
st anding poslure thal selectively affccts one sacroiliac joint is t he rsl
stage 01' lhe angle posture in whi ch you are ini tiating a bend frorr me
hip <fi gs. ..J .2') and 6.26a>' Jf the ri ght side is ti ght, forward f ing
lhe right foot only to Ihe extenl that you can mall1.tam a lu bar
lordosi s and then pull se lcct ivcly and insistently wlth the n ght oas
muscle encourage full nutation in the right sacroiliac joint.. l ,n' t
co
me any further forward, as thiH is likely to rel ease the nulatl As
t is
usual, face the righl root , then the left, then lhc right once more
besl lo work wit.h simple pOHlures that can be analyzed without di .bt.
Asymmetric st.anding postures such al; triangles , bend ,
lunges, as well as asymmelric sit t ing posturcs and are 11Iy.
complex that it is beUer to work with them in each dlrectlon eq
Unless you are certain of what. you are doing, you might end up fa\" Inl:!
the wrong side.
6. HIHII r1f( /) ntr-nu, PO\TI RES 36 1
H IP FLEXIBILITY
Good hip flexibility is the O1Ol;l important single requirement for at least
halr the postures in hatha yoga-silling and standing forward bends,
junges. triangles, sitting spinal twi st s, many variations 01' the invert ed
postures, and meditativo sitting postures. So it is not sur prising that we
treat thi s topi c over and over, and that we pick thi s chapte r on forward
bending to do so definitively. We'lIlook at it here rnostly in supine, sitting,
and standing postures, with the thighs both abductcd and adducted and
wilh the knees hoth Ilexed and extended. Later, we'Il discuss the topic in
t. wist ing postures (chapter 7), inverled postures (chapters R and 9), and
meditative sitting postures (chapte r 10),
The prohlem with t.alking about hip flexibility is Ihat most peoplo do not
ordinarily t.rouble thernselves to define it precisely. Irst udents can't bend
forwar d in the posterior stretch because oftight harnstrings, or ifthey cannot
abduct their thighs very far because 01' tight adductors, or if they cannot
extend their hips because of tight hip flexors , or iftheir sacroiliac jcints are
frozen, is it appropriate for hatha teachers to call these problems 01' hip
flexibility? They usually do. But in one scnse poor hip flexibility is the
result, not the cause 01' these situations, just al; hip inflexibility can be the
result 01' excess weight in the abdomen in those who are obese,
To see hip flexibility in its purest form, we would havo lo look at someone
who is both slender and devoid 01' functional harnstrings, adductors, hip
flexors, and hip extensors-in short, someone whose range 01' mol ion at the
hips is Iimited only by ligaments and bony constraints within the hip joint
itself. But even if we could find such a model , it would nol help us plan a
hatha yoga pructice because we are mainly inlerested in hip joint
mobility in those whose extremities are intact. We'lI therefore discu ss hip
flexibility in the broadest possibl e lenns, concerning ourselves with lhe
final resull and considering a1l possible limitations lo mobilily. Our objeclivcs
are twufold-working guardedly to improve mobility 01' the hi p joint itself,
doing stretches lo increase the lengths 01' the muscles that fonn the
hrst line of resi stance.
.. Any time we work with lhe hipjoint. as well as with mosl other synovial
JOJnls, we must be sensitive lo when limitalioIlH in movemenl are cauHed by
Illuscle, when they are causcd by ligamenl s, anel when lhey are cmlHed by
buny stops. 11' movementH are being abnonnally rest.ricted by muscles, we
can work consistently to lengthen them. When a nonnal range 01' molion is
restricted by Iigaments or bony st.ops, we should be wa..y ofattacking these
aggressively, realizing that overstretching ligaments can cause
thclr associatedjoints to become destabilized. and that bony
st0Jb are built. into our body plan. When we prat1 ice al80affccts these O1atters.
Ir YOll wake up afier cight hours in bed, muscles witi create the most
162 ANA7YJMI'Ol'IIt17Utl H)(itl 6 I'ORII otRD 1I/i.\'IJ/tw; POS77'RES Jf.l
restrictions, but after an hour of hatha yoga, especially in the evening. he
muscles are not as assertive, and you may have more awareness of l- ny
constraints and of ligaments that now require more tender treatment
In the following discussion we'll work from safe and simple to challer ng
and complexo Supine hip-opening stretches are Iirst because in that pos on
the lower back is stabilized against the Iloor, Inverted postures are -xt
(although these are not covered in detall until chapters Rand 9), bec ise
we can explore hip flexibility more delicately when the hip joints are be. lIlg
only the weight of the inverted lower extremities. 'I'hen come the SI ing
postures in which we have to divide our attention among several ta
stabilizing the lower back and pelvis, stretching the hamstrings and addu. ns,
and maintaining awareness of ligamentnus and bony constraints hin
and immediately surrounding the hipjoint. Postures such as the pigeo ar e
yet more challenging because gravity places the weight of the body di -tly
on the muscles and lgaments ofthe hip when they are in already-str r- ed
positions, Standing postures are the most challenging for three rE' l ms:
first, they require the hip joints to be held in set positions delined I the
position of the fcet; second, the weight of the head, neck, upper ext rei 1ies,
and torso is brought to bear on the hip joints, often when they . in
extreme positions; and finally, tension on the hips frorn turning, tw ing,
and lunging adds to the stresses imposed by gravity.
SIMPLE SU PINE HIP OPENING
'rhe simplest and most fundamental hip opening postures are thos hat
work in moderation to free up the ligaments, joint eapsules, and sy )vial
surfaees of the hip joint while muscular restrictions are mi nimize( And
since it is obviously not feasible to minimize those restrictio by
detaehing OUJ' hip and thigh muscles from their insertions. we ( the
next best thing and flex the knees. The following six stretches an d I lve-
ments can be done in the early morning even while you are still l:,1 g in
hed, and ir you try them after an hour's session of hatha yoga the. lave
an even deepcr action. . the
First. lie on your back and dmw the knees towal'd the chest Wl t
hands, keeping the thighs adducted (fig. 6.19a). 'fhis is the first and 1 .iest
h n
d k ces .riog
po
sit ion: The hamstri I1gs are not stretched because ,t e . e,xe 'n .
t
h ' Ivis
their insertions on the tibia and fibula clm;er to thmr ongms on . e
(fi
' 3 Job and 6.3) ' the adducwr muscles on the insides of the 1Illgh [igs.
19s. - " . her:
2.8, 3.H-9, and R.13-14) are oot stretched the :hlghs are togt .;(){Jo
and finally, ifyou are slender the abdomen wlII not get m your way. ':'" d
as you are satisfied that muscle, fat, and other tissues of the thlgl-
groin are not limiting the stretch, certain that you are W( Ing
with limitatiollS in and around the hip Jomt Itself.
The first thing you notice about this streteh is that pulling your knees
tightly aga nst the chest can go only so far without prying the pelvis up and
away from the flOO1: This is a lever action, aecomplished by the two femurs
in combination, whoso necks, at least in students who are not restricted by
soft tissues, pry against the thin cartilaginous rims of the acetabula (the
soekets of the hip joints). You can see this even more clearly if you lifi one
knee at a time and pull it diagonally aeross the body-the upper rirn ofthe
acetabulum is not horizontal but lies at an angle, and pulling the femur
diagonally accesses this cartilaginous rim directly and pries the same side
of the pelvis away from the floor.
You can make the first exereise more effective by resisting the lifling
effect on the pelvis isometrically. You do this by trying to roll the pelvis
back down against the floor; pressng the sacrurn toward the floor using the
deep back rnuscles at the sarne time you are pulling on the long end of the
lever (the knees) with the hands,
For the second position, pull the knees slightly apart, with the hands
still grasping thern from the outside, The thighs are slightly abducted,
allhough not enough in most people to stretch the adductors. Now the neek
of the femur will be in contaet with the rirn of the acetabulum in a slightly
different region. lateral to the first point of contact, and the shaft of the
femur may also be blltting up against the anterior superior iliae spine on
the front of the ilium <figs. J.2-6 and 6.Jt)bl. Again, you can intensify the
streteh by pulling the pelvis toward the Ooor with the deep back muscles.
6.19a. First of six supine
11I p-openng poses: With the
knees togelher, pull them
10ward the chest wilh nter-
locked hands and fingers, at
lhe same time prying the pelvis
awayfrom the f1oor.
F'
Igure6.19b. Second: With
knees apart, pull on thcm
ho
m
Ihe sides with Ihe
ands, providing a slight
Sltelch for the adductors.
.l11.j ,11\/1{VAl} (JF IIA11tA )'f J<iA
fI . Hmll AIUJ lJL\lJI!\ '(i PO.H 1!Rf:\ .111,
' l' hi r d, grasp the knee s from the ins ide, abducting the thighs l -n
further to the side. Depending on your hody type and Ilexibility, th e sh Is
of the femurs may now be lateral to the anterior superior iliac spi -s,
enabling you to pull t he knees closer to the floor (fig, 6.1t)c).
Fourth, grab the ankles and pull them toward you, and at the sarno I ne
dig the elbows into the thigh muscles, pressing them out and incre ng
abduction, The soles of th e feet will probably be together in thi s poi on
(fig, 6.19dl. lfyou are feeling stretch in the inner thighs, you are feeli he
adductors, and if you are not , the primary limitation to the moverm IS
st ill the hip joint.
Finh, catch the lateral sides of the feet and pull thern closer to the ( -st,
and at the same time dig the elbows into the calf muscles, pressin he
knees even further to the sides (fig, 6.It)e). This stretches the addi lII 'S
maxirnally and aligns the femur in such a way that its shaft has the pot al
for dropping down laterally to the lateral border of the ilium. If yo are
flexible enough, someone may even be able to push your knees all thi way
to t he Iloor,
Sixth, hold onto the soles of the fcet Irom the insido so that the le: are
perpendicular to the Iloor, and caut iously pull the knees straight doy.I fig.
6.190. The t highs will not be abductcd as much as in the previous po. Ion,
but the necks of the femurs can still clear the ilia, Here again, this is sier
ir you have a partner to help you. In any of the last two or three pos rons
in which tho neck of the femur is not prying dircctly against the ri m the
hip socket 01' the front of the iliurn, you may st ill gct stopped by tenderness
in the groin. Don't force the issue ir that is the case, bceau se nurnerous
delicate tissues run through this regi n.
CIACUMOUCT ION
The hip joint is a ball-and-socket juint th at accommodates "rot at ion"
during the course of any combination of si x movcments-ncxion and
cxtension, abducti on and adduction, a nd lat eral and medial rotation.
Even t hough in a literal sense all of these rnotions rotate th e head of the
femur in the acetabulum, by convention only the last two are termed
anat omical rotution, These of course can he superimposed on any of the
others. For cxample, if YOlJ sit down and spread you r thighs a pa r t
keepi ng the knees st raight, and then turn your toe s out, you will be
superimposing lateral rotation on Ilexed and adductod thighs; turning
the t oes in from the same position is medial rotation, "Hip-opening" in
hatha yoga means devcloping a full range of motion for a ll of t hese
movement plus one more--circumduclion-that seque nt ially combines
flexion, abductio n, exteneion, and adtlucti on ,
You can circumduct the thigh in any position in which the floor 01' sorne
other object is not in the way. \Ve'JI look at it in a standing position to
pxplore the principIe and t.hen in supine post uros to see how various
muscles restrict the movcment. If YUlI balance on your lcft foot , extcnd the
Figure6.19c. Third: Grasp
Ihe knees fmm the inside
and pull Ihem down and
lalerallyfor more slrelch
of Ihe adductors.
Figure 6.191.'. Fiflh: Grasp
lateral aspects of Ihe feel and
pull lhem loward Ihe head
Ihe elbows
agall1st lhe calf muscles. This
provides the fullesl strelch
for Ihe adduclors in Ihis
series.
Figure 6.19f. Sixlh: Grasp Ihe
SO/es uf the (eel (mm Iheir
Illedial borders am! pull Ihe
loward lhe floor on
e1lnerside of lhe ches!. Be
careru!, because Ihe arms can
Pull Illore powerrully than is
lelllperate Cor the hip joinls.
figure 6.19d. Fourlh: Grasp
Ihe and pull Ihe Ceel
loward Ihe head, pressing Ihe
elbows sharply against lhe
thigh muscles. This lends to
Jift Ihe shoulders, and you
may wanl lo have a pillow lo
support your head.
A SUPINE HALF LOTUS HIP-OPENER
:r
he
next . . . a supine half lotus hip-opener---does lwo things: it
Improves hlp flexlbility, and it stretches the adductors and decp back muscles.
And bccause the back is stabilized agcnst the f1oor, it is safe as well as
cffective. It is less rewm"ding early in the moming than after you are thor-
warrned up. buLonce you get acdimated to it the pose will bccome a
favon te. Lie supine and draw the hcels toward the hips, kecping the feet on
the noor. Then bring the left ankle lo lhe near side of the I'ight knee resting
the kJ . h '
an e agamst t e thigh mld pressing the len knee away from the body.
the len hand into the triangle formed by the two thighs and the leflleg
hft th . h fi '
be e ng t 001off the noOJ; and grasp the right shin with the left hand just
low the Pull the leHfoot down c10ser to the pelvis wth the I'ght hand.
the forearm aboye the left ankle, and interlock the fi ngers around
e I Ight shmJw;t below the knl'C(fig. 6.20).
{ HIHII I/lD m :NIJ'N,; rosn RES J(,7
. Next , to works in a dynamic rnovernent, improvise freely,
clrcumduetmg the thigh with varying combinations of knec flexion and exten-
sion, always sweeping the thigh in a::i wide a "circle" as possble. These are all
valua.bleexercisos for hip opening in their own right: even though they are not
practIca! for a class. They work best at the end of a finn bed.
As you play with the differenL options and combinations for knee Ilex on
and thigh you can begin to understand how the hamstrings,
adductors, .and hip flexors in cornbination affect circumduction ofthe thigh,
and you will be encouraged to see that lengthening these muscles even a
litt le can improve hip flexibility Circumduction of the thigh also clarifies for
li S how hip flcxibility is lirnited by the inherent structure ofthejoint itself
and once bccorne aware ofthe Iirnits irnposed hy the individual rnuscles,
you can begin work. As an experirnent, do a series o' hip-opening
post ures, both the imple ones outlined at the beginning of this sect on and
sorne of the more dema nding ones described later, then try a balaneed hatha
yoga practica Ior an hour; and come back tu the sarne h p-opening exercises
at. the end, yo"u are warmed up, you will not onJy bemore flexible, you
will beconscious of more bony and ligamentous constraints,
.IN> A,'''''O;lll" (JI" l/ATIlA HX,A
right knee, and swing the right foot around in a circular motion, you : 11
be circumducting the thigh. You can start with adduction, continuo Iorw d
for flexion, swing the Ioot out 101' abduction, to the real' for extensi n. Id
hack into home position with adduction, If you project an imaginar)' tra e g
on the floor with your foot, you'll notice that the movement is kidn y-
shaped rather than circular. Thcre are two reasons for this: the leg you 'e
usmg to support your weight gets in the way ofthe one that you are swin; Ig
around, and you can flex the thigh orward further than you can exter it
to the real: Try this exercise with both lower oxtremities and notice if le
excursion is different on the two sides.
As you swing your right thigh in front of the lefl thigh and leg, you \11
frst feel the right hip joint and the left thigh limiting how far you can di
the right thigh lo the len and forward. Then as you Ilex the thigh stra ht
forward the right hamstrings limit the movement. Swinging on aro to
the side, the right udductors (or the right hipjoint in those who are espec lly
flexible) start resisting. Continuing to the rear, the right hip flexors I iit
extension, and finally, just before you bump into the len thigh, the ri gh hip
joint again stops you.
We have already taken note of the straightforward effccts of' knec extel Ion
and flexion on hip flexion ((igs. 6.]-4). and we have seen how important his
is to fonvard bcnding with lhe thighs adducted, as in t,he posterior st I ch
(fig. 6.12). Now we'lllook at how flexing the knec assists circumductll l of
the thigh in general and abduction ofthe Lhigh in particular. Youcan dI his
only when you are lying supine with the hips near the edge of atable Ol rm
hed, because you want lo be able to hyperextend lhe thighs beyom the
lower edge. The first thing to do is repcat in the supine position wha , ou
just did standing, extending the knee and projeeting the tracing for eil m-
duction on the opPOsite wall rather than on the floor. Then, with thi. IS a
basis for comparison, bend one knee and project the same kind oftmci on
the wall from an imab"nary line running down your thigh.
You will notice immediately that you get a much bigger projeetion en
your knee is bcnl. Swinging the thigh around in the same 1 as
before, it docs not make much difference at lirst whether the knee l . >ent
01' eJo..-tended. But as sooo as you have the thigh nexed straight to the J 1I1t.
koce flexion en larges that segment of the projcction eonsiderably lver
what is appal'ent with the km,,' extended. Moving on around, as you al lud
the thigh straight to the side, yo get only marb"nally more thigh abd u Ion
with the knee flexed than extended. Finally, everything is reversed \"ou
try to bring the thigh to the real'. Knce flexion at that point stops t lig
h
hypel'extension cold beeause the rectu,' femoris muscle comes u del'
extreme tensioo and kl'ps the thigh lined. Be carerul al that stage n. to
hurt your knee.
'
Figure 6.20. To do Ihis supine half-
olu h'
d" s Ip-opener, procced as
Irecl ed in texl, or modify ir as
for example by permiUing
. e t1ght ankle to resl above lhe
inslcad of bcJow, or by
Ihe back side of Ihe righl
11gh Insl ead uf Ihe righl shin.
HIP OPENING IN INVERTED PO STU RES
When the body is inverted, hip-opening is both sale and elfective because
the hip joints are not bearing the weight of the body as a whol e. In either
t he headstand (chapt er 8) 01' the shoulderstand (chapter 1) , you ca n stretch
the hamstrings on one side at a time by pull ing one 100t overhead, and you
can stretch the adductors by allowing gravity to abduct the thighs, From
the shoulderstand you can come into the plow 01' ha ll' plow to stretch the
harnst r ings on both sides, and you can do that whi le abducting the thighs
maximally lo stretch the adductors. You can a lso fold one foot into a hall'
lotus position and lower the other 1001 overhead tuward the floor to st r etch
th e harnst ri ngs on one side, Finally, you can work within tho hip joint by
folding up the knees and hips in any number ofways that reduce muscular
tcnsion.
r.. H JHIl AHLJ I/E\ /J/ l . / 'C/YI7 'RI ':\ '\(,'1
to a greator length undcr conditions of passive st retch. For example, if we
brucss that tbe hamstring muscle liben; had heen recciving W nerve impulses
per second befo re lhe isometric endeavor and massage, they might receive
only 20 nerve impulses per sccond in the sa rne st retch after the treatrnent,
releasing some of their tension and en abling us to bend forward more
gracefully. Even more to the point, t he diminution in mot or neuronal input
seems to last for as long as a day 01' two, suppor t ing the usual advice to do
hat ha yoga postures every day.
FORWARD BENDI NG WITH ONE FOOT T UCKED IN
Sil ti ng forwa rd bends with one foot tucked in a re among the most useful
hip flexibility st ret ches for beginners and intermediate st ude nts. They do
not place as much stress on the lower back and sacroiliac joints as lhe
post erior stretch, and tbey are asymmetrical postures that are helpful lar
wurki ng with right-Icft imbalances.
To begin, sit on the floO!; stretch one leg out in frunt ofyou. and pull the
other foot. in toward the perineum. The thighs will beat about a 90 a ngle
from one another, and you wiU be facing about halfway betwecn th e two.
Next , to work with this p08ture conventionally, twi st the spine 45 to lace
the outstretched leg and come forward without lilling your hands overhead
or making an attempt to bend initially from the hips. Let the hands rest.
depending on you!" Ilexibility, on th e outstretchLod thigh, leg, 01' foot (fig.
6 21a) R ' " h r.
. . emam In I e posture 101' about half a minute and then slowly
unroll, first at the hips and then in the lumbar regon. Finally, lift the head
and neck. Repeat on the other side.
Ths forward b nd toward one foot is useful for several reasons. First,
;Ith one knee flexed , it is stretching the hamstrings un onJy one side.
Secund , even though it is stretching the adductors to ::;ome on both
to
01'
el'
all
nd
rd-
les
.od.
' he
GOLGI TENDON ORGAN STlMULATION
The following exercise lengthens t he hamstrings and realfirms the pI' CI-
pies of working with feedback eircuits betwecn tendons and thei r m les
(chapter 1). It is safc for bcginners because the back and pelvis are stabi ed
against the 0001'. Locate a length of cloth 01' a belt that can be t hrown
one foot and grabbed with the hands. Then do a standing forward \)1 1
test t he initial lengt h of lhe hamstrings. Next, lie down with tbe bu tl .\u,
against a wall. l be fcet facing t he cciling, and the thighs Oexed l)oQfrOl
trunk. Kecp l he knees extendt.'<1 and the feet toget her, and 10s8 t he d o
bcit across the sole of one foot.
Keeping one leg against the wall, draw the other foot away from t ht
by t uggi ng on the bell with the opposite hand. both exteJ
With the olher hand, first locate lhe ischial tubermnty on the slde y lre
,\mrking with, and feel lhe hamstring tendons that lcad distally, Ut
away (towar d Lhe ceiling) from that point of originoSecond. the 1
like hamstring tendons that connect lh e bellics of the ham!:ltnng ml!
to their inse rtions on the tibia and fibula. These tendons can be feil 1St
proximal to the medial and lat eral sides of l he knec joints. the tel. 1115
are aIl locat cd, hold the doth 01' bclt rmly and press the thlgh towal he
t of
wall isometrically, bringing the hamstring mu scles into a strong 1;
conlraction. Thcn, kceping thut tension on the hamstring muscles, d Iy
pa lpate their musculotendinous junctions with your fr ee hand, .fi rsl
t heir origins and then near thei r insertions. Rcpcat tI.le cxerC1SC OT rd
ot he!" side. '1'0 complete the exper iment , sta nd up. agam try the for
be
d and noticc how much further you can come down.
n , . les
Vigorously palpating Gotgi tendon Ol'b'llns of the ham.stnn
g
mu he
whcn Lhe hamst r ings are in a state of isometric contractlOn relaxe.
muscles. an d we can see the evidencc moments lal er when they 8Ccommo Ile
Jf>ll ..tS A711.\l1 01' 1/11111.1 I(( itl
If you are nol Flexible enough to gel into this position, you can keep .e
right wrist below the left ankle, or you can grasp the thigh inslead of i n: r-
locki ng the fingers around t he knee. Do it any way you. can..Rock le
lo side as far ro; possible without. falling. 'I'hen draw unagmary circl e In
the ceiling with the right kneo, Co as far lo the left as possible without lopp 19
over, and pull on your right knee, deeply stretching the adduetor mu..
on the left sido that attach posteriorly along the inferior pubic rami . '1 -n
go as far to the right as possible, again withuut loppling o:el; 19
the stretch higher in the back. In this position, t he right thigh JS Ik -d
straight toward the chest, so the right adductors a re nol being pi. '(\
under much tensi n, but the left adductors are stretched by the mod -d
hal l' lot us combi nation of flexi n, abduction, and lateral rotation . ru:> t
on the other side.
of catching the outstrclched foot to pulI themseJves ully into the pose,
however, because we see the sarne problem here as in the posterior stretch:
advanced students come into the posture by releasing rather than
increasing tension on their spines, and beginners who pull forward wit h
thei r hands may strain their lumbar region. Coming out of the pose,
beginners should 1'011 up and out as aJways (even if they carne into the
post ura bending from the hips), intermediate students should releaso
slightly in the hips and lower back before reaching forward, out, and up,
and advanced students can do whatever they want, including reaching
out and then up as a first priority.
.' 70 AI\ATOftll fJl'/ltH/lA Hl<;t1
sides, it creates more stretch on the sido to which you are reaching becar e
the knee on th at side is extended. This is one ofthe best possible posturas f r
wor king with the adductors on one side at a time. Fina1ly, t he forward lx '1
with t he pelvis angled 45 creates different and generally Iewer strosses 11
the hip joint and lower back than the posterior stretch, making this posu 'e
safer and less discouraging for beginners.
After getting accustomed to ths pose, try a variation. Again come o
the prelimi nar}' posi tion with th e right knee extended, but insteai 11'
reaching out directIy toward the righ t foot , press your left forearm aga
your left knee. In most students, this will pry the right hip off the floor, d
t hat's fine. Now reac h out and slide the right hand against the f or
halfway between the two thighs, approxi mati ng a 30--45 anglo from le
outs tre tched leg. Keep reaching toward your lirnit even t hough it lift s . ur
right hip even more. 'I'he idea is to st retch the adductors on the right I re
than the prev ious postu re, Then try rcaching out closer to the right ot,
perhaps 10--20 ofl' axis from the right leg, in orde r Lo increase tonsion 1 en
more in t he right adductors (fig. 6.2Ibl. These variations are rnainlj or
beginners and intermediate students, Those who are already flexible ill
not find thern very interesting because thei r adductors can easily 3( m-
rnodate lo all of the stretches,
Finally, after exploring t he poses in which you are reaching out : an
angle, come back lo the original posture and reach straight towar he
right 1'001. You will find that you are able lo come furt her orward ig.
.2\C). The hamst ri ngs are still resisting almosl as much as before, bu he
stretches off axis from the extended knee have relaxed and lengt henc he
adductors on t hat sido, and the increase in how far you can now rea s a
rough mensure of how much they were contributing to yuur limitatn
over and aboye restrictions from the hamslrings-in the initial postu
These are all elernentary stretches, and in keeping with the spi of
meeting the needs of novices, they should all be explored by simply r ng
for ward naturally, working frorn distal to proximal, coming into the st -tch
first with the upper extremities, head, chest, lumbar region, and hip" nd
then rcleasing in the opposite directiun one step at a time from the to
the upper extremilies. Since these are asymmetric postures, you s lId
repeat the series on the other side. Mer a warm-up, you can ta k the
option of moving briskly back and fOl'th from one side to the oLI'> . Lo
determine if one si de is tighter, and then concentrate your atte Ion
accordingly.
When sludenls are comfortable with thes postures, they can ltir t
thinking about re-ordering their priorit ies by 'eaching up first \Vi l l - he
hands and bending from the hips, then the spine, and then the hea( . lJ1
d
ncck. On ly advanced sludents with good flexibility should try t he fina l tep
Figure 6.21a. Wilh the
Idl fool plaeed against
the right lhigh, come
forward in an initial triar
lo feel and evaluate
hamstring lighlness.
Figure 6.21b. Pressing
Ihe left forearm
agains! Ihe let knee,
reach out at various
angl s (in Ihis ca e
20) lo slreleh the
adduelurs on Ihe
righl side.
6.21c. Nul ice Ihe
:rnptovement. This is due
o having lenglhened Ihe
adduCIOts, sorne of
which have a hamstring
Chatadel' and whkh limil
lhe fOrwal'd bend fol' the
!>iIrne l'easons as the true
hamstl'ings.
37
2
AI\IIHHIl ' orunrn 1'(l(i,1
d
ur
ou
an
'I'his IHa
O
bend from the hips can happen only because full sacroiliac
nutation in combination with extreme abduction get s th e thighs out of
t he way quite literally, and perrnits the front 01' the pelvis to drop down
between them. Thi s, in Iact, has to happen in the most extreme cases 01'
abduction, in which the thighs a re sprcad straight out to the sidos. What
happens at the level ofbones and joints under those circumslances is thal
the pelvis rotates forward and allows the anterior borders 01' the ilia to
drop down between the necks of the fernurs just as we saw with sorne 01'
the hip-oponing stretchcs (figs. 6.I"}e-f). The only difference is that here,
those who are especially flexible are a ble to both ahduct and to flex their
hips fully when their knees are extended.
The extreme abduction in this posture, in combination with the pitched-
forward pelvis, reveal s one more feature. In comparison with the posterior
stretch, it actually takes tensi n off the harnstrings because Ihe sacroiliac
joints slip lo the ext reme 01' nutation, spreading the ischial tuberosit ies
lat er ally and positioning them closer to the insertions 01' the harnstrings,
which are located out lo the side in this posture. Thi s means that those who
have a lot 01' sacroiliac mobility wilI not be lirnitcd by either the hamstrings
or t he adductors in this stretch and wiII be working on lirnitations within
the hip joint itself.
It is even more important lo be attentive to foot position in this posture
than in the posterior stretch, because with the feet spread so far apart, you
may not notice lhat one foot is angling out more lhan the other. The cause
01' t his is right-Ieft imbalances in the medial and lateral rotatOl"li of the
t h..ighs, and thesc cannot he corrected exccpt by paying attention lo detail
over a long period 01' time. If you are relatively inflexible, you sh ould find
lhe foot position that interfcres lhe least with your attempts to hend, so
long as you keep hoth fecl at the same angle, but if you are more flexible
you shouJd analyze carefully which foot position gives you the most uscful
stretch. Many instructors who are watchful 01' such malters wilI sugges t
that you try to keep bolh feet perfcctly upright.
s...HURNI NG
Analternative for those who cannot come very far fonvard in the previous
is to work with it asymmetricnlIy and dynamically, combining the
wlth a mild spinal twist. !"rom the starting position reach with your
hand toward YOur left. foot (or thigh, knee, 01' leg) whil e at lhe
swinging your left hand to the Ooor in back 01' you and givi ng yuun;elf
!Ittle push from behind lo aid lhe forward bend. Then come up
itnd reverse lhe position, reaching with your left hand loward your right
foot and pusbing yourself forward from behind with your right hand.
EXhal e each time you come fOl'\vard, ami inhale each time you come up .
ey
t he
dif
od
ill
eh
ule
y
ors
IOst
Ible
(IOr,
'1rd.
l m-
lIne
ngure 6.22. In lhis advanced
forward bend wilh hip joints
abducled. lhe lhighs lilerally
get out of the way of lhe
pelvis. which can drop all
the way forward to lhe f100r
in the mosl flexible sludents.
F ORWARD B ENDI NG WITH TH I GHS AB DUCT ED
Forward bending with the thighs abducted stretches both hamstri ngs
adductors . In its usual form it is a symrnetrical posture I(Jr intermed te
and advanccd students who have already achieved good hip Oexihility. S rt
with the knces straight and the thighs abducted. Then initiate a 1'01'\ -d
hend leading first with the promontory of the sa er um lo achieve
personal maximum for nutation. Then bend from the hips, or try to dr -o,
before bending additionally in the lumbar spine. Those who have
sacroiliac floxibility will Ieel their ischial tuberosities spread apart and
be able to flex the pelvis forward while kecping a prominent lumbar
(fg. (i .n), but as in the case ofthe posterior stretch, those who are infle
are likely lo be al their Ilrnits 01' sacroiliac nutation and hip flexihility
trying to sil up straight.,
In this posture tight adduetors add lo the problem 01' t ight hamst
for two reasons. First, spreading the thighs apart places the addi
under tensi n even beore you start to bend forward. Second, because
01' the adductors take origin posteriorly along the inferior pubic rarnJ
will puB forward on the underside of the pelvis just as surcly as th
strings. Compared with the posterior stretch, the additional diffi cu\t
have <:omingforward is due lo the adduclors, and if you are not very fl
you are likcly to be struggling. If you can't separate the thighs.
"}oo, it means that both the hamstrings and the adduclors are lrml tll
st retch. 'l'he simplicity 01' the problem makes this perhaps one 01' th
maddening postures in hatha yoga for st iff novices.
Those who have good sacroiliac and hip flexib ility have a complett
ferent experience. They may even he able to bend aU the way to t ht
kecping thc back st raight and even keepmg lhe lumbar region arched I
Another variation of thi s series of postures that may be of more inten
to intermediate and adv anced students is to place the pulled-in foot high 1
on the opposite t high before undertaking the forward bends. This variatioi ..,
not recommended for those who have poor hip Oexibility or for anyone w n
chronic low back pain, since it places peculiar and unanticipatcd stres s
on the lower back.
374 AI\r11VMI orusru HIGA
This dynamic churning exercisc is more rcwarding for beginners th
the prcvious pose because the ernphasis on movcment allows them lo f
as if they are accomplishing somcthing. It's also helpful bccause ti
asymmetry of the movement allows them to work with extra concentrati.
on the side that is showing more restrictions.
THREE MORE VARI ATlONS WITH ABDUCTED THIGHS
Three more variations of sit t ing forward bends with the thighs abduct I
are commonly taught, For the first one simply face the left foot and be r\
forward. If t he thighs are spread to a 1)0 anglo in th e fir st place, thi s v I
require a 45 twist in the spine in comparison with bending straight forw. i
toward the floor, Repeat on the other side.
For the second and more dcmanding variation (fig. 6.23a), tuck th e I "-
foot in toward the perineum, and while remaining upright, twi st l. l .
Follow this with a side bend to th e right, at the same time reaching o r-
head with the lefl, hand toward the right Ioot . This superi mposes lau di
flexion to the right onto a spinal twist to the left. Again, repeat on the ot -r
side.
'I'he last variation is similar to th e sccond one except that both kn ees re
extended. With the thighs abducted, sit straight, twi st enough lo le
right-4S0 if the thighs are at a 90 angle frorn one another-to face he
right foot, and do a si de bend toward the left foot. Repeat on the ot her Je.
Like the previous pose, this posture is more fitting for advanced stu , its
who can reach overhead with the free hand, gr asp the toes , a nd ull
furthcr into the side bend (fg, 6.23bJ. This should done carefully, espec By
ir you do the posture after you are warmed up, because so much of .ur
at t ent ion is placed on whole-body twi sting and bending Iollowed by p ng
with the free hand that you may not. notice you have just dislocated nrr
hip oOne time a fr iend of mine got carried away doing a dernonstrat ion md
did exactl y th at, So be watchful. If you feel some t hing givc, come 1 ck
delicately to a neutral position and stop doing all postures for a day I so
to eva late what has happened.
Figure 6.23a. To come
into Ihi!o lwisted side
bend , tuck lhe left foot
in, Iwist left, bend lo the
righl, and reach over-
head wilh lhe left hand
toward Ihe right foot .
This superimposes
lateral f1exion to the
right onlo a spinal Iwist
to Ihe left.
(, HI/{\l AIIf) /lE.\1JII\' C; l'OYI1 RE.' "
'I'hese last two postures are amung the few side bends that are possible
from a sitting position. Even so, theyare not pure side bends because they
are superimposed on sitting spinal twists. This makes them less natural
and more complex than standing side bends (cha pter 4), in which the
thighs are extended and in line with lhe torso. and in which a relatively
simple lateral flexion of the spine is possible,
SITTlNG TWISTS
Sitting spinal twists, which we'll discuss in the next chaptor; create stretches
and stresses in the hip joint not found in any other type of posture. Every
sitting spinal twist in which you lift one knee and pull it toward the opposite
side of the body opens the hip joint, and does so without many encum-
brances from muscular attachments, and, as we have seen repcatedly,
when the muscles are not limiting hip flexibility we are down to bare bones,
joints, and ligaments.
THE KNEELlNG ADDUCTOR STR ETCH
1'0 create the purest passive stretch of the adduetors, especially 10r students
who are not very flexible, warrn up for at least half an hour, and then kneel
down on a well-padded carpet with each knee on a small sheet ofcardboard,
Orop the head and chest, and sett1e onto the forearrns with the Iorehead
resti ng against the crossed hands. lowly slide tho knees apart, letting the
feet move to whalever position is most cornfortable as the body weight
abducts the flexed thighs, possibly to an angle of about 120 from one
another. Stay for a while in a position that permits the most abduction.
Next , slowly move the torso forward. This may permit you to slide the
knees further apart (fig, 6.24). Then slide the knees sornewhat closer
toget her and lower the hips to the rear for more flexion oTry to relax. As
you flex the hips and take your weight to thc rear, you will be st re tchi ng
different parts ofthe adductors than whcn you bring your weight forward,
and anyone who is not very flexible will find that moving lo the rear is an
f igure b.23b. For this lwisted side bend, abducl lhe lhighs. twist right bend leC!,
alld again reach overhead with Ihe free hand loward Ihe (o;)t.
376 (JI' IIA"JI I , 1 HXiA
intense stretch tha should be approached with caution. Last, you can y
coming all the way forward, but be careful of this if you have lower b; k
problems because the pose creates an acute backbend that places a 101 lf
stress on this region.
'I'hese exercses are among the most efl'ective stret ches ava ilablo Ir
the adductors, and working with them five minutes a day as a part I a
balanced practice wiII soon show re sults in all postures that depe nd m
adductor Ilexibility, including aH forward bends, all standing posti es
with the feet wide apart, and all eross-legged sitting postures.
(, 1'(}/{ll A/(n LJfi\'/)I,'I'C .177
bend i: the previous poslure is a
increases flexion of . r posture or many sludenls. The pose
Ihe right Ih.gh and lessens hyperexlension of the Idl lhigh.
Figure ..l hisopreliminary pigenn, aIJowing the fron l Ioot lo co me lo a
posruon, IS comfortable for everyone who has healt hy knees l he ri iht
Ihlgh IS flexed, tho left Ihigh is hyperextended and th back d 'k g
extended, e ac an nec are fully
F'
6.25c. The advanced
Plgeon, wilh Ihe fronl leg
apprnaching a 90" anglc from
fronl Ihigh, and featuring a
be lumbar backbend, hou ld
approachcd wilh respe<:t
and caUlinn.
THE PIGEON POSTURE
Figure &.24. This
kneeling addudor
stretch should be
done with caulinn,
es pedally hy those
who are nol very
f1exihle.
The pigeon has a large, puffed-out chest , which we mimic in the pi, JI1
posture. It is a superb advanccd backbending pose in its completed fe m,
but a preliminary version can be done by nearly everyone. We place it ' re
because both versions work with hip flexibility on the right and len les
sirnultaneously, producing extension of the hip joint for the thigh din ed
to the remoand flexion of the thigh facing the front,
'1'0come into the preliminary pigeon, start in a hands-and-knees POSI nn,
puII the right knee forward lo flex the right hip joint, and thrust t hr eft
foot back to extend the len hip joint, Allow the right foot lo end up whc 'er
it naturally fal ls, which will usualIy be near the genitals, Kcep th e el lWS
extended and the shoulders pressing the hands against the floor, Pul t he
head up and back, thrust the chest forward, and feel the essence of t hi -ose
(Iig. (,.2';a). If you feel any discomfort in the r ight hip joint or groin top
right there. This is as far as you should go. Later on , afier you ha ve g ten
accustorned to the basic position, you can lower your weight aH t h. oNay
down so that you are Iying on the right thigh, which tlexes th e rgf hip
joint completely and lessens hyperextension of the le!l hip joint Oigo sb).
Neither the harnstrings nor th e adductors are being st retched, bu t YOl -nay
feel the effcets in the hip joint itself 01; because all of your body wei it is
pr ossing against the forward thigh, you may feel tightness in the grc I on
that sirle.
Whcn you are comfortable with the preliminary pigeon, you can r t he
advanced posture, Gradually swing the front foot out so the leg is pe en-
dicular lo the long axis of lhe thigh and torso. Don' t ru sh. As you 'ing
your Icg around to about a 45 angle, you may start lo notice tens n in
.37/\ ANA1rJMt ' or I/A'/UA t ()(",'A
() rrJHII I1IUJ 11/:' /JI \'(, ,\7Y
I SS
in
1 in
fig
ure
.6.26a. Coming inlo this interrnediate slage of the angle poslure provides
a for the sllldy of muscle and joint rnechanics.
h/
s
!. to face foot before slarling to bend forward al Ihe righl
b creale lenslOn 10 lhe letl quadriceps femoris muscle, which should
11". lhe leh gluleals. Secund, hyperextension of lhe lefl
(shll slandlOg slralghl) forces lhe lumbar region iolo a deep lordosis,
shoulc1 be mainlilinec1 cven as you start lo bend forward. It is al Ihis
POlnl (third) thal a sharp asymmelric effort is made with the righl psoas rnuscle
above poslure) to mainlain Ihe lumbar lordosis, rnaximize nutalion uf lhe
nght joinl, and bend al lhe righl hipo fhis is a magnificenl asymrnelric
Pose 10 ls own righl and is worlh exlended sludy. Repeal on lhe other side.
Then, facing the right Ioot, establi sh full nulation of the ri ght sacroiliac
joint by tightening the right psoas muscle, and th en slowly fold forward,
first frorn the hips (fg. 6.26a) and then in the lumbar regon. As you come
down, the right hamstrings come under more tension tfig. b.26b) . Keep the
muscles of both thighs active lo make the posture feel more secure, and
notice that thi s also makes you fcel more confident in coming forward.
Come up and repcat on the other side.
This posture involves a swivel and a orward bend at one hip joint
which is intcnsied by the weight of the upper body. The resulting stretch
is more demanding than hamstring and hip st retc hes in supino, invertcd
and sitting postures because now you have to be attentive to the body as
a who!e-and this is one of the easiest and least complex of the standi ng
postures. Most others, especially the triangles and lunges, place even more
st ress and tension un the hip joints,
up
o a
cel
t he
-tSo
be
.e\y
md
als.
, be
ng
. ng
ngs
HI P FLEXIBILlTY STANDING
Improving hip flexibility in standing forward bends requires a diffei nt
mind-set from working with hip flexibility in supine, inverted, 01' sit 19
positions. Standing postures present special problems because we place' he
feet in positions that often deparl radically from the norms of ankle, k -e,
and hip movemenls needed for walking and running. Any time we p nt
the feet and then come into a standing posture with a twist., bend, h
01' sorne combination of these three, we place stress on the hip joi nts nd
their suppurting muscles. The problem is that we do not ordin. ily
readjust the feet lo make the poslure easier, which indeed would
the point; instead, we work with the posture by increasing the ter on
in muscles around the hips and knees. '1'0 this end, many instruv
recommend st a nding on non-slip rubber mats lo keep the feet Iir
place and immobile. Beginners are weIl-advised to begin with modc rt e
fool positions to minirnize st r ess, which allows them to explore str
postures in their mildest form befare working with more dema n
ver sions. 1'0 illustrate wc 'Il do two experiments, one for the hamst
and one for th e adductors.
We'lI begin with a n adaptalion of the angle posture (Iigs. 4 .
l
')- 2(
6. 26a-b) to stretch the hamstringR. Stand with the Ieet about th r
apart. Then rotate the right foot yoolo the right and the left foot JOo1
ri ght ., Given this foot position, the torso wiII rnost naturally lace aboi
to the right, and the hip joints and the mu scles that restrain thern ....
relativelv comfortable. '1'0 continue, swivel to fal.oc the ri ght foot as SQI
as possible, and notice that this movement al one ercates inlense tensl
the len. qu adriceps femoris. 'ou nter that by lightening lhe left glu
'rhe left thigh is now hypcrextended, causing lhe head of the
driven nto tighl apposition wi!.h the acelabulum. Iryou keep
straighl, hypcrextension uf l.he lell lhigh forces the lumbar reglOn JI
dcepcr lordosi8. There is littlc 01' no t ension on the right hamst l
because the right lower exlrernity is still in a neutral position.
your knee joint and 8 dcep pulling sensation in your hip joint on that Sal
side. Inexpe rienccd students should never lower their wcighl down agai r t
the front thigh in this position because it places too much stress on t
knee. Intermediate studenls can moderate the tensi n on the frunl knee v
working with the classic pigeon posture-lifling up on th e fingerti j
pulling the head and shoulders up and back, thrusting out the chest is
much as possible, and taking empowered thoracic inhalalions to incre e
their inspiratory capacity. Advanced students complete this posturo 'y
grasping the sole of the real' foot and placing it against the top of tho h. d
(fi g, 6.2'jC).
Jt\o t1Nt1TOMI OI"IIt117iJ1 )'O(;t1
Tu stretch the adductors, try standing on a non-slip surface with ti
thighs abducted almost as far apart as possible, still, however, being son
what conservativa. Keep the feet parallel, and make sure the back a J
pelvis are in a comfortable upright position. Then bend forward slight
kecping the lower back arched, and notice that you may be able to abdi t
the thighs even further. 'I'he idea is to refine this posture lo find a revi- d
maximum but fairly comfortable limit for abduction. Then bend in t y
incremenls, first coming forward from the hips to stretch the harnstr g
muscles and adduetors that originate from the rear, and then straighten g
up and hending backward to stretch those segments of the adductors 1 it
originate more anteriorly on the inferior pubic ramio Notice that e
stretches become intense in both directions. It is importanl to be car- III
even with these small shifts in position for two reasons: because the exer se
was started with near-maximum abduction, and because the feet are plai -d
and the weight of the entire upper body is brought to bear on the hip JO ts
and adductors. The directions are telling: bend forward slightly; mov in
tiny increments; stretches become intense in hoth directions. -h
eurnmenls would not be necessary if you were working with hip flexil ty
and adductors in supine, inverted, 01' sitting postures.
Figure 6.2(,b. Folding forward in the angle pose places inlense slretch on lhl
hamslring l1luscles of lhe fronl lhigh: stretch which sho.uld be by
holding lhose muscles in an isomelrlc stale of ontra lIon along wllh te
l('nsion in lhe rest of the musdes of both lower extremilics. This pose s
an excellent example of the inadvisability of holdinl? an 111
which the knee oint is fully 4) wllhout keepll1g tenslon 10
lhe rnu!>des thal support the )Oll1t antagol1lstlCally.
NONATTACHMENT
Those who are flexible in the hips and those who are not are like ships
passing in the night. Anyone with good hip llexibility can press the chest
against the thighs in a standing forward bend twith the knees straight)
and allow the lumbar region lo be stretched passively by gravity. 'I'hey
are relaxed and comfortable, and they feel a sense of inversion. In sitting
postures it is easy for thern to press the chest to the thighs (again with
the knees straight) in the posterior stretch 01' to lower the abdomen,
chest, and head all the way to the Iloor with the thighs abducted. By con"
trast, those whose hips are not flexible are practically a different species.
As they try to lower into a standing forward bend at the hips, their backs
are crunched oVCJ" rather than stretched pas.. sively by gravity, and they
get little 01' no sense of inversion. And as far as doing a credible sitting
forward bend with the thighs abducted is concerned, they might as weH
try flying,
Even if it is not possible for you to Ilatten your chest against your
thighs while keeping your knees straight, be comlorted. This is of little
consequence, al least by itself Hatha yoga is a science of mind as well as
body, and beneficent changes in the mind-body continuum are available
even lo those who are stff and past thcir youth. For achievement of
health and peace of mind, consistont practice is more important than
accomplishing sorne arbitrary standard uf flexibility, and if you work
consistently with a balanced set of posturcs, progress will be realized on
many fronts, sorne of thern unexpected. AIl you need is commitment plus
a playful sense of observation and experimentation. Such an attitude also
cultivates vairagya-nonatlachment-and if that accompanies your
quest, you will, by deflnition, be successful,
BENEFIT5
Forward bending postures are generally more suhdued than back-
bending, twisting, and inverted postures. 'fhey tend to quiet rather
than stimulate the somalic nervous system and the sympathelic limh
of the aulonomic nervous system (chapters 2 and 10) . On lhe other
hand, as soon as sludenls are able lo fiex forward enough in lhe spine
and lhc hips to compress the abdomen, forward bending postures
seem to have mildly invigorating cffects on the abdominal organs,
possibly stimulating the enteric ncrvous syst em (chapter 10), and
thereby enhancing digestion and assimilation of fuodstuffs from t he
bowel, as well as relieving constipation. Finally, hecause fOl'ward
bcnding postures are so important for hip flexihility, they are among
the most important training postures for meditation.
1lllNII lo ;'I'lnl akNI I'INtIt"lalw. #('){I l o
lf/wll' j l''''teIIj' a&'Il1 r-ol'uutlralil'w.. It? #",;?a.
r Ollr.clltra//IJl'/ f!'UIJIj' d 'r lIu/NI (''/1 (l/le ",l/ l"e-/:1.
IIlltf::r4jI/!//etl/llitN!--lhE /l/I"WJI "/ 11.1 hOll-laldi l o
.Itj mlltlllo11Y;Y'I/I- (l/le /tJ Jleao/,? th
11/(//1'/ 4';'rll.Jitlff 1/ NI {'ti!' ol/r e! h",f,J#t'l l I('J
ON'''CY' III I' N r -(llalldrI'I;? JI'J/f't/ o/'llle 'lIt/trl Sf l u'
II/e /IIul a a/k 11" /fellJ I'W NI" ol/)ed
jf,r 'm7cr I'/IId J:.11j'1'1' 1111(/'1'171.1. 71XC/1 lile /II-t/ltllullalJ
eNlru/trated(1./1 0/// olJrrl jhr a / IE/'{(I'yllllr!f,e &za IM,
lla a r a//;d ma ltl a l w. .J'hlJ, /IIEd/a//I''II nm k drj//IE'
aJ /. 1I///CI'l'(,//r:d/ &/11 "Yro/lralln'llill. "
_ Pandit Rajmani Tigunait, in [11 ner Qlll!sl, p. 71.
SEVEN
TWISTING POSTURES
u J/u:'J J17("/ll'///O .1l / l! JIlIIlCIf' ty' rJolt'n r 1'1' I'1t,Y'Jlr:r/aUJ.:J J
jIl/ltjt a (.{Il"l# o/rlll1a,k-IIt/I? IVw,I I!J,t!.?e afi'I'Ilt/ .r:>t-ul
Ulk"/ 11/( kallr kan/Ea'!!.JIU !(1. IV/N/! lJl /./:Je'/,rd, "lit'" 1/I/lIalfo
,(;101/1 lA/" //101/;;a.lY'IIINlltJ l"l/ltlll r ealtlp 17.1IN//.
7{"(" k M l a Y OII rall t1'lI/1 11/ l"lk/l/1
JP.HI.I'.1I'(f'a/NIY Ol ' l -eht/rw.Mtjl /.lit/k Ih /I//lo :ft:: tlf,NIj'A'
rkJc/l/oaclice:J,y' IJII rfl/l ,?//l e''llo -t/;I(/a /l oIP/ap/ a/Nd
thJ" :Ja /l/ ..
- Tapasvi Baba, from a lecture given at thc Himalayan
Institu to in Honcsdalc, PA on July 17, 2000 (translated by D.
C. Hao).
I magi ne what it would be like ifwe couldn't twist, \Vecouldn't swing a bat
a golf club. \Ve couldn't greet sorneone standing next to us without turn-
mg ou.r entire body. \Ve couldn't cven twist the lid frorn a jar, \Ve would
.like and dance like robots. Twisting is needed for every
that involves moving to the side and front simultaneously. Lean
a twist. Throw a ball-you twist. Scratch your
eft foot with your right hand-you twist. Not only that, every inquiry
:ebo.ut directly in your line of sight requires twisting. It rnight
somethng as SImple as looking around a room to determine where to go
and what lo do next, 01' it could be sornething as complex as twisting the
neck, and lrunk around 135
0
in an automobile seat lo confirm that no
one IS and slightIy behind you before you change lanes.
.An.atomlcallY, a1l asymmetric whole-body activities, even those that
involve and extensi n, contain elerncnts of twisting.
e walking. As you stride forward with one f001the opposite hand ..
forwa d- . h c. I fi h d ' comes
f rlg t Loot e t ano, left foot nght hand, right foot left hand, left
out rght hand. This creates a modrate whole-body twist I liul
t . . ' nne a s rght
wist In the gait not only balances the body, it calrns the nervous svst If
you k ' . ys cm.
are s eptical, try it, the other way-right foot and right hand " d
at th rorwar
. e same time, c1unk; then len foot and left hand forward al the same
tune, clunk. U's jarring.
be:
al
a
1'01'
'Cl;
Ice
nt,
-st
hal
Jll., .-l i\ A7VM I VI- IIA 7I lr t !O(;r!
In hatha yoga we have rnany twisting postu res to pick from, includi ng
all asyrnrnetrical post ures that are not pure sidebends. ln this chapter we' ]!
examine a few of t hem in det ail, includ ing basic spinal twists, variou:
cornbinations of flexionoextensi n. lateral flexion, and twisting of the hear
and ncck, and certain standing postures that combine twisting wit .
backhending and forward bending. \Ve'U start with an analysis of t
fundamentals of twi sting, then look at the anatomy of twisting frorn hea
to toe, and complete the chapter by looking al supino, sta nding, inverte-
and sitting twists,
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF TWISTING
Forward and backward ben ding postures, as well as Flexi n and extens. 1
in general, always take place in relation to earth's gravitational field. 1-
twisting is fundamentally different because you can twist the body 01' so e
part of the body without altering its rel ationship to gravity For exar np ,
you can twist your head as far as possible right. and len , but unless -u
combi ne this with flexion, extension, 01' lateral flexion, the relationsh i] r
thc head lo earth's gravity is unchanged.
Bends and twists not. only differ in nature, thcy differ in how they ce le
about. Any movement that involves bending-whethcr whole-body bcnd ig,
01' flexion and extension of a limb-gets its impetus either from interaet l1S
with gravity 01' Irom a force like that crcated when children in swing -ts
kick their feet forward and then backward to gct themselves going, or ke
that created when you push off from the end of a swimming pool. AlI he
twisting motions with which we are concerned here, however, are ini t i ed
by farque. It is torque that starts someone spinning around on a ro g
chair, and it is tor4ue that the rotators of the hip use for rotating th e ng
axis of the thigh with respect to the pelvi s.
[Technical note: '1'0 be I1ccurale. it has lo be admilteu lha1 ncarly aH mm'cmPI
join1s usc lorque, whethcr bcnding your elbow, kicking a 100tbaIJ, 01' gral'p
pcncil. '!'hat is why I was careful nol to 5ay that linror movemcnt s USl
pllshing off fmm the end 0 1' a swimming pool. 'fhat would have m ' n Ir: C I
lorque is used there as w!'1I lo extend thc hips, knecs, and anklcs. The d..m
is thal 1'01' those movcments lhe axial cenler 01' rotation is in each specllil'
whercas in lhi s chapter ollr main conccrn is with forces 1hat operate to creat e
on t he long axis of lhe body 0 1' limb from lhe perimcler of an imaginllry circll
slIlTounds lhe axis ofthc alTectcd b<llIy parL I
Bending and t wisting differ in at least three mOI'e ways. First, for
and backward bending a re ofien s)' mmct ri ca l, but twi sting can nevf'
it alwaYb pull s structures on the right and len sicles ofthe body in 0PI
dilections. Second, forward a nd backward bending nero not increase
tension in lhe body, but twisting, unless it is utterly unresisted, al
comprcsses struetures that lie in the axis 01' lhe twist. Last, wh ilc for.
, I1H.\7ffl G /'(1.\77' RE\' \ Ils
and backward bending are cornparatively simple exprcssions 01' flexion and
extension, there are several different kinds 01' twi sts: rotat ons of synovial
joint s, more constrained spinal rotations, and whole-body swivols that
combine both of the aboye.
TORQUE
Simpl is t ically, and 1'01' purely pract ical purposes, we can st.a te t hat torque
is any mechanical force that can produce a rotation. It is initiated bv
mu scula r effor t, but like any ot.her force, that effort does not havo to
produce a visible result . lt is like a push. You can push against a sapling
and bend it , or you can push against a tree trunk lo no avail. And so it is
that a torque can either actuate a twist 01' it can he an isometric efor t that
atternpts a twist but fails-e-trying to twist a locked doorknob, trying unsuc-
cessfully to escape having both shoulders pinned to the floor in a wrestling
match, 01' tugging on the rope of a frozen la wnmower engine. In hatha yoga
the muscular effort to come into a spinal twist creates torque throughout
the body, act uated in sorne regions, in others not,
SY NOVI A L ROTATIONS I N THE EXTRE MITIES
The simplest kind of twisting involves free and easy rotation al synovial
joints, in which the slippery cartilaginous mating surfaces 01' bones offer
little 01' no resistance to muvement.. \Ve see this when we "twist" a screw
into a board, alternately pronating and supinating the forearm. As shown
carlier (fgs . 2.H and 4.3), these rotations take place because two pivot
joints , t he proximal radio-ulnar joint at the elbow and the distal radio-
ulnar joint at the wrist, perrnit the ulna and radius to come into a n X
configu rat.ion for pronation and into a parallel configur a ti un for
supi na t ion. Other fami liar examples of synovia l rotations are the rotary
movements 01' the femur in the ball-and-socket hip joinl and the rolary
movement s of the humerus in lhe glenoid cavity 01' lhe s houlder joint
(Ii g. 1.13).
.!' INAL ROTATl ON
'fh
e second kind 01' rotation, and the one that the halha yogi first thinks of
as a twist, is rotation of the spine. Whether standing, silling, supine. 01'
spinal involve the cntire torso, but they aH st mt with axial
betwecn adJacent ver tebrae. Taken together, such rotations-24
o them in all between el and the sacmm-add up to a lot of movement
eVen though this takes place against the rcsistance of intervertebral disk '
faect ' . s,
JOmts between the vertebral ru-du,'s, the rib cage, and muscJes and Ligarncnt.s
the head to the pelvis . \Ve rarely do complete spinaJ twisls in ever,yday
Ire, but they are one ofthe five rundamental gcslures in hatha yoga.
31\(> ANA1VMI Uf' l/A 111A H)(iA
STANDING SWIVELS
Another kind of twist might better be called a swivel. It involves rotati i !{
the pelvis and thighs around so that the torso faces Lo one side, and t
invariably begins in a standing position with the thighs at least partial y
abducted. The swivel can be lirnited to the lower extremities, but m 'e
cornrnonly it is a whole-body twist in which the hips, shoulders, and toi o
are all rotated in the same direction, usually at the same time. Swiveli np is
a combination of spinal and synovial twisting-a spinal twist supcrimpo- -d
on synovial rotation of the hip joints. In sports we often see these mo e-
ments taken to their extremes, as when skiers negotiate a steep drop w h
short, side-to-side excursions while keeping their shoulders perpendici. Ir
to the fall line of the downhi ll slope. And in everyday life, any time JU
face the torso in a direction other than straight ahead but do not shift ' le
feet, you swivel at t.he hips. In hat.ha yoga practically any sta m 19
posture that, involves planting the feet and then turning th e rest o' he
body is a swivel-a spinal twist combined with medial rotation of ne
thigh and lateral rotation of the other.
For practical purposes, how a posture feels to us is our major con -n,
so from this point on, if it Ieels Iike a twist wc'Il call it a twist, whet h . it
is a free and easy synovial rotat on, a constrained spinal rotation, a sw .el,
a torque that goes nowhere, or a torque that produces a movement e, ry-
one recognizes as sorne kind-any kind-of a twist,
STA BILlTY I N TWI STI NG
Try to imagine how difficult it would be architecturally to design a int
that is stable enough to twist as well as permit flexion and ext en si n You
would probably limit flexion by allowing the joirit to fold in on i .alf
eompletely, but you would need to include both ligaments and bony ,ps
to limit extension. That's easy enough. But to permit th at same joi to
twi st as weH, you would have t.o inelude a complex of muscles to ad ate
the twisting, and you would have to supcrimpose any number of spect l ed
ligaments and muscles on the joint to keep the twi sting within reaso' lble
bounds.
Thi s is not a small order, and as a general rul e, wherever eJ'tensive n. ion
and extension take place, we see that twisting is limited. In the lur bar
region of th e spine, which is the si1e of most spinal forward and bad. aro
bending, little twisting is permitted, but in the chest. where IOg
and forward bending are limited, we see excell enl potential for tWl. .
And in the extremities. the fingers and toes permit flexion and extc! 100
but (ittl e twisting. Only in th e ccrvical regon ofthe spine, in thc hipo
shoulders, and in the Oexed knees will we S<. 'C ex1ensive flcxion and extCl ,10 0
as wcH as thc additional potential lbr rotation, and those regions are as SI lble
7. ru /.\'/ 7/\(; .lll7
as they are only because of robust muscul ar suppor t and numerous
rest raining ligaments, Even so they are aIl hot spots for dislocations and
other injuries.
ASYMMETRY AND TWISTING
Whole-body twisting is always accomplished by pa irs of obliquely oriented
musclcs, one on the r ight side of the body and one on the left, The rnusclo
on one side shortcns concentrically, creating the twi st, whil e thc rnuscl e on
the other side lengthens, rcsisting the twist, The external and internal
abdominal oblique musclcs in the abdominal wall are a case in point. As
you twist to the right, the right external and the left internal abdominal
obliques shorten eoncentrically, and the right internal and left external
abdominal obliques lengthcn against resistance, On the other hand, vertical
muscles such as the right and left rectus abdominis, as well as horizontal
museles such as portions of the rght and len transversus abdominis,
reman the sa me length during a twist and simply come under isometric
tension equally on both sides.
AII ligarnents that run obliquely on the two sides of the body are al so
brought under asymmetrical tensions by twisting. If you bend your knees
and twist the torso lo the right, as you do when you ski to the left while
your shoulders are facing downhill, excessive lateral rotation ofthe left leg
will be checked by the collateral ligaments of the left knee, and cxcessive
medial rotation of the right leg will be checked by the cruciate ligaments of
the right knee. Skiing to the right, of course, mirrors thcse tensions, By
cont rast , if you stand in a symmetrical knock-kneod position with the toes
facing in and heels out, the ligaments are st ressed syrnmetr ical ly rather
than asymmetrically. Excessive medial rotation of both legs is checked
equally by the eruciate ligaments on both sides. Or if you st and with the
wide apart , heels in and toes out, excessive lateral rotation uf both legs
15 cheekcd equally by the collateral ligarnents of both sides.
Ordinary activities sueh as walking keeps the two sidcs balanced, but
you twi st you usuaIly favor one side-always holding a book to one
slde and twi sting the neck in the same direction, or always coming up on
t. he same side for air when you are swimming frcestyle. al' if you consis -
tently hold the lop of the handle of a snow shovel with thc ri ght hand and
throw th e snow to th e left , you will develop more st rengt h, st amina and
Oexibility for twisting to the left. '
. Twisting habituaHy Lo the same sirle during the course of duily activit ies
dlstorts the body's bilateral symmetry, and such biascs sooner or later
ProdUce asymmetries in its structure. For thi s reason twi sting postures
should always be done in both directions, and to corred imbalances they
should be done thn,'e times-twice on the lefis flexibl side.
rosnmes 3l!<)
or the. dens, which extends up from the vertebral body and
provides thc mus around which the atlas togeLher with th .
.. e cramum can
rotate (figs. 4.H, 4 .10, and 7. 2).
7.1. views of the atlas (left) and of the atlas with its transverse
ligarnent (right). transverse Iigamenl helps deJimit lhe region withn which
the dens of the axis ro lales. foram ina in the transverse processes
the vertebral ar te ries. The combination of the Iwo supe'
arhcular facets. for Ihe. occipital condyles can be Iikened lo Ihe of a
spoon subservrng flexion, extension, and lateral f1exion of the cranium on the
al/as, bu t not rolation (Sappey).
.ll!l! AI\A7VMl ' OF /1.1 f /lA lOCA
CO MP RESSION
To get the most water out of a washcloth you dori't roll it up and bend t
you roll it up and twist it, and this squeezes and compresses the water 1 t
ofthe cloth from top to bottom. I3y the same token, in twisting postures I
structures that lie in the axis of the twist (an imaginary line around whi I
the rotation takes place) are squeezed and cornpressed. Wc have seen tI' rt
throughout the body, oblique muscles create tw ists, while vertical a d
horizontal muscles resist them isometrically. Every time you do a spi ti
twist or even establish the torque lo create one, the obliquely and verticr Iy
oriened muscles of the back and abdomen cornpress the spine and to -O
axially, and when that happens the compression is transferred to the sp le
and torso as a whole. We also see this phenomcnon in the extremi t s.
Every rotation of the arm, forearm, thigh, or ankle creates axial compres- III
in the long axis of the cxtremity, the amount of which is in direct propor: JU
to the intensity of the cffort.
You can feel this compression from head to toe in a whole-body twist nd
swivel. Stand with your feet 2-3 feet apart and combine a twist ofthe h. Id,
neck and torso with a swivel in the hips and resistance in the knees, anl es,
and feet. The muscular effort tightens joints and ligaments everywr 're
from head to toe. 'I'he body feels like a tighUy wound spring. Twi st in he
other direction for balance, and each time you release the posture, ru ice
the release ofaxial compression,
transverse
foramen
anter ior arch of atlas
posterior arch of alias
transverse
processes
cavly lar accomodalion 01dens
lransverse ligamenl 01 alias
/ densoor odontoid procesa

7.2. On Ihe lef! is a posterosuperior view (from bchind and b ) f h

xrs (C2) a d lh . ht' . . a ove o t e
and . '. n on. e .ng IS an an t.erlor VI w (from Ihe fronl) of Ihe alias (
ar aXIs rn combrnatlOn. !he alias 10 combination with Ihe cranium rotal Cl)
Ihe dens (odonlOld process) of Ihe axis. Noticio' how ml/eh wi I
as 15 than Ihe axis and compare Ihis image wilh lhe drawings mad 7
r
e,
ro nlgenograms in lig. 4.8 ( appey). f rom l le
THE SKULL, THE ATLAS. AND THE AXIS
'I'he cervical regi n between the hoad and the chest is one of the fl in
which flexion, extension, and twi sting can all occur at the same 1 neo
Flexion, extension, and lateral flexion take place between the head aru .he
first cervical vertebra <CI) at bilateral synovial joints (no intervertr .ral
disk is presenl here): rotation takes place at a synovial joint betwec C1
and C2 (again, there is no intervertebral disk at this site) : and all iur
movements, singly or in combination, take place in the rest of the cer cal
regio n frorn 2 to TI, th e segment of the cervical spine which con ins
joints with typical intervertebral disks and synovial articular proCI scS
l figs . 4.8, 4.10, and ..P3al. We'lI start our discussion at the Lop and ork
down .
Of lhe seven cerviCc'l1 vertebral', the top two have been given sr 'ial
names that rened their anatomical and functional relationships. Th WP
one (CI) is the atlas ( fi g . 7 .1- 2), named for Atlas, lhe Greck god \.\ ose
shoulders supported the world. In lhis case lhe atlas is a ringofbone \.\ Ich
supports the skull, and its reJationship with the cranium pennits sid. lO-
side and back-andforth movemenls but little rotation. Thc second cer' cal
vertebra I 2), lhe axIS, has a tooth [ike protuberance callcd lhe od01l 1/d
bifid spinous process
body 01axis (C2)
.190 AI\'A"lVMI' 01: I/ATIIA IVCA
Even though the cranium and the atlas together can rotate around ti
axis the cranium cannot rotate on the atlas because 01' the shape 01' t i
matching articulating surfaces. 11' you can find a spoon whose conver e
mirror image matches that 01' an egg, you can slip the egg back and for h
and from side to side, but you cannot turn it around and arourid. T e
cranium sits on the atlas in much the sarne way; it slips on the atlas in Ol y
two directions, from front 10 back and from side to side. The articulan g
surfaces at the base 01' the skull-the occipital condyles-lie on either I le
al' the foramen magnum, which is the hole that accommodates the spi :t1
cord whcre it emerges from the base 01' the brain. Thc cranial surface. 01'
thc occipital condyles (the cgg) slip back and forth (flexi n and extensi - n)
and from side 10 side (lateral Ilexion) on matching articulating surfaces In
the upper surface 01' the atlas (the spoonl.
FLEXION ANO EXT ENSI ON
Thc articulating surfaces between the head and the atlas allow slippae in
the form 01' 10 al' flexion, 20 01' extensi n, and 15 al' right and lcft Iau ral
flexiono '1'0 get a sense 01' the articulation bctween the skull and the a IS,
nod your head back and forth without bringing the rest 01' thc cer 'al
vcrtebrae into the motion. Just be aware 01' a sliding Ieeling, with a 1 tic
more motion permitted backward than forward. Envision the aXI al'
rotation extending from ear to ear. As you move your forehcad Iorv rd
the chin is tucked, and as you move your forchead backward the ch is
jutted forward. This is the feeling al' flexi n and extension betweei he
cranium and the atlas. 'I'hen after exploring that motion, bend the -ck
backward and torward tu your lirnits. The contrast is clear. You can eel
the cranium sliding on top al' the neck in the first motion, and YOb .an
feel thc entire cervical region bcnding in the second.
LATERAL FLEXION
Next explore latel'8l flcxion at thc same articulations. Keeping you r ~ d
balance<1 upright , slowly tilt your forehead to lhe right and your chin t I he
left, and then repeat in the opposite direction, cnvisioning the ax 01'
rotation extending between the mouth and thc back 01' the head. A, lin,
don 't bend the rest 01' the neck. '1'0t he extent that you can I'eel lhe chil I,nd
the forehead move in opposite dircelions, you will be feeling the sidc-to .de
slipping ofthe cranium on the upper surfacc ofthe atlas . Ifyou concenl lte
on earrying this particuJar movement to its maximum, it feels e x t e n ~ e-
at leasl 15 in each direction. Agnin, for contrast, as soon as you I IVe
reached th limit 01' movement between the atlas and lhe head, flex he
head and neck as far as JXlssible laterally. This gives you a dilferent sensal n,
like the movement 01' the head in a Jack-in-Lhe-Box.
THE MOVEMENT OF THE ATLAS AROUNO THE AXIS
Now we can return Lo our more immediate interest in twisting as we
explore the rotation of the atlas (plus the skull) around the odontoid
process al' the axis (figs . 4.8 and 7.2). Do the fol1owing expcriment. Sit
quieUy with the spine and head upright. Without dipping the head either
for ward, backward, or to the side, slowly turn it Lo one side and then the
ot her through a total excursion al' 60-90. In other words turn 30-4,> to the
right and 30-4,) to the left , Try to rela..x. Turn slowly, then a little mure
quickly, then again slowly. This is the movement 01' the atlas around the
odontoid process. You can envision it if you make a circle with the thumb
and index finger al' one hand, insert the thumb 01' the other hand (repre-
senting the odontoid process) against the back of the circle, and rotate the
circle through an excursion 01' 60, in other words 30 each way.
Next, for contrast, turn the head as far as possible in each direction. If
you have fairly good lexibility you can turn about l)00 each way. The first
por t ion of the twisl is 30-45 al' rotation bctween the atlas and the axis, and
the remainder of the 45-60 represents twist in the rest of the neck.
1'0 return to the delicate twisting that takes place only between the atlas
and t.he axis, notice what happens as you move past the symmetrie central
balancing position with the head facing straight ahead. Something takes
place-a change al' speed, first a slowing down, then a speeding up as you
pass center, a rnovement so subtle that you wilI not feel it unless you are
relaxed. What is happening is that a cam aetion is lifting your head slighUy
as you pass centcr. It's as if a motorized toy car were approaching a littIe
hill. You can fcel your head rise as you approach the hilI, and a gathering
resistance that peaks at the top and then diminishes as you cross overoFind
the litUe hilI, park exactly on top, and then move slighUy lo one side and
then the other. 11' you watch carefuUy you will notice that the high point is
not perfectly on line in the midsagittal plane 01' the body bul is usually
SOmewhat to the left or right 01' cenler, and that yau hahitually adjust your
body posture so that your head rests on the side that keeps yau facing
relat ively straight to t he front.
!.!:!E RELATI ONSHI P BETWEEN THE AXIS ANO THE ATLAS
To understand why this happens wc need to look more carefulIy at the
relationship between the axis and the atlas. A,<; we diSCUl;SCd in chapter 4,
euch individual vertebra is comJXlsed of a vertebral body and a vertebral
arch. The exception to this is the atlas, which is simply a ring of bone Cfigs.
?1-21. In lhe embryo whal had originally bccn the body ofthe atlas became
Incorporated into lhe axis, bestowing on the axis the equivalent 01' two
fUl;Cd-logether vertebral bodies, the top portian of which is the odolltoid
prOCCs.<; that stands up from the rest oCLhe vertebra Cfig. 7 .2}. lt is around
.19
2
ANAH).lllo(JI' IIA 1lIA ICK;A
7 7lHS'IINe m ; TI IUi.. ' 393
g
e
vo
'ou
righl and left t fi g, 7.3). \Ve must explore the cervical region in detail to
understand these and other possible ncek movements, and then we must
augment our knowledge with practico, experimentation, and observation,
Take your time and be conservativo. No movement that causes neck pain
should be repeated injudiciuusly, and in the event of injury, practice should
be stopped until the problem is resolved.
FlEXION
Flexion is the most natural movernent of the neck-il happens any lime
you look down . To do it as an exercise just lower the head forward as far as
possible and let it rest in that position. Alter a few weeks of practico you
may be able to pul! the chin all the way to the sternum, hold it there
isomctrically, and be confident that the extensor muscles in combination
with the restraining Iigaments of the spine will maintain the vertebrae in
a state of heaIthy alignrnent. Do not aim for a chin lock tchapter 3), in
which you try to place the chin into the suprasternal notch. Just lay it
down against the front of the stemum. If you flex Iorward a total of <)0,
the first 10 of movemeot is between the cranium and the atlas, and the
balance takes place between CI and 'I'r.
EXTENSI ON
Extension of the oeck is also a natural movemcot-it happens any time you
look up. '1'0 do it as an oxercise extend your head to the rear and hold in
that position for a few seconds. The first thing you 'll notice is that exten-
sion is stopped by restraining ligaments and bony stops long before the
back of the head can reach the upper back. Even so, you can reach the end
of a relaxed excun,.ion to the rear and theo pull back vigorously
8gainst the hony and ligameotous stops so long as you increuse your capacity
bTJ"adually. Ifyou can bend lhe head backward a t.otal of 60, the lirst 20 wilJ
be from the slipping motioo between the cranium and the atlas, and the
18b'l 40 wiII he from the incremental vertebra-to-vertehra shifts hetween
el and TI. After you have explored extension in isolation, go slowly back
and forth bctween full Oexion and full extension.
he
of
me
ith
md

LIld
MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD AND NECK
Below the axis, frorn C2 lo TI, typical intervertebral disks sep rate
vertebral bodies of the spine, 'I'his limits movements hetween any
adjoining vertebrae (figs. 4.10 and .1-I3a), but this segmenl of the spine ill
provides us with mobility far above and beyond what we saw between he
skull and C2-a total of about yooof additional rotation, {0 of addit 181
flexi n, ';0" of additional extensi n, and 40 of additionallatcral flexic on
each side.
If you concntrate, it is possible to isolate the rnovernents betweel C2
and TI frorn those between the skull and el. 'I'hrust the chin fonvard nd
at the same time flex the entire neck forward and down. Then after COI
back to a neutral position, pull the chin backward and at the same
extend the neck to the rear and down. Last, initiatc lateral flexion t
right and left from the base of Lhe neck rather than head first. In e
these cases you can avoid, al least lo :;ome extent, the smaller mo
between the skull and CI. By contrast, twisting selcetively between e
TI without lirst rotating between CI and C2 is more difficult. Only I
tighten the strap muscles vf the neck generally (ligo55), and do so
sorne determination, C'dn you initiate a twist from the base oflhe nce
avoid the rotation heLwccn CI and C2.
this process that the atlas rotales, and it is Irorn this function that the ax
was named (Iigs. 4 Rand 7.2).
The reason you feel the rising-vn-center sensativn as you twist is t h
the lateral joint surfaces between CI and C2 are not in perfcet appositi. n
unless the head is turned slightly to one side or the other. Accordi ru;
rotation off that center is accompanied by a slight vertical descent of 1 e
head; keeping the head directly on the high point once you have locater
is an inleresting exercise in balancing and concentration. Enthusiast -r
working with right-Ieft balance might suggest that shiting the head to le
side 011 which it does not usually rest will gradually bring the rising-on-cen -r
sensation into the midsagittal plano of the body and make the joint 111 le
symmetrical. It's an interesting idea, although speculative.
Figure 7.3. Neck movements: f1cxiun, exlcIIsion, lateral flexivn, and rotation.
HATHA YOGA NECK EXERCISES
We ordinarily move lhe head and neck in highly stereotyped lnd
hecause these movcments are common and natural in day-to-day hft' hey
at.c also the safest. Hatha yoga neck exercises are another matter. 'fhe are
done in isolation and are usually takcn further than the moderate fll'- IOn ,
ext ension, and twisting found in our usual activitics. In hatha yoga CXeI e5
we flex thc chin a11 the way to Lhestcrnum. extend the head as l. r
possible, l1ex the ear toward Lhe shoulder and rolate al> lar as po,. b
f1exon extenSlon lateral
f1exion
rotatlon
.19-1 ANA milI)' (JI 'IIA'nIA HJGA
LATERAL FLEXION
Most people both have and use a considerable range of motion for f1exional 1
extensi n, but it s rare for anyonc to cock their head to the side more th, '1
.\0-40. About ISo of lateral flexion occurs at the synovial joint bctween t e
cranium and the atlas, and the rest takes place between CI and TI. LateI tI
flexion is rarely done in isolation but is commonly found in combination w h
rotation, Try it. I3end the head toward the left shoulder, and notice that i LB
natural to combine that movement with a slight twist either to the righ t Ir
left that rotares the nose up or down. Notiee how far you can safely take t s
movement, and compare it with plain lateral flexiono You wiIl quickly becc le
aware that combining the two is what you are accustomed to, as when JU
f1ex your head laterally 10 the right and look slightly down to sean titl e- )n
bookshelves, A pure lateral f1exion is a curious movement, and when YOl do
it with sorne insistenee you will sense deep bone-to-bone restrictions on he
side to which you are bending. Explore lateral flexion to the right and eft
separately, and then go back and forth between the two.
TWISTING
Twisting in the neck could hardly be more natural, and can be safely t en
10 its limit, at Ieast by anyone who is practicing hatha yoga regu rly.
Possibilities for minor variations abound. If you twist as though you ere
looking for a pencil in a drawer at waist level ami to your r ght, YOl will
notice that this twisting movement includes lateral Ilexion lo the righ t I\. l1d
if you twist as though you were looking for an object on a shelf to your ght
at shoulder level, the movement includes lateral f1exion to the left. Fin. y, if
you twist as though you were looking for an obicct aboye you and tt iur
l"ight, the movement includes lateral fiexion to the len, exteru;ion, and tW1 ing.
Now, minimizing f1cxion, extcnsion, and lateral llexion, try apure ist
of the head to the I;ght and lhen to the left . In other words keep YOlU cad
level and envision an a.xis of rotRtion that runs {rom lhe top of the lead
straight clown through the spine. A moderate twist is atine exercise, lt iC
you continue untiJ you come to your limit and then kcep pulling, yo wiII
come in touch with a cJeal' sense ofaxial compression. And ir you \Ove
slowly you can also feel tension gather in the various stlUctures ofthl' .1cck
that finally stop the twist-tirst muscles, then restraining li!:,''8ment llnd
finally skeletal stops. If you can twist a totRl of 90
Q
in each directio the
tirst 45 of the movement is the rotation at the synovial joint betwt: 1\ el
and C2, and the rest is betwccn C2 and TI. Pay attention to aIl the senf ions
that accompany the full twist. and explore new limits as you be<:ome con leo
t
that you will not hurt yourself You will be startled to find how robll Lhe
neck is and how vigorously you can pull into a fulIer twist if you im J?as
e
your capacity grudually. And iC you keep pulling isornetrically WhCl yo
u
7 "1/.\71/1'(; rosuut .WS
reach the limit of tho twist, you will increase both muscular strength and
the hardiness of the ligamentous and skelotal structures, After working
with each side separately, go sequentially from side to side.
OTHER MOVEMENTS IN THE NECK
Many other neck movements can be explorcd, Ono of the best is to twist
the head )0, 4So, 01' 60 to one side, and frorn that position, to swing it back
ano forth linearly-right front to left real', and left front to right real: A less
natural movernent, and ono that should be approached more respectfullj;
is to take the head and neck through the same linear rnovements without
Iirst twisting, Going Iorward at an angle feels sale enough, but going back-
ward you will eneounter the sarne sort of unusual restrictions that you
experienced guing to the extremes of lateral flexion o
Neck rnlls, in which you swing the head around slowly in a motion that
is similar to circurnduction ofthe thigh or arrn, are questionable exercises,
and this is easy to demonstrate. Let's say you are looking clown in your lap
and suddenly your attention is called to a bat in the upper right comer of
the room. You don 't havo lo think. Your head will move quickly and saely
in a straight line to face the object of your conccrn, and rnuscles and
rest raining ligaments wiII protect you from going too faro By contrast, ir
vou connect the two points with a fast neck roII instead of a linear mol ion
you will immediately see why such movements dcserve to be treated with
caution. Instead ofmoving linearly from a neutral position, you are circling
your head around in a highly artificial movement. Even though most
peoplo are unconsciously wary of going anywhere close to their limit, these
movornonts can still cause injuries in those who are doing them for the first
time, and it is for this l"Cason that man.v hatha yoga teachers say they
should not betaught at all , In any evcnt, Cyou are determined to do them
al least move slowly and well short ofyour limits. .
THORACIC TWISTING
IC you watch your back in a minor while you stand and twist you will sce
a surprisin t f t . . kin ' . ' .
g amoun o wlstmg ta g place m the thoraclC region: "lO-40
o
of rotar' h d' . .
m cae IrectlOn between TI and LI in an average young adult.
The deslgn of the anterior and posterior functional units of the vertebral
(chapter 4) permits these movements. To summarize: the anterior
unit of the spine is a flexible roo composcd ol'the stack of vertebraJ
bodl
es
and intel'vertebral disks, and the posterior functional unit is t b
(e I . a u e
nc Osmg the vertebral cana\) that is composed of the stack of verterbral
superior and inferior p:ocesses, and various restraining
bb'a":cnts. In general, p 'nnils twisting and
endmg, and the postenor functlOnal umt rcstncts twh;ting amI bending.
' 1)(' 111\,1"10,\/" (Ir I1I1Tni '()('"A 7 1"11'1.\ tttvc PO.Hl /l EO; 39 7
The thoracic region of'the spine perrnits a lot of twisting 101' three reaso
First, it contains twelve vertebral' and intervertobral disks-half tl
vertebral column-and this means that there are twelvc sites for rotatir 1
(fg. 4.7). Second, the axis of rotation for twisting in the chest runs appro
mately clown the center of the anterior' functional unit (fig, 4.6a, largo dI 1,
permitting the hydraulic system ofeach intervertebral disk (fg, 4.11) to w( k
perfectly, compressing its nucleus pu1posus axially, slretching the elas IC
fibers ofits annulus fibrosus evenly all around its perimeter, and causing le
disk lo bulge moderately on all sides. The elastic fibers in the annulus libro. IS
that are oriented obliqucly will be either stretched 01' released dependi ru m
their orientation and the dircction uf the twist , and those that are orier .'<1
vertically and horizontally will be stretehed evenly a11 around.
A third reason twisting takes place easily in the thoracic region is ' at
the synovial jonts for the superior and inferior articu1ating procesa of
each thoracic vertebra are oriented in a frontal plano, one roughly par lel
to the back surface of'the chest, and this orientation allows the joints lo lip
efficiently with respect to their neighbors above and below (figs, 4.6- ;
The largo number of vertebral' and intervertebral disks, the ideal a: of
rotation, and the ideal orientation of the articular processc all of t ,'se
facilitate thoracic twisting. And the nurnbers add up. With twelve po. ble
sites for rotation, we need only an average of JObetween adjacent verte rae
to make a total of 360, and this means that twisting here requires nly
slight adjustments between adjacent vertebral' and their joints, In Iaci t he
articular processes in this rcgiun can be displaced from one anot h so
readily that it is not the spine but the rib cage that is the main lin t to
twisting. Were it not for restrictions there, this part of the spine uld
probably rotate 120
0
in each direction.
Like the articular processes, the ribs are also roughly orient n a
transverso plane, and only a slight. shearing eITect between adjacent I I is
nceded to allow a small amount ofspinal rotation between adjacent vcr ral
bodies. And this is what accounts for the ]0-400 of rotation that we al a1ly
experience in the chcst. Beyond 40
0
, the rib ruge becomes the main imped lent
to twis1ing bccause the ribs conncc1 to lhe sternum in &ont by way the
costal carlilages, creating a stabilized cage that can rotate only so far.
LUMBAR TWISTING
Just as Ihe design 01' the chl-'Sl permits extensive twisting, so do<
design of1he lumbar regon prevent it . There are two main obslaeles.
in this regon the axis ofrotation runs down the spine through the
the spinous processes in the posterior functional unit (lig. 4.58, larJ!'
rather than through the renter of the anterior functional unit. TI
itself would make twisting almost impossible-it would require h
the
irst,
of
doO
. by

displaecment of one vertebral body in relation lo its neighbors above and
beluw. 'I'he same forces of torque that act to rotate one vertebral body in
relation to its adjacent vertebral body in the thoracic regi n can act in the
lumbar region only to sheer the lumbar disks from side to side, Second, the
superior ami inferior articulating processes on the vertebral arehes start
shifting Irorn a frontal to a sagittal orientation in the lower thoracic regi n,
and in the lumbar region, this shift has become an accomplished Iact; it
stops rotation between adjacent vertebrar- alrnost completely (figs. 4.'; and
4.1Jb). According lo the textbooks, these two mechanisms taken together
limit twisting to an average of about 1 between adjacent vertebral' 01' a
total of 50 between Li and the sacrum.
TW'ST' NG IN T HE TORSO-THE B ' G PI CTURE
Flexible young students who are twisting in a standing posture with their
thi ghs adducted, their feet parallel. and their knees extended might end up
with their shoulders 70 oITaxis from their Ieet, The twist would consist 01'
about J'i
0
of rotaton between the feet and pelvis, ,;0between the pelvis and
the chest, and ]0
0
between LI and the shoulders, and 45
0
of rotation
between the shoulders and the head, for a total of 11,; between the Ieet and
the head (Iig. 7-4). Come into such a posture and notice the sensations as
you pull into as much of a twist as possible. If you are attentive, you can
Figure 7.4.Thisslanding lwist
approximatcly:
35 of rotation between Ihe
leet and lhe pelvis, 50 of
rutarion belween Ihe pelvis
and !he chesl, 30
0
of
rOlalion belween Ihe chesl
and shoulders, and 45
0
of
rotalion between the
shoulders and the head. This
rnakes 115 lulal rolation
belwee n the feet and lhc
head. The model might
reflexly gain 10 more
between lhe feet and the
by Inoking lu her far
nghl inslead of back toward
Ihe Camera.
in
.wR AS. I7H.1/I "CJ/' UA771A lO<;A
feel the oblique mu scles in the back and abdomen creating the torque t h
rotates the thoracic region and tries but fails to rotate the lumbar regior
In a whol e-body standing twist it is the internal and external abdomir
obliques and thc deepest of the obliquely running back muscles tfi
3.
11
-
1
) . 5.5, 8.8, 8.11 , and 8.1}-I.p that initiate the torque. Sorne of the lat -r
prornote twisting over as little as one or two segmenta of the spine and ot h, 'S
create a twisting efTect between three or more. By contrast, th e rec IS
abdominis muscles and the long segments of the erector spinae resist le
twist and increase the sense ofaxial compression that is the hallmar f
spinal twi sting,
THE LOWER EXTREMITIE5
By definition, the torque for twisting in the lower oxt remit ies begins at he
sacroiliac joints, but externally visible rotations are not observable ex pt
in the hip joints, the Ilexed knees, and the ankles. We'lI begin our discu- Ion
at the source and work down.
TOROUE IN THE SACROILlAC JOINTS
Whol e-body twists impart severe torque lo the sacroiliac joints, and we
had to depend only on ligaments tu keep them stable, we might bein tn ile.
Fortunately, the sur roundi ng muscles provide additional protec on,
especial1y if they are kept in a stat e of moderate tension. The gil -us
maximus muscle (figs. 3.8, } .IO, and 8.9-10) serves in such a rol e hi s
1
, ti it
muscl e takes origin from the sacrurn, the coccyx, and the i ium, 11
inserts into the iliotibial tract (figs. X,R. and 8.12), as well as dn tly
on the fmur (fig. j.r ob l. You can feel how these muscles suppo: t he
sacroiliac region during twisting postures if you stand wit h the feet p' , -Ilel,
2- ) fcet apart, and twi st genl1y to the right keeping the gluteal rm d es
relaxed. Observe th e sensati ons and dynarnics carcfully, Then ti ghu t he
glllteus maxi mlls on the left side, and observe how ts cont ract ion I i.sts
the twi sl by tuggin g on th e len rear side of th e sacr um and iliuro , kt )Jng
lhem both pulled slightly to the rear and protecting the pclvic bow rom
excess s t ress. Ev cn so, if you were to stand for }- 5 minutes in '" h a
postllre, you might come in toueh wilh a vague aehe in the left sac/ ' Iiae
joinl. Repcat the exercise on lhe other side for balance.
Now st and wilh th e feel togelher rather than 2-} feet apart an d
twist to the r ight. Whcn you resi5t lhe twist in this case, you will fl the
b
" ... t 1 hing
left hip tighten up even mor e solidly than etore u=<tUSC you are s re
I
well
and activating the left glute lls mcdius and gluteus minimus mu se e
as the gluteus maximus. Th ese are medi al rot ators and abduetors th!'
an
d
lhigh (figs. 3.H, 3.loa-b, 11.9-10. K12, and 8. 14. with details in ehapler 4
when you twist to thc r ight with th ' lhighs addllclc.>d. the left lh h is
7 rwtsnsa I' OSI1 'RE. ' 3t}lJ
swiveled into a lateral rotation that automatically places these muscles
under inereased tension . Along with the gluteus maximus muscles they
create a field of muscular activity that support s the entire pelvis, including
t he sacroiliac joints.
The sacroiliac joints can be overly stressed if good judgment is not used
in some of the standing and sitting spinal twists. 'I' his is particularly true
ifyou are thoroughly warmed up and the ligaments and muscles that nonnally
inhibit sacroiliac twisting have becorne lax, If you are hurting yourself, the
t ip-off is pain at the lateral edge of the sacru m on one side, and if you
continue twi sting in the face of discomfort, the joint becomes vulnerable to
more serious inj ury.
TWISTlNG AT TH E HI P JOI NTS
To examine twisting at the hip joints, stand with the knees extended and
the medial edges of the feet parallel and about two feet aparto Then tighten
all the muscles ofthe lower extrernities and twist the body to the right rom
the waist down, keeping the abdomen, ehest, and shoulders in the sarne
plane with the pelvis. Below the hip joints you will feel a combination 01'
torque and twist in the ankles, legs, knees, and thighs, especially on the left
side. Keep the Ieet flat on the floor, and this will dirninish their tendency lo
slip. Repeat on the other side.
When the muscles of the thighs and legs are tensed while keeping the
legs extended, the ankles and knees perrnit only a sma ll amount of
rotat ion, but most pcople will be able to twist at least 45 at the hips, using
a combinat ion of medial rotation of one thigh and lateral rotation of the
cther, And a few rare students can rotate their hips almost 90 frorn their
feet, with only a small proportion 01' this twist in their ankles and knees
(fig. 7.5,) In either case, you will observe only mod rate efTects uf th e twist
in t he right hip joint, but on the left side, t he hyperextensiun lhat results
&om swiveling to the right produces a pronounced pull on the tightly
wound spiral of the pubofemoral, ischiofemoral, and i1iofemoral ligamcnt s
(lig3.6).
Fecl the gluteal muscles on the left side with your fingers as you tv';st
lo the right. As diseussed in chapter 4. the more vigorously a healthy
person twists, the more thcse mu scles resistoand lo give maximllm Sllpport
lo t ..
WIs11l1g postures we need tension not only in the glutealmuscles on the
srde opposile the dirc. 'Ction of lhe twist , but also in the quadriceps femoris
On lhe same side and in the adduetors and hamstrings cm both sides.
will find lhat thcir enthu ias m for working' with challenging
tW1shng postures will be in dirt.'Ct proporlion 1.0 thei r abili ty lo supporl
l hem with muscular tension.
TWISTlNG AT THE KNEES
Until now, our discussion of the knee joints has focused on their actions <
hinge joints that permit flexion and extension. In chapter '), we saw th, 1
extension places the ligaments of the knee under tension and holds < l
components of tho joint together, and wc saw that flexi n permits t e
ligaments to becorne lax. In this chapter we'lI explore the one moveme t
not yet mentioned-rotation of the flexed knees.
Ifyou are sitting in a chair with the thighs fixed and parallel to the 111 r,
and with the legs perpendicular to the floor, you will be Ilexing the kru !S
90. If you have good flexibi lity, you can rotate your fcet out laterally fr m
this position about 40, and you can rotate them medially about JOo. You -e
the movements of the foot, but alrnost all of the rotation is happeni n; t
the knees. If you try Lhe same experimcnt sitting on a high bench wiLh
knees flexe d at a JO rather than a 90 angle, you' lI notice that the amo nt
of knee rntation is diminished to about JO of lateral rotation and abou t ' 0
of medial rotation. And of cou rse, if you return lo a standing position nd
extend the kn ees, rotat.ion is stopped completely. '1'0 make these com 11"-
isons fairly, of course, you have to keep the thighs stabilized or you wil dd
hip rotation to knee rotation and confuse the two .
Figure 7.5. This twist,
which started with the
thighs addu.:ted and the
fee t parallel, reveals
almost 90 of rotatioll of
the pelvis relativc to the
feet. This is unusual;
mos t people cannot
swivl'l the ir hips much
beyond 45 wilh the ir
lhighs ab ducted and fcel
par alle!.
7. nn\"I7f1G 1'tJ.\/I 'RFS t OI
The muscles that rotato the flexed knees are the hamstrings (Iigs, j .iob,
7.6, 8.9-10, and R.12) and a small muscle on the back of the knee joint, the
popliteus. Two of the hamstrings, t he semitendinceus: and semirnembranosus
muscles, insert on the medial side 01' the tibia, and are thus medial rotators
of th e flexed knee; the biceps [emoris inserts laterally on the head of the
fibul a, and is thus a lateral rotator of the flexed knec. '1'0 experience this
sit upri ght with your knecs flexed 90. 'I'hen grasp the tendons ofthe semi-
membranosus and semitendinosus muscles on the medial sido of the knee
joint, roLate the knce medially as strongly as possible, an d Ioel the tendons
get tighter. You can do the same thing with the biceps femori s if you rotate
the leg lateraUyas strongly as possible.
The popliteus muscle is visible posteriorly tfigs, ').24, 7.6, and x'14); it
takes origin from the lateral surface of the femur, runs inferiorly and medially
and inserts on the lateral surface of the tibia. Its anatomica1 disposition
thcre fore allows it to do double duty a" a medial rotator of the tibia and a
lateral rotator of the Iernur, The for mer is what you not ice when you rotate
your fect in while you are sitting on a chair, and the latter is what you
notiee when the muscle torques the t high late rally frorn a fixed foot position.
This is t he more cornmon situation in sports because you frequently rotate
the thi gh (and with the t high the rest ofthe body) with one loo! planted on
the gr ound, as when you recover from serving a tennis ball.
Because the knec joints are among the few that pcrrnit Ilexion and
exten sion as well as twisting, and bccause t hey are vulnerable Lo injury
when t hey a re flexed, everyone should use caution in approaching hatha
yoga post ures that invo lve a eombination offlexion at the knecs and whole-
body twis ting. And except fOI" the simplest lunging postures, sun salutations,
and squauing on the floor in a symmetrica1 pose, almost every postura in
yoga in wh ieh the knces are flexed involves either rotation 01' torque
111 the knee joint.
!!!E ANKlES AND FE ET
An astounding nurnber of bones (2H) and joints (2' atoe associatcd with
each foot and ankle (fig. 6.H), and in combination their architecture enables
us to support thc weight of the body, propel us orward, and aecommodate
lo surface irregularities on the ground, And because most of the basic
move t ' h
men s 111 t e foot-anklc complex involve stresses from both torquc
and rotation, they are inc!uded in this chapter.
" In chapter 4 we saw how root position in standing postUI'CS a!fr.....s t I
hl ' . r' Cl.'L. le
PJomts. \\ Ith the knecs extended, what we rererred lo as rotating the
out .stretches the medial rotators ofthe hip, and what we m Uedrotating
e root m !:itretchesthe lateral rotators of the hipoLater, in chapter (, we turned
lo the ank1es amI saw that 3D-500 of extensiun (plantar flexion) takes place
4
0 2
AI\ ,1"(OMI (JI' IIA71 l 1'0(,,1
when we lit up un the balls of t he feet, and that 45"of flexion (dorsiflexion )
needcd for pressing t he heels to the floor in the down-facing dogo
Twisting (t hat is, t rue axial rot at ion ) at the ankle joint is so minim 1
that it is usually not even Iisted in cIementary texts, but careful st ud i. s
have shown that th ose with average flexibility at th is site can rot ato t
vastus
medialis __
sartorius
cul uppe r
ends 01
gastrocner lS
muscle:
medi al he.
hea,
bit )5
ler ms
ler en
SO 1S
mI -le
Achill es lendon
Figure 7.6. Posterior views o ri!?hl fo?t, leg, knee oi nt , and low(
portian of the Ihigh . A superfiCial dlssectlon IS IlIustraled on th e left. and a
decper diss eclion (following Ihe bulk of the lwo.heads of tt
gastrocncmius muscl e and .lhe IS on the r1ght. When he
knee is bent and the Ihigh 15 st ablhzed, Ihe pophteus muscle rotates Ihe le
medially, bul when lhe fool is lhe popliteus muscle ro!ates the I
lat erally. In th e inslance of lhe r1ghl Ihlgh shown above, lhe mUS
has lhe (' ((cel of rolaling Ihe body as a whote around lo Ihe r1ghl (Sappcyl
foot rnedially about l' and Iaterally about 10. 1'0 experience these rotations,
sta nd with the knees extended and the heels a nd toes together. Place t he
hands just above the knees to brace them and hold t hem together, and
tighten all the rnuscles around the t highs . Then twist 10 the right keeping
t he feel flat on th e floor, This is critical: t he slightest lifti ng of the heels or
the edges ofthe feet brings other movements inlo t he picture. Under these
carefully control1ed circurnstances you have rotated the rght fool medially
and the left oot laterally, bot h a1. th e ankle joints. 'fhese axial rotations at
the ankles may be minimal, hut they are seen in many standing postures,
and are therefore an irnportant practical concern.
ITechnical note: This is a differcnt UHe of the word rotation for the feet and
ankl es t han we have used previous ly. 'I'he ci rcumstances j ust above rcfer to
axi al r otat ion within the a nkle joint, not swinging t he feet in or out. '1'0 keep
terminology within reach of lay a udiences, " ro ta t iun of the feet in and out," or
"rotation of the feet medially and la teral ly," which is the sarne thing, will
always refer lo th e movements 01' the Ieet as a whole unless ax ial ro tation within
the ankle j oint is specifical ly indicatcd. ]
1'0 explore rotation ofthe feet as a whole, stand with the knees extended,
t he heels together; and the medial borders of the feet at a 90
0
angle frorn one
another, Under these circurnstances each foot will be rotated out (Iaterally)
45. Most people can go a Iitt le furthcr; perhaps to 70 for each foot (fg. 7.7' .
Now br ing t he medial borders of t he fcet parallel and next to one another.
The fcet are now rotated lo a neutral po it ion. Next, bending the knees as
necessary, bring t he big toes together and spraddle t he hecls out 1.)0
0
from one
another to rotate the feet in (rnedial ly) 4') (i g, 7.H). And finalIy, abduct the
thighs widcIy, bend t he knees dceply, and try to bring t he feet into a straight
line. This is a moderately dillicult balancing posture in which you have rotated
eaeh foot out (Iaterally) 90(fig, 7.9).
ITl'Chnical note: Always kecp in mind lhut "rotation ofthe fect," as defned in this
book, iRlo a large extent reflective of rotation of the thighs WhCll the knees are
ext ended, or rotation of Ihe legs when the knees are nexed. Don 't get confu!'et\:
Ihe terminology is 10brica!. If you are looking a t and t hinking of the lhighs, say
rotating t he l highs. If you are looking at and thinking of the legs, say rotaling the
legs. And if you are looking al and thinking of the feet , say rot.ating lhe feet. even
though you are awarc that most ofthal we ca11 rotating oflhe feet actually renects
rotalion of thc Icgs 01' thighs. Just say what you sec. and evcryone will know whal
Youare talking ahout: it could hardly be more simple.]
SUPINE TWIST S
upi ne twists, especial1y the easy ones, are wclcome both at the bebrinning
and end of a hat ha yoga c1ass becausc t hey are relaxing, energizing, and do
not rellu ir e much eflort. Along with simple hip-opening postures (chapter
fl ), they are a good barometer both of stiffness at the start of a hatha yoga
8ession and of improvements in flexibility at t he end
' O' AI\ATO.llI 01' 1M ttt I()(;A
Figure 7.7. lhe
Ieet here are
rotated "out"
(tha t is lalerally)
ahout 70
0

~ M P SUPI NE TWISTING
For the first of three simple supine twists, lie on your back, draw tho heels
toward the hips, and stretch your hands out to the sidos. Then lower the
knees about 45 lo one sido, keeping the feet, legs, and thighs together, and
holding thc soles ofthe feet relatively Ilat against the floor (fi g, 7.10) . The
iHum on the side opposite the twist will be lifted slightly off the floor. This
is a subtle concentration exercise that generates a twist in the hip joints
and creates a moderate torque in the sacroiliae joints and lumbar region-
a11 without creating a twist in the chest. Mild muscular tensi n in the lower
extremities is required to keep the soles of the feel against Lhe floor and to
prevenl the knees from dropping loo far to the sido. Repeat on the other
side.
Next create a more obvious twist by lowering both knees all the way lo
the floor, this time facing the soles ofthe feet toward the opposite wall (fig.
7.11). Try to rernain relaxed, bul kecp both knees together and both shoulders
against the floor, This is a completely different posture from the first one
because now the thighs are only slight ly swivcled with respect to the pelvis.
Vou will feel this twis t in the sacroiliac joints, the lumbar region, and the
chest-a torque in the sacroiliac joints and the lumbar region that may get
your attention ifyou remain in the posture for more than a minute 01' two,
and a twist in the chest that may yield little c1icks and readjustments in the
facet joints of the thoracic spine and ribs, Ir you feel the Iower back with
the palm of the hand, you will be able lo confirrn that it remains in nearly
Figure 7.8. l he
feet here are
rotated "in"
(that is medially)
abou! 45.
Figure 7.9.
Here the
lee! are
rotated out
lJr laterally,
ilboul 90.
the same plane with the pelvis and that rnost ofthe twist takes place in ti
chesl (fig, 7.11). Ifyou can't settle into this posture without lifting the opposi
shoulder off the 1100r, place one or more pillows under the knees.
Finally, twist lo one side after drawing the knees closer to the chest, ') 1
keep the shoulders down in this posture, it is helpful to spread the an 5
and forearms straight out lo the sides. You wi11 also have to use muscul r
effort to keep the knecs near the chest, which incidental1y makes this pr e
a forward bend as well as a twist , Notice that the posture brings the pel IS
t o a full right angle with respect to the floor (fig. 7.12) and leaves the thi, IS
in a neutral unswiveled position with respect to the pelvis. Tensi oi is
completely removed from the sacroiliac joints and largely gnne fr m
the lumbar region, and you wiII feel rnost of the twist high in the che I If
as a result it is diflicult to keep t he opposite shoulder against t he floor, p Ip
pillows under t he knees lo dimi ni sh the twist . lt is best lo keep the hea In
a neutral position for a11 three of thcse postures: twisting it in the oppr le
direct ion dis lracts your attention from analysis of more interesting efT -ts
in the rest of t he body. Repeal on the ot her side.
I-igure 7.10. This
twist, keepi ng the
feet f1 al on the f1oor,
is a subtle concen-
trati on exercise thal
affecls only the hip
[oints, sacroiliac
joints, and lumbar
spine.
A RELAXED SUPINE T WIST
The three previous posturos require at least sorne muscular activity. To
conlrast them with a relaxed supine twist, place the hands flat on the
floor and straight out to the sides, draw the heels toward the hips, cross
th e right knee over the left , and twist the lower part of the body to t he
righl so that t he knees are lowered toward t he Iloor (fig, 7.13). 'I'here is
little or no tendency for the opposite shoulder to Ii ft off t he floor in
this mild posture, but it sti U may be tricky to relax in it from head
to toe, especially at the begi nning of a hatha yoga session, Adjust the
amount of flexion in t he knees and hip joints (dcterrnined by how far
away from the hi ps you place your Ieet ) so you can relax as much as
possible; the more Ilexion t he greater the twist, but the greater t he twist
t he more challenging it wi11 be to relax.
The rnain characteristic of this pose is that you can analyze t he sensations
of passi ve st retc h al you r leisure, The posture pr ies the left thi gh in t he
direction of the twist, pulls t he head of the left femur slight ly away frorn
its socket , an d lifts the left side of t he pelvis off the floor. As a res ult, the
pose places torque on t he lumbar regi n and on the left sacroiliac joint.
Repeal the posture, erossing the left knec over t he right and t wisti ng down
to the left. Ifyou try t his relaxed twist al the beginning and then at t he end
of a session of hatha yoga postures, t he experience will be markedly difTerent.
In the beginning you may feel slight pai n in sorne of t he ligament s of the
hip and sacroi liac joints, making it difficult lo relax from the waist down,
but when you are warmed up the si tuation will have imp roved. And as your
muscu loskeletal healt h improves you will gradually find yourself ab le to
relax more compl etely.
Figure 7.11. Droppi ng the
knees all the way lo the
f100r and keeping the
feet toge lher creates
effects in lhe sacroiliac
joints, lumbar region, and
chest.
Figure 7.12. Twistingwith
lhe knces kept c10se lo lhe
chest removes all tension
from the hips and sacmiliac
joints, ami rnost of lhe
tension fmm lhe lumbar
reginn. This pose primarily
lwists lhe
(
THE SU PI NE TWIST, FULL RESISTANCE
Thi s posture takes the above relaxed supine twist to the other extreme. Le
on your back and again eross the right knee over the left, but. now interlock
the ankl es as well, the right under the left . And instead of twisting to the
right as you did before, twist lo the left. With the hand" outstretched, and
Figure 7.13. This
supine lwisl
very complex. and
Il challenge Ihe
abllrly of beginners
lo relax, especiallyal
lhe slarl of a session
uf hatha yoga.
_oH AI\'A ro"' ) OF ustn ){)GA
If the arm and shou lder opposite the direction of the twist are lift ed off
the floor, 01' if you can't Iower the legs to the floor wh ile keeping them
[lexed 90, there are several ways lo moderate the posture. You can keep
the knees extended and lower over only to the puint al which you can
comfortably come back up, exhal ing as you go to the sido and inhaling as
you come back up (fg. 7. 1')}. This requires strong muscu lar act.ivity in
the abdominal wall and creates intenso sensations in the hip joints,
sacroiliac joints, and lower back. 01' you can keep the lower back straight
and t he knees extended, hut flex the thighs less than 90 rat her than
trying to keep t hem perpendicular to the torso. As before, if you can't
lower t he feet all the way to the floor, lower t hem only part way down.
Sirnplest of a11, Ilex the hips 120 and t he knees 90 (Ii g. 7.16), and then
twist t o one si de with the knees together unti l t hey touch t he 0001'.
Either re lax in t he pose, 01' keep breathing and immediately raise back
up in a con t inuous rnovement before slowly twisting to the other side.
Figure 7.15. The double leglift
supine twist, done according lo
the specifications in the t ext, is a
valuable study in the dynamics of
Ihe musculoskelet al architecture
of the body, and will chaUenge
even the slrongesl and most
flexible athlete. Swinging the
lower extremilies over 45 as
shown here is more reasonable
for mosl sludenls .
Figure 7.16. For lhose who do
not have eno ugh f1 exibilily to
do fuU dou ble leglift
suplf1e twist. dropping the
luwer extremities lo the floor
.this easy preparalory
PUSlllOn is still u!>eful. For Ihe
exercise, go fmm side to
slde coming to wilhin an inch
lIr Iwo nf Ihe f1 00r in a
ontinuou s movement. and
.and rest in thi. opright
POsllIun inslead of resting
\Vith lhe legs al! lhe way lo
lh
e
noor on one side.
THE DOUBLE LEGLlFT SUPINE TWIST
The double leglift supino twist is an intense abdominal and back exert se
in addit.ion to a twist. To do it start from a supine position wi th le
upper extremities extended straight out lo t he sirles, palms dOWIL F rm
there exhale, press t he lower back tu the floor, and taking care to keep he
knees extended fully, lift the thighs perpendicular t o the loor in a dm ,le
leglift (fig, 3.
1
71. Then slowly allow gravity to carry the flcxed thighs nd
extended legs to one side whi le you turn your head in the opposite di ic-
tion. 'I'ry lo keep the soles ofthe feet within an inch 01' so ofthe same pI. le,
bracing the posture with the upper extremities and keeping both shoul- -rs
against the Iloor, As always, repeat on the other side.
Thi s is an advanced posture, and you have to havo excc11ent Ilexir Ity
as weH as abdominal and back strength lo do it comfortably. Just COI .ng
into the initial positioIl with the thighs perpendicular to the floor reql res
900 of hip flexibility ami that's before you even think of adding the t ist.
Those who can complete the p08ture will end up with their pelvis a mt
150 shor t of being perpendicular to the floor, so if the shoulders are .Jpt
flat, lhe posture will require 75 of twist belween the shoulders anc
pel vis. If we aUot 5 of twist lo th e lumbar re gon, this mean!; 70 of \'18t
in lhe thoracic segment of the vertebral column, 01' 25 more lhal l he
average of 45
I:igure 7.14.
A double-
locked leg
Iwisl is bes l
done
agaillst (uJl
muscular
resistance.
with the upper extrernitles stabilizing the torso, strongly press the rigl-
shoulder to t he floor and twist tho knees as much to the left as possble (ni
7.
14
). For this to feel comfortablo you wiII have to create internal musculr
resistance to the twi st, jusl as we tightened the muscles 01' the low.
extrernities to create a healthy musculoskeletal framework [01' standi i
pustures (chapt er 4). The need [01' creating muscular resistance in t I s
posture is even more obvious. It's likc wringing out a washcloth. T
musc1es that are creating th e twist have to be matched Irom the shouldc s
to t he feet by their antagonists, all of them in a state of isometric activi v,
sorne creating the twist, others resisting. It's unthinkable to relax t e
antagonista i n t his post ure. Slowly release the pose and repeat on t le
other side.
410 11\/1"HJMl ornnrtt l "OCA
'ed
t ra
1 a
'so
of
Because standing twists present 80 many challenges, there are IOUt
basic rules that should always be honored: establish a solid foundation
[rorn the waist down; be aware of and make adjustrnents for aspects of the
post ure that are wmatural; appraiso how casily you can get into the posture:
and look at whether or not there are potential difficulties connectod with
your exit. Then act on your knowledge by practicing within your capacity.
Soon you will be able to do diflicult posturcs comfortably, and this in turn
will improve your general strength and flexibility.
STANDING TWISTS ANO BENOS
The simplest standing twists combined with bending are the ones
di scu ssed in chapter 5 in relation to strengthening the knee joints: you
twist in one dir ect ion and bend forward and backwa rd from that position;
you t wist in the other direction and again bend forward and backward: and
facing t he front you again bend forward and backward. ' l'hese six bends,
done repetitively with the upper extrernities in different positions, are
excellent whole-body twisting and toning exercises. sing them as a warm-
up is also a good preparation for more formal standing postures such as the
triangles an d t he warrior poses.
Here we' lIlook at the exercises in detail, using the simplost position
for t he up per extremities, which is graspng the clbows or forearms
behi nd t he back. Stand with the feet parallel and as far apart as is corn-
for ta ble. Keep the kneecaps lifted, the hamstrings strong posteriorly,
add uctor muscles firm on the medial aspects of the thighs, and the
hips fir moThis creates a solid foundation for the postures from which
you be aware of your limit s . How far apart you adjust your feet is
t he single rnost important feature of the stance. They should be placed
as far apart as you can manage and at the same ti me maintain strength
and cont rol in your foundation when you twist and bend. lf the feet are
too closo toget her you will not Ieel as if you are getting much exercise
Irorn the waist down, and if they are too far apart you can't gather
enough strength in the hips and lhighs to stabilize lhe posture. The
other general policy is to bend to please yourself. Intermediatc and
advanced students usually prefer to bend from the hips, but beb"nners
and t hose who have pOOl' hip and sacroiliac Oexibi lity will find it more
nat ural to bend from the waist. If you have any low back problems
wor k . h' .
b. Wlt ext.reme Few movements are as hazardous for bad
acks as bendmg the spmc after having twisted it.
Twi st right and sJowly bend forward. Not ice that gravity helps you in
Par t, but that you have tu make an errort to kecp from dropping straight to
the fronl . Try to find an easy point of equilibrium among mu!'Cles, Ji u-
Ill t.! nts d " h d g
,an JOll1ts t at are un er stress as gravity pu lls you forward.
inc
nd
at e
ed
he
'k-
nly
In chapter 4 we saw that standing in un fa miliar and unconvcnti ial
postures can be challenging whcn the force of gravity comes to bea on
the joints of the lower extremities. Such challenges are magnified \ en
twisting is added to the equation. You rnay do fine with standing b
bends and forward bends, but add a twist to the posture and sudd
problerns emerge front and center.
The ext.ent to which a standing twist is challenging depends
number of issues: on how the feet are positioned (rotating the feet I or
out places torque on the ankles); on whether or not the knees are
(hending the knees places extra tension on it.s collateral and cru e
ligaments); on the extent to which the thighs are abducted (abdl
thighs places extra lension on the adductors); on whether or not
thighs are rotated (mtating the thighs laterally or medially places L
tension on the medial or lateral rotators respectively); on whetht or
not the shoulders are in line \\ ith the pelvis (rotating the shoulde in
either direction with respect to the pelvis will twist the thoracic s
and place torque on the lumba. region and sacroiliac joints) ;
on whether 01' not the head iR in the same frontal plane as the l
(twisting l.he ncck tends to take your attcntion away from the n."
t he bodyl.
STANDING TWISTS
If you can easily do the full posture with tbe knees straight and the h J'
flexed 90, you can sharpen it further by keeping the feet together, wh h
requires pushi ng the uppcr foot out so it rernains in line with the Ioot t It
is closest to the Iloor, To the extent that the feet remain in line with e
another, t he pelvis will approach being perpendicular lo the floor, aru if
you keep the shoulders against the floor; t he final posture will require JO
of twist betwcen the shoulders and the pelvis instead of the 75 menti o -d
earlier.
AII of the double leglift supine twists can be approached in two waj
as movements or as postures. As far as building strength is concemed, i u
can get the most benefits by going back and forth from one side to the 01 er
continuously, without qui te touching the floor and without pausi ru to
relax. On t he ot her hand, you can come al l the way down to t.he floor 1 a
relaxed or serni-relaxed hatha yoga posture. In any case, aU of H se
exe rcises and postures are useful for exploring twisting in the t.hor :IC
spine beca use t he hips are not swiveled when the t highs are against he
floor and because the pelvis and shoulders are stabilized. As you (' ne
into t he twist, you can flex the th ighs and knees to suit yourself in o er
to pl ace t he lumbar and thoraci c spi ne under as much tension as I ley
can accommodate in the relaxed posture.
nc
Observe t hat kecping yourself twisted requires that you hold the postur
isometrically (fig, 7.17al. Take 3-7 breaths. Slowly come back up, stay twistec
and bend backward, keeping the head in line with the torso rather tha
thrown excessively to the real'. Be aware of the rnuscles that are holdir
you isometrieally in this asymmetric twisted backbend digo 7.17h). Crcate I
fceling of lift in the backbend, try to squceze the hips together, and aga 1
take 3- 7 breaths. Keep the knees straight. Slowly come lo an upright positii
twist in the other direction, and repeat the forward bend (fg. 7.17c) a :i
backbend (fig. 7.17dl on the other side. Come up again, face straight to t e
front and again bend forward (fig. 7.\7e) and backward (fig, 7\7D. Squo e
the hips together to create as much counternutation as possible in all e
backbends . In the forward bends, those who have good hip and sacroil IC
flexibility will bend from the hips and at least start their bends with nutati 11;
everyone els namely those who can't bend easily from the hips- \ 111
koep their sacroil iac join ts in coun ternutation throughout the series.
Tur ning to the side in these postures will create a whole-body sw el
t ha t includes a pronounced torque in the feet , ankles, lcgs, knee joint s, Id
thighs, as well as a torque plus a twist in t he hip joints, torso, and ni k.
You have to keep the feet parallel to get these results ; if you aIlow th er to
rotate in the direction of t he t wist, the entire body swivels around at he
hips and you will get litUe twisti ng of the vertebral column. The purpo. of
these exe rcises is t o effect the twist most ly in the hips and chest. Ave ge
students in good health may rotate a total of Soo between the eet am he
shoulders, inc1uding about ,, -,o ofaxial rotation in the ankles, 40 of swiw mg
in the hips, 5 of twist in the lumba r spine, and another 30 in the che
Beginning, intermediate, and advanced students will al! have di ffe nt
reactions to t he gravitational field. Beginners and those who are espe< llly
stiff will quickly butt up against their limits. They may come forward nly
a little, and their "backbends" may involve little mOl'e than standil up
straight. Intermediate students, after a weck 01' so of practice, may ,me
into an uncasy CQuilibrium with gravity and still not beentirely comfOl tble
in the full forward and backward OOnds. Advanced students can ac ,cly
pull themselves down and back, 01' in the case of the t wists, dowl "md
around, amI hack and around, beyond the point at whic h gravity
would take them. As t hey do t.his they wiIl protect t hemselves eit h by
fir ming up their antagonistic muscles 01' by releasing tension in a m ne
r
that tlle body recognizes as safe.
As your musculoskeletal health improves, you will feel like pu lling lore
deeply into each position. And as you intensifYeach movement, you y, I be
strcngthening all of the muscles involved in creating t he postures, not ,ni)'
the agonists but aU thcir synergigts and an tagonists. You will be a ling
gravity with you r musculoske letal emll'ts, but at the same t ime you w I be
7 twtsn, e t-osn [{lOS .113
stimulating reflexos that relax the muscles that are antagonists to the prime
movers , an d this in turn allows you tu come further into each position.
I n addition to catching the Iorearms 01' elbows behind your back, you
can do these exercises with six more arrn posit ions, all of t.hern su btly
dilerent from one another in the way they affcct the twists and bends.
Thcse are: with the arms and forearms stretched laterally (fig. 7.ISa); with
the arms overhead, forearms behind the head, and hands catching the
elbows (fig. 7. ISb); with the hands, palms together, in a prayer position
behind the back (fig. 7.ISc); with the hands interlockcd behnd the back and
pulled to the real' (fi g, 7.1Hd ); with t he upper extremities in t he cow-face
position wit h one hand behind the back reaching from below and the other
cat ching it from overhead (t his one should be done twice, once on each side;
fig. 7.ISe); and with the hands ast ri de t he ilia, bendi ng from the hips
instead of the waist for a changc of pace (figs. 7.18f-g). Repeat the series of
six bends for each ha nd posi t ion.
TWISTlNG IN THE TRIANGLE POSTURES
In chapter 1 we discussed the triangle postures in de tal l, bu t did not stress
the Iact that al l of them include elernents of twisting. Focusing on this
aspcct in the classic triangle, come into th e preliminary stance wit h t he
thighs abducted and the fcct parallel, and envision a frontal plane running
through t he body from ear to cal', shoulder to shoulder, hi p to hip , head to
toe. Then rotate the right foot 90 to t he right and the left foot 30 to the
rght, come into a sirle bend to the right whi le keeping the spine relatively
straight (Iig, 4-33), and notice where the plane becomes distorted, It
remains t rue through the shoulders, chcst. and abdomen. hut becausc the
right gluteal regon is pullcd slightly to the real', the former frontal plane
revcals a modcrate kinking through the pelvis. It also revcals a slight deviation
in the left lower extremity. depending on how much the left foot is rotated
to the r ight . 'fhe plane shifts almost 90 in the right lower extremity
beeaus e t he right foot is pointed straight t o the right. and it shifts 90 in
the head and neck because you are looking straight up at yow left hand.
AH in all, this adds up lo a lot of twisting.
\Ve saw in chapter 4 that most of our efforts in the triangle involve
resisting the tendency to t.wist t he pelvis. But even though 8tudents are
routinely cautioned tu keep thcil' hips facing the front, this is an unrealistic
in lhe.triangle except per haps for ballet dtmcel's and gymnasts.
Verage Int er medi at e students can accompli8h the l)0 rotation of the foot
o.n lhe side t.oward which they are bending, but only by allowing lhe opposite
slde of t he pelvis tu rotatc slightly forward. lt's a mistake lo make this too
ll1uch of an issue, and t he usual inj unetion-t ry to kccp the hips facing the
frOllt as much as possible-is a rcasonable middlc ground.
d.
Figure 7.17e. Come up, face the front, and
bend forward, again keeping the musdes in
the thighs engaged. Nolice that gravity pulls
you st raight forward and that it is not neces-
sary lo keep pulling you rsclf around lo the
side as in the twisted poses. Strong students
can still aid gravity with muscular actvity,
Figure 7.17d. Come up,
stay twisted lo the left,
and be nd backward,
with musdes engagcd
Irom head to toe. It's
fine to keep the knees
straight so long as they
are not hyperexlended
beyond 180
0
and so long
as the thighs (especially
the hamstring muscles)
are kept in a state of
slrong isome tric con-
traction. Experienced
students can of course
use their own judge-
ment about how and
wher e to relax in stand-
ing poses (see chapter
4).
b.
Figure 7.17a. Firsl of six standing Iwi t-
and bends with hands grasped behind
the back. Starting with the feet paral k
and comfmtably apart (see discussion
twist right and bend forward to withir
your reasonable capacily, just a simpl
gesture loward a twisted bend if you
are frail, bending with the aid of grav "
or the average person, and supple-
mcnling gravily with the abdominal
a<:livilyfor those who are confidcnt.
Keep the thighs slrongly engaged.
a.
Figure 7.17b . For the second
position, come up, stay twis ted
lo the right, and hend backward,
which may nol mean much
more than standing straight Ior
sorne, pulling mildly lo the rear
for the average pe rson , and
pulling slrongly to the rea r for
those who are confident. Keep
the thighs willfully engaged and
keep breathing. In al l of the
backbending positons, Iry lo
keep the hips squcczed together
in an attitude of ashwini mudra
(chapter 3).
in
e
c.
Figure 7.17(;. For ti
third position, COI
up, twist to the I f
and bend Imward
fig. 7.17a except in
opposite direeti n
(The order in whil
direction to go ir
can he switched (l
alternate days, as i
going to the rght si
on even days of ti
month and goin g I
t he left first on odi
days of the month
e.
Figure 7.171. Come up and bend
backward to your capacty
rner ely standing straight for
some, pulling mildly to the rear
for average sludents, and pulling
Slrongly to the rear for those
with more experience, bul
always keeping musdes in a state
of al least mild isometric tension
from head lo loe. Be aware of
!he alternatives of hrcathing in
backbc nds (chapters 4 and 5;
figs. 4. 19, 5.6, and 5.7.)
f.
a.
Figure 7.18a. Second of seven arm
and forearm positions (the first was
iIIustrated in fig. 7.17a-0 each
demonstrating a different stage of
the twisl-and-bend sequencc of six
poslures. For this one, keep the
upper exlremities straight out lo th t
side in one line with the shoulders
(don't lift the hands up as in rnakng
wings as though to fly). Keep the
fingers together and palms down.
figure 7.18d. For the fifth series of six
bends, interlock the fingers behind
rhe back, press the palrns together,
and pull the hands strongly to the
rearo For an easier option, keep the
forearms flattened against the ba k
instead of pulling them to the rearo
e.
Figure 7.18f-g.
For the eighth
series, place the
hands on the
hips and dig the
thumbs into the
groove between
the pelvis and
the spine. In the
three forward
bending posi-
tions, bend only
from the hips,
not al the waist.
Two views are
shown here
(sixth position,
eighth series).
g.
Figure 7.18e. For the sixth and seventh
series, use a cow-face hand position.
Repeat using the alternate arm position,
doing 12 pos tures instead of the usual 6.
Keep the top elbow well behind the
head instead of letting it drop into an
easy posi tion fadng forward.
f.
d.
b.
Figure 7.18c. For the fo th
series of six bends, pla.
the hands in a praver p si-
tion behind the hack, l'
work toward that posi lO
hy touching the third a 1
fourth fingers of one h rd
lo the third and fourth 10-
gers of the opposite h d,
and then graduaJly lift u
the paired hands highf' to
approximate the palrn- 15
rnuch as possible. NeVl
hurry lhis pro ces s, as d ng
so can cause repetitivr
stress injuries.
c.
Figure 7.18b. Grasp the forearrns
or shoulders be hind the head
or the Ihird series of six bends.
Watch the extra weight over-
head that has to be managed in
the three forward bending
positions. With this series in
particular, beginners and those
who have less musculoskeletal
confidence will want lo start
with six srnall bending gestores
rather than immedialely explor-
ing lheir Iimits. With more
experience, one can always
ratchet up commitment lo the
fuI! postures.
The revolving triangle (fig. 4.361 contains even more extensive rotalio
than the c1assic triangle. In the first stage, turn the right foot 90 to ti
right and the left foot 60 to the right, and t hen swivel the trunk around
face the right foot. Ideally, you are not twisti ng the spine very much in t h
posi l ion. Instead, the whole-body swivel causes the len thigh lo end 1
hyperextended and the ri ght thigh lo end up flexed , both depending on h<
far the thighs were abducted initiaIly. Beginners are properly advi sed
gradually accustom thernselves to spreading their feel further apart
order not lo end up in awkward posi tions that are beyond their capacit
Ir you do not have enough flexibility to swivel the pelvis until i t 'S
perpendicular to the right lower extremity, you wiIl have lo accomplish
rest of the twist in th e spine . Even so, whichever way you do it , YOU ' 11
still twist a fr ontal plane r unning through the shoulders 90 to the r i
thigh and leg. To complete the posture you add a 90 forward bond and n
addt onal oo t wist ofthe spine so the shoulders end up facing the rear o
top it off you twist your neck an additional 90
u
to look up at your r i 11
hand. Whal had originaIly been a frontal plane through t he body wc d
twist 90 and t hen bend 90 to become horizontal in the pelvis. Then e
plane would twist another 90 lo be ver tical t hrough the shoulders, Id
fi nalIy i t would t wist the last 90 i n t he ncck-making a 270 t t
altogether,
shown here are not ordinarily classifod with twi sts, careful analysis
reveals sorne twi sting in both of them. In relation lo a frontal plane in the
anatomical position, the frst posture (warrior 11 in Iyengar's classificalion)
exhibits a 20-30 twist in the pelvis, a 20-30 countertwist in the upper
body, and a 90 twi st in the neck; the second posturo (warrior J in Iyengar's
classificat on) exhibits a 90 twist in the pelvis.
'1'0 come into the warrior II posture, stand with the feet 3-4 feet apart,
and swivel the pelvis 20-30 lo the right. This is accomplished autornatically
by tuming the right foot ') 0 to the right and the Ieft foot 10 to the right.
The right side of the pelvis will move slight ly posterior in relation to the
left as you adjust the feet, so this will give you a different feeling Irom the
triangle, in which you try to keep the hips in line and facing the front.
Stretch the arrns and forearms out so they are in line with the shou lders
and th e lower extremities. Since the pelvis is swiveled 20- 30 to the right,
tho arrns and shouJders wll end up twisted back lo the left . Then
lower your weight, flexing the right knee and hip while hyperextending the
T WI ST I NG IN THE LUNGING POSTURES
118.
sic
res
7.19. The slandi ng wa rr ior 11 is a fairly natural pose in which several kinds
in rnake thernsel ves about 25 in the pelvis, a 25 counlerlwisl
Ih upper body, a 90 twist 10 the nerk. Aim in the final poslure lo keep
fronlleg perpendicular lo floo r as a firsl priorily, so as nol lo Ihrusl t he
e beyond Ihe ankle. lhen wlefen your sla nce and drop you r we ighl (
and f1 cxibility permitl unlillhe fronl lhigh is pa rallello Ihe flooaS
K
body leaned no r backward. eep
. co mpromise by nol droPPlng lhelr we lghl so far and adjusling lhei f 1
rOSlllon so Ihe I.eg is sl i/l perpendicular lo !he floor and lhe Ihigh angles 00
oWaref Ihe pe lVIS.
' Ii-
ng
When Iencers lunge thcy t hru st t he body down and forward in one .ft
movement, and the lunging postures imitate this thrust. They all inv ve
90 of Ilexion of the thigh an d knee on one side and fuIl extensin 01' he
thigh and knee on the other. The torso can either be twisted 01' bent. lid
the uppcr extremities can be lifted ovcrhead or stretched in other direct a
As a group, athl et es are attracted to these postures bccause they are he ful
for developing muscular strength, moderate aerobio capacity, and a '111
range of motion for flexion and extensin. which happen to be th e t
movements needed for most limit -pushing athletic endeavors, ince t 'SC
postures require sorne athletic prowess, it is wise lo be conservative a ,ut
plunging directly into them. They are rolatively natural poses, howevc in
cornparison with the standing twists and triangles, and once you are L
mated to them t hey are among the best all-around postures for energi
and strcngthening the body as a whole. As asymmetric standing post
lhey are also ideal for working wilh right-Ieft imbaJances.
TWI STlNG IN THE STA NDI NG WARRIORS
The standing wan-ior postures are named for their wide-bodied, powel ul-
looking slances. They spca k for lhemselves. Alt hough the lwo posh eS
.p o A,\'IIHJ.\/I OFf/A77/11 HJ<,:l
len hip and at the same time stretching the hands out in front and back
palms down, and making blades 01' the hands and fingers. Keep the arms
forearrns, and shoulders in a single line, and look toward the right hanr
(fig, 7.IY).
There are three musts in this posture: keep all the rnuscles of t h-
extremities frm; keep the torso straight and perpendicular lo the flor
rather than leaned forward; and don't flex the front knee more than 90
1'0 complete the postura in its ideal form. the right leg should be perpendicuh
and the right thigh parallel lo the floor, As your capacity for lowering YOl
weight improves, you will have to widen your stance so that the right km
does not push out too faro Hold the feet as flal as possible, being carelul n
to raise the lateral edge of the left foot. Repeat in the opposite direction
This is a good posture for beginners and those in poor physical conditir
because it can be modified to meet everyone's personal needs. AIl you ha
to do to make it easier is start with a narrower stance, swivel as in the ti
posture, and lower your weight until the leg is perpendicular lo the flo
Go back and Iorth from one side to the other; and over a period of weeks r
months gradually widen your stance. As soon as you reach the poin t
which your front thigh is parallel lo the floor (and the front leg perpcndicu\
as usual), and as soon as you can do this in both directions while keep g
the torso erect, you have arrived at the full posture,
As you come into the posture, hyperextension of the len hip juint t ght. is
is spiral of iliofernoral, pubofomoral, and ischiofemoral ligarnents t fig,
at the same time that flexion of the right hip unwinds its same t h e
ligarncnts and allows the head oI' the fernur the freedom needed to rot e
in the acetabulum. Doing the posture in the opposite direction will re ve ,e
these situations, tightening the spiral in the right hip joint a11(lloo. r 15
it on lhe len.
This is an elementary but at the same time complex pose. 'fhe twi. is
accomplished by swivelling al the hip joints in one direction and twi s 115
the chest back in the other direction. With the shoulders I'acing the ;, .e,
and wilh the head tacing the outreaching hand, lhe neck will also ha'. to
be lwisted yoo. Finally, because the pelvis is al a 20-JOo angle frolll he
shoulders, the hyperextcnded rear thigh forces it into a forward tilt 1 tt
creates a moderate sidebending pm.-turc. To ease the tension with res] -el
to the rear thigh, be,>inning students often Illinilllize side bending by lcar 115
forward instead of kecping their torso upright. This looks unseemly, huw!' r:
it is better to compromise the posturc with a nanuwer stam.:e and less fle:>< lO
of the fmnt leg and thigh. \Vhen students do not try to lower lheir' wel Jt
into the fuIl posture prelllaturely, the demands on the pelvis for side ben IJg
will not be so urgent, they can remain upright without difficulty, and le
posture becOIllCS relatively easy.
7. I1 I /,\ 77,\(. / 'O\ '77'RE.\ 4 21
The standing warrior rr pose strengthans and st retches muscles
throughout the lower extremities, espcciaIly the hip flexors and knce
extensors. Facing the right, the right quadriceps fernoris muscles and the
left psoas and iliacus muscles are stretched lo whatevor limits you are
exploring as they lengthen eccentrically, support the postura, and lower
your weight. Everything is reversed when you face the len.
The next variation of the standing warror (warrior 1) is more demanding.
Begn as in the previous postura, but in this one turn the rear foot in about
20 instead of JO
o
, lift the hands overhead with the palrns together, and pull
them to the rearo Swivel the hips around so the head, chest, and abdomen
face the front thigh squarely. When this is accomplished, the pelvis will be
rotated aUthe way around and wiII approach a 90 angle with respect to the
thighs (figs. 1.2 and 7.20). Repeat on the other side.
Because the pelvis now faces the front , and because t he rear leg and
thigh are perpendicular to the torso, the rear thigh is more acutely hyper-
extended than in the previous posturc, And since you are still kecping the
b
Figure 7.20. TIle standing warrior I is more dcmanding than t ~ wa' II
Cca . I h l " f ~ rTlor pose
u Cyou SW1Ve t e p ~ VIS lInso ar as possible) 90 to face lhe fronl knee ' ,
~ n bccause hyperexlenslOn of the re.ar lhigh produces lhe necd for a shar '
thackbend. For an even r:n.
ore
demand.ng poslure, exlend the ilead and necr to
b
e rear and face lile celhng lfig. 1.2). As in lile case of the tile war ' 1I
e . I . b . nor pose
glOners s lould cOOlpronllse y keeping lhe leg perpendicular lo lile n .
and by nllt dropping lhcir weigill so faro oor
torso upright, the only way you can adapt lo the extra hip hyperextcnsion
is with a lumbar backbend. Therefore, as you come into the pose you
should create a whole-body fccling by strongly lilling the hands overheac
and puJIing them to the rear, thus lifting the rib cage and chest, drawi nr:
the shouldcrs back and clown, and taking excess tension off the lower back
1'0 make the spirit of spinal extensi n complete, you can also extend th-
neck enough lo look toward the ceiling (Iig. 1.2). As with the previou
posture, beginning students can al so make this one easier by narrowi n
their stance and not lowering so far toward the ideal position. Everyoi
should breathe deeply, expanding the che.. -st as much as possible and inhal ii
their full inspiratory capacity.
THE EXTENDED LATERAL ANGLE POSTUAES
The extended lateral angle postures are more difficult than the warr
posturcs beeause they are lunges cornbined ...vith both twisting and bendiJ
and because it is hard lo find cornfortable intcrrnediate positions that , e
less demanding than the ull posture, Beginners can makc triangles eas: r
by simply coming part way down, and in the warrior postures they ( 11
stand with the front thigh and kncc only partially lexed, but in the exten -d
lateral angle postures they will either have lo counteract gravity w h
internal muscular activity or come deeply enough into the posturcs o
brace themselves with the upper extrernities.
For the simplest posture, stand with the feet a cornfortable di st o 'e
apart , tUITl the leH. foot 90 to the left, and kccp the right foot point Ig
straight ahead, Then kecping the pelvis and chest facng as much to le
Iront as poss blc, Ilex the left kncc and bend to the left, either bracing le
left forearm against the left knee (fig. 7.21J, or for the full posture, plae 19
the len hand against the floor (fig. 7 .22) , Try lo adjust the width of y .r r
stance to make the left leg perpendicular to the floor and the left ti rh
parallel to the floor. This is a lot easier ifyou are bracing the posture Ih
your forearm. As in the triangle, the right side of the pelvis wilJ prob: ,Iy
come slightly forward. Bring the right upper extremily overhead to e le
into a straight line with the right thigh and leg. Repeat on the othor e.
Except Ior the bent knee and the fact that the opposite upper ext rer ty
is pointing to the side instead of straight up, this posture is similar t o he
triangle, With the elbow braced against the knee the posture is easy; i t h
the hand aJI the way to the floor it is demanding.
'I'he revolving lateral anglo posture is as unlike the lateral angle pos re
as the revolving triangle is unlike the triangle. It is another twi ng
post.ure, in which, like the revolving triangle, you will twist all the Y
around and face the rear lor the final p<lSition. To come into the po I lre
.;tand with lhe leet 3-4 fect apart, rotate lhe len foot 90 lo lhe left , nd
Figure this easy extended lateral angle posture with the left
arrn makes it posslh!e even for novices to spread their stance enough lo bring
the left leg perpendicular and the left thigh parallel lo Ihe floor.
Figure 7.22. lhe extended lateral angle posture requircs good athlet - t. Ih
and f1exibilily, and shoulcf be approached conservalivclv gradually lh
sI J d . h . ht l l' I cnJng e
ance <In" roppmg t e wClg to lrlng Ihe fronl lhigh parallel lo Ihe floor.
.P4 . L\'Al flM l (JI' IIAnM HJGA
point the right foot st raight ahead. Next, inst ead of keoping the pelvis facin
the Iront, rotate it around as much as poss ble, creating a 90 swivel, an.
bend forward while at the same time continuing the twist in the torso f(
another 90. You will end up, as in the revolving triangle, with a 270 twi:
in the frontal plane of the body. As with the lateral angle posture, you
either brace the opposite elbow on the knee or place the hand on the fl o
to create a more demanding pose (fi g, 7.23). Repeat on the ot her sido.
INVERTED TWI5T5
Twisting in variations of the headstand (chapter X) and shouldersta , I
(chapter 9) complements twisting in standing postures because the 10\\ l'
extremities are free to move around in space rather than rernaining fi d
in positions defined by the placernent of the feet on the Iloor, In the cas e
shoulderstand that is supported hy the upper extremities, you can exp e
the twi st by pushing on the back more firmly with one hand than the 01 I -r
(fig, A sharper posture, provided you are capable of remai n g
straight, is 10twist the body in an internally supported shoulderstand (f
9.1 and L).6b) while keeping the upper extremities alongside the torso, t i IS
twisting the trunk between the hands. And to create interrnediate le .1
poses, you can accompany twisting in the shoulderstand with add it io- 11
stretches of the lower extremities such as twisting in one direct on in le
shoulderstand and taking the opposite foot overhead toward the 0 001 n
rigure 7.23. The revolving exlended laleral angle pose is a complex poslure 31
in Ihe end produces a 270 Iwisl in the frontal plane of Ihe body. A'i in Ihe c. e
of the extended laleral anglc pose. one can legilimalely compromise Ihis
by supporting il with Ihe elbow resling on Ihe Ihigh ralher Ihan on ti e
floor.
the same direction (Ieaving the other thigh and leg fully extended), coming
into a twisted half or full plow after twisting in the shouldorstand, coming
into a twisted half Iotus one-Iegged plow (fig. 9.fl}, or coming into twisted
knee-to-thc-opposito ear poses (figs. 9.9-10). Other related posturas such as
variations of the threading-the-neeclle pose (figs, 9.17a-b) are especially
hclpful for working with the full spinal twist, which we'lI discuss in the
next sect.ion.
In the headstand, twisting the body with the lower extremities straight
overhead is both comfortable and rewarding, 1 he easiest way to do this is
to abduct the thighs (fig. 8.33) and then swing them around into a position
in which one is flexed and the other is extended. Then you continue in that
same direction, pulling the feet as far as possible through an are as you
twist the body between thc hip joints and the neck. Then come back to a
neutral position with the thighs abducted and swing the feet around in the
other direction.
SITTING 5PINAL TWISTS
AlI sitting spinal twi st s, by definition, have two features: they are always
upright, and the hips are always f1exed. And because many of these posturas
take tension off the hamstrings and adductors, and yet flex the hips, they
generally produce more int.ense st retches in the hip joints, pelvis, and spine
t han supine, standing, and inverted twists. This ofien makos It difficult to
complete sit.ting spinal twists comfortably and attract.ively, hut it also
us to work deeply wit.h nativa hip flexibility that is limited by that
J01l1t and its restraining ligarnents rather than by muscles.
FOUR SIMPLE TWISTS
For the sirnplest and purest sit t ing twi st, sit cross-Iegged on the floor,
the lumbar region forward, and establish full nutation of the sacro-
joints, To aid those efforts pull on the knees frankly with the hands,
which of course tenses the arms and shoulders. ext pull the shoul ders
down but al the sarne t ime create an axial extcnsion of t he torso. Afier
gctting settlcd,. relax the upper ext remiti es but without allowing the
po ture to deterrorate. Then. kecping your head level and your gnze pamllel
to twist the spine, including the neck, as fal' as possible.
TWlstmg len in this simple posture, you can place t.he left hand behind
you on the floor and the right hand on the left knee to help pull the should
arou d (fj ) ers
n. . Ig. 7.24 , you can place the hands in any comfol"tabl e positi on.
lS Imporlant IS that lhe simplicity of th e twist all ows you to hold t.he
Pille straight, retain a full lumbar lordosis and kcep the . . t .
f . ' . . . ' .,.. aCJOIn sm
nuultlOn: 111 dU'ectIon, then I'e"crsc the positions of the
eeL. and t.Wlst m bolh drecllOns again, making lour possibilities.
41.(, ANAHIMI (JI' unru )()(,A
Even though it is simple, this posture should not be overlooked, es
cially in a beginning c1ass. lt may be the only sitting twist in which m y
students can remain both fully upright and comfortable, Folding in e
lower extremitios in a simple cross-legged position, especially when l 'C!
up by a supporting cushion that mises the pelvis slightly away from le
floor, places the least tensi n on the adductors and hamstrings of y
sitting twist, permitting the pelvis to rernain oriented perpendicular to le
floor and allowing students to twist while still remaining upright. lf t !y
fecl their back with their hands they can confirm that little 01' no twisi 19
is taking place in the lumbar region, and if they watch themselves a
mirror they'll see that nearly all the twisting is in the chest and neck . T !y
will also notice that the twist is rnaintained internally: sorne of th e muo
in the torso are creating the twist while others are resisting it.
Another simple twist, the second one in this series, is to sit as nc 'Iy
upright as possible with the feet st retched straight out in front of ' U,
heels and toes togcther. From that position, twist right and place t he 1 ht
hand on the floor behind you und the left hand to the right side ofthe r ht,
thigh. Kccp the torso pushed upright with the right hand while twistin , nd
then pull yourself further into the twist with the left hand (fig, 7.2' . ep
both knees extended and thc hamstrings relaxed, Repeat on the othcr fe.
'I'his posture is more challenging than the cross-legged twist becau rt
mixes a sitting spinal twist (with the hips flexed, by definition) wit h By
extended knees. Accordingly, it favor s sacroiliac counternutation, p 'es
tension on the hamstring musclcs, and tends to tuck the pelvis (crean g a
posterior pelvic tilt), which of course rounds the lower back . If you p fer
apure spinal twist without spinal flexion you can simply move you r I , ht
hand further to the rear, arch the lumbar region forward. and reesta l sh
the twist with the torso leaned to the rearoIfyou are keeping a convinng
lumhar lordosis, the hamstrings are st ill under tensi n, especially or he
left side (if'you are twisting right) and that tension tends to buckle t h eft
Figure 7.24. This simple cross-
legged sitting twist, the first of
four, should never be overlooked,
because il is one of the few Iwists
that does nol depend on relatively
flexible hips, and is une of Ihe few
twists that nearly all heginners can
do easily. Pull with the hand on
Ihc knce, and push the
straighter using the hand that.15
bradng Ihc posture from behmd.
knee, so it is important to be particular about keeping it ext ended with the
aid of tension in the quadriceps Iemoris. Kccp the hcad on axis with the body
rather than pulling it forward al' drapping it backward so the cervical region
receive a pure t wist.
The third twist in this series is even more difficult, at leas t for those who
have poor hip Oexibility, and that is to remain upright for a sitting spinal
twist while abdu ct ing the thighs with the knees extended. '1'0 try thi s posture,
spread your feet apart, aiming for a 1)0 angle betwecn the abducted thighs,
and twist the head, neck, and shouldors to th e right, again bracing your
back with the right hand on the floor behind you and aiding the twi st as
best you can with the lefi (fig, 7.26). Repeat on the other sido,
Figure 7.25. The twist starting frorn
knees extended ami thighs adducled
(number two) next accustoms lhe
student lo limitalions dictated by Ihe
harnstrngs. Again, pull with the fronl
hand and push frorn behind to keep
the pose as uprighl as possible. For
most heginning students, this pose
rnixes a sitting spinal twst (thighs
always f1exed, by definition) with at
least sorne lumbar f1exion and
sacroiliac countemutal ion.
7.26. The twisl with knecs extended and thighs abducted (third in Ihis
senes) nexl iIIu51rates limilations dictated by the adductors as well as the
hamstrings. Beginners should adjust Ihe amount of abduction lo makc Ihe
Pose easier or lean back lo maintain a lumbar lordosis. The back should not
b rounded exccssi\lcly lo the rearo
421l ANA.,YJIIII0/II.H1IA I'()GA
7 ru 1.\7"f{\ (; / 'OY/7:l11 v .py
Figure 7.27. Twists with the feet both folded in the same direction (fourth is
scries) provide a welcome relicf to students frustrated with other sitting tWI 5.
Twistingin the opposite direction of the legs (a) is easy and results in leani
slightJy to the rear, which straightens the spinc. Twistingin !he 5<lme directic 1
(b) requires leaning forward and sorne spinal f1exion in everyone who is not
gifted with excellent hip ffexihility (obviously that does nnt apply to this rn , 1).
Ir the thighs are abducted to their limits in this third posture, twisti n
in one direction creatcs intense stretch not only in the hamstrings, but al"
in the adductors on the opposite side. Both sets of muscles will be tuggi n
on the base of the pelvis, making this the most demanding of the sit t
twists described so faro'1'0 find the ideal amounl of abduction for impr
ing hip flexibility, mildly stretching both the adductors and harnstrinp
and yet still working productively on the spinal twist, go back and for 1
between partial and Iull abduction several limes, twisting to one side al j
then the other. The idea is to strike a reasonable compromise that does t
degrade the lumbar curvature too much and give in totally to sacroi li e
counternutalion. Sitting on a suppor t will also allowa more graceul t wi
The fourth and last set oftwists in this series folds both legs in the sal
directon and is especialIy useful for rclieving the stress of othcr sitti g
twists. Pull the left foot in toward the groin and swing the right fe .t
around lo thc right. '1 he left foot ends up against the right thigh. Twi st o
the len, placing your len hand behind you on lhe floor and your right h. d
on your len knee. 'I'wist further, aiding the gesture with both hands, Nol 'e
that you naturally lean back as you come furthcr into thc twist, t IS
straightening the spine and permilling more sacroiliac nutation (fg. r.z: ).
Then come up and twist to the right with the aid of the right hand on le
floor and the left hand on the len knee. Twisting in the same directioi In
which the legs are pointing will require most novices to lean rnarkedly .r-
ward, thus flexing the lumbar spine, although that requirernent is ot
apparent in this illustration (fig. 7.27bl.
Twist your neck in this fourth posture to please yoursclf, either rotating
it in the same direction as the rest of the twist or kceping it in a neutral
position perpendicular to the shoulders. If your hip flexibility is poor, you
can moderate the posture by sitting up on a cushion, helping you to create
a more pure spinaJ twist without flexing the spine and placing so much
lension on the hip joints. The postura should be repeated, as always, on tho
other side, making a total of four possibilities, two with the feet facing to the
right and two more with the Ieet faeing the left .
HALF SPINAL TWISTS
The next six postures (figs. for five o' the six; the frst one is not
illustrated) are loosely called spinal twists, but technieally t hey are hall'
spinal twists. The simplest and easiest (not il1uslrated here) is a leaned-back
twist Ior those who have serious problems with hip flexibility To come into
the posture sit flat on the Iloor with thighs adducted and knecs extended.
Raise the left knee and place the Icft foot on the Iloor on the len (medial)
side of the right knee, 01' perhaps a little closer to the groin. Twist left
moderately, hook the right forearrn around the len knee, and bracc the
posture with the len hand far enough behind you on the floor to enable you
to lean backward with your elbow extended and kcep the lumbar spine
arched forward. As soon as you are in a comfortable position, twist a littIe
more lo the left and readjust the placemcnt of the left hand against lhe
floor lo increase the twist and yet sharpen thc lumbar curve. Look as far lo
the left as you can and repeat the pose on the other side,
This posturc has much to oITer. Because the adductors are not being
stretched al. 8011, and becauso you are leaning well to the real', the
hamstring muscles are not creating much tension on the base ofthe pel is,
and you can concentratc all of your awareness on sacroiliac nutation and
twisting the spine. ICs also an excellent introduction to using lhe upper
extremities for prying yourself around in t,he c!a.'isic half spina! twist.
The c1assicha!fspina! twisl (lig. 7-]0) is a complex post ure, but it is also one
can beapproached in stages (fig . 7. 28-JO) that are useful for bcginners.
for the (casi demanding version, start [rom a cross-Iegged easy posture
(fig. 10. loa) with the right foot drawn into position first (ending up with the
left leg in fronl of the right), and raise lhe left knee, leaving lhe len fool
Oalon thc floor in front oflhe right leg. Twist lhe body provisional1y to lhe
left, looking as far lo lhc rcar as you can while kecping the head neck
on axis with the thorclcic spine. Place the lefl. hand behind the hips and
SUpport lhe body with the forearm extended. '1'0complete the easy version
ofih" .
ls posture, hook your nght fomarro around the left knee and puB it in
againsl the chest and abdomen (fig. 7.28), plIsh more insistentIy with lhe
lefl hand, and sit up as straight as possible. iloth ischial tuberosities should
b. a.
be on the Iloor, Those who are inflexible can work with t his posture for
month 01' so before going lo the next stage, Repeat on the oher side.
For the next stage, continuing from hefore, lift t he left foot and place
flat on t he floor on the r ight side of t he right knee, This is now starting
be a more complex postura, especially for beginners, because t hey usual
have to lea n Iorward, losing their starting position of mximum nutatir
along wit h thcir lumbar lordosis. Even so, they should continuo wit h
their limitations, pulling the len. knee more vigorously to the chest (sl
with the right forearrn) and twisting lo the loft as much as possible (f
7.29). As in the case of the first stage (ligo7.2M), if this is as far as you c 1
go without creating stress and strain, work wit h this pose for an additioi
mont h 0 1' t wo before proceeding. Repeat on the ot her side,
Assurning you wis h to go on lo the c1assic versin of t he half spinal tWI
pry yourself around further into t he twist by bringing t he back side of t e
right arm to the left sido of t he left knee and t hen r each down to grasp 1 p
r ight Ioot (whic h is easiest), t he right knee (fig. 7.30), 01' if you are Ilexil e
enough, the left foot, This twi. t is even more complex t han t he previous ven- n
(flg. 7.29). Only if you are unusually flexible will this be a respectable l- If
spinal twist. For mos t people cranking the body arou nd with t he shouh r
changas t he posture from a spi nal twist lo somet hing t hat combines I p
prying and trceps brachii rnassage with t hr ee move ments of t he spi
forward flexion, lateral flexion, and twisting. This is not wit hout virt
but the posture is no longer apure spinal twist. There is nothng wn Ig
with it so long as everyone real ize s what is happcning, but it is impor l rt
to understand t ha t the pose will never look and fee l complete unt il p
tlexibi lity is sufficient to obviate the need to bend forward in the lum Ir
region. As with lhe other sitting twists, elevating the buttocks wit a
pi llow eases the post ure for l hose who are not l1exi ble enollgh to I el
comfortable flat on the floo: Repeal on the other side .
AJI sitting half spinal twists that begin from a cross-Iegged positioll n
also be done wilh one leg extended. Most of t hese are more demanding t I n
the cruss-Iegged versions because the hamslring mllscles that insert on le
extended leg will now be puJled taul, tugging on lhe ischial tllbcrosit) n
that same side and making it even more difficult tu sil straight than in le
c1assic half spinal twist shown in fig. 7.)0. The most common variatior If
lhis twist differs on ly slightly in kncc, shoulder, arm, and hand posil n
from the half spinal twist wh ich introduced this series. For this one (n 1-
ber five in the series) sit straight with the right leg stretched forward c' d
the left knee upright, but instead of placing the len foot on the floor on e
ml.--dial side of t he right thigh, ift the left [oot and bring il a H the \\ ,y
across to lhe right. <lateral> side of the righl lhigh. Now instcad of hookl g
the len kne with the right forearm, as in t.he case ofthe introduclory po:
Figure 7.28. To sludy the mportant
half spinal twists, it is helpful for
novices lo procced in stages. After
pulling in the right heel in loward
the upp er left lhigh. place the left
foot in front of the right leg and
pull the left knee toward the chest
with the right hand and forearm.
Excepl for the prying effect on the
left hip [oint, this is a pure sitting
twist and is an excellent pose for
beginners. They nced not go to the
next stage until Ihey are ready.
Repeal on the other side.
Figure 7.29. Next, lift the left foot
and place it on the right side uf
the right thigh. Pull both feel in
as close as possible, the righl
heel toward the groin and the left
foot toward the lateral aspect of
the right hipoOnce the feel are in
position, again pull the left knee
closer to the chest with the fore-
arm, and notice that thls pose is
more demanding of flexibility
lhan the firsl one shown in fig.
7.28.Again, one need nol go
further. Repeat on the olh er side.
Figure 7.30. las!. for Ihe
slandard half spinal twisl,
place the back of lhe righl arm
fron! of lhe leH knee to
mercase the prying cftect on
Jefl hip joinL Grasp Ule
nght foot, lhe right knee (as
shown here), or the left foot
with lhe right hand. For many
this is a compl ex and
dlfflcult poslure lhat combines
a pry and forward bending
Wlth a spinal twist. Repeat on
lhe other sirle.
7. nl'l.H7IW; I'U,\"11!RE' 4.11
4.\2 AN,lnM/I ()f-'IIA771A HJGA 711/.\ usa PO.m'RES 43.l
twist more fully to the left and bring the back of the right arm against the
left thigh and catch either th e right knee 01' the left foot with the right
hand to accentuate the twist. The left hand again braces the posture from
behind (fg. 7.JI>' 'I'his posture is identical to the leaned-back twist (the one
that introduced the half spinal twists) except that here you are sitting
straighter and starting with the pulled-in foot on the lateral rather than
the medial side of the opposite knee, which insures that the back of your
arm will be more effective in pressing the upright thigh against your tore
As before, sit on a pillow to moderatc the posture if you are not Ilcxbh
enough to feel graceul in it, and as always, repeat on the other side.
If you have sufficient Ilexib lity in your hips, spine, and shoulders, yo
can pull yourself into more complete twists by catching your hands togeth r
behind the back. You can start cross-legged 01' with one leg outstretchr-
but in either case you will have to pul! the upright thigh and leg in closs
enough to place the foot Ilat on the floor on the lateral side of the oppos.
knee. Try it first cross-Iegged (number six in this series). Draw the left ht I
in and place the right ankle to the left (lateral) side of the left knee. Tw t
to the right and pull the right knee close to the chest . Then, twist.ing e
more lo the right, anchor the back of the left arm and shoulder against t e
right knec, reach with the left hand between the right thigh and leg (fn n
the Iront) to catch the right hand, which is reaching around from behii l.
Clasp the wrists 01' fingers together (Iig. 7.J2). Unless you are quite Ilex le
you wil! probably have lo lean orward to sorne extent. In any case, in 1'-
locking the hands requires excel!ent flexibility in the right hip jI I it ,
Otherwise you will have to lift the right hip off the floor and try to bah ce
on the left hipoThat is not an unthinkable compromise in spinal twi st m
which you are able to brace the right hand against the floor, but it w- ,' t
work here bccause the right hand is interlocked with the left anl no
longer available to keep your halance.
This posture is excellent for working with hip flexibility, but it should be
approached with respcct. If you have to bend forward excessively, lift the
hip off th e Iloor, and struggle to get your hands interlocked, you may let
your attention lapse from the posture as a whole and overlook vulnerabilities
that leave you exposed lo injury.
BREATHING ISSUES
In chapter 2 we discussed the four modes of breathing: abdominal,
diaphragmatic, thoracie, and paradoxical, Twisting the torso constricts
abdominal breathing because it makes the lower abdominal wall taut and
prevents its expansiono Under ordinary circurnstances this facilitates
diaphragmatic breathing, in which the deseent of the dome of the
diaphragm lifts the rib cage, but that also is limited bccause thoracie twisting
keeps the upper abdomen taut as well, which in turn Iirnits flaring of the
base of the rib cage. 'I'he twi st in the thorax even limits the ability to lift
the chest for thoracic breathing, So where does this leave us? If you come
into a simple eross-Iegged spinal twist, you can feel restrictions in breathing
everywhere, but al th e same t ime you will notice small respiratory rnove-
ments throughout the torso: sorne in the lower abdomen (abdominal , 01'
abdomino-diaphragmatic br oathing), sorne flaring of the rib cage
(diaphragmatic, 01' thoraco-diaphragmatic breathing), and sorne lifting of
the rib cage (thoracic breathing). The one mode ofbreathing you'lI not see
is paradoxical breathing, and thi s makes spinal twi st s a special blessing for
anyone trying to break that habit.
In the more complex twi sting posturas, the relationship of the thigh to
the torso adds another compI ication. If your posture presses th e thigh
against the lower abdomen, abdominal breathing is restrictcd. And if the
thigh is pressed strongly against both the abdomen and lhe chest, YOll can
Figure 7.32. lhe fullesl expression
?fIhe half spinal Iwist recuires
IOterlocking your hands togelher
behind your back. This posture can
be aUempled by intermediale level
students, but il will nol be very
r ~ w r i n g until you have enough
hlp f1exibilily lo sit uprighl without
havinglo push the posture slraight
with Ihe rear hand. like all versions
?fthe half spinal twists, this one
Il11proves hip f1cxibilily but appears
awkward unlil good progress
loward Ihal end has bcen made.
Figure 7.31. Anolher
variely of the half spinal
Iwisl keeps one knee
eXlended, which again
brings Ihe hamstring
muscles of Ihal side to
your altenlion. lhis
pose recuiressomc
spinal lcxion of all bul
Ihe most f1cxible
sludenB. You can push
strongly with the rear
hand lo improve
hamslring f1cxibility.
only breathe by lifting the chest for thoracic breathing. Finally, thi s pressure
on the abdominal wall frequentIy causes a slowing of inhalation and short
bursts of exhalation. These adjustments in breathing cannot be helped:
the postures demand them. They can only be watched and minimi zcd.
THE FULL SPINAL TWIST
When you are able to do the half spinal twi st, catchi ng the hands gr acefulf
and comfortably behind your back, and at the sarne time sit t ing straigh
and kecping the ischial tuberosities Ilat on the floor, you wiII be able t
approach the quintessential sitti ng spinal twi st-malsyendrasana, th
famous spinal twist done from the Iull lotu s posi l ion. Fewpeople who gro
up sitting in chairs will have enough flexibility to get into it, and even f(
them years ofpreparation may be necded. The more demanding variatioi "
of the half spinal twi st are obvious requiremen ts, as are the half lotus, t I P
full lotus, a nd any 01' all of the dozens of exercises that increase h p
flexibility (chapter 6) .
Ifyou can do the IOtU8 posture (fig. 10 .15) cornfortably, and if you can ,t
st raght in th e half spinal twist without resorting to forward and late rl
flexion, you can begin to work with another preparatory posture-t le
spinal twist in the half lotus. Start with the left foot pullcd up to the to lf
the right thigh so the heel is pressed into th e abdomen . Then ra ise I e
right knec and draw the right Ioot in toward the perineum (holding le
foot nat on th o floor in front of the pelvis ), all th e while keeping the back
straight. Raising the right knee is pr obably what you wiII not be able t o do.
Here is where working with a half lotus modification of the l rapezius
stretch in chapter 9 (Iig. 9. 17bl will help.
When you are able to come into thi. position convi ncingly, twist right
from th e hips lo t he head, kecping the right t high nea r th e torso, bringing
the loft elbow agai nst the lateral side of t he r ight knee, and catching the
hands together near th e left foot (fig, 7.33al. Work equally on both sides, 01'
favor the si de which is more probl ematic. You should wor k wi t h this
posture until you are able to remain comfortable in it whi le you are kecping
lile spi ne st raight .
Only when you are comfortable in th e fulJ lotus and can do the spinal
twist in th e hal f lotus is it time lo t ry the fulJ posture. Again place t he left
foot on top of the ri ght thi gh, but now swin g the right foot over th e lell
knee and plant it on the floor lateral to th e lell thi gh and pulled in as much
as possibl e. Twist lo the right, looking back . You can use une of t wo hand
positions depending on your flexibil ity: simply dropping them whe re they
fal! naturally, 0 1' reaching with t he len hand bet ween th e right Icg and
thigh lo catch the ri ght hand behi nd the back (fig. 7-, Ub). As with al! twist ing
postures, repeat on thc other side.
BENEFIT5
.. 7 f"tla i J a tfItN/I'tl lb'" rr h i'wJc. .Y J h,,,,,(//(to/,
n.bou/ llr hr:wJe. h"Jli'W ('(l/M""I ti'r I //.c /&,,/1/'(/11.
/aN} l o hk/Mr hOlL.fe NJtp ';'vkJ o/(dmodlu '. .{-,d Ih n/ rJ
tO"I,ra. ,J'l, ?:ah.'ll n ?IJt J Jlt:'u h IOlPI/i'p " J' Y "'Y'//Ir
na/t&. lan/ro 1' '1117/';;'.1 ,fI0 N lo eJ/u/':/ lf"'6 I//'t/ .IU/ ' / 'U ' /<
/. //' "
rrnr/(f/ 1/1j/"'N/'Jr 1
- l3aha, July 17 , 2000 (l ransla le<.! by D. C. Raol.
Twisting postures in hath a yoga complcment forward and backward bcnding
by exercising muscles in more cornpl ex ways than is accomplished by th e
symmetri cal movernents of Ilexion an d exte nsion alone, an d in sorne cases
they exercise muscles that are highly specialized for twisti ng. Beyond that ,
the axial cornpressiun of the spine and ot hcr st ructures of t he torso
improves nutrit ion to t he intervertebra l disks and squec zes blood out of
the internal organs of the abdomen and pelvis, thus impro ing circulation
in the great suppor tive syste rns of th e body. For these reasons, twisting
posturcs are essential for a compl ete practice an d mu st always be included
in any bal anced program of hatha yoga .
ure
b.
a.
Figure 7.33. l he full spina! lwist (b) its most immediale preparatory po
(a) are among lhe most d.fficull poses In halha yoga. lo do the preparalo
n
pose. co me into the half lotus (Iefl fool pulled lo lhe lop of Ihe righl lhi ghl nd
lhen Iifl lhe right knee and pull Ihe righl fool in loward Ihe perineum (a). T,
come into the full spinal Iwist. go from lhe preliminary pose and place t h
fool on the floor on lhe lefl side of th leH knee. lwist to the righl, 10okinJ!
back, and catch Ihe hands, inlerlocking the fingers behind Ihe back (b).
CHAPTER EIGHT
THE HEADSTAND
",Y!J;JhaJl'//Ir ", /j nJ//1t a IUNl o /I ec/m : //!111/t7t/
lo O.dr1ualc(y t'k.Jrnlr Ilj /.:/Nj2cia/ n JallJ am/#dJ. J
IIIJ sdJa/ 1r/ alo//<', Ile I,,rrU/I rlm dVI/' /llul{1f o/.;/)'tVla l//td
lI' oorl A a ac/ f7'pm/t.1l lhbre o/?/'OII"'/y rN/L/ r.6-afP} INI.
ah//lda/lce r/' //'-'r'll ;'rwI Ilo" Fr/j1. "& /11l'ty i/lo-eaJe.1
N'calltJl:J, 1//{111tf1/ltfN'.1
t''l'7'Necialr Ila .t V f7/ I f7. .AtJ karlJ 11' ///I/un//'
ardJI7.'11IN$i 19' I/JCf:. 1;" #d; //C(.'J }IUY
- Swami Sivananda, in Yoga Asanas, pp. 1, - 16.
be "stood on your head" is to be surprised and shocked, and t hi s is t he
essence ofthe headstand-turning the world topsy-turvey and adjusti ng to
being upended. To launch this jolt Lo our spiri t, we balance on the top of a
spheroidal surface-the cranium-which can be likened Lo balnncing the
pointed en d of an egg un a button. The headstand not only inverts our
vision of t he world, it inverts the pattorn of blood pressure in the body-
increasi ng it in the head and dropping it to practicaIly nothing in the Ieet.
And because the increase in blood pressure in the head may he the Ilrst
deciding ingredient in whether or not it is prudent lo try the headstand,
we'lI begin with a discussion of the cardiovascular systern. Most of the rest
of the chapter focuses on the museuloskeletal anatomy of the headstand
and related pos tures: t wo techniques for doing t he headstand and how euch
of lhem affects the neck and body; the anatomy of t he upper extremities
and methods for devcloping the strengt h needed for corning into the headstand
safely; correctinn of front-to-back imbalances; breathing adaptations for
inverted postures in general and the headsta nd in particular: a nd cornbining
the headstand with backbending, Iorward bending, and twisting. Finally we'll
examine the question of how long one can remain in thc posture.
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
When you stand on your head th e first thing you red is prcssure-s-pressure
on lop of t he head, pressure in th arteries and veins, and pr-essur'e in the
bof'l tissues of the head and nec k. And along with these comes more subtle
4,111 M"l '/UIII or l/AUlA 1U(.A H. IUE 4.\11
aspects of pressure-the demand for maintaining your balance and tlu-
psychological urge to come out 01" the posture. These physical and psycho
logical pressures affect every systcm in the body in one way or another
musculoskeletal, nervuus, endocrine, circulatory, respiratory, digestivr
urinary, immune, and reproductivo. We'll concentrate here on the mo
obvious one, which is circulation.
The heart pumps blood through two sequential circuits-s-pulmona
and systemic-from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the k L
atrium in t he pu[muIIOIY circulation , and then from the left ventricle to t
body and hack to the right atrium in the systemic circulation, In t
pulmonary circulation hlood picks up oxygen in the lungs and releas s
carb n dioxide; in the systernic eirculation hlood picks up carbon diox e
from the tissues of the body and releases oxygcn. The flow 01' bl00d s
unidircctional-from right atrium lo right ventricle, lo pulmonary aru y,
lungs, pulmonary vein, Icll. atriurn, let ventricle, aorta, body as a WI H
veins, and back to the right atrium-around and around continuously f.' m
birth to death (fig. 2.1).
Each circuit contains arteries, capillaries, and veins, The pulmoru 'y
circulation lo the lungs is a loui-pressure (22/tI> mm Hg), low-resistance cin it ;
the systemic circulation lo the body is a high-pressure (12oillo mm 1
high-resistance circuit. They are both affected by inverted postures , ut
we'll concent.rate on the systernic circulation firat because rnost of ur
interest is in how the headstand affeets the body as a whole.
propelled successively through the aorta to large arteries, medium-sized
ar ter ies, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins, and blood pressure
decreases from scgment to segment. Within t he heart itself-in the left
ventrid systolic blood pressure is 120 mm Hg and diastolic pressure is a
mere JO mm Hg, becauso the latter drops almost to nothing whi le t he
ventricle is filling with blood. The textbook standard of blood pressure is
120/ 110 mm Hg between the aorta and smaU arteries, and beyond the
arterioles in the capillary bed it drops to about 15 mm Hg. On the venous
side of the systcmic circulation, blood pressure continues to drop in the
venules and veins, and it is essentially O in the vena cava where that
vessel opcns into the right atrium of the heart (fig. R.I),
BloOO pressure in medium-sizod arteries depends both on the heart acting
as a pump and on peripheral resistance. The importance of tho pump is
obvious: a harder-working heart creates more pressure in the systern. But
the r esi stance lo flow in the arteriolcs is just as important: as pcripheral
resis tance increases, blood pressure in the arterias also increases, There
are ma ny neurological, hormonal. and other physiological Iact ors t hat
influence the heartheat and peripheral resistance, but they are beyond the
scope 01'this book: here we'll note only that a ny time you become especialIy
act ive or anxious, the syrnpathetic nervous system and hormones Irom t he
adrenal gland increase blood pressure by increasing both peripheral resist-
ance and the strength and rate 01'the heartbeat,
rre
lO.
figure 8.1. This graph shows
' es
blood pressure in different
parts of Ihe systemic circulation
I/'Y
at heart leve!. The cuntinuous 120
01' curves in the portions of the
nst
graph for large arteries, small
IJIy
arleries. and arlerioles 100
represent variations in systolic

i ng ttop) and diastolic (bottom)
Ol
j .nut bloud pressure, and Ihe dashed :I: 80
curve in the same regions E
represent s averages 01'
E
t he
S
60
example, aboul100 mm Hg in Q)
\
'"
left la.rge arteries). Systolic and
:;
'"
c:
'"
.!!? Qj
'ord
d1ast olic pressures are no
'"
> Q)
longer det ected separately in
a
40
'"
a.
Cii
'" E
mili
capillaries and veins, and blood
Q) Q)
r3

-c
'"
Q)
'"
ure pressure drop essentially lo O
r r Q)
""
20
ro ro
Q
IllmHg whe re Ihe vena cava Q)
Iy ti
Ol
Cii ;
nto the righl alrium

E 1::
1'--
d is
(Oodd), '"
ro
O
BlOOO PR ESSUR E ANO FlOW IN THE S YSTE MIC CIRCUl ATlON
Any lime somcone says they have a blood pressure problem, what the:
talking about is bloOO pressure in the arteries ofthcir systemit.: circulal
Like at-mosphcric pressure, alveolar gas pressures, and blood g
(cha pt e r 2), blood pressure is measured in millimeters 01' me r o
(mm JIgl. When we say, "Normal blood pressure is 120 over Ha mm Hg
more simply 120/80, we are referring to the pressure of the blood ag
lhe inncl' walIs of medium-sizcd arteries of the systcmic circulation, u
measw'ed in t-he arm when we are either silting quietiy in a chair 01'
down (fig. 8.1). As pressures go these are low-the equivalent to
:>. pounds per square inch 01'air pressure in the tir'es ol' your cal'.
The two figures are significant. The blood pressure in an art.ery (
arm rises to 120 mm IIg as the heart pumps blood from its contractir
ventric1e; this is the systolic pressllre, which is named afier the Greck
menning "contraclion." Bctween contradions the pressul'e drops to f;
Hg as the len venlric1e fills; thi i ' the dias/o//(: pressure, 01' the pr(
between contradions. Blood pressure in nn artery 01' the arm il' e
small part of a bigger picture, however. From the lefl ventride, bll
.H O A.... A7VM) 0/-1/,1'I71A )()(,I1
Blood pressure also varios in different parts of the body. It increas.
below the heart and decreases aboye the heart because the weight of
column of blood in an artery adds lo (or subtracts Irom) the pressu
generated by the heart and by pcripheral resistance. I n a standing positi r
with blood pressure in medium-sized arteries at l2o/Xo mm Hg at hea l
leveJ, blood pressure will be about 210/170 mm Hg in the arteries ofthe f( t
and about 100/60 mm Hg in the brain (fig. 8.28). The only circumstanc s
under which we'Il see blood pressure equalized throughout the body t
120/80 mm Hg is if we neutralize the effect of gravity by Iying prone r
supine, by subrnerging ourselves in water, 01' by taking up residence ir a
space capsule that is orbiting earth.
Tuming upside down in the headstand reversos the figures seen standi g
in a straightforward fashion. Blood pressure will rernain at 120/80 at he t
lcvel, at least if you are not under too much stress, but the pressure in le
arrn wiII rise to about 140/100 mm Hg because the arm is alongside the h/ Id
and below the heart instead of level with it. We can calculate that bk 1()
100/60 mm Hg ---__....
40/0 mm Hg ..
120/80 mm Hg ___
(average 01
100 mm Hg)
Ii 171I; 4-11
pressure will only be about 40/0 mm Hg in the feet , with diastolic hlood
pressure dropping lo zero, and with the systolic blood pressure of 40 mm
Hg barely sufficing to perfuse the capillaries. Even then it's marginal,
which is why your feet may "go lo sleep" and get pins-and-needles scnsations
if you remain in the headstand for a long time.
We can ealculate that blood pressure at the top of the head increases
from 100/60 mm Hg in a standing position to 1'i0/ 110 mm Hg in the head-
stand (fig. X.2b), or even higher ifyou are not confident ofthe posture. The
heads ta nd is therefore contraindicatcd for anyone who has abnormally
high blood pressure for the simplest of reasons: the posture can increase
blood pressure in the brain to dangerous levels-perhaps weII above 150/1 10
mm Hg. Conservative mcdical opinion also recommends that you avoid the
haadstand even if high blood pressure is brought to a normal level with
rnedicat ion.
As important as hlood pressure is , we cari't understand the cardio-
vascular" responses to Inverted poslures without abo considering the low
of blood t hrough the sysLem-both bulk flow through the major scgments
of t he system and the rate of flow though spec fic vesscls. Since it's a one-
way circuit , the sarne volurne of blood per unit of time (about 'i liters per
minute at restl has to Ilow through each segrnent of the cardiovascular system,
And t here is also the question of rate of Ilow through individual arteries,
eapillaries, and veins, Just as a river carries water sluggishly where the
river is wide, and briskly where it is constraincd by tubes and by turbines
tha t generate electricity, so does the rate of flow vary in the vascular systern.
Tho low is speediest through arteriolas, where it is choked off the rno t as
well. It is slowest in tho capillaries, and it flows at an intermediate rate
t hrough the veins, which carry hlood back to the heart,
120/80 mm Hg
210/170 mm Hg
Figure 8.2a. Arterial blood pressure
in a standing posture in muscular
arteries in different parts of the body.
140/100 mm Hg ____
150/110 mm Hg --- __":;::l1lI'
(average 01130 mm Hg)
Figure a.lb. Calculated a rte rial bloo
pressure in the headstand in muscul. r
arteries in different pa rls of the bod
THE VENOUS RET URN
If tbe capillary beds and veins were static tubos with fixed diameters, blood
would stream from the arterioles into the capillaries, pour from the
capilIaries into the veins, and be pushed all the way back lo the heart by
ar terial pressure. But this is not the way the systern operatos. The capil-
laries and veins are expandable: t.hey could easily accommodate all the
blood in the body. And this can cl'cate a serious problem becallse within
certain limits the amount of blood brought to the hcart per minute (the
relurn) regulates the volume of blood pumped by the heart per
lTllnute (the cardiac outpu/). Here is what happens: As venous returo
increases, lhe additional blood stretehes the waUs of lhe ventricles, and
when that happens, the strctchl.'<l muscle fibers in the vcntric1es auto-
lI1at ical ly pump more strongly, thus increa..<;ing cardiac output; a..c venous
rel ur n decreases, the ventricles pump less vigorously, thus decreasing
4 ,12 tl"A rostv Uf' /lA 17lA ) OCA H. 1/1/ /l1'llJ.\TAi\f) +l.l
Figure 8.3. Skelctal muscle pump for venous retum. On Ihe left the muscJe
conlracls, and blood can escape Ihis segment nf the vpin only by being push,
Ihrough the upper valve. On Ihe right, Ihe muscle rclaxes, and the upper vah
is c10sed by vcnous back-pressure. As skeletal muscles become active Ihrougl
out the hody, alternately conlracting and then relaxing. brood is pushed ba<k o
the heart mechanically (Doddl.
cardiac output, Therefore, the mechanisms for moving blood from capillari
venules, and veins back 1.0 the heart are critical. If too much blood star,
nates in those parts of the system, which can happen for many reason-
cardiac output decreases and the heart may not receive enough blood 1
pump tu the brain and other vital organs.
When we are in a normal upright posture, tho venous return from veir
located aboye the heart is unimpeded, and blood drops like a waterfall 1
the right atrium. And at heart level (in the middle segment of the arm, fe
exarnple) venous pressure is about. 15 mm Hg. Since this is more than U
O mm Hg where the blood enters the right atriurn, it is still pushed easr
back into the heart. The lower extremities are another story, however, al
to get blood back lo the heart from the Iect, al least in an upright post u
the venous ret.urn has to overcome a pressure of about. 140 mm Hg, wln 1
reflects the height. of a static column of venous blood below the heart,
The mechanism foro getting blood back lo the heart Irom the 10\\ r
extremities is beautiful in its simplicity and elegance. The veins below t
heart contain one-way valves, and contraction of t.he skeletal muse s
surrounding these valves acts as a "muscle pump" lo squeeze bk
through them and back toward the heart. When the muscles rclax, t e
valves close to prevent backflow, insuring that the flow is unidirecti o
(fg, /tJl. Drill instructors in the military may not. heaware ofthis meehanism,
but. they know that skeletal muscular activity is needed tu gel blood back
lo the heart, and that is why they instruct new recruits who are standing at
atlention on a hot day lo isornetrically contract and then relax the postural
muscles oftheir lower extrernities, which kecps them frorn fainting.
There are no valves in the head and neek: our upright posture has ren-
dered them irrelevant. But when you are standing upright, a pool of blood
eourses slowly through the veins in the lower half uf the body, waiting to
be pumped back toward the heart by muscular activit.y. And ir you are
chronically inactive, fluids move so sluggishly out of this region that the
processes of cellular nourishrncnt and elimination are comprornised. This
gravity-induced congest.ion can affeet any organ 01' tissue below the heart.
Lying down for a night's sleep helps correet the situation, but we still ofton
see the effects of gravity in chronieally swollen ankles, varicose veins, and
hemorrhoids. One rernedy is vigorous rnovement in which rnuscles alter-
nately contraer and rclax in order to propel blood through the venous
valves. And this is one reason nurses t.ry to get people up and about as soon
as possible after surgery and why health practitioners constantly preach
t.he benefits of exercise, Yoga teachers do not disagree, but suggest another
alternatv invertod postures,
What happcns specifically whcn you lurn upside down? In the first
rnoments ofthe headstand blood pools in the capiJlary beds and veins in the
rcgion of the body superior to the heart-in the head, neck, and shoul-
ders- where it is kept. unlil artcrial pressure fm'ces it back around lo thc
heart. And because lhere are no valves in lhe veins of Ihis region, skeJetal
muscle contraction cannot assisl it.s ret.urn. This is nul very important. if
you stay in the headstand only 2-5 minutes, but ifyou want. to extendyour
time in the poslurc it can bccome a pl"Oblcm. We'll come back to this issue
toward the end of t hc chapter,
ITechnic1 note: There are many ways lo afreel \"enous relurn. Withoul naming lhe
phenomenon, we looked in chapter 2 al lhe efTects of a Valsalva maTlclIver-holding
lhe breth and straining afler an inhalation-in conjunction with hyperventilation.
1t a1w sometimes happcns lhat X-ray technicians ask pl.ltients to hold their brealh
afier an inhalation in order to get a more elongalro (lnd I.lc<:urate profiJe of the
and ifthe palient. gets about thisaftcr locking lhe glottis. or
If lhe t.eehnician dawdles, lhe unintentioned Valsalva maneuver impedes lhe \"cnous
return. Ifyou hold Ihe bn'th in this manner al"ter a deep inhalat.ion, the pl"OliIe of
hearl in a rocntgeno(.,'Talll shrinks dralllalically, and afier \0-15 seconds, dcpcnd-
Jngon how purpo.;elyyou st.rain, the venous return is inhihiled enough to cause you
lo pa.<;s out. One would not ordinarily think of lrying the Valsalva Illaneu\"('r in the
and it's plainly inadvh;ble. It won 't re;ult in fainting bt.'Cause the
Inverted posture sends blood preferentially to the heud. huI. il. certainly muses a
shllrp and immediate riliC in blood pressure. This is fell. mostly prominently in the
face, where it is disagnoeable arthough probably not harmfur-but for th(' bmin and
for Ihe retina of the e)'e, look ouL iL is aB.-;urcdly dal1gerous.1
skelel
muse' n
a stal )1
relaxal .Jn
blood is pushed Ihrough Ihe upper valve
\he lendency
101 gravitylo
induce venous
backflowis
prevcnled by
valves
skelelal
musde in a
stale 01
contraclion
+14 A,\ATII,I/I (JI-" I M n l A IlXul
THE PULMONARY CIRCULATlON
The oxygenated blood that is pumped lo the body from t he left ventricl
will be cycled straight back to t he right side of t he heart, and from thei
the passage of blood into the pu lmonary circulation is like a slow-movii
tlood-s liters per minute lo the lungs. This pulmonary flow is the constar
companion to the systemic circulation-i-s liters per minute to the boc
Invert ed postures affoct the pulmonary circu lation very differentIy fn
the systemic circulation, and to unr lerstand how and why, we' lI need a {(-
more details.
l f blood pressure in the pulmonary circuit were l2o/So mm Hg, as it is
the systernic circulat ion, blood would porfuse t hrough al1 parts oft he IUIl
Iai rly equally, but pressure in th e pulmonary circuit is much lower- OI
22/t{ mm Hg-and because of t his the pull of gravity will markedly affi
the pulmonary flow and dist ribution of blood. As we discussed in chapter
if you are sitting al' standing quietly in an upright posture, the lower par e;
of t he lung are per fused with blood efficiently and t he upper parts of 1 e
lung are perfused sluggishly Although studics of pulmonary arterial pn.'8S1 e
relationships and blood flow in inverted yoga postures havo not be o
pu blished, it seems certain that th e patterns ofpressure and flow of'bk d
in t he lungs will be reversed, an d that inversion will cause the upper rat l r
than t he lower parts of t he lungs to be perfused with hlood rnost efficien v.
Deep breathing in the headstand (to be examined in detail later in 1 s
chapter) can remedy this because it ventilates the lungs generously from t p
to bottom and insu res that minor variations in circulation are insignilica
BARORECEPTORS
In chapter 2 we looked al oxygen-sensitive peripheraJ chemoreceptors in [ le
large that lead from the heart to lhe head . \Vealso have barorecept 'S
at lhose same for detecting blood pressure. lncreased blood 'e
in any post.ure slimulates the baroreeeptors, which in tum afTects both lin lS
of t he autonomic nervous syslem: it increases parasympathetic neJ'VI IS
system input to the heart, and it reduces sympathetic nervous syst -n
input lo bolh the heart and the arteriolcs-a1J of which to lower bll Id
This is called reflex and sorne people are especi, Iy
to its effects, possibly even expel; enci ng enough of a drop in bh ,d
pressllre to produce la inting from the pressure of a tight collar or fr n
mild preSSllre of someonc's hands against the neck.
'J'hese reactions are pcrtinent to this chapter fOl' several reasons. FI
of all, in the headstanrl, the baroreceplors are below instead of aboye I e
heart and wi ll be subject to, and stirnlllated by, incrcased blood presslIre If
you are cntirely comfortable in the headstand, the input ofthe baroreccptCl s
lo the centml nervoUl:; system will gcnerally pr oduce a lower heart l"are al 1
H. ttn: IIDlIJ.H"AI\() 4.1'i
blood pressure t.han what is assurned sirnply on the basis 01' fluid dynamics.
Second, if you have a general sensitivity to reflex hypotenson, you rnight
havo an exaggerated response in the headstand and shouId approach it
wit h caution and only after a lot of experimentation and preparation.
Third, someone who has slightly elevated blood pressure in an upright posture
might seo that drop when they come into a comlortablc headstand. Under
such conditions, we would expect blood pressure to become elevated again
upon standing. Last, if you are anxious and uncornfortable in the head-
stand, the accompanying mercase in activity of the sympathetic nervous
systern could stirnulate the heart, increase periphcral resistance, and el vate
blood pressure cxccssively, These possi bilities can only be checked out with
a blood pressure cuff. In any case, un less you have a medica! practitioner
who is willing to take responsibility for advising you, t he headstand is still
contraindicated if you have elevated blood pressure in upright postures.
THE RECOVERY
If you stand up quickly after coming out of the headstand, you \ViII feel a
surge of blood Ialling Irorn the veins in t he upper ha lf of the hody. This will
not hu rt someone in good healt h, hut conservativo rnedieal advice is to
reverse t hese pressure an d Ilow dynarnics more slowly. Sorne instructors
even recommen d relaxing for a shor t ti me in the corpse post ure (figs. 1.1.1
and 10,2) befare standi ng, Whether you stand up imrnediately 01' cautiously,
however, many aut horities recomrnend that you rernain upright, whether
st anding sti ll, doing standing postures, 01' walkng, for as long as you held
the hearlsta nd.
CARDI OVA SCUl AR BENEFITS OF THE HEADSTAND
The lit emture on hat ha Y0g'd waxes e10quent on the wonders of lhe head-
stand, KuvaJayananda maintains lhat the posture benefils the sJX-'Cial !:ieIl.-"eS,
the endocrine glands, and the digestive system, lo na me only a few, and
Sivananda, in his usual style, calls t he heads t.and "a panacea a cure-a.ll for all
diseases." Anyone who has had a lot of expcrienL'C with lhe headstand will
that it 's a marvelous posture, but it is not c1ear \Vhythis is. For a POl;-
sl?le an...e:wer, the most obvious place to look is the inverted circulatory system.
Flrst, it is plai n that when we are inverted, t he venous return frum lhe lower
ext remities is determined by the amount of blnod pumped through the capil.
lary beds, because once it gets into the venu le:; it is quick1y recireulated by the
fon:e 01' gravity. If you can remain in an inverted posture forJ'ust"\ - minutos
bl ' . . - -, ... ,
oodMil not only drain qUlckly to the heart from the lower extremities and
abdominal and pelvic organs, but tissue fIuids will fIow more efficicntly
Into t he veins and Iymph channels, and thi s will make 1'01' a healthier
exchange 01' nutT;cnts and wastes between cells liml capi llaries.
.1-16 ANA'IUMI OFIlA11lA IOGrl
Figure 8.4. Human skull, viewed from the front (on Ihe left) and from the side
(on the rightl. rol' the crown headstand Ihe weight of Ihe inverted body is
placed on lhe crown, the highest paint of Ihe cranium, and for lhe bregma
headsland lhe weight is placed on the bregma, which is located aboul an inch
in front of lhe crown al lhe interscction of lhe coronal and parietal sutures
(Sappey).
For the crown headstand we place the weight of the body directly on the
crown ofthe hendo which is the topmost point ofthe cranium. For the bregma
hcadstand we adjust the hand position slightJy forward so the weight ofthe
body is on a spot caIled the bregma, which is an inch or so in front of the
crown, at the meeting point of the sagittal and coronal sutures (fig. 8-4).
The sutures are fibrous joints: the sagiual suture links the two parietal
hones in the midsagittal plane of the body, and the coronal suture links the
two parietal bones to the {rontal bone. Intcrestingly, the site in the head of
a newborn baby where these two sutures have yet to meet and grow together
is the soft spot-the anterior fontanelle-seu the future bregrna.
bregma crown
mid-sagittal parietal suture
EX PLO RI NG THE TWO POSSlBILlTlES
Come into a lrneeling position on a wcll-padded carpet 01' folded blanket,
place the top of the head down, and brace it in the rear with the interlaced
fingers. The forearms should he at about an RoOanglo frorn one another.
Now gently roIl your head around and explore the possible spots on which
you could place your weight. Notice that as you roIl the forehead down,
bringing the nose toward the floor and extcnding the head and neck, you
tend to follow the rolling ofthe head with your interlaced fingers, and that
if you place weight on the crown you rnove your hands more to the real'. '1'0
further explore, lift up the hips and walk the feet forward, keeping the
It is also obvious that inversion increases blood pressure in tho head an c
neck, the regions of the body that are filled with the body's regulatorj
mechanisms: the brain's hypothalamus, which regulates the autonomi.
nervous system and pituitary gland; the pituitary gland, which regulato
many other endocrine glands; and the brain itself, which carries out al
aspects of mental unctioning. This region al so contains the special senso
that are so important in our interactions with the world: sight, heari n,
taste, smell, and the sense of equilihrium.
Considered in isolation, the significance ofthis increased blood pressur
in the head is uncertain, [fperipheral arteriolar resistance were to rema
constant when you come into a headstand, increased pressure would pu-
more blood per minute into the capillary beds, increasing local blood nI
but without data lo prove the point we cannot assurne that will happc
because the increase in blood pressure might well be accompanicd y
enough increased peripheral resistance lo keep blood llow the same. Wf'
know that mental exercises and aerobic activities such as running incre, -e
blood tlow to the brain, and if future research shows that the headsta .d
produces the same result, it might help explain the intense but subject e
celings of well-being that accompany this posture.
THE TWO HEAD5TAND5
Iryou were to watch a hundred hatha yoga teachers all doing the headsta d
at the same time, you would noticc that they were not all doing it the ss le
way Sorne would be perfectly vertical, their eyes directed along a path parallel
to the floor, lheir backs straight, and taking care lo be balanced on the t op of
lheir heads. The other group, probably a minority, would be more rel ai
their eyes directed to the Iloor; their lumbar regions arched, and their he ds
balanced on a point a litl1e more lo the Iront than those in the first gr our
These differenccs are lost on beginning students. When they irst t I' to
come into the headstand they are likely to be struggling, and one of he
symptoms of their exertion is that they tend to balance rnuch of their w ht
on their forearms with excess muscular tensi nin their arms and should -1'5.
Under those circumstances, where they position their heads against the r or
is not critical. But after gaining more experience and building up their t ne
in the posture beyond 1-2 minutes, they tire of supporting themselve so
rnuch with their upper extremities, and the question of where lo positio
n
he
head against the lloor becomes more important. Many teachers are pI ky
aOOutthis maltel; sorne saying that the weight must be placed directly on he
top of the head, anel others saying that the weight should be placed n .re
forward. Neither school ofthought is incOl'rect. There are two ways to du l e
headstand, and these yield such diffel'ent results that the two postu e S
warrant sepamlc name::;: lhe crown headsland and the bregma headslalll
.I4 R AI\117U I/ I 01' IIA 11M H }('A
knees bent as much as hamstring limitations require, and try di ITeren1
hand and head positions, supporting your weight only on the head and t hr
feet. Now sil up and fcel the top of the head. Sit perfeetIy straight anr
locate the highest point. This is the erown. Move the fingers forward abou
an ineh. This is on 01' near the bregma. Behind the erown the crani ui
immediately rounds.
[Technical nole: Noti ce that you prohably have a clear preference for how lo into
lace the fingers , both in the headstand and in da ily lite. You will automatical
place each of the fing ers 01' the right hand on lup 01' their counterparts on the le
hand, 01' vice versa. In the headstand you should make sure that you alternate ti
inlcrlacing, because always hulding the fingers th e sa me way will create sub!
imbalances.]
The next thing to do, especially if you are a beginner, is to Iind a sanr
beach 01' a spongy grass surfaee and practiee turning somersaults. Do a fi
child's sornersaults with the hands al the sidos of the head, and then
them with the Iingers laced behind the head and well lo the rear, Not
that you do not need to make many adjustments in the head position as y, II
roll overoThen try placing your weight on the erown. As you go into I e
somersault from this position you will find that you flex the head sligh: y
before you Ilip overo Finally, place your weight on the bregma. Now y- u
have to make a big adjustment in order to roll overo Youhave to either mo e
your hands and flex the head forward, thus shifting the point of contad u
the back of the head just before you 1'011 into the somersault, 01' you \ IJ
plop over backward instcad of 1"01Iing. In the latler case you wiII have 1 e
option of falling flat on your baek, which may not be eomfortahle even n
a sandy beaeh, 01' of quiekIy extending the hips and flexing the kneC!' IS
you slart to fall, thus breaking the fall wilh your fcet. The point of t h 'e
expel;ments is lo reduce your fear of the headstand by leaching you o
roll down out of the posture gracefully if and when the need arises.
When you start to experimenl with the headstand itsclf, it will beco le
obvious that your main eoncem is lhat you might tip over backward. El n
if practice sornersaults have removed your fear of tipping over to the l' Ir
when you have to, you will sti Il not do it by choice. So until you beCt e
conlident, don 't hesitate lo come part way up over and over again, F d
each time drop back forwal'd on your toe s th e same way you sta r t ed UI
THE CROWN HEADSTAND
Allhough either posture can be learned first , thc crown headsland is mI e
e1ementary and simplel' lo explaill lhan the breb"lTl8 headstand. So e\ n
though l hel'e is a grea ter tendency to somersauIt in lhe crown headstal 1,
lry this one first. 1'0 do il, come into the preparatory kneeling position a d
I.Idjust the f()I'earml:i at an !looangle from the c1asped hands. This is impo .1
heclluse if lhe forearml:i u'e placed at an obtuse angle (grcater than 90
8. 71fT; JlDW.\ TAM) 44,}
your weight will be distributed over a base that is too short from ront to baek
and the posture wiIl be unstable. And since the tendency lo fall to the sirle in
the headstand is not as great as the tendency lo fall forward 01' backward, a
long front-to-back base is more desrable than a wide sdo-to-side base. You
can approximato the correel angIe by placing thc elbows alongside the knees,
planting your head direetly on the erown, and braeing the interlocked fingers
just underneath the back of the head to maintain the position.
The headstand is best learned in four stages. '1'0 come into stage one, lift
the buttocks and start walking tho feet forward. Advaneed students who
are able to fold their chests down against their thighs with their knees
straight in the posterior stretch may want to keep their knees extended for
approaching this stage of the headstand (fig. 1(5), but rnost people wiII not
have long enough harnstrings lo allow this. So flexing the knees as necessary,
waIk toward your head, then tiptoe. Keep coming untilless than 5%of vour
weight is still supported by the feet, Your back is prohably rounded, you are
close to the point of tipping over, almost no weight is on the elbows, and the
nudge from the big loes could Iifl you off (fi g, S.a). This is stage one,
an inverted posture that is worth practicing in it s own right-a forward
bend with an inverted torso.
Going from stage one to stage two is difficult because now the hips have
lo be raised, the back has to become flattened, and the feet have to be liJl..ed
oITthe floor-all while the lower extremities are positioned weIl to the flon1.
of your future axis rOl' balaneing. It is a problem comparethle to standing up
and reaching furward at shoulder height to lift a weight straight up. In that
case a light weight would be diflicult lo lifl because of your pOOl'
mechamcal advantage. Here, when you are {,"Oing from st.age one to stage
two, aH of the burden is on your back and forearms. During the course of
lhis transit the lumbar region wiII be rounded, much of the weight. of the
lower extremities will be to thc front uf the abdomcn, and you will have to
support lhe posture with the forearms as you are eoming up. Fortunately,
Figure 8.5. 51age one of
the headsland wilh Ihe
knees straight. This is a
uscful slarling position for
Ihose who have excellcnl
hip f1exibility and lenglhy
hamslrings, bul
IrTl possible (01' those who
do not.
ANA1DM I O/'-IIA111A HIGA
the situation is only temporary. When you linally sett le into a relatively stah
position in stage two, the lumbar region will be flatter, and depending
your hip flexibi Jity, the thighs will end up al a 4S-t)Oo angle from the pelv
(that is, flexed 90-135; fig. 8.6bJ.
POOl' hip Ilexibility is the main obstacle when you are going frorn sta
one to stage two. With the toes barely on the floor and the knees parta!
extended in stage one, short harnstring muscles keep tensi n on the pelv
and keep the back rounded posteriorly, and this prevents you from eas '1
distributing the main bulk of your body weight above the head. 'I'he h s
flexible the hips, the more weight you will have to support on the forear s
as you lift the feeL If you are quite strong this may not be a problem, 1 rt
the average st udent will find it the most serious challenge to leaming t lo
the headstand in stages.
In stage three you extend the hips, lift ng the knecs toward the ceil ,g
while keeping them floxed. This is easy. As you extend the thighs le
weight of the Ieet and legs shifts to the rear, and the lumbar regin arel -s
forward enough to maintain your balance Oigo8.6c).
/'l. "I11r 1I1i. I/J.\ r A .. vn
The four th and last, step is to extend the knees, As you do thi s, the lumbar
region will flatten as necessary to compensate for the fact that the feet and
legs are now in Iine with the torso and thighs. You will gradually shift your
weight. off t.he forearms and balance on your head as you develop confi-
dence in th e final posturo (fig. 8.6d).
Summarizing tbe tour stages, frst come inlo the preparatory position and
walk forward until you are prepared to lift off without losing your balance;
second, lift the feet and extcnd the back enough lo bring the thighs to a
45-t)
O
anglc from the pelvis; third, extend the thighs while keeping the
knees flexed and notice how this produces a pronounced lumbar a rch:
fourth, extend the legs whi le noticing that the lumbar a rch decreases, and
balance as much of your weight on the head as feels secure.
Figure 8.6a . Stage one of the
headstand with the knees bent, a
mo re realistic starting position for
the average student. Keep walk ing
your toes forward until you are
almost ready to tip overoAt this
point only a slight nudgc would
cause you lo somersault onto
your back.
Figure 8.6h. Stage two of the
headstand. This is a difficull
stage lo remain in for any lenglh
of time, because the weight of
your lower exlremilies has to be
supporled by your decp back
muscles.
Figure 8.6e. Stage three of the head-
stand with the hips extended is verv
and you can stay in it as easilv
as .n Ihe headstand itself, Notice,
huwever, that the flexed knee
PoSilion drops Ihe feel lo the rear;
and that keeping your balance will
require a more prominent lumbar
lord usis than stage four. Wearing
ankle weights or heavy shoes will
OIake this plain.
Figure 8.6d. Stage four uf Ihe crown
headsland with the knees extended is a
balancing poslure wilh only a little
extra weighl on the elbows. Shifling
more weght lo the for -arrns can
be accomplished conveniently only by
thrusting the pelvis forward and Ihe
fee l to Ihe rear; Ihus increasing the
lumbar curve.
-152 ASA7V.1Il 01' IIA"fll/l HIGA H. nlf:"/IL1/hTA,\V 45.l
Most hatha yoga teachers rccornmend corning up into the headstand i
sta ges because t hey knuw that by doing thi s students wilJ master each str ,
in sequence and maintain control throughout the process . But if you hav
tried this for sorne time and are Iru strated because you are not rnakit
progresa, there is an altcrnative. Walk the feet forward as much as you ca
and then simply lift one foot int o the air al a lime, coming into stage thr
with the hips extended and the knees flexed . From th ere it is easy lo COI
into the final posture.
Even if you come up into the headstand one fool al a time you can st 1I
work on coming down in stages, Notice how your weight shitts when y u
flex the knees for stage three, Next, as you Ilex th e hips for stage t v J,
notice that your weight shifts forward as the knees come lo the front . d
that you have tu place extra weight on the forearms or lose your bal an e.
At t his point you may drop quickly to the floor, It takes a strong back to
stop coming down and keep your balance when the t highs are flcxed . 11
as soun as you are able lo go back and forth between stages three and t o,
and even more obviously between stages t wo and une, you will have al l le
strength you need lo come into the headstand using t his four-j rt
sequence. These efTorts are particularly irnportant for the many begi rn rs
who, without sorne preliminary coaching, willlend to come up tippy all he
way, maintaining a shaky balance frorn beginning lo end.
Finally, after you have had ayear 01' two of experience with th e ht Id-
sta nd, try the four stages of the posture wearing heavy shoes 01' light ar le
weights. 'fhis will show you c1carly how shi fl ing the pelvis and lo er
extremilics in stages two, three, and four afTects your balance.
question in the students mind that they ought not complete even stage
one, rnuch less continue bcyond that,
Most teachers a lso suggest that the headst.and not be done during
menslruation. Chronic 01' acute neck pain, excess weight , ami osteoporosis
are other obvious contraindicat ions, as are glaucoma and other eye problerns.
We' lI discuss the headstand in rclation to right-to-lefl mu sculoskeletal
imbalances later in th is chapter,
THE 5 TRUC TURE OF TH E NE CK
Many teachers favor the crown headstand, feeling that placing the weight
furt her forward creates hyperextension and strain in th e neck. Others
c1aim that this is erroneous, that placing the weigh t forward need not have
adverso efTects on the neck at al!. '1'0explore the subtle difTerences between
the two postures, and tu decide which is most suitable for your own personal
practico, we must look more closely at the structure of the neck .
The neck is differcnl from the rest of the vertebral colurnn in several
ways: it permits extensive twisting as well as forward, backward, and side
bending; it contai ns on ly synovial joints between t he skull and C2 (figs. 4.8,
410, 4 13a, and 7-1-2); it ordinarily supports only the head; and its vertebral
bodies and inlervertebral disks are relatively small. These Ieatures might
tu
\t;e
or
Figure 8.7. The bregma
headsland is characterized
by having Ihe hands a little
rnore undemealh the head
Ihan for Ihe crown head-
sland, and this rolales the
atlas (and with the atlas
lhe resl of the bodyl on
Ihe craniurn just enough
lo place Ihe weight of lhe
bOdy about an inch in
front of lhe crown al lhe
bregma, Ihe inlersecl ion
poinl of the parielal and
Coronal sulures. This
po lure also pilches Ihe
forward. and one
wllI have to arch the
region more Ihan
111 Ihe case of Ihe crown
headsl and to remain
balanced.
up
it.
You come into the bregma headstand in the same four st ages you u '
lhe crown headstand, but thi s ver sion is easier for many st udents bec'
the head is more firmly supported. Plant. )'our head on the bre{,'111a an
you!' interlocked fingen:; underneath th e head rather than posterior I
From this position it is easy to lhrust lhe upper back posteriorly as ou
walk the feet forward into st age one. There will be little lendenc
somers ault . And after you have learncd lhe bregrna headstand (fig. 7),
you may find it lo be more swble than the crown head sland.
THE BREGMA HEAD5TAND
CONTRAI NDI CATIONS
Wc have already discussed why tIJe headstand is contraindicated for t I se
who havc elevated blood pressure. 'rhey usually become aware of discon nrt
as soon as they place the top ofther head against the noor in preparatior u f
stuge one. And if the instructor has Pl'Operly cautioned everyone aga 1st
doing any poslure which causes unusual discomfort, thel'e will nol be ny
.H I1I\A7Tl.1I1 (JI' IlAHIA I ()(;'
lead an unbiased observer tu cautiun againsl duing the headstand at al
And yet, we know that t.he posture is perfectly safe for those who al
adequately prepared for it.
What is it , then, that allows the cervical spine of the well-prepared al
average healthy person to bear the weight of the inverted body? Our fir
guess might be that the vertebral bodies and intervertebral disks supp
our weight by acting as a stack of building blocks. That point of view, Ir 1
classical anatomy as it was understood until the mid-twentieth century,
now recognized as incomplete. The modern view is that in a healthy pers/ n
without disk degenel'ation. it is the entire complex of vertebral bo \
intervertebral disks, vertebral arches, joints, muscles, and connect e
tissue restraints that is responsible for bearing the weight of the body n
that light, the relatively small size of the cervical vertebral bodi cs . d
intervertebral disks does not seern so critical, especially since the vertel 11
column as a whole in this regin has considerable breadth (fig. 4.lH.
To become aware of the total width of the cervical vertebrae, locat e le
lower real' curners of the mandible (the lowcr jaw) with your index fingi s,
find the rnastoid processes just underneath the ears, and press d Iy
enough to find a bony point on each sido between the mastoid process ld
the corner of the mandible. 'I'his is probably painful. The buny protuben ce
is the tip ofthe transverse process of Ci (chapters 4 aO(17), and that' s I /w
wide the vertebral column is at that site. Watch yoursclf in a mirror as IU
locate both uf these pnints, and you '11 sce that Ct is almost as wide al' le
neck (also refer to the drawing from the roentgenograms in fig. 1'0 .
Moving inferiorly, the transversc processes of C2 and below do not ext nd
as far laterally as those fuI' Cl, but it 's still impressive to feel how widl he
vertebral column is in this region. 'rhe architecture of the cervical Sp l is
more lhan capable of safely suppor ti ng the headst<md.
As far as hyperextending the neck is concerned, remember from ch ter
7 that we can extend lhe head almost 20
0
by rotaling the skull on th e IlIS
alone, and that we can do this without extending the spine between e nd
TI. In the bregma headstand, that 20
0
is more thHn enough to allow to
balance without additional bending in the cervical region (fig. 8.7) UJ
someone is ignOl;ng signa's such as chmnic pain and discomfort, WOI ies
about the neck's ability to withsland the stress orthe hcadstand are Ul:-. Illy
misplaced.
THE CROWN VS. THE BREGMA HEAOSTANO
The cruwn headstand is associated with a certain poise; the bregma r d-
ud
nd
stand is associated with a cerlain zip. And the whole b y scems to res)
differently to the twu postures. The natural responl:'e to the crown h, Id-
stand is to hold the body straight, to keep the lower back flat, and to IOk
straight ahead (fi g, H,6d). 'I'he sacroi liac joints will be in a neutral position
bctwccn nutation and counternutation, or will be favoring counternutation.
In the bregma headstand it is more natural lo permit the lower back lo
relax and arch forward, allowing gravity to increase the lumbar lordosis
(fig, 8.7) and lo slip the sacroiliac joints into maximum nutation. The head
and neck are slightly extended, and if you look straight ahead your eyes are
dirccted toward the floor at a point several inches away from the head. You
can also feel the extensin 01' the head on the atlas that is so easily misin-
terpreted as extension of the neck betwcen C2 and TI.
The bregma headstand has a more dynamic effect on your consciousness
than the crown headstand, Its expression of energy seerns to he related to
t he relaxed and arched lumbar rcgion, which gives the bregma headstand
the character of an inverted backbending posture. If you compare it to the
crown headstand, which you can explore by moving your weight to the top
of the head and Ilattening the back, the difference is obviou the crown
heads tand is calrn and poised; the bregma headstand is more dynamic.
Once you have learned both postures the brcgma headstand is less tippy
than the crown headstand. This is rnainly because the Iingers are braced
under the back of the head and also because you do not have lo maintain
as much balance and tone in the postural muscles in the trunk to stay in
the posture, You simply relax and allow moderate backbending to take
place rather than kecping the lower back flaucned with tension in the
abdominal muscles, But be wat.chful. Ifyou already have excellent Ilexibility
for backbending, remaining passively in this posture for more than a
minut e 01' two can create lower back ruscomfort. The test: lf you come uut
of the bregma hcadstand and have an urgent appetite for forward bends, it
will probably be bettCI' for you lo work most1y with the crown headstand.
THE UPPER EXTREMITIE5
We know that the lower cxtremities fOl"ln the foundation for standing prn,1.ures:
numerous muscles and ligamenls allach lhe pclvic bones reliHbly to the
sacrum and lumbar s pine (figs. ) .4 and ) .7); the muscles ofthe hips, thigbs,
and legs Oex and extend the hip joints. knees, and ankles; and t.he feet
Contact the earlh. By cont.rast., the Uppcl' extremities are designed for
touching, embracing, and handling lools. They are not foundat.ions for
any part of the body. Instead, it's the other way around: the torso is the
foundation for the uppcr extremilies, starting with the shouldel' girdlE' .
!!:tE SHO UL OER GIROLE
The slzo/llder girdle is formed from front to back by the litcmum, the cIHvicles
and the scapulae (ligs. 43-4). But unlike the pe!vic girdle, whose p u ~
bones unite with one anolher at the pubic symphysis anteriorly and whosc
4S6 AI\AToMl OE" /fA77lA l OGA
ilia unite with the sacr urn posteriorly, the shoulder girdle is incomplcn
The scapulae do not mate with or even come vcry close lo one anothe
posteriorly, an d they have only tenuous and indirect connect ions Lo th
sternum in the forrn of t he small acromi o-clauicular joints between eac
scapula an d clavicle, along with the small stemo-claoicularjoints betwes-
each c1avic1e and the ster num (chapter 4). Unlike the solid pelvic bowl al
its appendcular-axial arliculations that hold a tight rein on, and yet per rn
nutation and counternutation, the shou lder girdle is merely a framewor
Even so, it still acts as a foundation for the arms, forearrns, and hands; al J
for coming into t he headstand that foundation must support the weigh t f
the body. How can it do this? The scapula is the key.
THE SCAPUlAE
The conncction between the scapula and the torso is almost entirely muscul r.
This means that when we t urn upside down for the headstand and exp. t
the upper extremities to support that posture, we have to depend on mu scu Ir
strength ami flexibility rat her than on robust bones andjoints designed Ir
bearing the weight of the body. It is thus not surprising to find that inf .
ibi lity, discornfort , and weakness in the shoulders, arrns, and for ear IS
pr event many peop le Irom getting very far in the headstand.
Envision two flat , triangular scapulae (shoulderblades) float ing on le
upper back. Each one provides a stable socket (figs. 1.1} , 4.)-4, and 8.14) for e
head of t he humeros, a socket t hat is stabilized al most entirely through le
agency of five musclcs on each side of the hody: the trapezius, the rhoml d
muscles, the letxuor scapulae, the pecioralis minor, and the serratus antes Ir .
Then envision Ilexor, extensor; abductor, adductor, and rotator rnuscles tal 19
origin from the scapula and inserting on the humeros, much as cornpar ile
muscles take origin from the pelvis and insert on the femur. There's om lig
difference, however: while the pelvis is bound to the spine at Lhe sacn ,ac
joints and forms a relatively immovable source omwhich muscles can IT ve
the th ighs, the scapulae themselvcs participate in movements of the a IS.
Accordingly, its movements are cri tica1 for und erstanding a1I inverted d
semiinverLed pobwres tbat are partially Rupported by the upper extJeDl I 'S.
1'0 see how the scapula is held in place on Lhe back of the chest ti).
we'lI work tom the inside out, st<lrting with the decpest muscles, t\\ on
the fl'ont. side of th e chest and three on the back. The se n-at us an tt or
muscle takes origin from a broad area cm the front of the chest (fig. 1),
rum; laterally arollnd th e rib eage (tig. 8.9), passes underneath the sea ,Jla
to insert on its medial border (fig. K 12) , and aets to abduct jt, that is, Lo ... 11
it laterally. This action ofthe serratus anterior is crucial for many post u cs,
as in hold ing the scapula in place 101' eompleting the peacock (fig 3- ),
where its serrated edge onen heeomes sharply outlil1l...., especially in Iy-
8. 4S7
builders. One more scapular supporting muscle, the pectoralis minor, also
takes origin from the front side of the chest, but th is one insert s on the
acromion of the scapula (flg, 8.11), and from that position pulls it forward.
The rhomboids and the levator scapulae stabilize the scapulae posleriorly.
The rhomboid muscles adduct the scapula , pulling it s medial border
towa rd the midl ine frorn it s origin on the thoracic spine (lig. 8. I2J, and the
levator scapulae elevates the scapula, as its name implies, pulling on its
upper border (lig. 8. 12) from an origin on the transversc processes of 1-4.
The most superficial musc1e that supports the scapula is the trapezius,
so-named because th e two trapezius muscles viewed together from th e rear
for m a trapezoid (fi g, 8.10 ). Each muscle is Ilat and lriangular-shaped,
takes origin medially from a line that runs from the skull to '1'12, and
inserts on the clavicle and the spine of the scapula, the hard bony ridge you
can fccl on your upper back (fig. 8.10). Depending on which fibers of the
muscle are active, the trapezius exerts traction to pull the scapula up,
down, medially, or all three at the same time.
Th ese five rnuscles not only stabilize the scapula, rnaking a dependable
foundat ion for movements of the arrns, they move the scapula around on
the surface of the back. The scapula can be moved lalerally (the ser ratu s
an terior) and medially (t he rhornboids); it can be elevated (t he levator
scapulae) or depressed (the lower fibers of the trapezius): and its pointed
lower angle can be rotated out and upward (the trapezius and serratus
anterior ) or in and downward (the rhomboids, pectoralis minor, and levator
scapulae). AII of these movements are crucial to inverted postures and Lo
t ho exercises that prepare li S for them.
'ro check for yourself how the scapula works, as k sorneone who is slender,
light1y muscled, and flexible to stand with their arms ha ngi ng alongside
t heir t highs , Then trace the borders of both scapulae visually and by Ice!.
The medial borden; for each of thcse triangular bones are parallel lo one
anot her, an inch 01' so to either side of the midline, and the lateral borders
up and laterally The prominent bony landmark on lop is the scap ll l ar
SP1TlC. Next, whil e feeling the inferior angle of each scapula (its lowermost
ti p), ask your subject to slowly lift both hands overhead. Notice thaL as the
arms are lified each scapula rotates on an axis that runs l"Oughly Lhrough
lh . .
, e 'l11ddle of the scapular spine. and from that axis you can fi:.'el that the
Inferior angle is carried in an arc out and up. Thi s is callcd upward r otalioll .
Ir th is movement is constrained it wiII be harder to do the headstand, nol
to mention any other posture requiring an overhead st retch. Now ask vour
ubject to lower both arms, spread the tops of lhe shoul ders , and ai Lhe
same time puB tll e inferior angles oft he scapulac toward th e midline of the
body. This is the opposite movcment.-rotation of the inferior angle of the
SC8pu la down and mediall)', or doumward rofafioTl .
Other movements are self-explanatory. Still fceling the scapulae, a I
your subject to do shoulder rotations. Watching carefuJly, notice that lift , g
the shoulders elevates the scapulae, pulling the shoulders downwa 1
depresses thern, pu lling the shoulders Lo the rear adducts thern, ti d
pulling the shoulders forward abducts t hem.
THE PECTORALlS MAJOR ANO LATlSSIMUS OORSI
Although rnost of the muscles that act on the arrn take origin from e
scapula and insert on the humerus, there are Lwo major exceptions- e
pectoralis major and the latiesimus dorsi-both of which bypass e
scapula on their way Lo insert on t he humerus, The pectoralis rnaj oi IS
the largest muscle that takes origin Irom the front of the chest (f
KR-9). If you press your left hand against t he side of your hoad wit h no
arm angled out to Lhe si de, brace you r IcH elbow with you r right In d,
and try to pu ll your IcH elbow for ward and to t he right, the pector lis
major tendon will tighten just abovc the axi lla as it passes lateral l to
inser t on t he h urnerus . It s mos Lpower fu l action is t o pull t he , m
forward from bchind, as when you try to do a push-up with the ha ds
spread out lat erally from t he chest,
The lat issimus dorsi Lakes a broad origin from t he lower thoracic d
lumbar spine, the sacrum, and the crest of the ilium (fig. {.IO), an d f irn
there it courses around the chest wall just lateral to the scapul a Ig.
8.9). runs through the axilla, and inserts on the front of the humr uso
Jt 's unique-the on ly musc le in the body t hat connects the lower nd
upper extrernities; its most powerful action is extension-pull ing he
arrn down from aboye as in swimming, 01' lift ing the body in a cm II p
(chapter 1>'
SEVEN MUSC LES THAT ACT ON THE ARM
Seven muscles take origin from the scapula and insert on the hume -rs.
The middle scgment of the deltoid (figs, S.X-1O) and the supraspi n IlS
(figs. 1.1 and R.12) abduct the arm, lifting it to the side. The teres JT/ (Ir,
acting synergistically with th e latissimus dorsi , extends the arm, pull u it
down and back (Iigs. 1.1,8.12 and R.14). The coracobrachialis, acting s. ' -r-
gistically with the pectoralis major, is a Ilexor and acts to pull t he m
forward (Iigs. R.II and 8.I.l>' The infraspinatus and teres minar (figs. 1.1 ui d
K 12) pass to the rear ofthc head of the humerus and serve lateral ro o.
and the subscapularis (figs. 1.13.1..8,8.11, and R I ~ passes Irom the un cr-
neath side ofthe scapula Lo the front ofthe head ofthe humerus. Ther he
subscapularis serves as an agonist for accomplishing medial rotation 01 he
arm (which also happens to be another powerful action of t he latiss ' LIS
dorsi that can be sco!'ed-along with extensi n-e-in a swirnming strokr
quadriceps Icmoris lendon <,
patella
patellar tendn
Figure 8.8.
Superficial
nJusd es of
Ihe body
(anter i or
view; Heck)
/ peetoralis major
biceps brach
three 01 the lour
heads 01lhe
quadriceps lemoris:
vastus lateralis.
reetus temons, and
vastus medialis
-1(>0 O,, lJATllA 1(K;..I
gluteus maximus
bceps lemoris (one 01
tne hamstring muscles)
figure 8.9.
Superficial
musdes of
the body
(side view:
Heck)
triceps brach u
pectoralis major
serratus antenor
---- gastrocnemius
hand and
wrist
extensors
hamstrings:
bceps femoris,
sernitendnosus, --l...
scmimembranosus - __
gastrocnemius
Figure 8.10.
Uperficial
rnuscl es of
Ihe body
(poster ior
view; Heck)
spine 01scapula
Achilles tendon
-161 111\'11 (UIIJ) ' en:usrn H.IG,t
sternocerdornastoid
clavicle
pectoralis minar
figure 8.11 .
Intermediate
laver uf muscles
(anterior view
Heck)
__________ quadriceps ~
---------- vastus rnedt
----- vastus int errr
-------- vastus lateral
distal segmel
rectus lemon
(most 01the
cut away to r
vastus inten
15
nst
s
.ons:
tius,
and
01
.ter s
-eal
lius)
levator scapulae
rhomboids
teres minar
serratus anterior
Figure 8.12.
Int erm diat e layer of
~ u s l e s (pos terior
V1ew; Heck )
Ji 11// ,lfrADS(i1{\'f) 4(>.'
infraspinatus
semitendinosus rs
cut away on right
side to reveallull
width and length 01
semimembranosus
_ soleus
--gastrocnemius
(cut away; distal
stumps shown)
.jfJ4 rU' A 1'0,1/1' oF l/linfA H'GA
ctavice
subscapularis, _
stabilizes head
ot humerus in
glenoid cavily
bones of forearm
pronated:
radus, and ulna
Figure 8.13.
Deep musdes
of the body
(anterior view;
Heck)
longus eolli
bceps bracr
"""1:'" '1"- __ short head JI).
and long he j
coraeobrael l liS

ehii
sup .ator
_______ palella
semispinalis capitis
teres major
Figure 8.14.
Deep muscl es
uf body
(posterior view;
Heck)
clavice
11 1111' IID l fJ.\TAI\'IJ ,, 65
re
nd
ed
of
he
ed
.(l ISA IYJ.III ()f'/I.I71/,1 l (X;A
Four 01' these seven muscles-the teres minor, the supraspinatus, tlu
infraspinatus (figs. 1.1, 1.13, and H.12), and the subscapularis 1fi6'S. I.I.l,
and R.I.-form the well-known and irnportant rolalor cuf], which stabilizes
the head of the hurnerus in the glenoid cavity (figs. 1.13 and B.13>' , ithout
these, the action 01' other powerful muscles such as the pectoral s rnajor am
Iatissirnus dorsi would quickly disl cate the shoulder. The rotator eul
muscles, in addition to acting from the scapula to t he humerus, can also al
in the opposite direction-from the arrn to the scapula-assisting t h
trapezius, rhomboids, levator scapulae, pectoralis minor, and serrat i
anterior in stabilizing the scapula from one 01' the many fixed arm positior
in the headstand and other inverted postures.
THE FO REA RM, WR IST, ANO HAND
'I'he rnuseles that act throughout the rest of the upper extremity are e'
to envision. The bceps brachii originates Irorn the front 01' the arm a
inserts on the forearrn (figs. 1.1,8.8-9, 8.11, and H-IJ); its action is to flex 1
elbow concentrically, 01' resist its extension eccentrically lt is this mus
that powerfully resists extension of the forearm as you come forward 11 J
the peacock posture (fig. J.2Jd). The trceps braehii originates Irom e
back 01' the arm and inserts on t he olecranon (figs. 1.1, and 1;
it acts to extend the elbow and resist its flexiono In the headstand it lirr b
forearm Flexin, and in the scorpion it contracts isometrieally, kecping e
elbows from collapsing (fig. R.31). Other muscles in the forearrn supn e
(fig. B.13) and pronate tfig. B.8) the forearrn. Movernents of the wn s,
hands, and fingers are accornplished by flexors on the anterior side 0 1' le
forearm and hand lfig. 8.11), and by extensol's on the posterior side ot le
forearm and hand (fig. 8.10). 'rhe flexors are activate<! any time you J e
a fist 01' plant your hands on the 11001' 1'01' postures such as the down-f.. 19
clog lligs. n.17 and K26), lhe upward-facing dog (lib'S. 5.IJ-14), 01' the p l k
posture lfig. .16J.
THE MOVEMENTS OF T HE ARM
The movements of lhe arms at the shoulder joint are more compl i.
than the movements of the thigh al the hip joint because lhe rat l
possiblc movements is greater. and also because the separation
shoulders by the width of the rib cage allows the arms to be pI
across the chest in a manncr that has no counterpart in t.he l.
extremities.
In t.heir simplest fOl'm flexion and extcnsion of the anns are moverr li s
in a sagittal (front-to-backJ plane of the body, nbduction and adduetior
movements of the in a frontal (side-to-sidc) plane of the body.
medial and lateral rotlt ion of the m'm:; are movements ofaxial rotal ,n.
Ii. 1II1/1IAD.\'I;'l ,\/J 46;
Thesc can aU besuperirnposod onto one another: you can flex, adduct, and
rotate the arm all at the sarne time. And bccause the scapulae are also
involved, the movements can best be understood by cheeking out. the
accompanying shits 01' the scapulae on a partner.
FLEXION AND EXTEN SI O N
First considcring [lexion , if you start from the anatomical position (fig 4.2)
with the hands alongside the thighs and then lift your arrns up and for-
ward until they are straight out in Iront 01' you, you will be flexing them
90 (fig, 8.16), and you can continue this movernent (flexin) up through an
are of 180 overhead, stopping anywhere along the way Next considering
extension, if you pull the arms straight to the real' frorn the anatomieal
positi on, you will be extcnding them. This movement does not oecur in
isolation, however; it also requires adduetion of the scapulao (pulling them
toward one another medially) , Most people can extend their arrns in a
sagi ttal plano about 45 to the rear Irorn a neutral position alnngsidr; the
chest (fig. 8.15; figure HL"o shows adduction superimposed on extensionJ.
ABOUCT ION A N O AOOUCTION
For abduction, Iirst envision a frontal plane running through the ears,
shoulders, chcst, and lower extremities. Moving the arrns from the
anatornical position within such aplane, they will have been abducted 90
if you lift them straight out to the sides (fig. 8.171. Then if you continuo
to lift them until they are straight overhead, they will have been abdueted
IRo
o
, in the same finw position, ineidentally, as when they are in l/'ioo of
flexiono The 80 of abduction andlor nexion, strictly speaking, always
inel udes 60 of upward rotation 01' the scapula, which we considered
earlier.
Depending on your starting posil ion, adduclicm is more complicated
than flexion 01' extension. In the simplest situation. if you start with the
arms straight out to the sides and then drop them down to a neutral
posit ion alongside the chest, you will be adducting them 90. And if you
start from IBo
o
overhead, as in t.he final position for the tree (ehaptm: 4),
adduction will first swing the arms Ilway fmm overhead to the spread-
eagled 90 position (straight out to the sirles) belore coming back to the
fully adducted position alongside the chest.
Adduction can also be superimposed on other movcments. You can start
wjth the arms flexed forward 90 (straight out in front) and then adduct
t hem across the chest past one another. bringing the elbows together (fig.
You can also start with the arms abducted 90 and then adduct them,
not only stl'aight back down into the anatomieal position. just described,
but toward onc another behind your baek, at least minimally (fig. S.l'}).
.Ml , 11\", 10.111 ~ / M IHA l()(;A
Addllction of the arrns lo the front from a l1exed position also rounds the
shoulders, which includes abduction of the scapulae tfig. KIR); adduction
of the arms to the roar from an abducted (fig. R.191 or extended (fig. 8.1')
position includes pulling the shoulders lo the real'. which in turn includes
addllctioll of the capulae.
Figure 8.15.
Arms
extended
45 and
then
adducted.
figure 8.16.
Arms f1excd
~ J 0
CIRCUMOUCT I ON
You can combine flexion and extension of the arm with abduction and
adduction lo yicld the sequent.ial movement called circumduction lsee
chapter 6 101' circurnduction of the thigh) , For circurnduction of the
arrn, flex it forward 1)0 while adducting it toward the midline, lift it
overhead IHao, pull it around to the real' in an extended and adducted
position, and then return it to a neutral position alongside the chest.
Feel how circurnduction of the arm affects the scapula: in the aboye
sequence, circumduction of the arm first abducts the scapula as a result
of flexing the arrn forward and pulling it across the chest, t hen it
elevates the scapula by lifting the arrn overhead, adducts the scapua by
pulling the arrn to the real', and depresses the scapula hy bringing the
arm back alongside the chest.
Figure 8.17.
Arms abducled
90.
Figure 8.18.
Anns flexed 90,
Ihen adducted,
Figure 8.19.
Arms firsl
abducled
90 (as in
fig.8.17),
then
adducled
by pulling
lo the rearo
.170 , 1,\'A7Y>,\ /1 (JI 1Ii1'111A H)("l
MEDIAL ANO LATERAL ROTATION
Medial and lateral rotation of the arms in the shoulder joint is comparahli
to medial and lateral rotation of the thighs; lhey are movements o' axi a
rotation around an irnaginary line through the center o' the humerus, I
you stand in the anatomical position with the eJbows extended and rotal
the arms so that the palrns lace to the sides as much as possible, you
be rotating t he arms laterally about jo", Medial rot.ation of 60 is al ..
possible but harder lo isolate because it is casily confuscd with pronatio
01" the forearms.
Medial and lateral rotation of t he arrns can be carried out in al
position in combination with Ilexion, extensi n. abduction. 01' adductio
For example, let 's say you abduct the arrns t}oo straight out to the sid
Next, to avoid confusing arm rotation with supinaion and pronation uf t .
forearrns, flex the elbows 1}00, pointing your hands straight lo the frm
Now swing the hands down through an are of 30: thi motion has j u
medially rotated the arms that arnount. 01', swing the hands up, with I
fingers pointed toward the ceiling (the "get your hands up" gesture ir I
grade B This motion has jusi laterally rotated the arms l)
Notice that the scapulae participate extensively in all o' these movernen
COMING INTO THE HEADSTAND
Now we can describe the movements of the upper extremities as we ce' e
into the headstand. The forearms remain flexed throughout, hu the posil n
ofthe arrns varies: they are flexed about 90 in the starting position, ab rt
165 in stage one (fig, 8.6a) , and about 13'}-1'}00 in stages two, three, and fl Ir
(figs. H.6b-d) . These figures rel1ect the need to balance the weight 01" e
lower extremilies by adjusting the angle o' lhe torso to the 11001'. At te
extreme (stage one) the torso is pitched backward ma.:cimalIy. and al le
other extreme (stage three) lhe position of the feet hanging to lhe I t I'
requires lhe torso to be pitched slightly forward. When you are balancee n
a straighl line from head to loe in slage four and lhe arms are no Ion ' 1'
supporting much weight. they are l1excd about 150.
As expected, nexion of lhe arms in the headstand is accompanied 'Y
shifts in the positions of the capulae. Ir somcone both watchcs and fl 15
your back as you walk your feet forward loward one ofthe headst Id
(that i!:i, as your arms go from 1)0 of l1exion to 165 of l1exion), they 11
notice that the scapulae hecome abducled, depresscd, aJ1d rotatro UPWI i.
Then, as you initiale lhe efforl to mov ' from stage one loward S!.<'lge t o,
they will notice a gathcring of strenb>th in aU the muscles lhat attach lo le
scapulae in the form 01'a I'ippling cffect that accompanies the act of lifi Ig
lhe lower extrcmities off the floor toward stagc two. Most of the weight If
the body is now heing supportcd by the scapulac and thcir surroundi g
s. "1111 III-AlJSTAMJ 171
muscles. 'I'he effort subsidos slightly in stage lwo but does not diminish
markedly until stage three. FinalIy, in stage four you are balancing with the
least effort. lfyou are an experienced student, only slight adjustments and
mod rate isornetric tension in the rnuscles are needed lo maintain the final
posture, Ifyou start to tip backward, the tension cases, and ifyou start lo
tip forward, placing more weight on the forearms, more isometric tension
develops.
Beginning students should be watched carefully as they are learning the
headstand because thcy tend lo allow the scapulae lo become elevated and
adducted rather lhan depressed and abducted. And they oten have trouble
acheving enough upward rotation of the scapulae, which is essential for
the abducted arm position in the headstand. Any of these errors 01'
defciencies produce an unattractivo, inelegant posture. lristructors make
corrections by saying "support the posturo with conscious tension in the
shoulders," 01' "li the body away from the floor with the shouldars." But
once the scapulae are stahilized in their final position, the isometric
tension can be easod.
STRUCTURALIMBALANCES
When yoga instructora talk about structural misalignmenls of the body,
they usually mean sido-to-sido imbalances-d"torlions of our bilateral
syrnmetry. And for this reason they often suggest that students either practice
in front of a mirror lo search out right-left discrepancos, 01' feel experientially
if they can bend 01' twist lo one side more easiJy than the other. Only when
teachers make such comments as, "Square your shoulders, stand up
straight, puB your head more lo the rear, tuck the pelvis, or don'l tuck the
pelvis," are they referring to front-lo-back imbaJances. You can 'l see those
yourself except wilh a set of mirrors arranged to allow you lo walch your
posture from the side. Until now almost all of our focus has heen on side-
to-side imbalances, but we must be concerned with bolh possibililies when
we consider the heads!.<'lnd.
!DE-TO-SIDE IMBALANCES
headstand is a baJancing pose, and as sueh, it is not dcsigncd to COlTcet
'lde-to-side imbalances. That is best accomplished by postures in which
you us.e a whole-body muscular effort. Walch yourself in a min'or while you
are domg the headsland. If your head is at an angle. if one hand is covering
cal' on one side, 01' if you see plainly that your body is tilting to one
slde, you have side-hJ-side imbaJances and should forgel about lhe head-
stand until these have been COlTecte<.l by other postures. The headstand
wi1[ only make them worse, and a c10se look al the muscles of lhe neck will
Inak(! the rcason rol' this plain.
THE SUBOCCIPITAL MUSCLES
Wo1'kingfrom the inside out, the decpest muscles ofthe neck and shoulders
are four pairs of suboccipital muscles (fig, 8.20): the rectus capitis posterior
major runs from the spinous process ofthe axis IC2) somewhat laterally up
to t he skull; the obliquus capitis superior runs from the skull to the
transverse process of the atlas (Ci): the obliquus capitis inferior, which
completes the suboccipital triangle, runs from the transverse process of C,
to the spinus process of Cz: and the rectus capitis posterior minor runo
straight up from the spinous process of the axis to the skull.
These rnuscles are responsible for the small movements at the t op ( J
the neck which we explored in chapter 7. 1"01' example, tipping the head t
the right 5, rotating to the right another 5, and then extending the hea
back S are all accomplished between the craniurn and C2 by concentr i
shortening of the suboccipital muscles on the right si de and by eccent ri
right rectus capius posterior minar
righl rectus capitis posterior major
cranium
transverse
process 01
atlas (Ct)
lhird cervical vertebra (G3)
Figure 8.20. Adeep dissection of the back of the upper cervical region show
the suboccipital musdes. The trapezius and large strap musdes of the neck
have all been removed. Starting with an awareness of the rnovements possib'
al the joinls bctween the craniurn and the atla: , and between the atlas and tI'
axis lchapter 7). the action of the suboccipital musdes can be nferred by th.
analomica( arrangemenls. For examp le, Ihe two rectus capitis posterior maj 1
musdes act ing in unily wilh the two obliquus capilis superior musdes can 01
rolate the cranium backward on the atlas. Anothcr example is that Ihe righl
obliquus capilis inferior acting alone (but probably resisted by the left obliqUl
capilis inferior) can only rotate the atlas (and with the atlas the entire head l
the axis lo the righl. making use of Ihe dens as a pivol joiot. A(ast and more
comp lex examplc is that tbe right rectus capilis poslerior major act ing acrosS
two joints between thc cranium and the spinous process of Ihe axis \Viii
combine two actions: it will rotate the head to the righl (which is a result of II
alias and therefore the head as a whole rotating around the axi 1, and at the
same lime it will lift Ihe chin and drup Ihe back of the head lo tbe rear (whicl
is a result of tbe cranium as a whole rotating on Ihe atlas). (from Sappcy).
H 7I1 t' II/;'ln!lTA\'[J .173
lcngt hening of those on the left, In the headstand thcse rnuscles all
become isometrically active as extensile ligaments, and if you come into
t he headstand with the head always tipped off axis in the same direction,
even a little, the suboccpital rnuscles will dutifully hold you in that position
and accentuate the imbalance.
THE STRAP MUSCLES OF THE NECK
Superficial to the suboccipital musclcs are the larger strap rnuscles of the
neck (figs. 4.14 and 'jS). Three of the big ones are the semispinalis capitis
(fig. 5-';), which runs from the transversa processes ofC7-T6 st ra ight up to
t he skull, the splenius capitis lfig. s.s). which runs from the spinous
processes of C7-T6 to the mastoid process (the bony protuberance just
below the earlobe), and the sternocleidomastoul muscle (fig, 1\.11) , which
r uns frorn the sternurn and c1avicle up to the rnastoid process. The first two
of th ese are visible posteriorly, and the last is visible anteriorly.
The strap muscles of the neck also act as extensi le ligarnents in the
headst and and react like th e suboccipital muscles to harden righ t -left
imbal ances and make thern even more deeply ingrained. One way to
know if this is happening is if you feel sorencss 01' lension more on one
side t han the other after you come out of the posture. Balanced, the
paired muscles act equally for maintaining the pose, and if they get sore
th ey get equally sore on both sidos . 'I'he paired sternocleidomastoid
muscles, for example, act together in an upright postura to pull the head
forwa rd . These muscles resist extension in the bregrna headstand and get
slronger ifyou practico that posture regularly, But ifthey get imbalanced,
unil ateral stress becomcs apparent, and lhe headstand wiII only make the
sit ua tion worse.
FRONT. TO- BA CK I MBALANCES
Front -t o-back imbalances are anothor matter, and making a conscious
choice to correct them with one al' other of the two headstands makes a
lot of sense. If the hack is relatively flat, with a lumbar' lordos is thal
~ e l y aJ'ches forward in the upright poslure, you can gradually eorrect
t hl S by relaxing in the bregma headsland every day a s a part of a
?alanced practicc. Over time the lumba r regon will gradually increase
ltS arch. The opposite problem is swayback, in which the lowcr back is
Overly arehed to b 'gin with, and undcr those circumstanccl:> the b1'cgma
headsta nd is contraindicated and the crown headstand will be more
useful.
BREATHING ISSUES
For tho se who can do it easi ly, the headstand is the best possible training
posture for abdominal tabdomino-daphragmatic) and diaphragmatic
(thoraco-diaphragmatic) breathing (chapter 2). It invokes the most
complete use of the diaphragm of any posture, and it does so au tornatically
because the headstand both encourages abdominal brcathing and restricts
chest breathing.
THORACIC AND PARADOXICAL BREATHING
We saw in chapter 2 that the fir st requirement for learning ahdomina
and diaphragmatic breathing is to discard the habits of chronic chest anr
paradoxical breathing, and the headstand rnakes this possible. If you aro
fami liar wit h the four methods of broathing in upright post ures, and i
you practice t he headstand regularly, come up in the postu re and try t r
breathe thoracically and then paradoxical ly It 's not so easy, because th
ri b cage is he ld in place by isometric contraction of muscles throughou
the torso. Even the intercostal rnuscles participare in stabilizing th
headstand isomet rical1y, and it is difficult for them to do that and at t h
sarne time mobilize the rib cage for chest breathing. What is more, fou
of the five muscles t hat hold the scapula in place (excepting only t h
levator scapulae) have their origins on the chest and tend to hold it in
fixed position. And finally, the pectoralis maj or stabi lizes the che
frorn the front, and the latissimus dorsi envelops it from behind, Take
together, t.hese restrictions bi nd the r ib cage so firmly that lift in
it toward the floor for chest and paradoxical breathing wouJd }-
unlhinkable.
ABDOMINAL AND DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING
If the headstand prevens thoracic and paradoxical breathing, it neces-
tates abdominal and diaphragmatic breathing by default. Abdomi n
b.ocathing should be the initial choice for novices. At the end of exhalatit
the abdominal orgam: are pllshed super ior ly <toward the 0001') by 1I
force of gravity, and this lengthens the muscIe libers of ti
diaphragm nearly to their working maximum. This menos that t i
inhaIations that follow wi ll be dcep and satisfying. The diaphragl
will not only be drawing air into the lungs, i t wiII be pressing ti -
abdominal organs to a more inff'rior position in the trunk (toward l h .
ceiling) from flXed origins on lhe base of the rib cage and lhe lumb;
lordosi s. And even though it is working against the force of gravito
lhis is lhe easiest way you can inhale. It 's also extra exercise, i
strengthens the diaphragm, and it creates the purcst ror'm of abdominv
diaphrugmatic breathing.
8 . UfL lfIiAfl.\"f:l ."\{J 475
What about diaphragmatic (thoraco-diaphragmat e) breathing in the
headst and? This happens ifyou take deep inhaIations: ifyou take as few as
three breaths per minute, which is easy in the headstand as well as rewarding
for anyone who has good respiratory hcalth, you will fcel the diaphragm
flare t hc base of the chest during the last ha lf or third uf inhalation, which
is t he defning characteristic of diaphragmatic breathing (chapter 2). This
is feasible because the musc1es that suppress expansion ofthe rib cage from
aboye in thoracic and paradoxical breathi ng do not provide nearly as many
res trictions to its expansion from below.
When you exhale in inverted postures, the rnuscl e Iibers of th e
diap hragm dori't just relax and allow its dome t:omove passively as usualIy
happens when you exhale in upright postures (chapter 2/. Upside down, the
diaphragm stays in a state of eccentric contraction throughout exhaJation
to restrain the abdominal organs from a free fall toward the head.
You can see this Ior yourself i'you come into the headstand (or shoulder-
stand) and observe your cycle ofbreathing. -Just focus on breathing evenJy
and nalurally. Then at the cnd of a normal inhalation, relax suddenIy. What
you notice on your own wiII also be apparcnt if you ask a room Iull of
studen ts to try the same expe riment. You, and most of thern, \ViII exhale
with a sudden whooshing sound as the diaphragm relaxes, the organs drop
toward the floor, and the lungs deflate. This docs not happen in normal
upside-down exhalations because the more fundamental impulse in the
headst and, at leas t in a yoga practice, is to restrain exhalation.
T HE FUNCTlONAL RESIDUAL CAPACI TY
Becau se the musc le fibers of the diaphragm are lengt hened to their working
mxi mu m during an invertcd exhalation, the functional residual capacity
of t he lungs (chapter 2 ) will be substantially reduced. You can test this if
you first sit upright and breathe in and out the tidal volurn e associated
wit h normal relaxed breathing. Then, at the end of exhalat ion breathe
out as much as you can (your expirator-y reserve voIlIme/. In chapter 2 we
estimated t.his to be around about 1,000 mi, or about two pllltS.
To conlinue the experiment. come into lhe headstand (or shouIderstand )
and breathe nonnaJJy for a minute 01' so to establish equilibrium. Then, at
the end of a normal cxhalation t'1' brcathing out as much as you can. You
see instanUy that you cannot breathe out ncarly as much as you couId
In the upright position. Your tidal inhalations and exhalations have shifted
much c1oSl'r to your residual volume, c10ser even t1um we saw in the corpse
posture (chapler 2). Lcl.'s say for illustration thai your tidal volume when
you are upside down is a standard 500 mI, and that your expiralo'1' reserve
volume decreases lo 200 mi (nstcad of ',000 mI in an upright poslure and
';0 0 mI in the corpse po!'tureJ. Your rcsul l ing fun<:lioru.ll residual capacity
' 7(i 11.\1110MI" Ol'IIAU.l InCA
Many people practice and even teach hatha yoga Ior years without being
able to do the headstand themselves. Women generally face two challenges:
less upper body strength than men and a grcater proportion of their
weight in their hips and thighs. 'ro manage and balance this wcight they
will have to develop more strength in their upper extrernities, back, and
abdomen. For rnen the commonest challenge is poor hip flexibility, which
makes it diffcult to lift IIp into the posture in stages. So men can try to
develop more hip Ilexibility, and both men and women can offset their
respect ive 1imitations with more strength in the shoulders and torso.
OEVELOPING STRENGTH ANO FLEXIBILlTY
HIP FLEXIBI LlTY
We can analyze the problern of hip flexibility by looking at two extremes,
first at how difficult it would be to come up in the headstand if you had no
hip flexibility at all. If the thighs and pelvis were in a cast that held them
in the same plane so thal you could flex only the spine, knees, and ankles,
the only way you could get up in a headstand would be to place your head
on the floor, bend as much as possible in the vertebral column, and, with a
stupendous effort frorn your ankle and knee extensors, throw yourself up
int o the airo With enough practice-probably after thumping over onto
your back several hundred times-you might be able to do it .
'1'0 envision the othor extreme, think how easy it wou ld he to come into
the headsta nd if you had 180
0
of hip flexihility with the knees extended, and
if t he lengt h of your combined torso, head, and neck were exact1y equal to
the lengt hs ofyour thighs, legs, and feet. You could plant your head on thc
Iloor and walk yourself into a folded head-fool stand with your toes on the
0 001' near lhe Iorehead. 'I'hen you would only have lo tiptoe enough further
for ward to balance on your head and come up into stages two, thrcc, and
four of the hcadstand-all with minima! abdominal and back strength, and
with minimal help from the uppcr extremities.
Bet ween lhe two extremes your work is cut out for YOU . Any posture
that develops strength in lhe abdomen, back, and upper extremities.
and any posture that improves hip flexibility will bring you dosel' to a
successful headstand. Dozens of postures are helpful, some for
Bt renbrth, sorne for Oexibility. Backbending and prone boats, lorward
bending and sitting boats, standing twisLs and bends, standing triangles
und lunges, leglifting, hip-opening exerciscs, and sitting spinal twisLs
arlo! aH helpful. 'fhe peacock amI wheel will do wonders. Certain shoulder-
stand variations <chapter 9) wilI also be helpful. such as coming
slowly into and out of the bridge from the shoulderstand, and coming
slowly into and out of the plow
alveolar ventilation alveolar ventilalion
alveolar ventlation alveolar ventila
l(1
4200 ml/min 4200 ml/min
3000 mi/mi n 3000 mi/mi n
blood oxygen and blood oxygen up: blood oxygen and blood oxygen d
carbon dioxide carbon dioxide carbon dioxide carbon dioxide
normal down normal normal
sitt ing posture a1
headstand at
headstand at
headstand at
12 breaths/min:
12 breaths/mln
6 breaths/min
3 breaths/mir
normal breathing
20 30 40 50 60 70
SO
O
10
time in seconds (sec)
6OOO .----- - ----.- - - - - -- ---- --,- ---:-:-:-::
ml tidal volume 500 mi tidal volume 500 mi !idal volume 650 mi tidal volume 115C'T11
functional residual functional residual functional residual functional resi de d
capacity 2200 mi capaaty 1400 mi capacity 1400 mi capacily 1400 "
figure 8.21. Simulated sitt ing upright (tar. left in ahove ligure,
rap eat ed Irom !irst panel m Iig. 2.14), and Ihrce posslble modes o!
i n th e hcadstand.
will be 1, 4 0 0 mi instead of the 2,000 mi in an up right posture and th
1,700 mi in the corpse posture (fig, 8.21l. What al! this rneans is that
constant alveolar ventilation of 4,200 mI/minute will be more efticient
transferring oxygen and carbon dioxide to and Irom the blood in ti
headstand than in an upright posture or in the corpse posture. Invert rx
you will either transfer gases more efficiently, thus increasing bloc I
oxygcn and decreasing blood carbon doxide, or you will slow down t I
rate and or the depth of your hreathing to keep your blood gases with I
a normal range (g. 8.21).
'I'he richness associated with how one tcnds to breathe in t he headstai 1
probably accounts at least partial1y for why the posture is praised o
Iulsornely by experienced teachers in the literatura of hatha yoga. In 1 e
headstand the diaphragm is in a state of contraction during both inhalan n
and exhalation; it aets from a mildly stretched position at the end of di p
exhalations; it operates as a piston smoothly and independently within t e
chest wall; an d it is exe rcised more than usual because it has to push t e
abdominal organs toward the ceiling in addition to drawing air into I e
lungs. Even students with the worst breathing habits in upright postu .s
will have to use their diaphragm for rcspiration in the headstand.
5000
ml
1000 I----- -t--- --- -f----- -t--- -
mi
Oml
E
- 4000
mi
i
E 3000
!: mi
Ul
CIl
E
::J
o
;>
tii
"O
o;:;
.171' _I I\A1o.11I ' UF IIA"l7I1 )O(iA
H, n 11 IIEAlJ.H"A/\/J ,IN
SE LECTED STANDING POSTURES
If you havo come to an impasse as far as progress toward the headstand is
concerned, a good place to begin is with two of the arm positions in the
series of standing twists and bends outlincd in chapter 7 (figs. 7.17-18).
Both the position with the forearms interlocked behind the head (fig, 7.18b)
and the cow-face hand position (fig, 7.18e) are excellent exercises for devel-
oping mobility of the shoulders and arms and fOJ' preparing you to place
them eonfidently when you negotiate the four stages of the headstand,
These postures, as well as the rest of that series, also develop much needed
hip flexibility, as well as back and abdominal strength.
For right-Ieft balance, repeat both arm positions altcrnating the way th e
right and left upper extrernities are plaeed. This is obviously crucial for thc
cow-faee position. If you can 't reach far enough to interlock the fingers ir:
that posture, hang a washcloth or hand towel from the hand reaching down
from aboye, and grab it from below with the other hand, Last, if the exercise
is easier on one side than the other, do it repoatedly as a three-part series-
difficult side, easy side, and difficult side again. Don't bc obsessed 01' impa
tient, however, because ir you traumatizo the elbow joint on the tight sid.
with repetitivo stress, it could sct you back for ayear or more,
THE C ROW
Now we turn to a series of postures that build strength in the upper exrem
ties, starting with the crow, a moderately inverled balancing posture. St a i
with the hands on the floor about eight inches apart, the wrists extendc
90, and the elbows lockcd. Most ofthe weight ofthe body is on the ball s l
the feet: the ankles, knces, and hips are all flexed: and the thighs are mod-
erately abducted with the lateral sides of the elbows against the medial sides
of the knees lfig. 8.228). '1'0 come into the posture, lift the hips, bend the
elbows, and take your weight forward. As you do that the knees will rernain
flexed, the feet wiII be lifted off the floor; and you will end up balancing in a
plane that passes through the hands, the mid-section of the arrns, and the
upper parts of the legs just below the knees (fig, 8.ub).
Like the headstand, the crow requires courage, Ilexibility, and
strength-eourage to risk falling on your nose, enough hip flexibility to
bring the thighs alongside tho chest, and enough upper body strength to
support yourself entirely with the upper extremities. '1'0 do it you have to
havc good strength in the trceps brachii, the five rnuscles that stabilize the
scapula, the seven muscles that stabilize the posture betwccn the arms and
t he scapula, and tho pectoralis major and latissirnus dorsi, As with the
headstand, the chest is immobilized so much that you can only breathe
abdominally.
TH E snCK PO STURES ANO THE TWOHANDED COBRA
It is plain that good hip flexihility and upper hody strength are needed for
the headstand, but this posture also requires aJl-around strength in the
torso. More specifically, going from stagc one Lo stage two, as well as
rcmaining in stage two for more than a moment, requires superb back
strength. But back strength in isolation is not enough. '1'0 keep excess
tension off the intcrvertebraJ disks we have to maintain intra-abdorninal
pressure, and this means that back strength must always be matched bv
strength in the abdominal muscles and in the respiratory and pelvi'c
diaphragms-c-if it ever happens that you have a soro abdominal wall, you
will find that you have little zest for the headstand, Numerous postures
and exercises for dcveloping abdominopelvic strength were outlined in the
first half of chapter ), but here are three more: he stick pose. the two-
handed cobra, and the celibate's pose.
Figure 8.22. Crow posture (h) and slarting position for lhe crow (a). lhe crow i
a moderatcly inverted balancing posture thal will develop strcngth in th{' Uppt' f
exlremitics, get you accuslomed lo inversion of Ihe torso, and givc you
lonfidenlC to begin work wilh Ihe headsland.
~ i u r 8.23. lhe stick pose is an
Isometric whole-body exercise
wilhout movemenl, wilh special
emphasis on the upper and lower
exlremities, sacroiliac nutation, 90
of hip f1exibility, and scapulae Ihal
are adducted and depressed. lf
your arms are nol long enough for
lhe heels of your hands lo reach
lhe f100r even wilh lhe scapulae
depressed, you can use a thin block
under your hands for a prup.
b. a.
H rtu: I/I:AU.W'ANt) -fR'
have lo lean furthcr forward lo keep from falling lo the rear, which in turn
brings the hamstrings under even more tensin and makes hip flexion
even more problematical.
The two-handed cobra, like the hcadstand, requires a practical working
combination of hip flexibility and upper body strcngth. lfyour hip flexibility
is minimal you will not be able to lean forward enough to kecp your balance,
and the strongest person in the world cannot compensate for that deficit. If
on the other hand you have the ability to flex your hips 120, the posture is
not much more difficult than the crow. lf you are somewherc in between,
your upper bodystrength makes all the difference in your ability to complete
the posture.
The liftcd stick, or the celibate's pose, is the most challenging of these
three postures. Starting in the stick positon, depress the scapulae enough
lo Iift all of'your weight offthe Iloor, What frst happens is that you can lift
the buttocks easily but ynu can't even begin to lift the heels, You will have
to do several things al the same time: lean slightly Iorward while keeping
your back ramrod straight and bending perhaps 110 at the hips; keep the
knees fuJly extended while lifting the thighs, Icgs, and feet with the iliacus,
psoas, and quadriccps femoris muscles; and place your hands as far
forward as necessary for suppurting all of your body weight (fig, 8.25).
The celibatc's pose is difficult for at least five reasons: you have lo have
excellent hip flexibility because the extended knees kecp the hamstrings
st retched to their limits; you have to have exceptionally strong hip flexors
Lo \ift the extended legs and Ieet frorn a pelvis that is Iloating in mid-air;
you havo lo have a strong back to kecp yourself sitting upright, again in
mid-air; you havo to have strong respiratory and pelvic diaphragms as well
as strong abdominal muscles lo support the effort with the back muscles;
and you have to havo excellent strength in the upper extrernities to hold
yourself in the posture, If you can do a1l of that, you will certainly be abl e
to do the headstand.
b. a.
To do the stick pose (fig, 8.2J), sit on the floor with the thighs flexed 90,
the knees, ankles, and toes extended, and the fcet together. Place the hands
alongside tho hips with the wrists extended 90 and the elbows locked. Pull
the shoulders to the rear by adducting and depressing the scapulae, thus
pressing the heels of the hands against the floor, Arch the lumbar region
forward, establish your limits of nutation for the sacroiliac joints, and lift
and thrust the chest forward as much as possible, immobilizing it in that
position with all the musc1es of the uppcr extremity. This is another POSI
in which you can only breathe abdominally, but even that is a challenge
because now the abdominal wall is taut. The stick pose seems simple, but
settling into it propcrly requires isometric eontraction ofmost ofthc muscl e
of the uppcr extremity, a full 90 of hip Oexibility, and intense concentration
all skills that are helpful 10r the hcadstand.
The two-handed cobra is a natural extcnsion ofthe stick posture in th a
it requires even more strength in the abdomen as well as exce llent hi
flexibility and long hamstrings. The simples! starting position is to squa
with the feet about eightcen inches apart, placing the palms on the floo.
between the thighs and as far to the rear as possible (Iig, H.24a). Keepi n
the elbows extended, lean the upper body forward by bending at the hi p
enough to support your weight on your arms while you lift the feet (Ii ],
H.24b) . This will require abducting the thighs bcyond their starting positio
of mod rate abduction, and it will require extending the knees, This i.
difficult combination because as you start to extend the knecs you w
I igure 8.24. The two-handed cobra (b) and its star!ing are excelle
prcparalions for the headstand because Ihey requrre a combrn.alJOn of halanc
courage, hip f1exibility, and upper body slrenglh. lhe key reqUlremenl for co n
pleling the posture is leaning as extend !he . : and !he key
leaning forward under !hese C1rcumslances IS good hlp f1exlbllrly. Allhough Ihl
poslure looks simple, il's a hig surprise lo many people who Ihink of Ihem-
selves as accomplished In general, Ihe momenl lhey Iry lo
Iift Ihpi r fcct Ihey fall onlo thelr backsldes.
Figure 8.25. lhe lifled stick, or
celibale's pose, challcnges your
abdominal muscles. as well as your
pelvic and respiratory diaphragms,
Iike no olher posture. like many
o!her poses, Ihis one is impossible
unl ess you are capahle of al least
90 uf hip f1 cxibility.
THE OOWN- F ACING OOG ANO VARIATIONS
After the intense abdominal work with the two-handed cobra and the lifted
stick postures, everyone wiII be ready to do something that provides a
modicum of relief, and one of the best postures for this is the down-facing dog
(see also chapter 6). AJong with the erow, this pose is another excellent semi
inverted training posture for the headstand. The arms end up Ilexed IRo
overhead, or even a little more, and this movement is accompanied by abou
60 of upward rotalion of the scapulae. And sinee the scapulae are supportiru
mueh of the weight of the upraised body, the five muscular attachrnent
between it and torso must all be uctively engaged. AJlowing them to relax wi
cause adduction and elevalion of the scapulae, as well as an unsight l
jarnming of the shoulders toward the floor, To counteract this tendenc
instructors usually urge students lo press the hands strongly against the 00(
lift the buttocks, flatten the back, and press the shoulders toward thc feet (ti
H.26). They may not rccognize it, but those adjustrnents also abduct ar
depress the scapulae as well as hold them isometrically in their upward
rotated positions, and this happens lo he exactly what is needed for eoming 1 I
into the hcadstand. To compromise the posture, bend the knees and lift t I
heels rather than relax the shoulder muscles (fig, R.2?).
Textbooks usually diseuss movements ofthe arm in reference to muscl
that insert on the humerus, but in the down-facing dog tho arm is re
tively flXed and ads as an origin instead of an insertion. The teres ma, r
muscle ({igs. 1.1,1'.12, and R.14), for example, is ordinarily lislcd as an al n
extensor, taking origin from the lateral border of lhe scapula and insert l g
on the humerus. Hut in lhe down-facing dog the teres major ads to abd t
lhe scapula laterally and rotate it upward from a stabilizcd arm inste81 lf
acting as an arm extensor from a Ixed scapula.
Figure 1l.26. The down-facing dog in ils form 45
0
of ankle
f1exion an d 110
0
of hip f1exion (see hg. (>.17for an mle nnedl al e- Ievel pose ). T e
isomet ric conlraction of Ihe muscles needed for sta hilizing Ihe scapulae in Ih ir
co rrecl c()mprise excellenl Iraining for Ihe head!iland.
B. /111. IfI:An.\7Aflll .1\.1
The rotator cuff rnuscles are also important in the down-facing dogo
Again, with their origins and insertions reversed, they abduct the scapulae
from fixed arm positions while taking nothing away from their classic role
in stabilizing the head of the hurnerus in the glenoid cavity. The
subscapularis muscle (figs. R.II and R.IJ) has a slightly different action Irorn
t he other three rotator cuff muscles. Since it attaches to the front of the
humer us rather than lo its posterior side, it aIso acts to pul1 the scapula
anteriorly as welI as abducting it laterally, which assists in keeping it Ilat
against the chest wall ,
In the down-facing dog one other muscle, the serratus anterior, acts to
pull th e medial border ofthe scapula laterally-not from the arm, but from
t he front ofthe chest-and this action is especially helpful because it slides
the scapula directly aganst the chest wall rather than pulling it tu the side.
And since the serratus anlerior attaches near the inferior angle of the
sca pula (figs. R.9 and H.II), it is positioned to powerfully assist upward
rotation by pulling the inferior angle of the scapula laterally.
Alt hough the simple down-facing dog is by itself a good preparation for
the headstand, a variation that will develop arm and shoulder strength
through the ranges of movement needed for the headstand is to first come
into t he basic postura and then slowly lower the shoulders, slide yuur nose
Iorwa rd close to the floor, stra ighten the knees, and hold the posture
isomelrica1ly in whatevor posit on is especially difficult fOJ' you (fi g. s'2S).
FinalIy, let the elbows swing out, and lwith considerable re lief, al leasl for
most of us) exlend the elbows s lowly into a simple upward-facing dog
Supported belween the hands and the Oexed loes (fig. ').14 >'
figu re 8.27. This easy.down-facing dog pose is wilhin reach of almosl everyon
and looks. as hlp and anklc f1exibilily improve. Even from Ihe beginning
howeve r. II IS Import anl not to han g from Ihe sho ulders. ro Ihal end Ihe
serralus an terior muscles keep thp sca pulae rotaled upward and stabi lizcd.
R lI/E II F.AflSTAIHJ 485
the forearrns on the 11001', press up into a piked position ending with the
hips flexed 1)0 (fig. S.29) .
Coming into the dolphin is accomplished by a combination of whole-
body muscular efforts: lifting the head, straightening the knees with the
quadriceps femori s muscles, and then pushing your weight back with the
shoulders and triceps brachii muscles until the head is in the V between
the forearms. If the hamstrings are so tight that you cannot push back with
the knees straight, bend the knees as much as necessary to permit the
movernent, 01' adjust the feet slightly to the rearo
If you are able tu push back into the dolphin, you will be stabilizing the
scapulae in upwardly-rotated positions with the same muscles that assist
the down-facing dog: the teres major and minor, the infraspinatus, the sub-
scapularis, and the serratus anterior. Pushing the torso back and keeping
the arms braced in the 180 Ilexed position overhead is st rongly resisted by
the pectoralis majar and latissirnus dorsi, so this posture gives thosc rnuscles
an excellent workout in the stretched posilion. Finally, the triceps brachii is
strongly engaged Ior extension of Ihe forearm.
To build st rengt h for the headstand, lift th e head over the hands and
strelch forward enough to touch the nose 01' chin to the floor in Iront of the
hands (fig. 8.Jo). If the Ioot were welI back in the frst place, the body wilI
now be almost st raight. This rnakes the exercise too easy, so come back to
the frst position with the head in the V made by the forearms and walk the
feet forward to rcemphasize the piked position. Repeat the exercise, lifting
the head over th e hands and then pulIing it back behind them, ayer and
over again. 'fhe dosel' the knees are to the elbows in the preparatory position,
the more st r engt h and hamslring flexibility you will need to accornplish the
movcment gracefully Finally, as your strength and flexibility continue to
improve, you can take the head even further forward, barely touching the
0001' with the chino
484 ANATrJlII (JI' IIA7J/A )()(..-!
THE DOlPHIN
If a hatha yoga instructor were to pick only one all -around training pose for
students who are almost able to do the headstand, it would have to be the
dolphin. This posture is related to the down-facing dog, but it is also a well -
known posture in its own right. It's helpful for developing upper body
strength, hip flexibility, and abdominal and back strength. To do it , begin
in the child's pose (flg. 6.18) with the body folded onto itself on th e floor.
'I'hen lift up enough to place the forearms on the Iloor in front ofyou wit h
the hands interlocked , With the hips still resting near the heels, t.he
forearms a re positioned at a 90 angle from one another. Next, keeping
Figure 8.28. Bringing the nose down and forward (and more importantly,
coming back up) from Ihe down-facing dog is an excellent floor exercise for
building enough strength in the upper extrernlties to begin practice of the
headstand. You'lI want to come forward only a litlle at first, so you can push
yourself back up inlo the down-facing dogoThis is no pushup-it's rnuch mo re
difficult
Figure 8.29. The dolphin posture is the most famous preparatory poslure for th.
headstand. It strengthens all the rnuscles that stabilize the scapulae and arms,
and does so from the V-shaped posi lion of Ihe forearrlls that is similar to Ihe
customary slarting for Ihe headstand.
Figure 8311. Rringing the nnse forward from Ihe dolphin poslure and th back
up crea les a differenl exercise than in the case of coming down and Iorwi
from the down-facing dogoThis one is relalively easy if your eet are far h
bul quile. if you star l lhe dolphin with an aculely angled
Posltlon. espeaaJl)' If you do nol have Ihe ability lo f1ex your hip oinls 900.
ALTERNATlNG THE UPWARO- ANO OOWNFACING OOG
Another good upper-body exercise is to alternate between the upward
facing dog (fig. 5.14) and the downward-facing dog (figs. 6.17 and ~ U 6 Th .
easiest way to do this is lo do it fast, by using the hip lexors to quic kl
swing the hips up into the down -facing dog frorn the upward-facing dog an
let gravity drop them back down. But that's not so useful , and the bcttr
exercise is to do it slowly, maintaining abdominal tension al all times an
never allowing the hody to merely hang between the shoulders. And fl
another rciinement that is custom designed to develop upper boc
strength, start with the upward-facing dog, slowly lower down into a straig
push-up position with the body an inch or so from the floor; touching t
floor only with the hands and the Ilexed toes, and then instcad ofusing tI
powerful iliacus and psoas muscles to launch f1exion of the hips into t
down-facing dog, initiate the movement from t hc shoulders, pushing to t
rear with the arms while sliding the nose along the f100r until you are rea
to comp lete the piked posi tion. In this way you will be using the iliopse
muscles as synergists for completing the posture instead of using them 3
prime movers tu initiate i t , Reverse everything lo come back down, brushi T
the nose against the floor unti l you are again in a low push-up posit
(keep t he body only an inch or so away from the floor) before lifting up 11 o
the upward-facing dogo
THE SCORPION
H. f IfE JIfAf)\"I"Af\f) 4/; 7
confidence. In the final posture the weight is on the forearms, the head is
lifted, the nose is fairly clase lo the hands, and the feet are as close to the
head as the arch in your back permits.
The sacroiliac joints wiII be in fuIl nutation for the scorpion, and the
postura may not be comfortable for more t.han a few seconds for t hose who
have a lot of sacroiliac mobility. In any case, anyone with good flexibility
for backbending can easily touch their feet to their head. Come down by
frst straightening the body, then lexing the torso, and finally dropping
Ior ward onto the foet .
a.
The scorpion posture looks like a scorpion, with a front pair of nip p g
c1aws and a long, slender, jointed tail ending in a curved poisonous stir u; r.
The posture incorporates gravity-driven passive backbending with extre e
hyperextension of the head and neck, and thus it requires more athh e
ability than the headstand. Even a little practice of the scorpion will g e
the student enough confidence to try the headstand. And remaining in e
posture for J0-6o seconds is a real wake-up-but it is not for the timid
You can come into the scorpion in one of two ways: either by kicking -p
into the posture with the head lifted or coming into it Irom the headst a .1.
Kicking up is more athletic. tart in the same position that you used for e
dolphin, except that the forearms are at a 60-75
ft
anglo from one anot i -r
and the palms are facing down with the thumhs touching (Ig. 8.318) 'u
can also make the posture more difficult by kceping the forearms paral I.
To come into the posture 1m the pelvis up into the air, and kick up \\ h
both lcet, one immediately after the other, adjusting the kick so that ) .u
get into the poslure but do nol overshoot and fall to the rear (fig. R.Jlb). :e
careful not lo try this in a confined region where you might crash it o
something if you fal!. The knees end up in a flexed position. which mak s
il em,.y for you to support your feet against a wall behind you until you gH n
Figure 8.31. Scorpion (b) and
starting position (a). To come into
the poslure by kicking up, you
loss. rour feet up rom the slar ling
POSI!l on and balance your weight
maklllg use of a subslantial back-
bend. Until leaming how much
energy lo put into the initlal kick,
most people use a wall as a prop
o as not lo Iall over backward.
Wilh more expe rience you can
(orgo the wall. For the final
pOslure you can keep the knees
slraight. or you can bend your
knees and drop your (eel loward
your head. You can also come inlo
lhe scorpion (rom lhe headsla nd.
bUI i( you do lha!. don't de/ay,
because coming inlo the scorpion
afler being in lhe heads tand for
more than a few seconds ueales
eXcess pressure in Ihe arte rial
circulation to lhe brain.
b.
.&i AI\'A11J.I/l ' m IIAnlA IO<;A
When you come into the scorpion from the headstand, you arch the back,
flatten the palms against the floor, transfer your weight lo the forearms, Iift
the head until you are looking forward, and bend the knees. If you take th is
route to the scorpion, however, do it quickJy before too much blood and tissue
fluid has accumuJated in the head, If you stay in the headstand too long befon
converting that posture into the seorpon, the feeling of pressure in the hear
is greatly intensified: it's mueh more pronounced than what you experienc
by simpJy kcking up, and it's also unnerving.
BENDING AND TWI5TING IN THE HEAD5TAND
When you are in the headstand and the hipjoints are bearing only the weigh
of the lower extrernities, you can do rnuch of what you can do standing
except more creatively. What is more, certain poses that involve compk
combi nations of hip flexi n 01' extension with knee Oexion and rotation ca
be done only in t he headstand. In this post ure you can select ively stretc
the adductors and hamstrings; you can work with hip opening exercisc
when the adductors an d hamst ri ngs are not under tensi n: you can twi s _
flex, and extend the torso alone 01' in combination with many creativ
stretches for t he Jower extremities; 01' you can fold the lower extremitii
into the lotus posture and flex and extend the t highs from that position.
WO RK I NG WITH THE ADDUCTORS
The various adductor muscles take origin all along the inferior pubic 1'81
from the pubic symphysis to the ischial tuberosities (figs, 1.12, 2.8, ar I
8.13-14). We have generally been concerned with the adductors that ta l
origin posteriorly, and have noted that these muscles have a harnstrir
character that lirnits forward bending {chapter (;1. It is less common lo ti 1
postures that are effective in stretching the adductors that take or ig ' 1
anteriorly. The only pose so far ment.ioned that does this involves
standing backbend (chapter 6) with the fcet wide apart. To be successf
any such stretch must also require that the spiraled ischiofemor 1,
iliofemoral, and pubofernoral ligaments be slack enough to limit extensi '1
(fig, 3.6) only after the anterior-most adductors have come under tensiu .
AHhough any such slanding posture shuuld be approached with care, in 1 p
headstand it is easy to bling these specitic muscles under an intense b t
controUable stretch simply by extending the abdueted lhighs wilh t I '
knees bent. 'l'he nexl lhree seqm'nces aU make use of a relaxed inverl.
backbending pose (fig. R.23bl that accompliHhes this aim, in additioll
rotating the saeroiliae joints into full nutation. This home-base postu
alternates with three positions that build strength in the deep bal .
muscles and that shifl the saeroi liac joints either into counternutation f
less extreme nutation.
H run 1I1"1/}.\7i1I\'f) 'l li 9
Becauso the next three sequences all involve backbending, they go best
with the bregma headstand. To begin, come into the third stage, the one
with the thighs extended and the knees flexed (fig, R.be). Start with a
relaxed and neutral position with the legs more 01' less paralIel lo one
another and with the feet and knees slightly apart. Without shifting the
positions of the lower extremities too mucho adjust your posture, including
head position, so that you can produce the maximum lumbar lordosis. After
appraising exactly how much of a lumbar curve this postura permits,
abduct the thighs rnaxirnally while keeping the feet fairly close togcther,
and thcn, keeping the knees flexed and the thighs both extended and
abducted, Jet the feet come apart, sensing the position that permits the
lumbar arch to becomc the most pronounced. The sacroiliac joints will be
fuUy nutated in this rclaxed position (fig. 8.32b). This is the horno-basoposture.
As a passive lumbar backbend, this posture complernents standing backbends
in t wo ways: the lower extrernities are not confined by static foot posi tions
as t hey are in standing postures, and the knees are Ilexed maximally, which
is obviously not possible when you are standi ng.
For the first sequence, from the home position in the modified bregma
headstand (fg, R.23b), adduct the thghs, bringing the knees and feet tightly
toget her; and notice that this flattens the lumbar regi n and draws the
knees forward (fig, 8.3Ul). Youcan go back and forth, abducting the extended
t highs to deepen the lumbar lordosis and establish maximum nutation, and
th en adducting the extended thighs tightly to Ilatten the back and case the
sacroi liacjoints back into counternutation. The adducted position is peculiar.
It creates intense tension in the rectus fernoris muscle as well as in the lateral
portions of the quadriceps femoris muscles, and this is what, in a round-
about way, flattens the lumbar region. The abducted home position, on the
other hand, places intense stretch on the adductors whose origns are located
anteriorly along the inferior pubic rami o
The second alternativo is lo start with the same relaxed horno position
that permits t he maximum lumbar arch (fig, 8.32b) and alternately Ilex and
again hyperextend the thighs while keeping the knees flexed and the thighs
abducted. This is similar lo moving back and forth betwecn stages two and
thn.>e ofthe headsLand except th8t now the thighs are kept fully abducted.
To keep your bearings, you may wish to touch the big toes togethcl' fOl" this
particular back and forth sequenee, especiaUy as you Oex the lhighs
forward. Extension of the abdueted thighs (lig. 8.32bl makes this posture
an easy one in which to resL Flexion of the abducted thighs is more
challenging and will pl"Obably be limited by your uppcr body strength
beeause you have to support more of your weight with the furearms as you
lower the knees forward (fig. 832C). This exercise is easier than moving
back and forth between stag two anrl three of the headstand with the
'<JO ANtlTOMI orusrn IUCA H. U/E 11l:'IIJ.Hrt l\'[J '<JI
thighs in a more neutral adducted position, however, because sorne o
the weight of your lower extrernities is pitched out Lo the side rathei
than being held straight in front of you. Even so, flexing the abducto,
thighs while keeping t.he knees bcnt is one of the most rewardi n
exercises for developing strength in the deep back rnuscles that you ca '
do in the headstand (fig 8.}2C).
Last, come all the way up into stage four ofthe headstand, that is with t I'
thighs and legs extended. 'l'hen abduct the thighs lo the side, and hold ti
posture (fig, 8.}}). I3ccause the hips are not hyperextended, adductors t h,
take origin posteriorly along the inferior pubic rami, as well as intern
a.
Figure B.32a-c. These lhree postures illustrate
musculoskeletal dynamics and Irain you lo be
nverted and balanced uner varying circum-
stances. In B.32a, thc combination of adducted
thlghs and flexed knees severely limils the
lumbar lordosis. In 8.32b, allowing the knees
lo come apart (thighs abucled) perrnits
extreme hyperextension 01 the thighs, the
deepesl possible lumbar curve, and maximum
sacroiliac nutation, Co back and forth
between 8.32a and 8.32b several times lo Ieel
and understand what happens and why.
Shifling from B.32bto B.32c requires a major
shift in awareness from an acute, maxirnum
backbend (but une in whieh ji is easy lo bal-
ance) lo lhe necessily of supporting much of
your weighl on Ihe forearms, which is similar
lo slage Iwo of the headsland ~ x e p ~ lhat ~ i s
pose wilh lhe thighs abducted IS easler. Aga,",
go back and forlh belween b and c lo bolh
feel and undcrsland what happcns am] why.
/
b.
c.
structures of the hip joint, lirnit this particular strotch. You can again
altrnate this pose with the home position in which the knees are lexed,
and the thighs are abducted and extended (fig R.}2b). This latter position
takes tension off the adductors that take their origin posteriorly, alIows
you to abduct the thighs more fully, and by default brings the stretch to
the adductors that have their origin more anteriorly on the inferior pubic
rami. Go back and forth repetitively for clarification of these principles,
STRETCHING THE HAMSTRINGS
In the headstand you can stretch the harnstrings by extending one thigh
posteriorly lo approach the limits of hip extension and at the same time
bring lile other thigh forward to slretch the hamstrings. 1'0 come into this
position you can either abduct the thighs and then swivel them around,
which leaves you with one th igh extended and the other one Ilexed, 01' you
can slart Irorn stage four of the headstand and hyperextend one thigh to
the real' and flex the other one forward. If you also flex the back knee, this
will drop more weight to the real' and you will not have to readjust your
balance so much when you flex the other thigh (fig, 8.34). Then, as 800n as
you are balanced you can puIl isometricaIly in opposte directions, allowing
the forward knee to bond according lo your capacity and inclinalion for
stretehing the hamstrings. Repeat on the other side.
Figure 8.33. This pose, which is
slage four of the headstand
excepl with the thighs abducted,
stretches the adductors that
?riginate posteriorly along the
rnferior pubie ramio To stretch
Ihe adductors that originale
anteriorly along the inferior
pubi rami, which is not so easy
rn standing postures (chapter 6,
hip nexibilily slanding), go back
and forth belween lhis pose and
lhe one with lhe knees f1exed
and lhe hips abducled and
hyperexlended (lig. B.32b).
.I<J! AI\:410.\/I o/- I/A11/,1 lOCA
The headstand is one of the best postures in which to work with harnst riru
stretches because the tension 011 the base of the pelvis that results from hi
Ilexion and from stretch of the hamstrings on one side is countered
hyperextension of the opposite hipo The resultng asymmetrical stretcl
keeps the pelvis more in Line with the spine t han the same stretches iJ
standing forward ben ds, which often place unwelcome additional tensio
on a region th at is already being stressed t o its limits.
I NVE RTEO TORSO TWISTS
When you are in t he headstand you can do inverted torso twists that al
limited only by you r imaginatiun, strength, ami ba lance. You can start wit I
a twisi in a simple headstand and go from there io a twist with one thi],
back and the other forward. Simple twists such as these can be done in u
open, but placing yourself near a wall adds lo the possibilities. One is
position the back of the head about two feet from the wal l, come up into 1 1
headstand, and twist your lower body to the right su that the lateral cd l'
of t he right foot ends up aganst the wall. From that position you can
yourself around even more. This brings the left hip closer to the wall al j
the right hip further away. The right thigh is hyperextended, the len thi, 1
is flexed about no", and both knees are flexed eomfortably. If you are fair
flexible you will be stretching the abductors on t he lateral as pects of t
thigh and working directly within the hip joint, Repeat the exercise un I
other side. ' I'his is an excellent whole-body twist, and yuu can feel t
results from t he knees to the neck, although the most twist will be creal
in the chest, as expected from the discussion in chapter 7
Figure 8.34. You ca n come into .
pose easily frorn the une shuwn In flg.
8.33 by swi nging one foo l forward and
Ihe othcr one back. The a ymmelrical
slrelch of the hamslrings in the f1 exed
Ihigh is ba lanced by of
the opposite Ihigh and lenslOn In ItS .
hip f1 cxors, al! of which kecp the pel vIs
sta blc and the lowcr back prolccl ed.
H. fJu: JIfiA/)\TAND 4<J3
TO RSO EXTENSION AN O HI P Fl EX I ON
A wall is also a good prop for working with passve extensi n in the lumbar
region. Frum a simple headstand again facing away frorn a wall you can
place both feel against the wall and walk thern slowly down, 01' you can
simply hold them within your reasonable Iimits, making sure you don't
go so far down that you cannot comfortably walk them back up.
Alternat ively, you can stabilize one foot against the wall and bring the
other one forward (away from the wall) , Ir you puIl down vigorously on
th e forward foot using the rectus femoris muscles and the hip flexors on
t hat side while keeping the knee fairly straight with the quadriceps
femori s muscle as a whole, you can stretch the forward hamstrings al
your leisure; and unlike rnost standing and sitting forward bends, you
can work with the stretch safely but insistently and without stressing the
back in the slightest. Repeat the exercise on the othcr side.
THE lOTUS POSTURE I N THE H EAOSTANO
Ir you are flexible enough lo do the lotus posture in t he headsta nd, you
have many options for developing Ilexibi lity and a strong back. Just being
in this posture stretches the adductors and makes the hip joint itself
more flexib le. An excellent exercise is to lift the knees as far as possible
toward the ceili ng to hyperext end the back (fig, 8.35a) and then slowly
lower thern 3..<; far as possible tuward the floor (fig. 8.35b)-without
falli ng, of course. This is similar to going back and forth between stages
three and two of the headstand, except that it s easier because the legs
and feet are Iolded in and because a srnaller proportion of your lower
body weight is carried forward. It is a lso rewarding to lwist and bend
from sido lo side in the lot us posture. With the knees up, whatever
st retches you do along those lines will be combined with backbcnding,
and with the knees down in a more neutral upside-down sitting lolus,
whatever stre tches you do wiIl build strength in the back. f3e sure to
repeat al l exercises you do in the lotus-no matter what the posture--by
alternating the [001 you fold in Iirst.
EXTENDING YOUR TIME
When you are completely al home in the headstand, you may eventually
want to increase your time in the posture. lf done carefully and system-
atically this is safe, but because of the headstand's special efects on the
br ain and circulation there are certain guidelines that should be foIlowed.
not t he least ofwhich is consultation wi th someone who is experienced in
lhe practice.
THE SURFACE
N 7I/E II/;AOyrA/\'J) 4'JS
Ir this is the case, you should either wait for the discomfort to pass
before doing the headstand again al' seek professional advice from any
nu mbe r of specialized therapists who are interested in such matters.
Another way to explore for excess sensitivity is to come into a hands-
and-knees position on a soft surface and 1'011 the head around from front
to back and frorn side to side. RolI all the way forward, bringing the chin
to th e sternum, and then roll all the way back so the nose touches the
floor, RolI from side to side, from ear to ear, diagonally, and around in a
circle. Ifyou do this routinely you will become sensitive to whether 01' not
the headstand is creating difficulties. For example, you might have done
th e headstand fifty times in a row for five minutes each morning with no
problerns. Then one night you miss sleep, do the headstand the next
morning in a cranky state of mind, and suddenly have a vague feeling
that t he posture doesn't feel right. nder these circumstances, if you
have becn exploring for excess sensitivity routinely, you are likely to find
sorne localized tendcrness on your cranium. And if that is the case you
can give yourself a day 01' two al' rest for repair and recuperation.
PAI N AND DISCOMFORT
Any time you are not comfortablo in the headstand you should come down.
In twist ing, forward bending, 0 1' backbending posturas you can explore the
roges of minor aches and pains without too much worry, but in the head-
stand this is inadvisable because your frame of reference t o what is normal
is too fi.mdamentally askew,
Pain in your shoulders usually means that you are making too much
efort in the posture. Ifyou slowly learn tDbalance and build strengt.h and
flexibility, shoulder pain should diminish. Pain in the neck regan is alwavs
disquieting. lt may be caused by imbalances in muscular tensi n or
inflammation of vertebral joints, Ifyou feel deep pain, stop doing the hcad-
stand un til it has gone away Muscles usual ly respond to joint problerns by
tensing at the fulcrum ofthejoint-ifyou turn your head to a certain point
and find that it is painful to rnove it further, it indicates that your nervous
: ystem is So be conscrvative, listen to the body, and stop doing
he headstand unti l you can turn your head freely through a normal range
of rnot ion. Get help from knowlcdgeable therapists if the problem does not
go away of its own aCL'Ord.
. A recurring theme in the oral (as well as written) tradition ofhatha yoga
IS that any extensive practice of the headstand should always be followed
by t he shoulderstand and related postures. Commentators lell U!:i thal.
practicing the headstand alone results in an imbalance that manifestR as
edginess and irritability. They also say that if you pract.ice the hcadstand
for more than twenty minutes, it is good to have sorne food aIlerward, or
a.
b.
THE CRANIAL VAULT AND SUTURES

The surface on which you do the headstand is not very important ir YOl
stay in the posture for less than five minutes, but if you are going to hol r
it for a longer time, the softer the surface the better so long as your foro
arms do not spring this way and that when you are trying to adjust. A ]
inch thickness al' high-density foam rubber is so springy that it is hard t
keep your balance, but a heavy woolen blanket folded three times (eigl
thicknesses) 01' a I-inch thickness al' high-dcnsity Ioam is fine. Mattress,
are nearly always too springy. If you use a futon make sure that you plar
your head in a regan that is flat oYou will certainly create problems f
yourself if you place your head on an irregular surface that always favo
one side.
Anyone who is serious about doing the headstand should be aware f
danger signals from their cranial bonos and sutures (fig. 8-4). ' . 1
should feel the top of the head for any localized soreness as soon as y, u
come down from t he posture. T'his may not he directly on the regi n
where you rest ed your weight; i t could be on one side 01' the other 01 it
could even maniest as vague interna! discomfort such as headae
Figure 8.35. ror anyone who ean do the lotus poslure eomfortably, working
with this pose in the headstand offc,"" ma ny possibilties for improving baek
strength and hip f1exibilily. lifling the knees loward the eei ling (al extends Ih.
baek and stre lches the quadriccps femoris musdcs, and bringing YOllr knecs
forward and down (b) strenglhens lhe baek mllsdes as in slage lwo of the
heads tand, excepl doing lhis in l he lotus is casier beeallse lhe fee l are lllckt:(! lf1
and are not neeessitating thal you support so much of your weight on the
forearms. like ma ny ot her strc tches, Ihes e ca n be do ne only in Ihe headstan.
at least sorne hot, boiled milk. If you clan't. they tell us, you are likely
experience a raw, uncomfortable feeling in the abdomen later in the da)'.
Another caution: the headstand does not work well after aerobie exercis
Hatha yoga postures are fine, but not dozens of sun salutations, walkir
brisk1y, 01' running. Ifyou do the headstand regularly for more than fi
minutes during the course of a regular hatha practice, and then try it son
time after aerobic exercise, you wilI quickly sense an impulse lo come dow
an impulse it \ViII be wise to folIow. An old hathayogi-a centenarian-i-In 1
India once told me in utter seriousness that doing the headstand regula' y
alter aerobic exercise would cause the skull lo soften. Ves? And? '1 e
biological bass for such observalions (assuming they might be valid I S
uncertain. What is certain is that you should use common sense with t s
posture and honor all input from the senses that tells you lo be modero e
or even nol do it al aIl.
EXTRACEllUl A R FLUID ANO MUCUS
When you are in the headstand, extracelIular fluid accumuiates in 1 le
tissues of your head and neck, and as you begin to hoId the pose for Ion ' 1'
periods, these tissues start to swell, You'II turn red in the face, whicl IS
obvious, but the swelling also starts lo impede the Ilow of air through 1C
nose and pharynx, making your breathing more labored and either for r 19
you to breathe through the rnouth 01' come out of the posture. Thi is
usually temporary. 11' you continue loo practice the headstand every day, le
swelling becomes less of a problern and you \ViII be ahle lo breathe cas il. .n
the posture Ior longer times. And once you have acc1imated to stayi n In
the posture for len minutes 01' so you may find that you can continur LO
increase your time. Mucus is a seprate but related problern. If'you ha v a
tendency toward colds 01' to chronic respiratory prob1ems, doing the h d-
stand for even a minute may he uncoml'ortabJc. Don't press the iSStH If
you have too much mucus, sol ve that problem first, and then come ba('1 to
the headstand.
HOW lONG TO HOlO THE HEA05TAND
1 used to have a habit. of asking instruct.ors publicly how long the h( d-
stand could be held, and their answers, appropriately cnough, reOected le
level and experencc ol' their audience. For a general class of young J.
inexpcrienced pupils, expel't.s will ordinarily advise a 1- 01' 2-mi n te
maximum, 01' they will avoid t.he issue by saying that you get most of le
impOl't..ant. bencfits in 3-5 minutes. One yogi traditionalist suggested t '0
minulcH maximum fOl" householders (an Indian cuphemism for those 10
are sexually active), and any length 01" time for those who are perfce Iy
celibate. Many c1assical texts affinn this, hinting not only thal orgasm d
H 1111' lIE-lIJ.\TANIJ 4'.17
frequcnt hcadstands do not mix well, hut. that doing the headstand for long
periods of time helps to maintain celibacy for those who wish to practice
that. discipline. The Hatha Yoga Pradipiha extols the ability to hold tho
headstand for three hours. And finally, yet another elderly hatha yogi frorn
India had a brilliant answer lo my question. He said that you can do the
headstand Ior any length oftime-three hours, six hours, and that you can
even sleep in the postur but he added cagily that there should never be
the slightesl discomforL
BENEFITS
'fhe headstand lifts your spirits wonderfully. Ir something is drawing you
down, turn upside down, and voila-lhe downward flow is upended into
your head. The headstand is also a great morning wake-up, It increases
digestive fire, counters depression, and fills you with enthusiasrn 101'
meeting your day. But doing this postura to excess is like increasing the
voItage in an electrical circuit. Be careful.
(palrl lhe ;'cal', tlltl!' ///Itt:n Ih/ II &rrWMj
tIC/' 0/11'1tln. Ji! /J'); o/jlnlc!ir-c, Iln"l 1/ltl7;
3d?;;! 1/1 ;;cal/(/u. pON O$'rMCr (/I/l.l"lul/ce,
Iht".J tIO/l,(e; otl'r(y. }/rl/ tlltll j/lI/ n 'a/ /,;'a.Jun,
e:r;{./!ndm tJ/.yll/t1- (/1 tlft:J .vhrma. .,
- Swami Sivananda, in HJga Asanas, p. In.
'l}K 111\A 7n.11I Ol'/MI1111 l!K;A
CHAPTER NINE
THE SHOULDERSTAND
,' , /J rolla/<.../l ,tJrN' ? fl.J' 7/I(7 {;r rNI..:k 1I (/t/&/;/I;:Cj dI
o,ml (I/hr tfr.4 11/14/ /.Jjl//lc/ ;WJ. %t
.../lt"I.Jknkl, , / '(I O /I/o/,J 1;;/ (/.J!fl; o/tri r;t'?I /l/EO'-I.!
&'4 "
- Swami Kuvalayananda, in Popular YOl!a Asanas, p. 65.
h le shoulderstand is t he queen of postures and the headstand is the king,
the yogis say-the formcr nurtures t he body and the latter celebrates
power and consciousness, These concepts will resonato with anyone who
has had a lot of experience with bot h posturas. Together t hey make a team.
Th e headstand needs balance. and the shoulderstand, with its variations
and sequelae, makes t he bes t complete practice Ior providing t ha t balance.
The Sanskrit name for t he shoulderstand is saruangasana, which means
the "all-mernber's pose." Not on ly do all four extremitios participate in
creating it , t he posture, at least in its fu llest expression, also requires
muscul ar effort throughout the body. This gives it an entiroly differenl
charact er from the headstand, which is a balancing pose. Placing your
weigh t on a combination of the shoulders, neck, and head, as you must in
the shouldorstand, requires that the full posture be supported either with
your upper ext remities or with a powerful interna] effort.
\Ve can learn a lot ahout the shoulderstand by lookng at how it differs
from t he headstand. The rnost obvious point of conlrast is that in the head-
stand the weight of t he body is on t he top of the head and has its primary
skeletal effect on t he ncck. The headstand cornpresses its vertebrae axially;
the shouldcrstand strotches the neck . Pul. another way, the neck acts to
SUpport the headstand. and is aeted upon by the shoulderstand,
Another difference is that in the headstand t he enti re spine rom el to
the sacrum is inverted but straight, and the posture is balanced simply hy
standi ng up. By contrast, a l the variations of the shoulders ta nd ami its
BSsociatcd postures include forward be nding somewhere in the body:
the cervical region is flexed in the shouldorstand, and lhe cervical region,
lumbar region, and hips are exed in t he plow. This continuing theme of
forward bcnding explains why thcse posturas are often followcd with back-
bending in t he bridge, t he Iish, and th e wheel.
SOO AI\ ..I1TJ.11I ot: I I (X,A
One last way in which the shoulderstand differs frorn the headstand is
that significant time and commitment is required to learn about the nature
of the posture and do it justice. We can get most of the common physical
benefts frorn the headstand by practicing that postura j-S minutes a day,
hut any serious student who wishes to get acquainted with tho postures in
the sboulderstand series is well advised to practico them for 20-30 minut o-
a day for at least three months. After that a more abbreviated practico wil
sufice,
In this chapter we'll Iirst sumrnarize the anatomy that is pertinent t,
the most advanced expression of t he shoulderstand. Next we'll discuss t h
entire shoulderstand series, starting with the easiest postures, and the
we'll examine the plow series. We'll then cover the aspects of circulatio
and respiration relevant to these poses. Finally, we'lllook at exercises an
postures that usually follow and balance the shouldcrstand and plow, al
cnd with a brief diseussion of benefits.
ANATOMY OF THE SHOULDERSTAND
'1'0 understand the complex anatorny oft.he shoulderstand, we'lI begin WI
a brief description of the posture in its most extreme expression- H
candle posture. '1his is an advanced pose, however, and should nol I
attemptcd unti l you are warrned up and have mastered the prelimin:
postures which follow. In this pose the feet are swung overhead frorr l
supinc position, ami the arIOS, forearms, and hands are placed in a neut r
posi tion alongside the thighs (lig. 9.1). The body is balanccd on a triangul
shaped region compriscd of the back ofthe hend, the neck, amI the shouldf'
The chin is presscd into the ::;ternum, and the pose is held internally, y
w1th the muscles oI' the torso and lower extremities. This is not easy. F v
students will have enough back strength to kecp the sternum tigl1 Y
presslc'<l against the chin, but unless they can do tl1a1. they will not aH n
the full benerat of tl1e posture.
THE NECK
Even though the anatomy oI' the advanced posture is complex, il ::;
straightforward and easy to analyze. In the neck, most ofthe n
the cervical spine are stretched, inc1uding the posterior longitudi II
ligament on the hack nI' the anterior fundional unt, the interspi n' 15
ligaments between the spinous processes, the lig'dIllenta flava bctwecn le
vertebral arches, and the ligamentum nuchae, a fibro-clastic ligarn lt
which runs from the back of the head lo all th ' spinous processes bet.wl n
el and C7 (fig. 4.1.\a l. 'rhe synuvial art.iculations betwl.'Cn the adjaCl
superior and inferior articulating processes will be stretched Lo lheir Jilr 5
as well. AI!'o stretched by this posture are the muscles that attach to t l e
" UII:' !>1I(JI 'U}FRS/AA/J SOl
upper thoracic and cervical spine: the trapezius rnuscles: the levator
scapulae; and the strap muscles between the head and upper back,
especially the semispinalis capitis between the cranium and C7-T6, and the
splcnius capitis between the mastoid process and C7-T (figs. 4.14, S.'), R.12,
and !t14).
The spinous processes (fgs. 4.loa, 4. IOC, and 4.llaJ are the first bonv
. .
points of contad with the f100r in the shoulderstand, 'l'hey are easily located,
and are the hard structures that can be palpated directIy in the midline of
the hody at the nape of the neck. Two of them generaHy stand out from all
t he others. The higher of the two bumps belongs to C7, and the lower one
belongs lo TI, which is abo called tho vertebro prominens because it usually
prot ru des more than any other (fig. '1-I3a). You can confirrn their identities
for yourselfifyou find someone on whom these two bumps are pronounced,
as k them to Ilex their neck, and then in the flexed position to twist their
head right and left several t imes. You can distinguish C7 from TI because
C7 moves from side to sido as your subject's head twists back ami forth,
while TI is relatively stahle. Once you seo and feel the relativa mohility of
th e tip of C7 on someone else, you can easily locate it and TI on yourself.
And once C7 and TI are located, t.he tips ofthe spinous processes in the rest
of t he spine can easily be felt, especially in t hose who are slender and not
very muscular.
Figure 9.1. The candil' posture is !he
mosl advanced expression of Ihe
shoulde,. land. It is halanced on a
combination of lhe back of l.he head
lhe ncck, and l.he shoulders. and is
mainlained by muscular efon
IhroughoUI lhe body. 1he body from
lbe shuu lders lo l.he loes is stiff as a
board, and acts as a pry bar l.o
sl. retch Ihe cervical verlebral column
from a fulcrum al. lhe junclion uf lhe
chin and lhe slernum. Neve,. altempl
lhis advanced pose unlil you have
maslered aJl lhe less extreme
variations of lhe shouldersland series
and are accuslomed lo al leasl a 2U
minule praclice of lhe series.
How far the spinous processes protrude can be a practical problom ifyou
are lying on a hard floor; and anyone who has little subcutaneous fat an d
who is lightly muscled should do the shoulderstand on a pad, especially il
they wish to roll down from the posture one vertebra at a time.
THE TORSO
A combination of the spine, deep back muscles, proximal muscles of t h
extremities, abdominal muscles, and the respiratory and pelvic diaphragm
support this version of the shoulderstand. More than any other, this middl
segment of the body maintains the pose, and the brunt of the effort
carried by the erector spinae and other decp back muscles (figs. 4.
14
, ).
and H.14), which are situated posterior to the ribs and transverso processr
of the vertebrae. When these muscles are maintained in a strong state
isometric contraction, they hold the spine straight.
'I'he most obvious role of the deep back muscles is lo counter ti
tendency for forward bending in the lumbar rogion. The temptation is
swing the lower extremities enough overhead lo balance the body withoi
much muscular' effort, but this obviously can't be done without forwa .
bending in the lumbar spine. And even though that rnakes the pose eas r
it deprives us ofits main benefit. Ifyou allow the spine lo Ilex, you lose t
ossence of the posture, and it would be better to concentrate on the mo
elementary inverted postures,
THE EXT REMI TI ES
To do this advanced version of the shoulderstand sueeessfully, t e
tendeney 101' forward bending also has to be supressed at the hipR, wh h
menns keeping the hips extended. The main muscle responsible for t s
is the gluteus maximus. As seen earlier (figs. 03 .8, 3.10, 8.9-10, and 8. ' J,
this muscle takes origin from the back of the ilium and sacrum and 18
two insertions, one into the iliotibial tract (which as suggested by s
name bypasses the knec and atlaches to the tibia; figs. ].8 and 8.12), d
the other directly onto the femur (lig. 3.8b, 3.10, and 8 .12). The glu t ' IS
maximus is the heaviest muscle in the body, and you can irnmediately 1 -1
it tighten up on both sides as you try lo hold the thighs extended e
advaneed shoulderstand. The e/fort that tightens the gluteus mmOIJ IS
also squeezes the hips together', with the result thal this posture hIJ Is
the sacroiliae joinls in a plJsitio of eounternutation-that i with le
isehial tuberosities pulled loward one another, the ilia spread apart, l d
the promontory of the sacrum rotated between the ilia to the rearo
As you try to bring the body straight in the candle pose, you will not It
first fcel much tension on lhe fmnl of the thighs. but as you increase Yf' r
eITorL<; lo extend the thighs with lhe gluteus maximus, the quadri t"t s
'J. rm .\ IIOf"U l t.'R.\ 7 i l fllJ 'i0.\
fernoris muscles (fgs. 1.2 , ].'), KX-'), and 8.\1) finally counter that offort
antagonistically, which you can easily eonfirm with your hands because
they are nearby, From the knees down, you have options: if the feet are
extended, you wil! be mildly stretching the muscles on the front of the leg,
and if they are Ilexed, yuu wil! be stretching the soleus and gastrocnemius
muscles in the calves (figs. j .ioa-b, 7.6, Klj-lO, and 8.12).
Since the arms and forearms are positioned along the chest and thighs,
you wouldn't think they were contributing to the posture. But the uppcr
axtremities also inelude the scapulae, and when you come into the candle
pose you are adducting and depressing these two triangular bones. This
ultimately results in lifting your weight off the nape of the neck and taking
sorne of the pressure off the spinous processes of e7 and TI.
This version of the shoulderstand is the definitive all-member's pose.
From head to toe , muscles are either activated isometrically al' stretched,
Extensors of the hips and spine straighten thc body, acting synergistically
with muscles of the upper back that depress and adduct the scapulae. In
combination, the back and hip extensors aIso resist flexion of the spine and
hips, The body becomes like a pry bar pushing the sternum against the
chino and the resulting tension creates significant traction in the neck .
How different from the headstand, in which you hold only enough muscular
activity to balance on the top of the head.
INVERTED ACTION POSTURES
The candle posture described aboye is demanding, and should not be
approached wilhuut 8 lot 01' ploeparation: gradually getling accustomed
to being in poslures in whi ch the hips aloe higher than the shoulders;
gradually gelting accustomed lo more and more flexion 01' lhe neck;
slowly becoming confident in balancing the body as a whole in a posture
that is more and more perpendicular to the noor; and becoming familiar
with the difTerent methods of actuating and suppor l ing the dozen or so
postures that make up the shoulders t and series and its 8equelae. We'lI
begin with the illverted aetion postures.
Technically, invertcd adion mcans upside down, but in must yoga traditions,
"the inverted action posture" refers 1:0 vipari ta/wrani mura. in which the
lower extremities are perpendicular to the 0001' , lhe torso is at a 45--(,0
0
angle from lhe floor, and the pelvis is supported by the elbows, forearms,
and wrists. We'lI first examine some easier variations that can lead
systematically lo the shoulders tando
Even though most of the inverted Belion postures al'e not as difficult as
the shoulderstand, lhey t"Onfer sorne of the same benefits and are particularly
usefuJ for older peopleoThe rst two variations thal follow are of special
value to anyone who is fearful of being upended. And like the headstand. t he
S04 A ,\i1To.lll nt-" U/HUI! I '()(;A
shoulderstand and the inverted action postures are contraindicated Ior
anyone with high blood pressure, for women who are pregnant 01' in their
menstrual period, 01' for anyone with osteoporosis, Being substantially
overweight is another obvious contraindication. Those who are uncertaii
as to whether 01' not they should proceed will find t.he foJlowing twr
variations safe for bcginning experimentation.
PASSIVE INVERTED ACTlON POSTURES
Safe means simple and safe means conservativo, and a good place to begi i
to learn the shoulderstand is to squirm your pelvis onto the top of a bolst e
draw the knees toward the chest, and simply !ift the feet into the al
straightening the knees so that the thighs and legs end up perpendicuh
to the 0001'. Once you get your pelvis in position, you do not even need t
use your arms to help you get your feet up . Those who are more adver
turesome can try supporting the pelvis on the edge of a couch, positionin
the torso at a 30-45 angle from the 0001' depending on the height of th
support and length 01' the torso. These postures provide excellent trainir
for the full inverted action pose and for the postures in the shouldersta r
series because the hips are higher than the shoulders, the neck is slight
flexed, the lower extremities are perpendicular to the 0001', and the postu
is supported passively by a prop.
Ifyour balance is good, you can also support yoursclfwith an 81 /2 in
playground ball (chapter S), 01' better yet, a bigger one 10-13 inches
diameter. Placing a supporting bolster or ball at difTerent sites creat
different effects. If the support is placed under the lower part of 1
sacrurn and coccyx, the back will be rounded to the rear and mos'
against the floor; if it is placed under the upper part of the sacrum, t
pelvis will be raised higher and the back will be straightcr; if it is plae j
unde' L4-LS. the back will be straight; and if it is under the junctl 1
of the lumbar and thoracic regions, the lumbar region will he arch
forward in the other direction and the pelvis will drop, creating a pass )
hackbcnd (chaptcr (l). This Jasi position pInces an unusual stress in t
lumbar region and is contraindicated for anyone with a tender back. \VI 1
th.is exception. students can be fairly relaxed in aU of these variati
except 1'01' the efTort needed to keep the knees extended.
An even more passive inveted aetion posture involves flattcning t e
thighs and legs against a wall wit the pelvis again supporled on a bolsl l'
01' hall. You do not have to use much efTort to keep the knees straight, al
you can combine the posture with a passive adductor stretch by letting t !
thighs rest in an abducted position.
9, n1/: .\ 1I( j ( '/ / IE/l.\TAf\.V SOS
THE RELAXED EASY INVERTED ACTlON POSTURE
'l'his next posture prepares you for both the shoulderstand and the plow. It
is relaxing once you get into it but it requires more strength, flexibility, and
athletic prowess than the propped postures just described, It is the logical
next step for those who are trying to build confidence for doing more
advanced inverted postures. Except for the fact that the lcgs are sticking
out, it resembles a ball whose circumference is Iormed by the head, back,
pelvis, thighs. elbows, and arms lfig. 9.2). 'ro begin, lie supine on a padded
surface with the top of the head about two feet from a wall, 01' a litUe less
depending on your stat.ure. Pull the knees toward the chest, place the
hands against the floor below the hips, palrns down, and in a single rnove-
ment tighten the abdomen, push strongly against the loor with the hands
and elbows, and lift the hips up and the feet overhead, straightening the
knees slightly at the same time.
The feet should touch the waU lightly in the final position, and you may
now have to adjust your distance from the wall to make that comfortable,
The knoes, hips, and back are all cornfortably flexed, Interlock the fingers
lightly at the top of the head, and brace the thighs with the clbows just
above the knees, 01' place your hands against the lower back and pelvis tfig.
9.2). Adjust the posture for maximum comfort and relaxation,
This is a rclaxed posture once you get into it, but getting thcre rnay be
a challengc for those whose spinal and hip flexbility is poor, And another
consideration for novices is that even though there is no pressure on the
neck, and even though your body weight is so close to the floor that you do
not have to worry about falling over, the weight of the lower extremities
can compel so much Oexion of lhe hips and spine that it. shocks tha unini
tiate<!. Once in a while the extra weight on the chest prevents someone
from inhaling in this posture, especially if an inscnsitive coach has lirted
them into it. [ witnessed that errOl' once in a class ofpartnered hatha yoga
for older but atWetic beginners. Fortunately, ot.her cla"Smates were observing
and quickly intervened, crying "Stop, stop, she can't breathe!" Tha opposite
problern is a lack of weight from the waist down , as in barreJ-chestcd men
with skinny legs, If that is the case, you may want to try coming into the
pose wearing heavy shoes 01' ankle weights in order to pull enough weight
Figure9.2. This relaxed inverled
action poslure wilh Ihe feel
against lhe wall is ea y for most
people, and the head is freely
movable fm twisting from side
lo side, but lhe pose shuuld slill
he monitored watchfully in lhe
case uf lhose who are lrying il
for the firsl lime.
'J. fllL\I/OIIIIlHI.\f ilM) S07
overhead to stabi lize the posture, In any event, if you come into the pose
hut are not confident that you can balance gracefully, just roll down kecping
the knees as clase to the chest as possible.
THE CUARTER PlOW
'1'0 make a sa fe and easy transition lo the shoulderstand, especially for
beginners, the quarter plow (not illust rat ed ) should come next. You come
up int o th is pose exactly as you carne into the inverted action posture, by
pushing with thc hands from a supine position, tightening the abdominal
region, and swinging the foet overhead, all in a single coordinated rnove-
ment. 'l'hen you simply let your foet hang far enough overhead to balance
your weight while bracing the pelvis with the hands. The 10we1'extrernities
will now beal an anglo of 45 off axis Irom perpendicular instead of the )0
illustrated in the last posture.
The main point of this posture and what makes it good for beginners is
that you will not havo lo support as much of your body weight with the
arrns as you do in the invertod action pose. Youcan steady th e hips with the
hands 01', for a sharper-looking posture, you can brace the hands un the
thighs just proximal Lo the knees. It s cspecially easy to support the legs in
this position.
The quarter plow is another posture you can do with the feet lightly
touching a wall, but whether you use a wall 01' nut you can now begin to gel.
Lhe feeling of the shoulderstand. The torso is practical ly vertical and the
tern um is pressing Iightly against the chinoThis is starting to become a
balancing posture, but al the same time it is a pose that rcquires sorne
musculoskeletal activity for resisting forward bending in the spin and
hips. [t's worth scrious study.
will be at about a 45-60 angle from the floor, ' I'hat is easy enough by it self,
but instructors who want the posture done rigorously also insist that the
t highs and legs be exactIy per pendicular t o the floor, and t he cornbined
weight of the extremities and lower torso may be hard on the elbows un less
th ey are well cushioned. [f you flex the thighs a little more, swinging the
lower extremities overhead about ) 0 off axis frorn perpendicular (fig. 9.)b),
the posture becomes easier but it begins to lose its original character,
THE SHOULDERSTAND
Now we are ready lo look al the shoulderstand proper, in which the body
(exclusive of' the head and neck) is positiuned more or less perpendicular to
t he floor, Since this requires that the cervical regi n bestrong and flexible.
we'U work up to it graduaUy. Before starting, however, you may want to
explore and become familiar with the res istance neck exercises discussed in
the last section of th is chapter C'Sequelao"). Once you have done that, you
are ready (01' the quarter plow.
b. a.
Figure q.3. Vipa ritakarani mud r?, or the inverted action postu re (a), is a ~ o u
pose but it places so much welght nn Ihe forea rms that ma ny people find It
troublesome. The pose on the righl wilh Ihe feet slightly overhead lb)
co mpro mises !he posl ur c bul is usefuJ for beginning the process uf geUing
acclimaled to the formal pose.
THE INVERTED ACTION POSTURE
In the full inverted action posture (viparitakarani mudra) , the weight of
the lower part of the body is supported by the elbows, forearms, and wrists ,
Come into the posture from a supine posilion flat on the Iloor with the
arms alongside the body, palms down. Lift the lower extremities by pressing
the hands an d forearms aga inst t he floor, tightening t he abdomen, an d
pulling the feet overhead, all the while keeping the feet together and th ,
knees straight. As you pull your weight to the rear, keep your arms agains
the Iloor an d place your hands under t he pelvis where they can steady you
Then, supporting yourself with your hands, complete the posture by bringi n
th e thi ghs and legs perpendicular lo the floor <fig. 93a).
Because you wi ll have to support much of the weight uf thc torso as we
as all of the weight of the lower extremities with the hands and forearm
the inve rted aetion posture is difficult for many students. Depending o
the lengt h of the forearrns and the exaet placement of the hands, the toro
,;ol! ..IIW17o.lIl (JI-"/1,1711.4 10 ci ,
THE BEGINNING SHOULDERSTAND
Now you can begin working with the shoulderstand it self '1'0 come into t ho
pose follow the sarne sequence to which you have become accustomed
From a supine position bend the knees comfortably and swing the hi ps
overhead. using the hands 10 lift and steady the pelvis as it comes up. Thoi
balance on the upper back and shoulders. You can best support the pose
wrapping the fingers ar ound to the real' again st the sacroiliac region am
pushing the hands aga insl the back, keeping the thurnbs to the front jus
superior 10 the cr ests of the ilia, This is a comfortable position Ior mos
people because the neck is not under lension and becau se you are sti ll nC 1
stretched straight up into the airoYou'lI end up with an obtuse angl o ,
abou t 140
0
between the thighs and the torso (fig. Y.4a) ,
From this position you can start to explore. Gradually straighten th
body, including the knees, hips, and spine, shifting your weight each ds
and placing the hands higher and higher on the back. Allow yoursc
several weeks of daily practice, making sure you are secure with each shi
lo a st raighter position bofore going on. And be especially careful to monib
the feelings in the neck. In he initial position with your weighl ba lance
rnostly on the upper back, no stress is placed on the cervical region, but
you st raight en the hody the head and neck will have to become mm
sharply flexed. Soon you wiII be pressing the sternurn against the chin, al
as that happens your position becomes more t enuou s . It is therefo
important to adapl to the posture without hast e.
When you have completed thc posture, pressure [mm the entire body is
pushing against lhe chinoThe stern um presses the lower jaw aga inst the
upper jaw, and the neck and skull as a whole comprise a unit that cannot
twist 01' budge in any direction. And since the whole body is st ifT, it acts as a
lever that exerts traction 011 the cervical vertebrae. You do get many important
benefi ts by simply lifting up wth the body slightIy curved, but thi s does not
elicit the intense energy associated with the cIassic shoulderstand.
THE INTERNALLY SUPPORTED SHOULDERSTAND
Ir your strcngt h and balance permit, ass ume the classic shoulderstand and
then remove your hands from their supporting position on the upper back,
You can place them in one uf three positions: behind the back against th e
floor; with the arms and forearrns extended as much as you can manage;
overhead against the floor; with the arrns flexed 90
0
; 01' alongside the
thighs, with the arms adducted lo a neulral position.
9.4. The beginning houlderstand (a) is a slraighter version of the
II1verted puse, wilh .lhe.head sliIf freely movable, Ihe leel slighlly
hUle 01' no lracllon In !he neck, and Ihe hands silualed comforlably
o Supporl Ihe posture. The c1asslC shoulderstand (b) is a more advanced
pOslure. 1I sllpporled b}' hracing lhe hands higher up on Ihe back,
and f?r Ihe we see Ihe pressing firmly againsl Ihe chin, Ihus
creahng 10 Ihe The hlps should be lighlly conlraeted, and Ihe
lower slra,&hl, lhe body as a whole is nol passive bul aids
Ihe upper exlremllles m mamlilllung Ihe pOslure.
THE CLASSIC SHOULDERSTAND
'1'0 transorm the beginning shoulderstand into the c1assic shouldcrstai
you will have to make the puse more dynarnic, and Ior ths lhere are fOI r
requirements , First, instead of swingi ng up with benl knoes, press t
lower back against the 0001', do a double leg left with st raight knees Ir
3.17), and lift your feet toward th e ceiling (and only slightly overhead ) USI g
the abdominal muscles, While coming up, don't press your ha nds agai r t
t he 0 001' any more th an you have lo. Second, once you' re up, st ra ighten t p
body hy pres sing more insi st ently and with the hands higher on the ha
than in the beginning pose. Next, tighten the erector spinae and hip extl
sors, creating a forward thrust in lhe pelvis that complements the effor "
from the hands. Finally, with the body supported in a st raight line by I
hands and the muscles or the trunk and hips, lean the ste rnum against tJ
chin (fig. t)-4bl. If th is is uncomfortable, adopt a more moderate i
position for the t ime being. Altcrnativcly, deler fUl"lher work on the d as.
posture 101' several weeks and temporarily limit your efforts to the lifh 1
shoulderst<'md, which will be described later in this chapter. 'fhe resist<'1nl
neck exerciscs list ed under "Scquelae" wiII also be helpful.
8.
b.
9. / IlE snot 'II)/iR.\7Af\n 511
For the first variation interlock the fingers behind the back, pressing the
palrns together; then straighten the elbows and press the arms and fore-
arms against the floor (fg. 9.5J. This places uncommon demands on the
upper extrernities from the scapulae to the hands, and if the position is too
difficult you can just interlace the fngers leaving the palms apart. Those
who have good strength and flexibility for extending the arms will fnd that
this posture braces the back almost as effectively as bracing the posture in
the conventional manner with the hands pushing against the upper back.
And once you are in the posture with the arms only moderately extended.
you can easily feel how extending them another 20-}00 straightens thc
body into a vertical posture. Only those who are strong and flexible enough
10 press their arms and Iorearms forcefully against the floor will find thi .
variation comfortable and rewarding.
After experiencing and analyzing your limitations for straightening th
hody with arm and forearm extension, you can start supplementing thos.
efforts by tightening the deep back museles (figs. 4.14, 'j.'j, and R.14)and th ,
gluteus maximus, the rnain hip extensor (figs. J.8, }.10, 1\'9-10, and 8012
The rnain diffculty with this is inadequate strength, and the only way yo
can work with the posture, apart Irorn extending the arrns more fully, is t
try even harder to contract the hip extensora and deep back rnuscles. A
soon as you reach your lirnit this becomes an isometric effort,
One characteristic of this version of the completcd shoulderstand is that
the tips of Cz and TI are now lifted away from the floor. The scapulae are
adducted, and you are supporting the posture more on the back sides of'the
arrns than on the shoulders and the nape of the neck. If you find this
variation difficult, ti-y to work up a little extra enthusiasrn for it. Try it
once, then rest in the relaxed easy inverted action postura, and try it again.
Remember, this is the alI-member's pose: it will augment your eforts for
doing many other postures,
For the second variation bring the arrns and forearms overhead in the
opposite direction, along the floor behind the top of the head instead of
behind the back, that is, with the arms flexed 90
0
instead of extended.
Either interlock the hands 01' simply hold the arms and forearms against the
floor (fig. 9.6a). This position is not as demanding of the upper extremities
as the previous variation, but neither does it braco the shoulderstand, for
t he simple reason that the flexed arms lie passively against thc Iloor, Trying
to flex thern furthcr overhead wilJ push them harder against the floor; and
this can only push you out of the posture, but l1exing them less can only
mean lifting them away from the floor, which leaves you supporting the
posture purely with the hip extensors and deep back muscles. So if it was
di ficult for you to hold your body straight in the last variation, it wil\ be
"
b.
8 .
9.&. Wifh Ihe arms flexed Ihe pose on the left (a) is [ust as
difficult as the candle pose (b flg. 9.1). In both cases the posturas rnust be
mainlained intcrnally, and f1exlon musl be re!lislcd by lhe deep back musdes,
gluteals. and hamsLrings.
Figure 9.5. This pose is
similar lo the c1assic
shoulderstand except thal
the extended arrns and
forearms are supporting
the posture by pressing
firmlyagainsl the floor,
You can easily sense how
rnportant this support is
hy lifting the hands and
noticing that the pose
deteriorates immediately.
By the same token, Ihose
who are unable to exlend
their arrns a full 9()O will
find it difficull to keep
their bodies straight and
will almost certainly have
lo permil sorne f1exion of
Iheir hips and bach.
even more so in this one. If you cannot remain vertical, simply hold tho
back and gluteal muscles isometrically for a few seconds, and then either
support the back again with the hands or rest in the relaxed easy inverted
aetion pose.
For the most advanced shoulderstand-s-the one we used earlier lo illustratc
the anatomy of the posture-bring the hands up alongside the thighs after
you havo come into the c1assic pose. Be content at frst with keeping th o
hips and back slightly flexed, with an obtuse angle of about 160
0
between
the thighs and the chcst. Balance in this position every day for a week without
trying to complete the posture. Notice that you are not distraeted by th-
upper extremities and that this pose follows naturally from placing the
arms against the floor overhead. The final stage-straightening the bodj
and pressing the sternum against the chin-is no different from what YOl
have been doing a11 along except that now you are doing it entirely with th .
glutcal and deep back muscles, which acting together thrust the pelvis 11 r
ward. Then pull the shoulders to the rear one side at a time by adductin
t he scapulae. With consistent efort over a period of time you can straighte
the body like a stick and master this rnost advanced and purest variation
the internally supported shoulderstand (figs. 1).1 and 1).6b).
MUSCULAR ACT IV ITV I N T HE SHOU L OE RSTANO
The rationale for calling the shouldcrstand the al1-member's pose shou.
now be elear. It's not a balancing posture: the body position is maintainr
by muscular eITort. The internally supported shoulderstands in particul.
require a constant influx of nerve impulses to muscles throughout the I
You straighten the back by contracling the erector spinae, you press ti
front of the pelvis toward the wall behind the head by tightening t I
gluteal muscles, you extend the knees by tightening the quadriceps femo
and you press the heels toward the opposite wall by crealing even me
extension in the hip extensors,
If you analyze this effort frorn head to loe , you will find that exteru r-
muscles throughout the body resist Ilexion and pull you straighter into t
posture: the erector spinae extend the spine; the gluteus rnaxirnus muscl
extend the thighs at the hip joints, aided in that effort by the hamstrin ,
acling as synergists; the quadrieeps fernoris muscles act as agonists to k
the legs extended al. the kneejoints and also act as antagonista for counten
the tendency of the harnstrings to flex the knees; the triceps bracl
d wri . t
muscles extend the foroarms; ami cxtensors of the hands an wnsts poli
the fingers toward lhe cciling. The unly option you have is dcciding wh: t
to do with the fect. You can extend the ankle and toes toward thc ceili n
f1ex them townrd the hean, or leave them relaxed. The only place whe l
extensor mus -les are both relaxed and stretched is in lhe neck.
STRENGTH ANO FLEXIBILlTV IN TH E SHOULDERSTANO
Jf you work only with the basic shoulderstand postures you may find that you
are improving only so much and that insufficient strength and flexibility
continuc to stop you in the sarne place. A serious commitment to a program
of active backhending postures can help corred this situation. but the best
remedy is to do additional twisting and bending exercises from within the
shoulderstand itself. Sorne ofthese have already been discussed in chapters
5-7; working with thern and with the exercises to follow will enable you to
find new limits.
The simplest exercise is lo twist in the c1assic (supported) shoulder-
stand. Afier coming into the postura twist to the right. (Here "twisting lo
the right" rneans from the perspective of the practitioner looking toward
the ceiling.) Such a twist pulls the right side of the pelvis posteriorly and
the len sirle of the pelvis anteriorly Intensify the twist. by pressing higher
on the back of the chest and more forcefully with the len hand (lg. I).;-l.
This not on ly helps the twist, it also aids extension ofthe spine. Hepeat on
t he ot her side, and then rest in the relaxed easy inverted action posture. lf
you come back up in the shoulderat.and a second time, you may find
yourself straighter,
f igure 9.7. In Ihis simple
twisled shoulderstand, Ihe
left hand is pushing the left
side 01 Ihe pelvis anteriorly
and is assisting the effort lo
keep Ihe body straight. The
direction 01 Ihe Iwisl is
rderenced frorn the poinl
of view 01 the practitioner
looking loward the ceiling,
since those are lhe lerms in
which someone in a e/ass
would follow directiuns.
Here Ihe model is twisling
lo his right.
514 . I,\ I1""'MI (JI' IIA'I7IA H)GA
Figure9.8. Tocome into
this twisted hall lotus
one-Iegged plow, Iwisl
rght, pushing Ihe left
side of Ihe pelvis
anleriorly. Then f1cx the
right kncc and hip and
place Ihe right fool in
the hall lolus position.
tast, drop Ihe left 1001
overhead and across Ihe
body to the f1oor.
Figure 9.9. lo come into this Iwisled
knee-Io-the-opposile-ear posture, Iwisl
left, pushing the right side of Ihe pelvis
anleriorly, f1ex Ihe right knee and Ihigh,
and bring Ihe righl knce across Ihe body
to Ihe f100r beside Ihe leHear, all while
bracing Ihe righl loot againsl Ihe leH
knee, allowing gravity to f1ex Ihe left
Ihigh (which pushes Ihe righl knee
loward the f1oor), and Irying not lo Iwist
your head lo Ihe righl.
keeping the knee flexed , then extending the right knee, and fina.lly coming
out of the twist. Repeat on the other side.
The last exercise in the series is to twist left, again pushing the right
side of the pelvis anteriorly; then slowly flex both knees in isolation; and
then Ilex the hips . Fina.lly, bring both knees down together until the right
knee ends up beside the left ear (fig. 9.10). This is easy in the supportcd
posture because the upper extrernities can easily accornmodate the extra
weight of the fect and legs when they are lowered. Come back up in
reverso. Extend the thighs without extending the knees, then exlend the
knees, untwist, and end up again in the shouldersta nd. Repeat on the 01her
side.
Figure9.10. lo come inlo Ihis
Iwisted knees-lo-Ihe-f1oor pose,
twisl leH, pushing Ihe righl side 01
Ihe pelvis anteriorly. Then f1ex both
knees, Ihen bolh thighs. and finally
bring bolh knees down so Ihe righl
knee is beside Ihe lelt caroCome
up in revt.>rse order. lirsl exlending
the lhighs, lhen Ihe knces, lhen
unlwisl lo lhe shouldersland.
You can also combine twisting and forward bending Irorn the classic postura.
The easiest and rnost natural exercise is to assume the position with the
hands high on your back, and then twist to the left (pushing the right side
ofthe pelvis anteriorly) and lower the right foot slowly overhead and across
the body toward the floor while keeping the left thigh and leg extended.
Ideally, the right knee will be extended and the right thigh will be flexed lo
its limit. nless you are unusually flexible you wiII not be able lo flex th e
right hip joint more than 90, which would bring the thigh parallel to the
floor. Slowly come back up and repeat on the other side, twisting to thr
right and lowering the left foot overhead.
This forward bend and twist stretches the harnstring muscles of tlu
thigh you are lowering overhead, and bccause the upright thigh keeps lhl
pelvis and lowcr back stable, the hamstring stretch does not cornproms
the back or sacroiliac joints, You can come into the postura slowly and st a
there fOI" a while, or you can go back and orth one foot at a time at a fas u
pace. As long as you use the best form you can manage most of the time,
is all right for those who are less flexible to bond the overhead kncc an
lumbar reb"on enough to bring the big toe to the floor,
Now try a senes of three (soon to be twelve) exercises that can forrn t l
basis of a cornprehensive practico of the shoulderstand. The first one migr
be called a twisted half lotus one-legged plow. From the shoulderstan-
twist right, pushing the len. side ofthe pelvis ant erior/y. Then Ilex the rigl
knee and right hip, rotate the right thigh laterally, and place the right fOI
and ankle in the half lotus position against the lefl thigh as close as possil.
to the groin. '1'0 complete the posture lower the len foot overhead al
across the body to the floor, or at least as clase to the loor as possible, keeph
the Ieft knee straight (fig. 9.Sl. Repeat on the other side. This posture
rewarding if you want to rest between olher poses in the shouldersta r
senes, and is also an exceJlent preparation tor the full spinaJ hvists that I
accomplished from the half lotus posilion (fig. 7.33a) or from the tulllot
(fig. 7.jjb).
Next, and again from the c1assic shoulderstand, twist lefl, pushing t e
I;ght side of the pelvis antel;or/y, and flex the righl knec and thigh w e
keeping the len knee and lhigh fully extended. Then slowly bring lhe ~ t
kncc diagonully across lhe body tu the llom' beside lhe left ear. Try not n
twil:it your heud to the righl in order to reuch the floor wilh the knee. '1'1' s
exercise requires a lot ofconcentration, a substantiaJ toroo twist, am! cxcelh t
hip flexibility, hut l:iincc lhe right knee is bent, the posture doesn't strel. h
the hamstrings. '1'0 bring the right knee aH the way to the noor, mo t
pcoplc wiIJ have to flex the torso to sorne extent, and perhaps the Icl1 th ig
As far as possible. keep the left thigh extended and the back straight (fi
y.y) . Come back up in reverse arder, first extcnding the right thigh whi
Sil; ,11\',1'/ 0 ,\/ 1 (JI' 11..1 111.1 \(Ki.4
Nnw repeat the last three exercises, ea eh one of thern with the threr
different arm posit ions listed in the section on thc internally supportei
shoulders t and: first with the fingers interlocked, palms pressed tight l
togcthcr and forearms Ilat on the 0001' behind the back; second with t h
arms overhead (flexed 9 ~ and with the forearms extended; and th i...
with the hands alongside the thighs. The main difficulty these exerciss
aU share is that you are no longer supporting thc back with th e hand.
Keep the sternum pressed against the chin, and do the ninc addit ion,
exercises slowly, without comprornising any more than you havo to oTh-
are challenging because it takes a great deal of strength in th e extensors (
the back and hips to keep the body straight. The first set of exercises wi t
the arms and forearrns extended is easiest because the arms support I1
posture. The second set is more challcnging because the relaxed a/
passive arms are unable to prevent flexion of the torso, 'I'he third se t
difficult. for the sarne reason the internally supportcd shouldersta i I
with the arrns flexed overhead 01' alongside the thighs is difficult.: y' . J
have to maintain the posture entiraly with the back muscles, keepii g-
the body straight without the aid of eit her the hands pressing again t
the pelvis 01' the arrns extended and pressing against the floor,
THE PLOW
The plow posture is named for the way the head and shoulders togetl l'
resemble a plowshare cuUing through soil. \Ve mighl also characteli ze e
posture as a shoulderstand rorward bend becau se th e hips and spine e
flexed and the feet. have been pulled overhead. And yet, as in the shoul
stand, you are balancing on sorne combinalion of lhe shoulders. up ' 1'
back, neck, and head. In the classic posture thc feet touch the floor aud le
knees are extended. This is an intennl.><1iate level pose that requires g( .d
flexibility orthe spine and hips, but for be,rinners there are several varial i. lS
that willlead up to it eomfortably. We've al ready done tw the relaxed 1
inverted adion posture and the quartcr plow-in order to introduce le
shoulders tand. We'll continue with the half plow.
THE HALF PLOW
'1'0 come into the half plow, begill in the sllpine position and lift IIp IS
though you are going to come into t.he shoulders tand, but pull the 1, t
furt.her overhead. Try to keep the knees extended, at least on the starL 1 le
idea is to bring the lower ext remit ies parallel to the 11001', approximati n a
75 angl e frorn the chest \ (jg. 9.11) . If that is beyond your capacity you ( n
bend t h , knecs slightly to take tension off the hamstring muscles. You 1 n
also Oex the hips and spine /i little less, so that the thighs end up at n
angle somewhere between the hOl'izontal position in the half plow and t e
45 angle for the quarter plow. Youcan also place the feet against a wall and
search out any comfortable position,
There are endless variations on this posture. If you le supine on the
0001' and roll over backward with the toes making contad with a mattress
01' a thi ck pad, the half plow bccornes a propped class c plow. Noticc that
the further to the rear you bring the feet th e more you will be supporting
your body weight on the shoulders and the tighter will be the bcnd in the
neck . And if you permit the thighs to lifl. up from their position parallcI to
the Iloor; your weight wiII end up more on the upper back and there wil! be
less flexion in the neck. Finally, ir you bend the knees and take them closer
to the Iloor; you will be approach ng the knee-to-ear posture and yoga
nidrasana, which will be described later, AII in all it is easy and rewarding
to spend twenty minutes or so just on the half plow and its many vari ations,
TH E CLASSI C PLOW
The plow posture, like the shoulderstand, can be expressed in rnany different
ways, but 101' most beginning and many intermediate studcnts it can be
done only one way. You come into the posture by lifting the feet overhead
as though you were planning to come into the hall' plow, and then you keep
going until the toes touch the floor, There is no middle ground 101' the
knees. '1'0 qualify for the plow, lhey have to be completely extended. As with
t he shoulderstand, you can either extond the arrns behind your back with
t he hands claspcd 01' Ilex them overhead toward the toes . The lalter is casi el'.
You can either flex 01' extend the feet, but the postw'c is easiest with the
toes and ankles flexed, fOl' the simple reason that the hecls are slightly
higher and you do not have to Ilex the spine and hips quite a" much to come
into the posture. Try to keep the feet and knees together.
Doing the plow po -t u re is compara ble to touching your toes in a sitti ng
forward bend, which you accomplish with sorne eomhination of hip and
spinal flexiono with the addit ion here, of course, of forced l1exion of the
neck. Ir you have limita! Oexibility for forward bending in th e hips, you
won't be able to do the plow except by pushing th e feet all the way to the
Figure 9.11. For the
standard hal( prow pose,
the Ihighs and legs
should be parallel lo the
floor, but lhe posture can
and should be modified
lo mect individual needs,
such as moderale f1exion
o( lhe knees, less f1exion
o( the hips, or more
flexion o( lhe back.
'J. 1111' Sl/fll 'UJlRI7,lflJJ
9.12c. For stage .'hree (lhird varialion) of Ihe plow, Ihe feel are pushed
maxII\1<1l1r overhead wllh lhe loes Ihe hips are f1 exed minimally, and
Ihe haek IS ffexed cnough lo permll Ihe fcel lo reaeh Ihe noor.
Comparcd with the first variation, the average intermediate student
will reveal about 90 01' flexion in t heir hips and about 70 of flexion in
th eir lumbar spines, agai n for a total 01' 160. More weight is on the
shoulders, the chest is lift ed to a more perpendic ular posi tion, and the
angle betwcen the neck and the sternum will be 60-90 depending on
individual constraints.
The third variation takes you into a completely difTerent posturc. For
th is one you push your feet oven more to the rear and press the sternum
against the chi n for the first time, creating a 90 bend between the head
Figure 9.12a. For the
first vari ati on (or stage)
of the plow, the feet
are pushed minimally
overhead, the hips are
f1excd maximally, and
the mid-back L kept as
dose lo the Iloor as
possible.
Figure 9.12b. For
the second stage
of the plow, the
feet are pushed
furlher overhead,
hips are f1 exed
moderalely, and
the back is now
perpendicular to
!he f1 oor.
rear and rai sing the chest so that t he sternum is locked against the chin
and the head is at a 90 angle frorn the sternum. If the chest is perpendi-
cular to the floor; and if t he thighs and legs ru n in a straight line from the
hi ps to the 0001; you will ha ve to Ilex forward a total 01' about 110, possibl y
combining HaOof hip flexion with 30 of spinal flexin, which is usually
within the range of intermediate students. 11' you have to strain to reacl-
the floor with your feet, prop the posture with a thick pad under your toes
THREE VARIATlONS Of THE CLASSIC PLOW
The most flexible students can work with three variations of t he classi
plow. And because it's natural to follow a sequence from the fi rst to t h
last, we can consider them stages 01' the plow as well as complete postun
in their own right, In al l three postures you can either extcnd the arrr
hehind you, flex them overhead, 01' use them to support the back.
FOl' the first stage lie supine on t he floor and bring the feet overhe.
with the heels and toes toge ther and the knees extended. Keep as mue I
weight on the uppcr hac k and as little on the shoulders as possible, whn
means trying to kecp the spine (including the neck) st raight as you low
the toes to the 0001'. U' you choose to keep t he eet and toes flexed, you e I
st rct.ch the hands overhead toward the fce t and grasp t he t oe
Alternatively, you can extend the loes while extending the arms behind y( u
and interlocking the fngers tfig, 9.123). In any case, the more hip llexibil v
you have, th e closer t he thighs will he to the chest an d face and t he rm e
limited will be flexion in the neck, Instead (11' 110 01' flexin betwccn e
chest and thighs as we saw in the half plow, this posture shows mor e 1 e
160, perhaps 120 in the hips and 40 in the lumbar regon. The lower p t
(11' thc chest will be lifted off the Iloor, creating an angle betwccn th e I\l k
and the sternum ofabout 30 (g. 9.123). This is a useful posture in its n
right, especially Ior stretching the hamstrings.
Youcan come into the second variation ofthe plow from tho first , Itl .y
are not given specilic directions, this is the one most students will do 11'
the simple reason that it is the only one they can do. The posture will l k
difTerent dcpending on hip amI spinal flexibility. 'fhose with eXL'Cl1ent P
OcxibiIity wil! ordinarily hold the hack slraighl, f1ex the hips 120, Id
lower th'e feet overhead' (lig. 9.12bl. The angle between the neck and le
slern um will be about HaO. They can either grdSp their toes with their finJ- ,.8
01' extend their arms behind their back, tingers inte r locked (lig. 9.12h) n
any case, l his posture allows those with cxccllent hip flexihility eit her o
make full IIse of it 01' to nex Iheir hips 70-110 and make up the difTere 'e
with spinal flexionoIn the latt er case, the posturc will obviously leave I le
back more rounded posteriorly and wiUpush the !eet further to t he real'. n
tha t case, students may not he ab le to reach t heir t oes with t heir fingert i :l .
and the chest. It is now more convcnient to extend the ankles (plantar
flexion of the feet) and rest on the upper surfaces of the toes. In this stage
both the hips and the lumbar regio n will be less flexed than in the secon d
variation, perhaps 60
0
each in the hips and lumbar spine, for a total of 120'
instead of the lO
o
that is characteristic of the first two variations (fi g'
o.uc). The chest will now be fully perpendicular, at a 90
0
angle from thr
floor and from the neck, and if you want to do so you can take the optior
of pressing the hands against the back exactly as you did in the classi
shoulderstand and for the same reason-to keep the sternum locked tightl
against the chino Alternatively, to sharpen the pose, instead of bracing t h
chest by pressng the hands against the upper back, flatten the arms an 1
forearms against the floor behind the back with the fingers interlockc I
and the palms pressed together. That arrn position lifts your weight evr
higher on the shoulders and pushes the extended toes even further to U
rear (Iig. 9.12c).
Notice that the first variation is more like the inverted action postu
with respect lo neck flexion , and that only in the last variation of the pk v
series is the head and neck in the full 90
0
shoulderstand position. Noti-e
also that a11 three variations are relatively passive, even though you a e
stretching muscles on the back side of the body from head to toe, and th t
this makes the poses especia11y useful for those who have difficulty W I h
forward bending. In contrast to the sitting forward bend, gravity aids 1 e
plow series whether you are flexible or inflexible, so be watchful that y( r
body weight does not pull you further into the posture than is prudent.
STRENGTH AND FLEXIBILITV IN THE PLOW
No matter what version of the plow you are working on, if you wish . 0
lengthen the hamstrings, keep the knees extended as a first priority; if' , lU
wish to work on adductors, abduct the thighs; and if you wish to impr l e
hip flexibility without being irnpeded by either the hamstrings or 1C
adductors, bend the knees, bring them together, and pu11 the thghs eh ~ r
Lo the chest. Notice that if you support the thighs with the elbows in I -is
last variation, you will be moving into what may now be an old filVorit
the relaxed easy inverted action posture.
With the thighs abducted in the plowyou can work with certain stretl e S
that are not accessible in any other posture. First, to work specifically 10
hip flexibility, come into t.he pos with maximum abduetion and flexiOl of
the thighs: you will be stretching both the hamstrings and the adduct. S.
Notice ho\\' far you can abduct th e thighs. Then with the thighs abduct d,
push more to the rear into a posture that s comparable to variation tWI of
the plow, and notice th8t when you do that the thighs can be abducied e\ 'o
further. Tho reason for this is simple. 'rhe shin. from nexion in t.he hipl- ~ o
9 77IE .\ f /() /" I./lI,H.\ T A fl.n 'j 21
flexion in the lumbar regi n takes tension off the hamstrings and those
adductors which have a posterior origin aJong the inferior pubic rami, and
this in turn permts more abduction. This situation becomes increasingly
pronounced the further to the rear you plant your feet . These are great
stretches. After the struggles many students havo with sitting forward
bends in which the thighs are abducted and gravity is thwarting rather
than assisting th e bend, working with the abducted thighs in the plow or
propped plow is a pleasure.
Next, keeping the feet together, bring them to one side and then the
other as far as possible. This combination of a twist with a deep forward
bend can be done from any stage ofthe plow, but try it first with the hands
overhead in variation two, which is a comfortable intermediate balancing
position. Slowly lift your toes just off the floor and slide them to one side
as far as is comfortable. Then slide both feet slowly to the opposite side,
again barely touching the floor, Keep the knees as straight as possible,
don ' t hold your breath, and try not to bounce rom one side to the other,
The only way you can develop the tension needod to mise the toes just
off the floor in this postura is to tighten the back muscles and hamstrings,
But as you mise the fcet the hamstrings come under tension and tend to
flex the knees, and that has to be resisted with the quadriceps femoris
musclos, This is an exercise that can only be done inverted,
The last exercise in this series is to combine the plow with sitting
forward bends and leglifts in a dynamic sequence. If you are slender and
lightly muscled it should be done on a mat or soft surface, Start in the
usual supine position with the hands beside the thighs, palms clown. Then
do a slow double leglift and come into the plow without using your upper
extremities any more than you have to. This is an abdominal exercise. As
soon as your feet touch the floor overhead come out of the postura by
rolling slowly down, one vertebra at a time, Try to keep your head on the
floor instead of raising it up as the middle segment ofyour back rolls clown
(wh ch is easier said than done), and hold enough tension in the abdomen
and arms to keep your pelvis from plopping down . 'I'hen, as soon as the
pelvis reaches the Iloor, slowly lower the feet while keeping the knees
extended. Reep going. When your heels touch the l o l ~ 1'011 slowly up into
a sitting forward bend and reach forward with the hands. Oon't try to bend
from the hips or to establish sacl'Oiliac nutation as a priority. It is more
natural just to roll forward and down. Reep moving. As soon you are in an
easy fuIl forward bend, 1'011 back ciown to a supine position one vertebra ut
a time, do another slow dnuble leglift, and again come into the pIow. Repeat
the sequence as mallY times as is comfortable.
'jU A ,\A lOMr (JI' unrn IO(iA
THE LIFTEO SHOULOERSTAND ANO PLOW
In the lifted shoulders tand and plow, you raise the shculders higher than
the head with a blanket 01' extra-firm mat to make the poses easier anr
to remove stress Irorn the neck. This makes the lifted postures usef u
alternatives for students who are not prepared for the intensity ofthe fui
poses. For an initial trial, the mat should be an inch thick, long enougl
to accommodatc the entire torso, and about three feet wide.
THE L1FTEO SHOULOERSTANO
'I'ry the lifted shoulderstand fir st, Lie supino with th e cdge of the mal. [
the rnid-cervical regi n, the head offthe mat and against the floor. Ever
slowly press the hands against the mat and lift the torso up and the fe,
overhead. 8upport the back with the hands as usual, but be watchful
your balance. The posture is unstable because the sternum is not cor:
pressed against the chin, and ifyou're not attentive you'll fall to one sil
or Ilip over into a backward sornersault, which is diffieult in the reguh
shoulders tand unless you are trying to do it.
Afier you have worked with a one -inch-thick mat you can try the lift .
shoulderstand with one 01' more additional t hicknesses, But the higher t i
support, the more unstable the posture, and the more care you rnust ta
not to fall. Many yoga teachers recommend and even insist on the use 01 I
significant support-perhaps a s-inch thickness of firm matting, 01' son
times even more. But even though the lified shoulderstand will protect t
neck, the remedy can be worse than the cure if you lose your balance a
fall. This is why, if you are having students use extra thick rnats, ,)
should Icad them into the lifted shoulderstand guardedly; making SI l e
t.hat t hcir s houlders are solidly placed and that they have done so e
preliminary experimcntation with a t hin mal. In the li/led shouldors d
illustrated here (fig, 9. 13), a 2.5 inch thick wrestl ing rnat provides substa nt
suppor t,
\Vecal! this pose a lift ed shoulders tand, and that is fair enough, but it s
no longer sa r vangasa na, th e all -membor's pose. It is a shoulders ta :i
because your weight is still placed rnainly on lhe shoulders. but unlike t e
classic shoulderstand it. is more of a bal ancing posture bceause the eree ,r
spinae and muscles of lhe lower extremities do not have lo manlain nca V
as much aetivity to stabilize lo In comparison with tIJe classic shoul d.
;tand, it takes almost no cffor t tu s aighten the body, especially ifyour n t
is 2-4 inches in thickness. 'rhe three internally supported versions of t e
classic posture are a lso easie r with this prop: s i nce the chin is n
compressed again st the neck, th e cervical vertcbrae are not placed un d, r
traction and the sensalions of intensity and enel'gy associatcd with ti
c1assic shoulderstand are either absent or markedly reduced. It is not l ' 1
!l . I nt:.\ I/O"l.IJI R n ;'I M l 'j2J
exaggeration to say that in this pos tu re we lose ahnost all of the defining
characteristics of the c1assic shoulderstand,
In the liftcd shoulderstand the torso is verlical but the ncck anglos off
downhill, about 10 more than a right angle if you are minimally supported,
and more like 45 beyond a right angle if your shoulders are Iifted up by
3-4 inches of firm matting. And the more the head is directed downward
at an angle, the more the neck wiII be supporting the posture (as in the
headstand) rather than being acted upon by the posture (as in th e c1assic
shou lderstand).
'I' he empty space behind the neck in the lifted shoulderst and presenta
one potential problern: it al lows the cervical region lo round to the rear,
creating a reverso cervical curvature, in other words a curvature that is
convex posterior/y instead of anteriorly. In general, t he posture is not
harrnful for a limted time, but if you have this condition in your neck
before you slart working with this series. the lifted shoulderstand should
not be done at al!. It can only rnake a reverse curvatura wors e. 'I'he elassic
shou lderstand, on the other hand, can be therapeutic because that poslure
Ilattens and stretches the cervical regi n.
THE L1FTEO PLOW
If you are not quite ready for the intensity of the classic plow, the Iifted
plow is a useful alternative, Find just the amount of lift needed lo allow the
feet to reach the floor, The lifted plow not only takes stress off the ncek, it
Figur e 9.13. lo work with the lifted
shou lderstand, srart with a one-inch
thick mal ami then increase the
thickness lo 2-5 inches or even more.
Here the shoulde rs are supported by
a 2.5 inch wres tling mal. Be walchful.
lhe lifted pose is much more of a
balan cing postu re than lhe sta nda rd
shoulderstand, and students who
have neve r tried lhis before, eve n
those who are expericnced with the
regular shou lderstand, may
unexpect edly (and quile suddcnly)
tip over backward, jusI as some times
happens if you try to come int o (he
shoulderstand on a slope wilh lhe
hcad do wn.
Sl' . I NATOM I OF l/_177M )()(iA ') /111:" H/O( 'IJ JI-' R.H'Al'V 525
instead of the 100 mm Hg (average) at chest level , we can estmate that
blood pressure in the brain during thc shoulde rstand will be more like an
average of 1\ 0 mm Hg (Iig, l).IS).
It is ohvious th at blood pressure in the head decrcases in the shoulder-
stand in comparison with the headstand, but the situation in the neck is a
separate que stion, One might expect a decrease in blood pressure here as
well, and for the same reason-because in the shoulders ta nd, the neck is
not as far below the heart as it is in th e headstand. This is not, however,
borne out experient ially Unlike the headstand, when you are in the classic
shoulderstand there is a localized sensat ion of ext ra, rather than reduced,
pressure and te nsion in the neck. Exact ly what these sensa t ions mean has
not been tested in the clinic 01' laboratory, but the lore in hatha yoga is that
sorne of the major arteries supplyi ng the brain are slightly occludcd in the
shoulderstand because of t he severe flexion in the neck . And ir that is what
happens, constrictions in those majar arteries could cause increased blood
pressure in any nearby region that is supplied by arteries that branch off
just before the hypot hesized constriction.
head
neck
r-

I- r- - -- 1-

r- 1- - f---- .-
-

c--- 1- i- i- - -
- - -- - - - .-

rr n n rr
-
also makes the postura easier than the classic plow because you do not have
to have as much hip and back flexibili ty to lower the feet to the floor whil o
keeping the knees straight. The same cautions apply here as for th e lift ed
shoulderstand. The higher the support , in this case two, 2.) inch rnat s
combined lfig. 9.14), the more unstable the posture. Procecd with caution.
CIRCULATION
Circulation and res piration go hand in hand. When athletes speak of cardio
respiratory fitness they are talking about both funetions: getting air int .
the lungs and transferring oxygen from the lungs to the tissues ofthe bod
tchapter 2) . Inverting the body afTects these processes profoundly and i
dfferent ways dependi ng on the specific posture, We'lllook at six posturt
t hat illustrate sorne of the difTerences: the headstand, the shouldersta r ,
the inverted aetion posture, t he lifted shoulderstand, stage one ofthe plo
lyi ng with the chest almost flat , and stage three of the plow with the fe
pu lled ful ly overhead.
Like the headstand, the shoulderstand and re lated postures drain blo-
and excess fluids from the lower extrcrnities and abdominopelvic orgai
and for this reason they are excellent practices for anyone with va rice
veins or sluggish circulation in the lower half of the body. The effects
circulation in the head and neck, however, are different and more compl x
in the shoulders ta nd than they are in the headstand (fig. ').151. The t
obvious point of contrast is that blood pressure in the head is lower in t e
shoulderstand because the vertical distance botween the heart and t e
brain is only a few inches, while it is roughly 12-16 inches in th e headst a 1.
dependi ng on your body type. If we calculare that average blood press e
in the brain during the headstand is around I}O mm Hg (Iigs . H.2 1I1ld l) )
C>
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E
S
Ql
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a.
'O
o
o
1i

Ql
t:
l1l
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el
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l1l
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
o
standing
poslure
head
stand
shoulder-
stand
inverted
action
posture
fifted
shoulder-
sland
plow,
variat ion
#1
plow,
variation
#2
Figure 9.14. The lifted plow is a pleasure for Ihose whose f1exibilily
cannot quite aceomudate lo lhe c1asslc plow. He re Ihe shoulders are support
by Iwo. 2.5 ine h mats eumbined. lhis is nol as much of a ba lancing posture a'
Ihe lifted shouldersland beeause the feet reach Ihe f1oor, but t he re is still a
te ndency for Ihe unini t ialed slu denl lo lip over in a baekward somersa ult.
Figure 9.15. Comparbons of postulal 'd regional blood pressurL's in standing
and various nverted postures: eaeh poslure (fmm Ihe lefi), the average
arle rial blood pressure (s)'stohddlastulic. over lime) is eslimaled loeally for
Ihe head, neek. ches!. and ank les.
We can gain insight into this puzzle and find a possible solution to it b.
comparing the inverted action pose with the shoulderstand. The distanc
between the heart and the neck, and betwcen the heart and the head, al'
almost the same in both postures, so any difforences in blood pressure du
to the pull of gravity should be minimal, But anyone who has compared t h
postures experientially notices two things about the inverted action POSt
in the neck there is dramatical1y less local tensi nand pressure than in ti
shoulderstand, and in tho eyes, ears, and lace, there is an increased sens
tion of pressure. There is only one way to explain these findings easily- t
postulating that, cornpared with the c1assic shoulderstand, the invertr I
action posture releases constrictions in the great vessels ofthe neck, whu
in turn allows blood to course more easily into the head,
The lifted shoulderstand has its own special effects on circulation (fi
y.I';) . With the shoulders elevated the heart is lilted even higher than in t i
shoulderstand, and this will increase the blood pressure in the brain
accordance with the height of' the lit. You do not notice this so much if ) . u
are using a one-inch mat, but it becomes pronounced as you raise yours If
higher. Lifted up five inches you feel a rush of pressure in the head wh 1
is almost identical to that felt in the headstand.
The plow postures, with the fcet louching the floor overhead, have si 11
a different effect on circulation. Here there is no pronounced drainagc ,f
blood from the lower extremities, but once blood is in the abdominal rcg n
it will be recirculated quickly back to the hearL As far as effects in the hr d
and neck are eoncerned, ifyour hamstrings and hip nexibility allow YOl o
draw the feet overhead without lifting the chest very far off the Iloor (a, n
variation one ofthe plow), the heart will bejust a litUe further offlhe n, Ir
than it is in the corpse posture. The fcct and lower extremities will not ' le
very far up in the air, and the posture will affect blood pressure in the h d
only mildly (fig. 9.15). But if you are flexible enough Lo take the plm l O
variation three by pu shing the feet lo the real' and flexing the n' k
maximally, the expected effect on blood pressure in the head and neck 111
be similar' lo what we scc in the shoulderstand (fig. 9.
15).
RESPIRATION
In the shouldersl:and and illi related postures, sorne ofthe effects ofbr('at l' Ig
are similar lo what we found in the headstand, but we also see severa! mI ,1'-
tunt dilferenccs. For one thing you are generally more at your leisure in e
shouldershmd and plow seties; for anothcr you can watch your abdomer
you brcathe, cvaluate the chameter of exhalation and inhalation, and t le
your rate of breathing with the second hand of a watch.
Starting with the c1assic shoulderstand, repcat the experiment we d
earlicr with tlle headstand: brcathe normally 101' several cyc1es and t i n
'} 1I11i W/(}{:"WRSTAAlJ 527
relax the respiration suddenly at the end of a normal inhalation, As in the
headstand, you will notice that air is expelled with a whoosh and that the
abdomen caves in suddenly as the diaphragm relaxes and the abdominal
organs drop without restraint toward the head and neck. Anyone who
undcrstands how the diaphragm works can then return t normal breathing
and sense how it ord inarily restrains exhalation in the shoulderstand by
lengthening eccentrically and restraining the fall of the abdominal organs
toward the 0001'.
The most important difference betweon breathing in the headstand and
in the elassic shoulderstand is that the headstand allows slower, deeper
breathing. As we saw in chapter ti, it is easy lo acc1imate to as few as 3-4
breaths per minute in the headstand; in the shoulderstand it is inconvenient
to breathe at rates of less than h-R breaths per minute, and 20 breaths per
minute Ieels more comfortable. Why this happens is a mystery. As in the
headstand, you can't breathe thoracically 01' paradoxically, but abdominal
breathing feels free and easy, Por whatever reason, in the end, the tidal
volume seerns tu be rcduced in the shoulderstand, and the more you reduce
the tidal volume, the Iaster you have t breathe to get enough airo The
question is, why is the tidal volume reduced? One possible answer is that
expansion of the chest is even more restricted in the shoulderstand than it
is in the headstand. \Ve know that diaphragmatic breathing cannot take
place if the base of the rib cage is constricted (chapter 1), and we know that
we depend on diaphragmatic hreathing to reduce our respiration to 3-4
breaths per minute in the headstand, Thc confounding element in the classic
shoulderstand is possibly that your hands are pushing so insistently on the
lower border of the rib cage that the diaphragm cannot easily enlarge it
from its base .
The lifted shoulderstand is still diUerenL This is a more relaxed posture
than the ordinary shoulderstand, hut for reasons that are not entirely clear
the mte ofhreathing inereases, especially ifthe posture is liftcd 3-4 inches.
Come into this pose afl(!r timing your mte of breathing in the shoulder-
stand, and you will suddenly feel a scnse of urgcncy to brealhe faStel: If
your normal rate of hreathing in the dassic shoulderstand is 20 breaths
per minute, it may go up tQ about 30 breaths per minute in the liflOO
shoulderstand. The source and neurologic mcchanisms for th e increased
rute of breathing are not clcar, but it feels like a rcflex, and it may have
something to do with the faet that the neck is no longer nexed 1.) 0 .
Respiration in the plow is similar to that in the shoulderstand but
somewhat slower, especially if you are able to make yourself eomfortable.
'rhe forward benll creates a situation similar' to that seen in
the sitting forward bend in which each inhalation lifls the body and each
exhalation lets you drop furthcr forward. The same thmg happens in the
n
il
plow except now it is the body that is fixed in position and the lower
oxtrornitios that can be lifted. And that's what we find. Come into the second
stage (variation) of the plow posture, and you'lI find that each inhalation
tends to lift the toes offthe 0001'. If you are not convinced. inhale as deeply
as possible in such a posture and the picture will become dear.
Although there are differences in breathing among the various invertor
action postures, most of thern increase the rate of hreathing to around 3(
breaths per minute. This is partieularly noticeable in the passive inverte
action postures supported by a ball 01' by the edge of a couch. In most e
these postures you are so relaxed that you breathe out most of you
expiratory reserve in a quick burst as the abdominal viscera press again-
the diaphragm from aboye. lt's like a mild, automatic kapalabhati (chapt r
2) in which the short bursts ofexhalation are followed by longer inhalation
The difference here is that the exhalations are passive instead of activ
You can breathe evenly if you want in passive inverted action postures l
consciously restraining exhalations, but doing so requires constant attent i I
SEQUELAE
Now we turn Lo a variety of exercises and postures that in one way 01' anot h
cIosely relate to the shoulderstand and plow series. Sorne of them strength- I
the neck and others pamper it ; sorne prepare you for the formal postures a
others counteraet their stresses; and often the same oxercise confors mr
than one of these benefits. The threading-the-needle and knee-to-ear pos
are good training tools for both the plow and the shouldorstand, limbering t e
upper body lo prepare you for the plow, and accustorning you to stress in t
cer vical region. The arch and bridge are also excellent training postures wh h
can either be used in preparation for the shoulderstand and plow 01' as folle
IIp posturas, along with the fish, lo proviele counterstretches for t e
back. We'll end with yoga ndrasana, the last postura before embarking n
relaxation and rneditation poses in chapter lO, and a suprernely eornforta e
forward benel for those who can do il without stress and strain.
RESISTANCE NECK EXERCISES
In chapter 7 we looked al. neck exercises in which you simply take the lu d
through its full nmge of mol ion, differentiating among the movements t 11.
are possible between the cranium and CI, between CI and C2, and betw
C2 aod TI. Jn all such exercises minimal muscular activity is needed u
you come to the end of the excursion. al. which point joinl and ligam< It
rcstrictions pcrmil no more thao ao isometric e/lort. Such work is usp' 1,
bul. it is even more cffective to create sorne form of resistance 1.0 m k
movements fmm beginning to end, and this is the definition of resista. 'e
neck exel'cises.
lJ. 7/1/; ~ { O '1I 1/;' N.\7;l tI'II 529
These exercises can be done at any time during the course of in verted
postures. Doing them before the shoulderstand will prepare the neck muscles,
joints, and ligaments for the unusual stresses and strctches to follow. They
are also helpful after the headstand because that posture places a constant,
isometric stress on the muscles ofthe neck, and the best way we can counter-
act that static condition is lo challenge the muscles throughout their full
range of motion. Use rnoderation, however. espccially in the beginning.
Although these exercises are safer than ordinary neck movements, it can't
hurt t.o be cautious.
Ten resistance neck exercises will get you started. First press the right
hand against the right side of the head and at the sarne time bring the right
ear toward the right shoulder by tightening the muscles on the right si de
of the neck. Resist this movement wth the right armoThen slowly raise the
head, still pushing with the hand and resisting with the neck. As soon as
you reach the upright position keep going to the other side by pressing the
left cal' toward the left shoulder wilh the right hand, still rosisting all the
way with the rnuscles on the right sirle of the neck (fig, 9.16l. Go from side
lo sirle as far as possible two 01' three times. Second, repeat the cxercise
from the other side wth the len hand pushing against the len side of the
head as the muscles on the left side of the neck resist. '1 hird, bring both
Figure 9.16. This is the first o len or more
re istance neck exercises, Here the model
is resisling lateral f1exion o the neck and
head to his left wilh his right hand. lhat s,
he is pushing with his right hand and
resisting with Ihe muscles on lhe righl side
of his neck. This is followed by slowly
pulling his head to his right as far as
possible. still resisling all the way with his
right hand. lhe movements should be
done slowly enough that they have an
isomelric characler. Number twu in lhe
series is done wilh lhe left hand, and lhe
rest follow logically.
UD I\I\AlnMI OF III1HM ID(;,1
hands to the forehead and slowly pull the chin toward the sternum an
then Lo the real' as far as possible, creating resistance with the hands in
both directions all the way. Fourth, rcpeat with both hands behind t hc
head. In all of these exercises move slowly enough so that th e tension ha-
an isometric character at any given mamenlo
For exercise number five, twist the head 45 lo the right and then mm
it from right front to left real', resisting the movement with the right han.
placed on the forehead: for number six twi st the head 45<to the left a
resist the movement from left front to right rear with the left hand. f'l
number seven and eight repeat with the fingers interlocked behind d'
head, first with the head twisted 45 to the right and then 45 to the left .
For number nine twist the head and neck axially as far as you can
both directions, resisting the movement with the right hand on the 1<'
temple and with the left hand behind the head almost to the right cal'. Yo
hands are trying lo twist the head lo the right and the neck muscles a l
resisting; you can go all the way to the right, but you are limited when Yl
go Lo the left because the left forearm stops the twist before you reach YO' r
limit. For numberten, switch hands and again twist while resisting, Nc o{
you can go all the way lo the left but are limited when you go to the rigt
Frorn hcre on you are limited only by your imagination. You can tw 1
first, and then go forward and backward, 01' you can take your hcad for wai
backward, 01' to the side, and then resist a twisting movernent, 01' you C I
resist large ares of rnovement, looking under the axilla on one si de a J
creating an are up and back lo the other side.
Muscular resistance is a time-testee! agent for protecting the body
weH as slrengthening it., and combining st rengt h-building exercises \\ h
those that improve flexibility can help a lot in building confidence for do g
the headstand and shoulderstand. The exercises are safe provided u
build your capacity for them slowly.lnterestingly, afier you have done th n
for a few months the neck will be stronger than the upper extremities, 1 d
no matter how hard you push with your hands you will be able to stop le
movement with the neck muscles.
SELF-MASSAGE OF THE N ECK
Most of the invelte<! postUl'es place unusual strc..c:;ses on the neck, and 8.11) 1 le
who spends a lot of time with lhem should coddle the associated mUSl "
ligamenl s, a nd bony s t r uct u res On e way is to administer sorne . ' f
massagc by pressing the neck down against the same 1:\ 1/2 inch playgrOl ld
ball discussed in conncction with passive backbending in chaptcr 5
Start by placng the ball under your upper shouldensju:st below the o. lE!
ofthe neck at 'fl. From that position you can roU lhe body down so that 1 le
ball is in contad with successively higher regioos of the ncck and he I.
!J. 71/1; \'l/OliLDEN.\T AMJ
ending with the back of the skull where the st rap muscles insert on the
occipital regi n 01' the craniurn. 01' you can start in the middle and work
both down and up. Starting in the mid-cervieal regi n, you can either press
your weight st raight backward into the ball 01' twist the neck one way 01'
the other whil e pressing the head to the real'. The forrner will affect th e
insertions and origins of muscl es that at ta ch to the back of th e head and lo
the spinous processes of the vertebrae; the latter wiII massage muscI es
whose tendons attach both to spinous processes and to tran sverse processes.
In either case you will be manually st imulat ing the Golgi tendon organs
and relaxing their associated muscles.
In company with the resistance neck exercises, this self-massage not
only st re ngt hens and relaxes the neck, it also gives you effective feedback
as to right-left imbalances. You will sense diferences in tenderness 01'
mobility on the two sides, and this will enable you to plan a more effective
practice. Aft.er you have toughened up the joints, muscles, and ligaments,
and after you have adapted to an ti 1/2 inch playground ball, you can
graduate to a harder volleyball, soccer hall, 01' basketball, which is where
wrestlers and bodybuilders can begin .
No matter what your stage of praetice, as you become famili ar with the
sensations created by the resistance neck exercises and self-massage with
a playground ball , you will gain more sensitivity to the inverted postures
that you need to approach with caution as well as to those you can
approach with more enthusiasm, 'I'hese are great exercises for engendering
self-awareness.
THREADING- TH E-NEEDLE
'I'he threading-the-needle posture and its vari ants can bedone at any time in
a sequence of inverted postures, They prepare you for what is yet to come
and relax you from what you just did. 'l'he threading-the-necdle posture
could also be called the moldboard plow posture, namcd for a modern plow
that throws the dirt in only one direction. Another name for it is the trapezius
stretch. narned from how it st retches and stimulates that muscl e tlig. s.to).
It is also one of lhe best postures for st rctching the muscl es on the side of the
neck, for flexing the spine in a modera tcIy twisted position, for working wilh
hip Oexibility unencumbered by and adductors, and for preparing
you for advanced spinal twi sts. And if you are strcssed out by your job and
fmd yoursclr wanting a massage for the muscl cs in your nt.>ck and uppcr
back, you willlind l his posture a special friendo
Starl out on a mat 01' other padded surlilce in a hands-and-knees posit ion.
Then bring t he point of th e right shoulder against the pad, and strctch th e
right arm and forearm under the body to place th e r ight dbow against the
lateral edge of lhe left knee. Place the right temple in a comfortable position
S.U ,1\,A 7YJM I' OF IIA771A IOC",'
against the pad and rol! the head against the 0001; twi sting it to the len an r
looking up toward the ceiling. Rol! the head back to a neutral position wit l
the weight against the temple on the right side, Twist it back and forth a
far as is cornfortable, rocking and soot hing the cranium. Repeat on t h
other side with the left elbow beside the right knee. Th ese exe rcises al
prelirninary to the next st retch.
Bcgin as before. Reach down with the right hand again. but this lime h
the left knee and foot over the right forearm and then pu sh the bol'
forward with the left foot so that your weight settles on the back side of ti
right shoulder. If you can kcep both knees down, fine, but if you are
very flexible you may not be able to kcep your balance while you mil 01
the back of the shoulder. [f this is the case, you may have to stretch the I
foot out further to the side and then forward lo keep yourself from toppli .;
over onto your right sido. You also have to keep the right knee benl tt
right knec rcpresents the rolling cutter of the moldboard plow), f'\/
stretch the left foot out lo the sitie so that the right arm and forearm IL
thread) end up lying on the Iloor between the two legs (t he eye ofthe nccdl
Alternalively, you can ease yourself slightly out ofthe posture and place t e
right elbow to the right side of the right knee (fig, 1).17a). From that posit 1
swing your right hand even further around behind you, and that will bl h
kcep you from toppling over and help you mil over onlo both should ' S
combined, Explore the pos tura lo find the position in which you ar e mt t
comfortable.
Flattening bot h shoulders against the floor is the rnost rewar d g
position for stretching the trapezius and si rap muscles of the neck. lf 1I
topple over, lhe main reaRon is that your outside knce (01' loot ) is not pll
lar enough out and forward. And if: in spitc 01' al! your eITorts you stiJI k p
falling over, try doing the posture on a son mattress. The shoulder you .;t
apply to lhe mattress will di g in. and it will be easier lo press t.he other .e
down as well. This way you will be able to fcel lhe essence of the postl e,
and as you become more flexible you can use a harder sur face. Repea ,n
lhe othel'
Ifyou find this posture difficult, don 't rush. Approach it in a spiril of r IY
Once it starts fL'Cling eomforlable you wil! value it gr eat ly for relie\ Ig
st ress in the and neck and for serving a bridge bctween m 'e
demanding poslures. lt is a special help fol' who are not. quite ablt lo
do lhe classic plow. It is also valuable as a counlerhalance lo the d.
espeeial1y if that posture is held for more than 3-5 minutes. And after IU
have acclimatcd lo the simplest lhreading-the-ne<.'<!le version you In
sear eh oul small variations. You ean work on lowering the outside 1<1 'El
dosel' to the 0001', and afier you are confident you can swing around fr In
one side to the olher. Firsl bring lhe legs in line with the bocly, remain )1'
f) 77Jl: \II()/ 'U J/ R.\'fi1{\ / J S.U
a momenl in any r claxed easy inverted aelion postura with th e knees bent
(fig. \).2), and then keep on going by swingi ng the knecs to the other side.
This next variat.ion of threading the needle could be called the halflotus
thrcading-the-needlc (fig. y.17b) bccause one foot is pullcd into th e hall'
lotu s position in the final pose. It is especially valuable as proparation for
the full spinal twi st (Iig. 7.33b). From the beginning hands-and-knees
position, again bring the right elbow lo th e lateral side of t.he left knee and
place the right temple against th e floor. Lift the left knce over the right
forearm and thread the necdle by pushing over ont.o the right shoulder
with the aid of the left. fooL So far everything is the sarne as in th e basic
Figure 9.17a. This is one of several possible variations of Ihe trapezius stretch. In
this case the right elbow is localed lo the righl side of the right knee (frorn Ihe
perspective). For the rnulboard plow, or Ihreading Ihe needle, lhe
nghl elbow ano forearm would be helween the Iwo knees. [veryone should
experiment freely lo make this poslure a special, personalized joyoIn lime,
many variations will suggest themselves lo you.
Figure 9.17b. This pose might well be allec! the half lolus trapczius stretch It is
e"acUy Iike lhe one in frg. 9. 17a except lhal the righl foot and ankle are
in a half posltlon lhe lop of lhe left thigh . Becausp lhe botly is
lWlsted markedly, Ihls poslure IS cspecially valuable as a lraining tuol for lhe full
spinal twist.
9. TI//, S/ /O/lL UER.\TANO 535
THE FISH
We discussed the fish pose with backward bcnding (fig. ).28) because it is a
backbending posture, and we described the super fish leglift with
abdominopelvic exercises (fig. 3.19b) in relation lo abdominal strength.
Traditionally, however, the fish is practiced after the shoulders tand and
plow beeau se it gives the neck an effective counterstret.ch and because it
opens and releases the chest after the stress of those two postures, Several
variations are common. The lower extremiti es can be crossed in either the
easy posture (fig, 9.1l) ) or the lotus posture (fig. ) .21'1), but the fish posture
that is usually taught to beginners is sharper. It simply involves keeping
the feet outstretched, with the heels and toes together, lifting up on the
forearms, arching the back and neck, and placing a little of your upper
body weight on the back of the head (fig. j .19a). As soon as you are confi -
dent that thc neck is strong you can reside in the posture with the hands
in the prayer position. And as soon as the neck gets really strong you can
do a wrestler' s bridge, supporting the ent ire body between the feet and
head, arching up as high as possible, and extending the head and neck (fg,
9201.
The superfish leglifl (fig, 3.Il)b) is excellent both for building strength
and for complernenting th e shoulderstand and plow. It counters your incli -
nation to flex the back in the shouiderstand and to flex both the back and
the hips in the plow, and it balances the emphasis on counternutation of
the sacroiliac joi nts in both postures. Frorn a supine position lift the torso
Figure 9.19. This fish pose using
the easy poslure is supportcd
mostly by the forearrns; HUle
weight is borne by lhe head
and neck (also see figs. 3.19a
and 5.28).
Figure 9.20. The wrestler's
bridge is excellenl for
improving f1exibility for
backbending, for
slrenglhening lhe neck,
and for slretching lhe hip
f1exors and quadriceps
femoris muscles.
534 ANA1'VMI " 01' /lA 11M IOGA
posture, Now grab the ri ght fool with the right hand and pull i t forward,
and at the same time straighten the len. knee and pull the right foot to t hr
front side of the left thigh in a half lotus position, PuB the right foot a::-
close lo the top of the thigh as possible and slowly flex the len. thigh
lowering the len knee lo the floor or m; far down as it wiIl go (fig. 9.17b). 1
you can't get the right foot aIl the way up to the crease between the thi gl
and t he torso, you wiIl obviously not be abl e lo flex the len thigh. Don '
ru sh it.
THE KNEE-TO-EAR POSE
It is natural lo foIlow the threading-the-needle posture with the knee-tr
ear posture, although if your flexibility is limited, you may wish to del
this until after you have gotten comfortable with the plow, the bridge, an
the fish, '1'0 do the post ure you simply lower down from the shoulderstar
or plow, or swing over into the midline from th e threading-the-need
posture and place the knees on the floor beside the ears, You can simp
reside there or you can wrap the hands around the thi ghs and pull t he l
further into the posture (fg. l).18). The hamstring rnuscles do not lirnit t
knee-to-ear pose because the knees are bent. And because the adducto
are also not stretched, the posture is lirnited solely by the hip joint and 1 e
soft tissues of the groin. If you are close lo completing the pose you (.. n
temporarily interrupt your efforls, do sorne forward bending and h
opening postures, and the knee-to-ear pose will then come more easily.
The threading-the-needle and knee-to-ear postures complernent t e
shoulderstand and plow in that they are rnild but effeet ive neck stretcl s
and do not roquire loo rnuch of the lower ext remiti es. They are especi a y
helpful as preparatory postures for the plow, Jimbering th e uppcr body o
that it is flexibl e enough for you to be able to at tend more single-rnindo v
to st re tchi ng the harnstring rnuscles.
Figure 9.18. The knee-lo-ear po!;lure i!; nol limiled eilher by lhe
(because Ihe knees are f1exed), or by the adduclors (beca use the Ihlgh!; are
moslly adductedl, and means Ihe pose. especially valuablc.for pu.shing
lhe hip joinls lo lheir maxlmally f1exed posl\lons. You can come 1010 Ihls pos -
lure from lhe shouldersland, fmm Ihe plow, or fmrn Ihreading lhe needle.
THE AR C H
1
I
t he hamstrings aet bctween the pe lvis and thc legs-and all are working in
con<..'ert lo lift the pelvis toward the ceiling. In those who are least flexible.
the arch is resisted by the rectus fernoris muscles, which act between th .
pelvis and the knees to restrict the pelvis Irom being lifted very far, In
t hose who are stronger and more flexible, the arch is resisted by the hip
tlexors and abdominal rnuscles. You produce a nalural ashwini mudra in
this posture, pulling inward with both the gluleal muscles and the pelvic
diaphragm.
We have seen that anyone who has knee problems may find that placing
tensinn on the knees when they are flexed causes pain, so the arch posture
is contraindicated in that case. Exccpt for that, it is safe Ior beginners
beca use il is supported so completely with muscular aclivity. To come out
of it YOU just drop back down lo the tloor.
9. 11//: S//O/ '/ n f.RST.1t\1J 537
THE BRIDGE
Like the areh, the bridge posture counteracts some of the etTects of the
shoulderstand and plow by arching the baek . But unlike the arch, the
bridge supports the lower back with the forearms and hands, This has tWQ
effeels: it allows the deep back museles to rclax, and it requires additional
extensi n. The postura is also a good preparation Ior the shouldorstand and
plow, and it can even be used as a substituto by those who are wary ofbeing
fully inverted. The main differenee is that the bridge docs not require you
lo pul! the lower hall' of the body straight up in the air (as in lhe shoulder-
stand) 01' overhead (as in the plowl. Even so, students will experience many
of the sensatol1s in lhe neck, shoulders, and uppcr back that wiII be
found in more intense form in the other postures.
figure 9.22. The bridge posturc in its final form demands a heaJthy back.
Placing Ihe hands with Ihe Ihumbs in and Ihe finger out is casier rhan Ihe
position ,hown here wilh Ihe fingers tlirected loward the renler of Ihe back
and Ihumbs roming up Ihe sities. Al first keep the knees btml to make Ihe
posture easier, and come inlo Ihe pose from Ihe shoulderstand. ome back
up inlo rhe shouldcrsland one foot al a lime befare trying lo come in and
oul symmelricalIy (bolh feel down and back up al Ihe same lime).
e
el
d
e
e
) -
d
'k
parrially up, suppol"ting yourself with thc forearms, and place the pal 1
under the hips. Then !ift the lower back and chest maximally, draw the t 'S
tuward the head, extend the knees fully, and mise the heels an inch ur 1
As in the flsh, your head should barcly touch the tlOVI". J .
Raising the thighs is accornplished by the psoas and iliacus mu se
aided by lhe rectus fernoris rnuseles acting as synergists, and since 1:
psoas lifts directly frorn the lumbar lordosis with little help from
abdominal rnuscles, t.he spinal origin of the psoas should be stabiliz{'(! -n
the forward position befo re you attempt lo lift the lower extrernities, Tu -t
the rnost benefit frorn this exercise, be sure tu start the leglift wit h le
joint in full nutalion. Keep that attitude along with the dee st
possible lumbar arch as you start to flex the thighs. You probably ca n' ! 'o
ve/y far: unless you have excellent hip flexibility you will not be able tI
up more than an ineh or two beore you Ieel the back begin to Ilatten d( n
against the floor,
SJti OF //,I11/A Hl<ul
The arch and the bridge postures extend tho back Irom the chcst clown.
except in the neck they counter the forward bending tendencias of
shoulderstand and plow. You wilI find that afier doing either the bridg Jr
the fish fOI" a minute or so you can come back up into the shouldersr
and use your back and gluteal fel/" that posture with rcnewed ene
Although the arch and the bridge look as if lhey are related, lheir muse
skeletal dynamics are quite different.
The arch is the simplest 01' the two pOStures and the best one 1'01' Ix" \_
ners. Begin in a supine position and grasp the feet or the heels with
hands and ift lhe pelvis as high as possible with the deep baek musele;.
glutcus maximus museles, and lhe hamstrings (fig. 9.21l. The decp I
musclcs are contracting eonecntricaJly belween the ehest and lhe pe'
lhe gluleus maximus muscles ad betwcen the pelvis and the lhighs.
Figure 9.21. The arch
is a good
prcparation for the
more t1emanding
bridge pose. Uf! Ihe
pelvis as high as
possible to slrelch
Ihe hip f1exors and
Ihe quadriceps
femoris musdes.
5.l11 AMHrJMI" O /' HA n /A YOGA
'J. 11/1: .\ /II J/ '1/JrR.\7"A,\'O 539
BENEFIT5
The shoulderstand creates ntense sensations throllghoul lhe neck, bul
l he medical correlales of this are not obvious. It is an article of failh and
expericnce among halha yogis lhat this poslure has beneficial efrects on
a weallh of functions: regulation of mctabolism and mineral balance by
lhe thyroid and parathyroid glands, beneficent influences on the larynx
and specch, and salutary effecls on immune function in lhe thymus
gland and tonsils. But aside from anecdotal reports that practicing the
shoulderstand is a good remedy for sore lhroals and nervous coughs
(especiaJly in children who are unable lo faU asleep), and that vigorous
practice of the classic posture und its variations enhances thyroid
function in lhose who have mi Id hypothyroid conditions lhat are not due
to iodine deficiency, we do not have much lo go on. And without data
reported in the peer-reviewcd literature, lhere is liltle we can say other
t han agree lhat such effects are possible but lInsubstanliated.
th at posture with the sacroiliac joi nts in full counternutation, the knees
sl ightly ben t, the t highs placed agai nsl the sides of the chest, t he legs
placed behind Lhe head an d ncck, and the ankles interlocked, you wil\ be
envisioning yoga nidrasana.
To come into the pose, you can either begin with variation one of the
plow, roll down a lit tle more onto the back, and puU the legs bchind the
head from that position, or you can come into a supine posi tion, cradle the
legs one at a time, and again pull them into position, In either case. rest the
head on the crossed ankles and complete the posture by bringing the arms
outside the thighs and interlocking the hands bchind the back (fig, 1).23)
Yoga nidrasana is challengng. '1'0 do it, you must have enough hip and
sacroiliac flcxibi lity to press the knees to the Iloor alongsidc the chest in
the supino position, and your hamstrings must be long enough to permit
the ankles lo be interlocked behind the head. This posture is named afier
the meditati va praetice ofyoga nidra (yogic sleep) although it wiII probably
be raro t han anyone will be ab le lo do t hat practice in t his de manding pose.
Most pupils wiII attempt exp loration of yoga nidra in the corpse posture.
Even so, the association of yoga nidrasana with the practice of yoga nidra
makes t he pose a fitting conclusion to what we have learned so far and
points the way to the next chapter on re laxation and meditation.
\
I

Figure 9.23. Yoga nidrasana is

espccially demanding of hip
f1 exibility, and is a fitting end lo
a practicc session of halha yoga
and to beginning a praclice of
relaxalion and medilalion.
' I'he easicst, alt hough the least elegant, way to come into thc bri dge is t,
start by Iying flat on the 1100r, lift ing t he pelvis, and working your hand
into posit ion under t he lower back. Al. this point you have two options fl
the hand position and lwo for the fcet. ' I'hose who have wrists th ey .
trust for maxirnal extcnsion can poinl t heir fingers rnedially; if that is 11
difficult, they can support the posture with the hcels of the hands and l.
the fingers extend laterally around the lower back. For Ioot position, t h
who have excellent strength and Ilexibi lity can stretch their feet straig
out in front of them, keeping the knees extended (fig. 1).22), but a mo
mod rate position is lo bend the knees 1)0 and plant the eet flat on ti
Iloor,
Ifyou want to come into the bridge from the shoulderstand, which is t
usual choice, you will probably need lo learn it in stages, Ami the way t
this is to assume the shoulderstand and then simply bring one foot do
as Iar as you can, going slowly and remaini ng certain that you will be al
to come back up un der control. Do t he same wit h the othcr foot, and repi
t he exe rcise over and over until you are con fident that you can reach t
floor with one foot and still return Lo the shoulderstand.
' I'he next stage is lo lower the second foot lo the 1100r and then bn
bot h Ieet (but sti l l one al a time) back up into t he shoulderstand. Ther
no su bstitute for trial and error in doing this exercisc. Once lhe lead fl
is most of t he way clown, you are commi tted lo bringing it all the way dO\\
And once you gel one foot down , you will want Lo get th e other foot dO\
gracefully and t hen geLboth fcet back up without having lo toss them ir I
the airoIf it is beyond your capacily to come back up inlo the shouldersta
lhe same way you carne down (meaning slowly and under control), you .
always releasc the hands fram lhe back and supporl the pelvis inslead,
as a last resort you can lower down inlo the arch and from that sa
position case yourself lo lhe /loor.
The most advanced bridge is lo lower both feet al lhe same time towa i
lhe floor in front of YOU. 'fhen, aftcr remaining in the pose for a minute I
so. galher your energy and slowly raise both feet straight up in the a l
again at the same lime, in order to come back into the shouldcrstand. '1
make lhis easier, you can kcep lhe knccs bent and drop down only on ti
balls of the feet, which requires keeping the ankles extended and the tOl
/lexed. Both this and the hand position with the fingers pointing laterall
willlessen the extension required ofthe back.
YO GA NIDRA5ANA
In yoga lIidrasGnG you are nol resling on the lriangular regon formed by th,
back of lhe head, lhe ncck, and lhe shoulders (as in the shoulderstand), bu
on Lhe upper back (as in varia! ion one of the plow). In fact, if you envisiOl
0/0/// t7jl<' lo 14' ("1l1...t?y o/'I/<"
I/ Y,I>t"ld a,n //lU/ '.// .1 o/ ./ n 'U/ ".flNJr//l a ,
.:Am /<' //"/Ii".'R..f//-t".1.1 a,r' I.1I/t?/ 1:'/,11 lIJE rk-P0,a wtr/'// o/4c l olc.1
//1 tAl' r aJr "y"//ln IC.1 a.rtJI/ty' /""//1 IAE
r/; j7U/OY7/
W
c/ OI't7.rf:C.1 1/7 tkftma/e.1 1"17/1 k .rlnl.Jtiv tJ,-
r/'/Ilr t"//u/ rY I/lr ///Y/r//ct' o/ -,/ l u 'l ' a/lpaJa,rw.. 2;p.yI"1
IJl a,
..1Itjl t7/ ti?/l , ;;//,//10, N 4
,Ja/Yl rL//?t7JrL/ta aJ f/le//a J 4- ,://)'Jh aJO//A , ..
- Swarni Kuvalayananrln, in Popular Yoga Asanas, p. 67,
CHAPTER TEN
RELAXATIN AND
MEDITATl
r.yvc/a //0 1;;/ rO//OI.ylhl l rw r/1'Yf-/?
r.("/I O,/I./:Jo/' ka/.:S-.1f/{'/ o. ) Ind/, /11'1'71"" ', fl/lrllt"lIC 1"1' 1/14
lIt/Ji &fy!ll.' o /1h t7f/?/ II /J ,,/atf/lIl o./Id d fff/ul/I////f I/e
/1/'{)a J.1 r:! //I.u/rlrl/w . . %t rt"/,/u/I/llalw , f/I?ap" JlNN'
mI/Id1/1 l1"'Jl r/llo f/) C(wrrtI, /1/14a.JA i/ tt" 1/1/
//I..//Ultil? a,lltl f'a/tN l"/tlf CCl/ICrI f. ,k Ih .1y.1k m oj'//Ia/t'-
!rll:w, clw / u /.yl h l w d (:t'J/I.Jtik/',rI rL Jtyllun k /I./pcl/r/,
alll"oufll o///. Ib,d a/Jo I/Ia'y fe f'UJI ftJ#1al Jt"mc' Itime.J.
7/i//I ,fIN/ Ol?ap<"1/1 //I/tltl/I/f-"',//, er /1 1'1n .lk /;;.." mu/ 'I".
ll/lkah 'lll ("/' rlwlnll/llatr NI fUI#, CO/ICI/II, hd/'/tlla; II'?I'
Y NI// I /a k l 'r / r:!motla//I-clti'I'I,y'. "
- Swarni Hama. in Meditation and lis Practice, p. 11.
R el axat ion in .voga rneans Iying down, most commonly in the corpse
posture, and it means settling yourself in a circle of quiet, emptyi ng the
mind o" all outside concerns, and relaxing from head to toe. Meditaton is
a stage beyond. It means sitting straight, most commonly in one of several
classic meditative post.ures, and it means schooling your psyche and
quickening your existence in consciousness, Relaxation is a concentration
exereise for the hody-mind; meditation is an experience for th e mind-body.
Both complement the rejuvenating eflects of hatha yoga-s-relaxat ion
bccausc it releases deep tensions, and mcd itation because it pu lls the mind
inward and introduces it to higher states of yoga. \Ve'U look al relaxation
first because meditation cannot begin without a relaxed body
Relaxation takes us beyond simply letting go of tension in skelet al
muscles, It is a rnultifaceted process involving conscious control of the
sornatic nervous system and its innervation o" skeletal muscle (chapters I
and 2), regulation of the autonomic nervous system and its control over
smooth and cardiac mu scle (chapters 2 and 10), and the reining in of emotion
and mental activity '1 he plan of' this chapter is to look at how skeletal
541
1
I
muscles relax and to examine the postures that are best suited for this.
Next we'l! turn to the role of the autonomic nervous system in relaxation,
and then we'\I look at advancod relaxation practices whose physiologi .
ecrrelates are unknown. Fina\ly, we'll eonsider the six meditativo postures
leaving discussion of rneditation itself to the experts in that field and to t hr
many texts that delve into that topic,
THREE AXIOMS
After beginning students have experiment cd for a while with relaxatioi
meditation, and other hatha yoga practices, certain principles becom
axiomatic. 'I'he first is that relaxation and meditation usually work betti
after a session of hatha yoga postures than before . Done first 01' by th e
selves these practices can intensify tendencias to lethargy and sleepines
and rnany people can avoid dozing off only by priming their nervous systcn
with postures. Experienccd students in good physical and mental condtir
are exceptions: if they are clear, calm, and alert even after a sound slee
their teachers often advise them do their meditation imrnediately upr
waking.
Expcrience also makes it apparent that evcn though relaxation ar. I
meditation go beautifully after hatha yoga, they do not work as well afu
a lengthy practice of aerobic exercise 01' heavy rnusculoskeletal workout
Hatha yoga postures pull the mind inward, and physical exercises tond
scatter it. So ifyou are an enthusiast for sports 01' conventional exerci se
try to do them at a different time of day from the practices of yo g.
If you can't do that, if your schedule requires you to do everything in
sequence, do the conventional exercises first , follow these with hatha yog:
and end with relaxation and meditation.
The third axiom is more subtle. Unless you are compulsive, you can
overdo conventional exercises, hatha postures, 01' meditation. They are o'
self-limiting for one reason 01' another-aerobic exercise and muscuk
skeletal workouts because you know you '11 get sore, hatha postu res becauto
they self-I'egulatc from beginning to end, and mcditation because you'lI
uncomfortable ifyou sit too long. None ofthis is true ofyogic relaxation. l
you do too much of that practice the motor neurons seem 10 lose their cdge
they get lazy. And as that condition develops you can lose your p i t ~
for controlling them. Even worse, you do not get immediate feedback that
this is happcning. For this reason most of us would do better to practic<
relaxation only once 01' twice a day for no more than twenty minutes pel
session.
10. Hl:VL\A'l10NAND JIIEDITA HON 543
MUSCULAR RELAXATION
We'l! begin our discussion of relaxation with skeletal muselcs for two rcasons:
they are linked directly to the somatic nervous systern, whose neurological
circuitry has been widely studied and is relatively simple (chapters t and 2),
and because skeletal rnuscles can usually bebrought under eonscious control.
In chapter I we saw that the dendrites and cel1 bodies of the sornatic motor
nourons are located in the central nervous system (the spinal cord and
brain) , that the axons of motor neurona exit the central nervous systern
and travc\ in peripheral nervcs, and that the axon terminals of motor neurons
stimulatc contraction ofthe musele eells. The more nerve impulses per second
that travel down the axon, the more vigorous the contraction of the muscle;
the fewer nerve impulses per second, the wcaker the contraction. We also
saw in chapter 1 that skeletal muscles execute our speech, respiration, and
every willful and habitual movernent of the body, and that the commands
of motor neurons (figs. 1.3-9 and 2.12) are an absolute dictatorship: they
control skeletal muscles just as a puppeteer controls puppets, When the
axons of motor ncurons transmit nerve impulses, the muscIe Iibers on
which they impinge contract, and when the axons don't transmit nerve
impulses, the muscle fibers relax. You rnight think that muscular relaxation
involves some cornplex planned activity, but that is not the case. AII you
have to do is silence the motor neurons. What we want to know here is how
to do this consciously
THE MOTOR UNIT
The functional entity for both relaxation and muscular activity is the motor
unit, which is defincd as a single motor neuron plus a11 the individual muscle
fibers it innervates (fig. 10.1) . The fewer the muscle fibers in the motor
unit, the more finely we can control the muscle. 'I'he fact that the smallest
muscles 01' the Iingers contain only 10-15 muscle liben; in each of their
motor units is what allows us to perform precise and delicate work with our
fingers. As motor units become larger, ranging up to 500-100 0 muscle
fibers in the individual motor units of the largest postural muscles, our
capability fuI' fine movement diminishes. This is the reason 1'01' establishing
di stal-to-proximal priorities in standing postures (chapter 4). If you first
establish control distally, it is possible to kcep awa reness of the small muscles
in the backgTOund while you attcnd more consciously to the bulkier and
less easily control1ed proximal muscles.
The motor unit, in short, is the sole link bctwecn the central nervous
system and skd etal muscular activity. Every time a ncrve impulse reaches
an axon terminal, all the muscle filJers in the motor unit conlract. And
when many motor units in an individual muscle contract repetitively and
in concert, the ent irc musclc becomes active. What. is important to us herc
Figure 10.1. Two possible palhways fo.r .o.f skelelal rnuscles are shown.
here. In the cerebral cortex, if Ihe actvtv of a Iacilitatory uppcr motor ncuron 15
diminished it will send fewer nerve impulses per second to spinal cord lower
motor neurnns (which in their turn drive lhe conlraction of skeletal musdes).
Conscious relaxalion might also invulve a palhway for uf inhibilury
pathways, as exemplificd here by an inhibilory neurun in lhe hrall1 slem. If 5uch
a neuron starls firing more nerve impulses per second lhan usual lo lhe lower
molor neuron, it could help silence the motor neuron independently of
reduced input from lhe facilitatory neuron in lhe cerebral cortex. .In Ihe spll1al
cord the + indicates the curtico5pinal neuron's facilitatory 5yna,?hceffecl5, and
lhe _' indicates lhe brain stem inhibilury neurun's inhibitory synapllc effe Lo; (DoddJ.
frontal lobe
01cerebral
hemisphere
several molar
neuronlerrninals
(always fadlilatory)
ina hamstring
muscle
molar regan 01
cerebralcortex
/CJ IIUAXA IU,{l,OAM] MUJI1,Hl()fI,' 54S
axon 01
upper
molar
neuron
(corneo-
spinalJ
ventral
horn 01
spinal
cord
cylindrical segment ollhe
spinal cord incross secton
axon 01
inhibitory neuron----.\ \
cell body01an
inhibilory neuron
is that relaxation require; us lo sil ence the individual motor units one
more at a lime. And this is indeed possible. Studies with electrornyograpl
carried out with needle electrodes havo demonstrated since the 195015 t h.
we can train motor units in most parts of the body to becorne totalIy sile
Although motor neurons exert absoluto control over rnuscles, tln
themselves are only agents of the body and mind as a whole. They a
prisoners of our habits, addictions, and the wi 11fu I decisions 0(' the mi r
they are prisoners of our hearing, sight, taste, smell, and louch; and tl y
are prisoners of internal signals from stretched muscles, pain, 01' an ov-
loaded slomach. Data from all ofthese sources are integrated and funnot
into the final eommon pathway uf the motor neurons,
S-H ANATnMI 01 l/ATIlA )()(";A
FACILITATlON, INHIBITION. AND RELAXATION
'I'he key issue Ior sorneone lrying to relax their skeletal muscles is to kn. v
sumething-knowledge is indeed puwer-about the specific form of t e
marehing orders that regulate the rate uf firing of motor neurons. Th, e
orden; take the form of signals from thousands uf other neurona whose \.. 11
bodies are 10catOO throughout thc nervous system (mostIy in the brain d
spinal coro) and whose axon terminals impingo on motor neuronal dendri s
and cell bodies that are speeialized for reeeiving this information. e
axon terrninals signal the motor neurun to increase its number of ne e
impulses per second (facilitation). and other axon terrninals signa! it o
decrease thern (inhibition). lt is in this manner that, orders to the mo r
neurons are translated into simple stop and go inputs. The motor neur 1
integrates the sum of these often conflicting signals lo increase 01' decre.
the Iiring rate of its axon, and in that way it dictates contraction 01' relaxan t i
of the individual muscle fibers uf the motor unit (fig. 10.1J. '1'0 relax we e 11
conceive of decreasing the liring rate of motor neurons in three wa
by decreasing the rate of firing uf the facilitatory neurona whose axo
impingo on the motor neurons, by increasing the rato of firing uf t
inhibitory neurons, 01' by both in cornbination. Speaking sirnplistical
that's what is happening every time you do not respond to sorne desire
sensor)' signal ,
What wc see recorded in OUl' movements is the summcd activity ofmot
units, but something more subtle happens in the central nervous syst e I
during deep relaxation: the motor neuron ceJl bodies in the brain al
spinal corel become so inhibited that a large facilitatory input is required
tire thcm baek into This can ha ve an unexpected result: ifyou al
in deep rclaxatiun you may not be able to move on command. The IclephOl
muy ring, anel when you try to jump up und answer it- surpri::;e. Yuu mn
do it. You may expericnee sevel'al seconds of tempomry paralysis, whic
can be startling and even alarming. With pruetice, however, you can leal
546 AI\AroMI OFIlA71Ll I()(;A
to speed Lhe process of facilitation and gear the system up for activity i l
less than a second. You can feel it happening. First you can't move, a hal '
second later you feel the nervous system preparing ilself, and a half-secom
alter that you can spring up like a grasshopper, This should never be don
as a classroom exercise, of course, becausc it is too jarring. It's a physi,
logical experimcnt, not a yoga practice.
The ternporary paralysis induced by deep muscular relaxation undr
seores and documenta the need Ior bonoring the third axiom-not to oven 1
relaxation. It is tempting to beexcessive, relaxing before and after meditatir
before and after meals, and befo re and after a night's sleep, but doing t I
without the balancing effect of other hatha practices diminishes yo
conscious control ayer the motor neurons. So get a good night's sleep, go 1
the bathroom, take a shower, and practice asanas enthusiasticalIy for
hour. Then relax thoroughly while you are stilI full of energy.
Not everyone can will their muscles to relax. What gocs wrong? We ( '1
only make inferences. If the circuits from the cerebral cortex are inu t
(Iig, IO.I!, the potential for willed relaxation as well as willed movement s
available, but if those higher circuits are not used regularIy, they gradua y
become dysfunctional and the unconseious input from other regions of 1 e
brain gets bossier. And because these non-cortical circuits are not uru r
conseious control, their continuing activity prevents conscious relaxatii 1.
More encouraging, as long as the circuits from the cerebral cortex e
intact, hatha yoga can help train thern,
DISTAL ANO PROXIMAL MUSCLES
As we have seen, the control of movernent becomes more precise as t e
motor units become smaller in the more distal museles in the extremiti
Your ability to relax is affected in the same way and for the sarne reason. t
is easy for almost everyone to relax the rnuscles of their hands, but should i s
and backs are another story. Relaxing larger and more proximal museles lf
the body may rcquire sorne additional help. A regular practice ofhatha is t
most certain tactic-e-stretching, contracting, and relaxing the deeper muse] ,;
of the body over and over again until thc motor neurons get accustomed
obeying your conscious wiIJ and becoming silent on cornmand. Anot
useful trck is the tension-relaxation sequcnce t.o be discussed in the ne
section. As a last resort, those who have chronic muscular st r ess in the d
postural muscles of the body can try biofeedback with electromyograph
In such conditioning, electrodes are placed near hard-to-train muscles th.
opcrate just beyond the edge of your conscious awareness: you lcarn ,
relax and gain control ofthem by gaining cont.rol of their motor units.
10. IlILIXA7101\ , 11\0 IIIEVI"lAnOI\ 547
TWO RELAXATION POSTURES
'I'here is one classic relaxation posture in hatha yoga for the supine position,
the corpse posture, which was discussed briefly in chapter 1 tfig, 1.14), and
one for the prone posit.ion, the crocodile, two versions of which were
discussed extcnsively in chaptor 2 (figs. 2.23-24). We'lI begin here with the
corpse because it is the most common and bocause it permita the most
complete relaxation.
T HE CORPSE POST URE
The corpse posture can both precede and follow a session of hatha yoga
postures. At the beginning it calms the body and focuses the mind in
preparation for the postures to follow; at the end it relaxes you from head
to toe and integrates that experience into your conscious and unconscious
awarcness.
Le supine on a padded but relatively firm surface, one that allows the
spine to flatten slightly against the floor but still provides sorne support for
the lumbar and cervical region (fig, 10. 2). The surface should be Ilat.Tf'you
are on a surface that slants, lo with the head down. Otherwise, in the deep
relaxation that minimizes 01' even elirninates most skeletal muscular activity,
blood will pool in the lower half of the body, possibly diminishing venous
return onough lo jeopardize the blood supply to the brain and other vital
organs.
A soft pillow to support the head and neck may be helpfuI. The arms and
thighs should be comfortably abducted, leaving the feet spread apart and
the hands swung 12-18 inches away from the thighs with the forearms
supinated (palms facing up), 'I'he upper and lower extremities will kccp the
entire body in a stat.e ofmild tension ifthey are kept adducted, and pronating
the Iorearms by facing the palms ofthe hands to the floor creates a closed-
off feeling that is also counterproduct ve to relaxation.
Stretch the body out before settling down. Thrust the hips down from
the shoulders, the hands down from the shoulders, the heel s down from the
Figure 10.2. The (.orpse pose is the must famous relaxalion posture in hatha
yoga. IdeallYr muscular activity is greatly diminished, if not eliminated, in
skelelal muscles Ihroughoul the bodYr the must notable exception being the
respiratory diaphragmr which is required for breathing.
5-I1l AI\A71lMI 1)/ II A ru 1I)(O.l
hips, and lift the head away frorn the body, stretching th > neck. Then adju s
th is way and that without losi ng too rnuch of the stretched-out feeling. Yo
should start in a slightly elongated position because when the muscles L
the extremities and torso relax, t hey lengthen, and ir you re lax withoi
fi rsl doing such stretching you may end up crowded in a foreshortam
position and fcel crimped al the cnd of the exercise,
Now Jet go, Just relax and breathe abdominally. Notice that 11
abdomen rises with each inhalat ion and falls with each exhalation. You c;
check this by ternporarily placing one hand on the abdomen and the ot l
hand on the chest, and then inhaling ami exhaling in such as way that t
chest does not move, As you becornc more relaxed, your rate of breath
will slow down.
Ator getting settlcd, don't move again until you are ready to break t '
re laxation. If you feel a need to move you'lI know you didn't get positioi I
ideally in the first place. You should hold the posture no more than 5
minutes at firs t, and then gradually build up your time. The longer . u
hold the pose, at least within your personal lirnits , the quieter the rno ' 1'
neurons become. Finally, when you are ready to come out ofthe relaxatn 1,
bring the arrns overhead and stretch from the t ips of the fingers to the t 18
of the toes. 01' YOU can firs t wiggle the fingers and toes, slowly recruit e
proxi mal rnusc les of the extrernities and the deep muscles of the torso, I 11
over to one sido, and sit up slowly
'1'0 avoid fainting or dizziness, those who have low blood pressure n IY
need to turn onto their len sides before sitting up; ir they rise suddc y,
thei r venous return and cardiac output may not be suffic ient to supply I e
brain. Turning onto the len side before silling up will momenta y
incr-case blood now from the vena cava (siluated on the right side of le
heartl into lhe righl atrium and tend lo keep cardiac oulput high enOl h
to prevent fainting.
What exactly do you do to quid the aclivity of the motor neurons? 1\1 .,t
import ant are two things you don't do. The first is don'l move. Even re
thought of movement 01' of rel;poncling to sorne sensory st imulus res ult n
neuronal activity which cascades lhroughout the nervous systcm, stil 1-
lates the motor neurons enough to actvate at least a fe\v motor uni ts, d
sllbotages relaxation.
The second thing you 8hould not do is sleep. Learning not to sI p
during relaxations is jusl as importanl as not moving, because if you I
consciousness and doze off, motor ncurons throughout lhe nervous syst
become active. If falling aslecp c1U1-ing relaxation exerciscs is a pcr-;;i!'t.
pr oblem for you evcn lhough you are rested and have done hatha posll ,
before you try t(l rclax, you may be able lo prevenl this by holding the r It
lock mildly 01' by f'imply rnoving move your reet dosel' together, whi ch d
/ 0 /u; /AX.J"I7()1\' rll\'IJ .1fI. JJr I'A n O I\ ' 541)
accomplish the same end. 01' you can bring t he upper extremi ties closer to
the body. l t is true that these measures creare a small arnount of tensin.
but this is usually manageable and does not interfere with ralaxation nearly
as much as losing eonsciousness. Finally and simplest of al l, you can
adjust your br eathing to keep you awako, eit her by breathing fas ter 01' by
br eat hing diaphragrnatically It is diflicul t to Iall asleep if you are breathing
on a 1- 01' z-second cycle of inhalation and exhalation. We'U examine t he
consequences of diaphragmat ic breathing on relaxation in the corpse
posture later,
Be prepared for one ot her potential problem. If you do not have a sense
of cal m and clarity whe n you lie down to re lax, but instead feel as if you
might jump out of your skin, you may be experiencing "relaxation-induced
anxiety." 11' you are not accustorned to relaxing your skeletal muscles, any
number of mental, psychological, and spiritual conce rns may arise during
the course of the pract ice, and if you are unable tu come lo terms wit h
t hem, you rnay be uneasy in the exercise and find sorne excuse not lo
continue. A t-"OUI"SC of hatha yoga postures before you Iie down is the most
helpful remedy because it produces pleasant mental states an d reintegrates
body, mind, and spi rit. If that does n't help, dori't lie there and suffer. Get
up and get moving. This is not for you , at leas t not yet.
SUPINE TENSION-RELAXATlON EXERCISES
If you consistently llave trouble re laxing, one of the best remedies is an
isomet r ic tcnsion-relaxation exercise. Lying in t he supine corpse posture,
try a sequence of tensi ng and then relaxing both upper extremities, both
lower extremitics, the right upper and right lower, l he left. upper and left.
lower, the right upper and len lower, the left. upper and right lower. Final1y,
create whole-body tension; then re lax.
These exercises not only train the motor unils lo l'cl;pund lo yuur will,
they also place tcnsion on the Golgi tendon organs in the tendons connectcd
to lhe muscles being tensed. Stimulation of thoHe rcceptors reflexly
relaxcs lhe muscles involved. Students can safely be encouraged to go lo
extremes in this exercise: the more vigorously they hold lension, the
more the Golgi tendon receptor will st imulate relaxation in the affected
muscles.
COMING OUT OF RE L A XATl ON IN SLOW MOTlON
When you have goUen to the poinl at which you can sust..'lin relaxat ion rOl'
a while, you CRn lry this e".-periment. At lhe end of a long relaxation, and
before you have moved any part of the hody, think of coming out 01' the
posture in slow molion. Try to flex only one finger in the most minuscule
possible movemcnt. What you notice ir you are completely relaxed is that
550 ,INA.,nMt' or 1M .,HA I UGA
each movement comes as a tiny jerk, like a cursor moving across a
computer screen one pixel at a time rather than in a smooth sweepinp
motion. You do not ordinarily notice either the jerks in the body 01' on o
computer screen because they are so tiny and numerous-you are awar
only of the totality of the motion,
After you have made yourself aware of the jerks in one 01' two finge '
try the same thing with a shoulder. Concentrate carefully on making ti
srnallest possible movernent to lift the shoulder, and again you wiII see th
the first movement comes as a jerk, larger in the shoulder than in n
finger. These jerks muy rcsult Irom single nerve impulses impinging t
tho rnuscle fibers of the motor unit 01' they may result from overcomi i
resistance within the connective tissues-i-resistance that for some reasr
yields in spurts. I think it is more likely the former, but thc quest ir
can't be settled without electromyography using thin-wire electrodrs
embedded directly into the appropriate muscles.
THE CROCODILE
The crocodile is the standard prone relaxation posture, It muy not all. v
you to relax as deeply as the corpse, but the first variation that follo
comes clase. \Vediscussed the crocodile in chapter 2 with respect to breathii
but here we'lI look at it in its entirety, as a mild backbending relaxati 1
posture that also stretches the arms overhead. First try the simpit t
crocodile with the arms stretched out in front of you, the hands catchi g
the elbows, and the forehead on the uppermost wrist (fig. 2.2]), If ti 1
position does not overstretch the muscles on the undersides of your am .
it will probably be comlortable. If it is not, try supporting the chest witJ a
pil1ow, and notice how casing the stretch in the arms allows those muse s
to relax. Use your personal pl-eferences for foot position: heels in, heels o'
01' toes straight back. Those who have limited ability Lo extend their anJ.. '
may need to support them with a pillow. Then, lying stiIl, try to noticl f
you are still holding lension, and if so, where.
Next try the second position fOl- lhe crocodile with the m-ms al a 45-9
angle from the l10ur (fig. 2.24) . This wiII be more of a challenge for Ola. v
people. The abdominal muscles may resist the backbending that is definl j
by the posture, and the l1exion in the neck may not be entirely comfortab
but fyou practice this posture regularly, you will sooner 01' later beable
relax in it.
Last, try the full crocodilc with one elhow on top of the other, each hw
gripping the opposite shoulder, and the hcad tucked into the combint
crooks of the two elbows (fig. 10.]). This is the only true crocodi l
its "jaws" are formed by the uppcr extremities. Calling it a relaxat l(
posturc may be something of a joke at first. Many people wiIl have lo un
/(J. RHAXA.,.,OI\' AI\'f) IIINJr!'A110I\' 551
their upper back and ncck to the real' in order to make room
for the head and neck, and it rnay not be possible Lo use this posture for
relaxation until rnuscles and joints throughout the body get acclimated.

Pain stops relaxation in a hurry. It intensifies undesirable mental states,

disrupts autonomic functions, und prevents muscular relaxation. If you
have low back pain, shoulder pain, neck pain, gas pain, arthritis, 01' any
other physical discomfort, your mind will be divcrted in that direction as
soon as you lie down and make yourself still, Another problern is pain
induced by a particular posture, but this can sornetimes be circumvented
with props. If you do not have enough subcutaneous fat to lie comfortably
in the corpse posture on a hard surface, you can lie on a mal that is so
enough to keep your bony protuberances from pressing directly against the
11001'; if that is not enough, you can place pillows under the knees, the bead,
and even the arms and forearms.
Even if you do not use a prop elscwhere, it is important for everyone to
experiment with u pillow under the head. If you have good mobility in the
neck, u soft clown pillow provides important support for the mid-cervical
region (which wiII tend Lo prevent and be therapeu.ic for reverso cervical
curvatures) and yet allows the back of the head Lo drop to the same level
as the rest of the body. A more substantial pillow creates a very different
expericnce. It establishes traction in the neck, puIls the hcad both anteriorly
and superiorly, and induces a well-known rclaxation response all by itself
And more problematic, older people often have semi-permanent skeletal
forward bends in their necks and chests which may leave their heads lifled
2-8 inches away from the Boor even before the attempl to relax gets under
way. The only way to make such students comfortable is with one 01' more
thick suppurting pillows; such pl"OpS are especially important for gentle
yoga classes.
Figure 10.3. The advanced pose is a ?ackbending but
many beginning and cven mlermedlate slul!ents wllI fmel lhat the pnslhon of
lhe head. neck, and upper extrl'mities creates so much discomfort thal lhe
front o lhe body cannot relax. Such studenls may find the beginner's crocodile
(fig. 2.24) more lIscful, at least far the lime being.
S52 AI\AHJM I 0 1' IIA TII,I I O( i A
BREATHING AND RELAXATION
Eve n breathing in both the corpse pose and th e crocodi lo has a soothi n
efTecl an d seerns to diminish activity generally in motor neurons. In eitho
posture we have a choice of breathing abdominaUy or diaphragmatically.
ABDOMINAL BREATHING IN THE CORPSE POSTURE
Abdominal breathing in the corpse pose is t he most relaxing of any mor
of breathing in any postura. In this posi tion the abdominal wall yields
easi ly to the movernent of the diaphragm that respiration produces lit ,
movement in the rest of the body, and the breath becomes so delicate th
it almost seerns to stop. The motor neurons whose axons travel in t
phrenic nerves to the respiratory diaphragm supervise this activity frc
beginning to end, resulting in concentric shortening of the diaphragm duri r
inhalation and eccentric lengthening during exhalation (chapter 21. T
number ofnerve impulses pcr second to the dia phragm will peak at the el
of inhalation when the abdominal orga ns are pushed most inferior
diminish as exhalation procecds, and drop almost to zero at the end f
exhaIation-the only time th e systern is at rest oYou can fcel it . You havo
ma ke an effort to stop breat hing at any other time in the cycle, but at 1
end of your t idal exhalation you can stop breathing effortlessly. PIe;
note: this is fine lo try as an experiment, but it's a risky habit pattci
As mentioned in chapte r 2, constant ly pausing the breath at the end f
exhalation is thought in yoga to have an adverse impact on your caedI
vascular health.
Even though abdominal breathing during deep relaxation is minimal , t
is still desirable to cultivate even brcathing because every inhalation,
matter how fine, still pulls on the lumbar region by way of the crus of t
diaphragm and on the lower part. of the rib cage by way of the cost
attachment 01' the diaphragm. As a result, tensi n spreads throughout t i
body by way of those attachrnents, and if we can minimiza such tensioi
we can minimize their irnpact on rclaxation.
There are two ways that feedback ti'om breathing will tell you ifyou al
relaxed. FiI'st, your brcathing can become so quiet during the course of 10- 1
minutes ofstillness in the corpse posture that there is a diminishcd need fo
the intercostal muscles to maintain the muscular tone that ordinarily kcep
the chest from collapsing inward during inhalation (chapter 2) . The ches
can actually bccome frozen, not from muscular activity but fmm inertia a.
the motor neurons supplying the intercostal muscles become silent. VOl
may not notice this until you have had sorne experience with the postW"f
and have remained qlliet for twenty minutes 01' so, and even then you ~
not be aware that tlle chest has become frozen llntil aftcr you have felt the
sudden gatheling of activity in the intercostal musclcs as you sta rt to come
10. RFlAXA770N ANlJ Mf'OnA"I70!" 553
out of the relaxation. This sit uat ion is not found in any other posture or
with any other method of breathing.
Second, when you are relaxed, the eyes, cheeks, and other soft tissues of
t he face are pulled inward du ri ng each inhalation and bulge out during
each exhalation. This is bccausc fasciae are interconnected throughout the
body, and the slight vacuurn in the chest produced during inhalation is
t ranslated through the fasciae to the face, You may not be ab le to feel this
unl ess you are cornpletely rclaxed, but it's there.
DIAPH RAG MATl C BREATHING IN THE CORPSE POSTUR E
Diaphragmatic (thoraco-diaphragmatic) breathing in the corpse posture is
not as relaxing as abdominal breathing, but it is a powerful energizing
technique that should be explored by inter mcdi ate and advanced students.
It engages the chest and abdomen wit hout significantly dist urhing relaxation
in t he rest of the body, an d it is more effcctive for keeping people alert t han
abdominal breathing. Anyone who has a tende ney to chronic chest breathing
should avoi d this or th e t ime being, however, As we S3W in chapter 2,
the moment chest breathers stray from the tried and true abdominal
breathing th at is so important at the ea r ly stages of t heir training, t.hey will
automatically revert lo eonstricted thoracic breat hing.
To explore diaphragmatic brea hing in the corpse posture, first lie down
and breathe abdominaJly for a few minutes. Make sure your shoulders are
relaxed and that your forearrns are relaxed but supinated, with the palms
faci ng up and situated about 12-18 inches Irom the thighs, Then breathe
diaphragmatically, holding a lit tl e tension in the abdomen during each
inhalation. You can breathe as slowly as five breaths per minute 01' as fast
as 12-15 breaths per minute. The concentration required for either tactic
will help keep you awake if you tend to doze off.
RELAXED BREATHING IN T HE CROCODI LE
Althuugh the crocodiles are rightfully included mnong relaxation postures,
their architecture, both with respect to ann position and to breatrung, docs
not lend them to the same kind of deep relaxation as the corpse posture. It
would be rare for a c1ass of students to hold the crocodile for more than a
minute or so, but an extravagant teacher might hold a class of experiencerl
students in the corpse posture for half an hour or more.
One reason the stretched-out crocodile is less effective for complete
relaxation than the corpse posture is that it produces a mOre complex mude
of breathing (fig. 2.2J) . '1'0 reiterate, in the prone position the abdomen is
pressed against the 1100r, amI the dO\\o"I1ward thrust of the dome of the
diaphragm has to push the abdominal organs inferior!y and (ift the entire
body, rathel" than push the abdominal wall forward as happens in the
~ ; 1 ANA7TJMI OF /lA/IIA HX;A
corpsc posture. This is a type of abdominal breathing, but the movement I l'
the ent.ire body in the crocodile, togethcr with the extra elort needed 1 1
breathe, makes it moro difficult to relax.
The beginner's crocodile, with the arrns at a 45-90 angle from the O()(
also prevents complete relaxation. In addition to t.he effort required
press the abdominal organs infcriorly (which also happens in the stretchod-o
crocodile), the beginner's crocodilo requires diaphragmatic breathing (chap r
2), and this creates movernent in the ehest that in turn activates even mor e If
the body (fig, 2-24).Ami that applies to someone who is relatively comfortab
The problem is cornpounded in those who are not.
The full crocodilo (fig. 10.3) yields either abdominal 01' diaphragma e
breathing depending on the length of the arms. If they are long enough to e
flat while you tuck the head into the crook of the elbows, we SL'C a situati 1
similar lo the casy stretched-out crocodile, which yields abdominal breathii "
In this case the posture is very relaxing, at least for those who ha e
thoroughly accustomed thernselves to the pose. But if your arms a e
shorter, you will have to arch the upper back and neck upward in or d r
lo place the top of the head in the crook of the elbows, ami in that ca
your chest will be lifted as in the beginner's crocodile, which requir s
you to breathe diaphragrnatically and which again checks relaxation.
One indircet way in which the crocodilo posture furthers relaxation
that the arm position tends to prevent thoracic breathing, which as we sa
in chapter 2 stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and prepares ti-
body for activity. Because of the anatomical restrictions lo chest breathin
the easy stretched-out crocodile pose is an excellent posture for compelli n '
chest breathers to come in touch with rclaxation and abdominal breathinp
and the beginner's crocodile is possibly the best all-around posture (as wel
as the only relaxation posture) for teaching chest breathers diaphragmat -
breathing.
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Our discussion ofthe autonomic nervous system in chapter 2 focused on il s
associations with breathing, but its main role is helping lo regulute
fundi ons of internal organs in general, incIuding non-somatic structures
such as blood vessels throughout lhe body and sweat glands in the sk in
(figs. 10-4a-bl. Even though these regulalory functions are mostly outside
our con8cious awareness, sorne 01' their effcets are important to relaxation.
If you lie down to reJax and notice that your hands and feet are cold and
sweaty 01' that you are dizzy and headachy or that your heart is beating too
fast, autonomic functions are not being optimally managed. In such cases
training in relaxation may help you diminish the symptoms. How this happcI18
is not cIear becausc the autonomic nervous system is not directly under thc
to. RElAXA77IHI 11M) MEIJrrA770fl SSS
control of our will, Its regulation has to take place indirecUy, and the only
way we can manage it is to capitalize on everything in our bag of tricks-
mental attitude, exercise, postures, and relaxation-and thcn trust the
wisdom ofthe body to keep cverything operating srnoothly. And that's what
you want. You would no more want to micromanage interna] functions of
the body than you would want to enter into a debate with a pilot of a
commercial airliner about how fast to Ily If authority for rnanagement 01"
internal organs is delegated to the autonomic nervous systern, internal
functions will not annoy us when we lry to relax, and wc'Il be able to work
with those aspects of mind and body that are more ohviously within our
grasp.
THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The idea of the sympathetic nervous system goes back almost 2000 years,
to Galen, who believed and taught that this complex 01' nerves permitted
animal spirits to travel frorn one organ lo another, creating "syrnpathy"
among them. Here wc are espceially concerned with the sympathetic
nervous system as a part of what we now recognize as the autonomic
nervous system (chapter 2 and figs. io.aa-b) hecause the sympathetic
component is generally sedated by breathing and relaxation techniques.
It activates the body globally when it is stimulated and it quiets the body
down globaJly afterward, Stress is its stimulant, and preparation for "fight
01' flight" is its response. '1'0 that end it speeds the heart rate, opens the
bronchial tree, stimulates the release 01' glucose from the liver, dilates tho
pupils, constricts arterioles in the digestive system and skin, dilates
arterioles in the heart, and contracts sphincters in the gastrointestinal
tract and in the urethra, AH 01' these responses act together and in
"sympathy" with one another-Galen had the right idea, after aH-to gear
up the body for emergencies. Only a few sympathetic reactions, such as
orgasm and dilation of the pupils in dim lighl, occur in relative isolalion.
'rhe parasympalhetic nervous system, by contrast, affects the internal
oq,"Bns specifically and oflen in isolation.
\Ve can see the operation ol' the sympathetic nervous system and how it
orchestrates bodily processes during an ordinary sequence of postures
followed by relaxation. The sympathetic nervous system, incIuding one of
its main endocrine components, the adrenal medulla. beco mes activated
by vigorous hatha yoga practices, especially standing strctches, sun
salutations, and abdominopelvic exercises such as leglifting and agni sara.
Relaxing in the corpse posturc after an invigorating scssion ofpostures will
then quiet this system and diminish the sympathetic efTects on organs and
tissues throughout the body.
'j'jf> Ai\:A7V.1I1 (JI : IMnM )"()(iA
RE L AXATI ON ANO BOOV TEMPERATURE
The autonomic nervous system regulates body temperature, not only in th .
core of the body where it affccts the chest, abdomen, and pelvis, but also ir
tissues of the skin and extremities. When the sympathetc syst.ern I
activated, skin (especially in the hands and feet) becomes cold because it
blood supply is diminished by vasoconstrict on (chaptcr 2), and it becorm-
clamrny because sweat glands f100d the surface of the body with moisturr
When you lie down to relax, the syrnpathetic nervous systern calms do wi
dccreasing muscular tone in the smooth rnuscle that encirclcs arteries l:Il
arterioles, which allows those vessels 10 dilate and causes blood supply
the skin to increase and ski n temperatura to riso.
You would think this would rnake you feel warm, but that is not t.he ca
because during relaxation, the skin temperature rises and radiates he
and this causes the body 10 cool down . Ord inari ly the int.ernal temperat u
regulating systems would then prornpt you to shiver, but you curb tl
imp ulse, knowing that any movernent would break the relaxation. '1
result is that you are chilly when you come out of the exercise, and the n
time you try lo relax, your body does nol rernernber the experience fonr
But knowing in advance that the body will lose radiant heat during a le g
relaxat ion, you can cover up-even a pillow placed on the chest d
abdomen can make a differcnce. This is a good examplc of how we n
anticpate and accornrnodate to the peculiarities of the autonomic ne r v IS
system-e-coddling it and lett ing it do itsjob rather than trying to bend I I o
UUI will .
BRONCHIOLAR OILATlON ANO CONSTRICTION
Brcathing and relaxation 150 hand in hand. As we have seen, respiral n
slows down naturally during the comse of rclaxation, and under cmeh Iy
monitored conditions 2:1 breathing (chapter 2) can slow the heart r l).
Relaxation also hm; an impact on how casily ail moves through the r-
ways, and tbis is controlled by both the sympathetic and parasympal h. ' C
components of the autonomic nervous system.
Exercise stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and the releal:- lf
epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla, and this dilates le
bronchioles and makes breathing easier. As we saw in chapter 1, relaxal ,n
diminishcs the activity ofthe sympathetic nervous system lo the bronchll S
and increases parasympathetic input. 80th systems together ad on le
srnooth muscle encircling the airways, causing them to constrict and thero ,y
increasing resistance 10 air flow, and this neatly coincides with the faet t It
we make use of less alveolar ventilation when we are relaxed.
During an hour or so of halha yoga, management of air 110wingthro h
lhe airways should take care 01" itself. Your session may start quielly w h
/(1 R/:IA>' ,H7O:\ ,,1. \ 1) ," 107JT/,rl7(),\ 557
a short relaxation, build quickly into abdominal exercises and vigorous
standing poses, proceed lo postures done sitting and lying on the 1100r,
continue with inverted postures, and end with a final relaxation, When you
start, your airways are slightly constricted, corresponding to decreased
activity in the sympathetic nervous systcm and increased activity in the
parasympathctic input to the lungs. Then as you do more vigorous
postures, the sympathetic nervous system prevails and the airways open.
As you quid down in your final relaxation, your bronchiolar tree constricts
but rcmains open enough lo accommodate air flow.
It should now be apparent that anyone who wants to master relaxation
must have a full repertoire ofbreathing practices. lf airflow is unimpeded,
you can stick with abdominal breathing fOJ maximum relaxation and
stimulation of the parasympathetic effocts on the bronchioles. If you scnse
sorne restrictions in the airways, it will be more appropriate to mildly
stimulate the sympathetie nervous systern with diaphragmatic breathing,
which will not only open the airways but, will also keep you awake. And for
a more dramatic stirnulation ofthe sympathetic norvous systern, take 5-10
empowered thoraeie breaths, or evcn complete breuths, which have a
paradoxica l component. This will open the airways significantly and
prepare you for a peaceful relaxation,
THE PARASVMPAT HETl C NE RV OU S SVS TE M
It wasn't until the late 1800. that an anatomically and functionally sep rate
division of the nervous system to tho viscera wa<; described. ince it was
anatomically separatc and yet sllpplied most of the same OJ'gnns (lig. 10.4a),
it was namro the parasympathetic (para = a]ongsidel nervous system. [t
soon became evident, that the mnde of operation of tbis accessory
System was entirely different from thai. of the sympathetic nervo\ls system.
In contrm,". lo the operation of the sympathetic nen'ous systcm, "relaxation"
of the parasympal hetic nervolls system has no meaning except in re1ation to
each organ und each function. In contrast to Ihe sympathetic nervous system.
wbich callse..<; global effeds throughout the body, the parasympathetic nervous
system is organ-spccifie. With only a few exceptions such as regulation of the
heart and lungs, it does 110t "balance" the sympathetic nervous sys1cm. Nor
does it become generally active or inactive as does the sympathetic nervous
b)'stem. lt presides ovel' functioos as disparate as stimulating salival)', gnstric,
md pancreatic secretions, stimulating pcristalsis (the movement nI' food
distally through the gastrointestinal tract), stimulating the synthesis of liver
glyeogen from glu<."Ol;C, accommOOating for near vision (as for threading a
needlc), sexual arousal, slowing the heart rate, conRtrieting the bmnchial trec
contracting the wall of the bladder fOJ urination, and relaxing lhe inlernai
urethral and anal sphincten; to facilit."lte elimination.
Figure 10.4a. Parasvrnpathet ic nervous system (craniosacraf oulflow) out lined
on the left, and syrnpathetic nervous systern (thoracolurnbar outflowl outlinec
on the r ight . (Bo th systems innervate both sides.) The cranial portion of the
parasympathetic nervous system is included in cranial nerves 3, 7, 9, and 10, ti
laller being the famuus vagus nerve that i nnervat es most of the vscera, indud
ing the lungs, heart, li ver; and the upper parl of the digeslive Iracl. The sacral
parasympathelic plexus innervates the genilals, the hladder, and the l ower par
of the digcslive tuhe. The sympathelic nervous syslem innervales Ihe en lire
budy from its source in the spinal co rd bel ween T1 and L2, which is why the
sympat he tk nervous sY51em is cal l ed the th oracolurnbar outflow (Oodd).
10. HIJA X-Hu: AM ) strnn 17U;\ '; S'}
crarnal parasympathelic
oulflow (cranal nerves
3. 7. 9. and 10: coded
in green on book cover)
brachial plexus
(innervates upper
extremity ; blue
on cover)
syrnpathetic ganglia
and chain (tnoraco-
lumbar outow: red)
lumbosacral plexus
(lnnervates lower
extremity; blue on
book cover)
intercostal nerves
(blue on cover)
right vagus nerve
(parasympalhetic)
(coded in green
en book cover)
coeliac (solar)
plexus (red
on cover)
sacral parasympathelic
plexus and ganglia ____
(coded in green en
book cover)
Figure 10.4b. Peripheral
ne rvous syslem, with
components shown i n
four cn lors on the book
cover (Sappey).
s
sympathetic
nervous system,
(thoracolumbar
outflow)
l
\

',:-,
>CJ -
heart ratemcreases
,,\A
I
) -
n
j
o.

,---
\ \ ...
\ .
-,
'r "'"
. ulerine cont raen s
promoted
irnpedinq elimination (pregnant uterus
brain slem
and splnal
eord
parasympathelie
nervous system,
(craniosacral
outflow)
l
ovary
and uterus
SSX ANtl7tHfI ()J. f1A711A Il KlA
s(,o AIVAro,l1l 01' IIAI7/,1 IlJA
Although it's not in the realrn of ordinary experience, there is one way
that you would be able to experience all parasympathetic reactions at thr -
sarne time. Untutored and unwary mushroom aficionados have bee
known to ingest the poisonous fungus Amonita muscaria, which globallv
stirnulates the muscarinic receptors of the parasyrnpathotic nervous syste
(and which is where those receptora got their narne). Don't be tcmpted
Dcpending on the dose, you'Il have a most disagreeable experience. Frorr
the top down ifyou don't die your pupils will constrict to pinpoints, you' ll
slobber and froth saliva, your heart rate and blood pressure will plurnmo
to near death, extreme bronchiolar constriction will make it almos
impossible to breathe, your digestive tract will thump, thrash, and grirn
like a washing machinc gone berserk, and you'lI suffer from explosiv
diarrhea. Amonita muscaria is plainly not suitable as a mushroom sauc
for your dinner guests, but it does provide us with the only naturall
occurring illustration of a general parasyrnpathetic reaction. and it al s
makes clear the altogether different ways in which the parasympathet
and sympathetic nervous systems act on internal organs.
Looking at a rnore typical sccnario in ordinal)' Iife, ifyou eat a largo me
at noon, the portions ofthe parasympathetic nervous system associated wit
the digestivo system wiU preside ayer digesti n during the course of U"
afternoon, and then its effects wiU reccde into the background. Then if'yr
do a session of hatha yoga followed by rclaxation al '5 PM, the mil
autonomic elfects will first be stimulation and thcn "relaxationn f
the sympathetic nervous systern. In another possible scenario, ifyou were )
eat l meal at 5 PM, do a vigorous practice of hatha bet ween 6 PM and 7 pr
and finally He down Lo relax between 7 PM and 7:Jo PM, the parasymp
Lhetic nervous system would initiate digesLion afier the meal, be partial
stymied around 6:15 PM by Lhe hatha scssion, and kick in again to r
stimulate digestion during lhe coursc of relaxation around TI5 PM. A I
so il goes. day and night, year aft.er year, without, lhe necessity ofo
conscious supervision.
THE ENTERIC NERVOUS SVSTEM
It was not unlil 11)21 Lhat lhe physiologist Langley published h
farnous lexLbook in which he coneeptualized and fOI'malized the idea
an aulonomic (aut.onomousl nervous systern. He also suggested th
lhe autonomic ncrvous system was made up of nol two hut Lhr
components-lhe sympat hetie, parasympathet.ic, and enteric nervOl
systcms. He defined the latter as being comprised (lf the vast system
nerve celIs thnt resides in the wall 01' the gut (by definition, the cnti
digestive t.ube frorn the oral cavity to the anusl. Although Langh
publicized his ideas widely, only the idea of the sympathctic a
//J , RUA'lA'IION .'I f\ /J MUJIIA no" St>1
parasyrnpathetic componcnts caught on, and the coneept of an cnteric
nervous systern was either forgotten 01' was simply included conceptually
as a part of the parasympathetic nervous system. Fina1ly, however, after
the idea had languished for six decades, biologists started seeing in thc
Il)Ros that the enteric syslem was indeed an independent nervous system
just as complex, with just as many neurotransmitters, ami with oven more
neurons, than the spinal cord itself-a veritable "second brain" within the
gut, one which is not only irnportant to digestivo system function but one
that is probably important for the experience 01' many emotions. 'I'he story
of this system has just begun, and textbooks that continu to ignore it will
soon beobsolete,
Langley actua!ly commented in his 1921 text that the enteric nervous
systern was probably more truly autonomous than either the sympathetic
01' parasyrnpathetic systems. And neuroscientists ultirnately found this
to be correcto \Ve now know that the enteric nervous systern is capable
of supervising the digestion 01' food, the propulsi n of food through the
bowel, and rnanagement 01' a1l other bowel functions, even when all nerve
connections from the brain and spinal cord have been experimenta1ly
severed. This system is almost certainly important to relaxation, although
attempting to say exactly how would bepremature. Emotiona! connections
may catch the attention of experimental psychologists in time, but it's
anyone's guess.
Soin summing up thc widely disparate ways in which the nervous system
affocts rc1axation, we see that severa! sep rate but related pictures emerge,
one rclating to muscular relaxation and the somatic nervous system (which
we discusscd earlier in this chapter as welJ as in chaplcr I and 2), another to
the sympathetic nervous syslem, another to the parasympathetic ncrvous
syslem, and possibly yet another to the enteric nervous system. First of all,
relaxation requires skeletal muscular relaxalion, and it requires that the
sympathetic nel"Vous systern bequieted clown. There is no way you can relax
ifyou are fid/:,'Cting {somatic systeml 01' ifyou are in the middle ofa f1ighl-or-
fight response (sympathet.ic systeml. And !;Ccond, before you do a relaxation,
your activities and behaviors should be adjuslcd so lhal the parasyrnpat.hctic
and enteric nervous syslem are not overly burdencd wilh housckceping tm,ks
that draw attenlion to themsclves and prevenl relaxation-tasks such as
digcst.ing a large meal 01' eoping with constipation, cliarrhea, a full bladder,
asthma, menstrual crarnping, 01' sexual excitabon. Ancl final1y, if the
purported emotional content of the 'nteric nervous system grips you with
regrets for the pasl.. anxiely for the ruture, fcar of the unknown, 01' an
overly joyful mood in the present, rclaxat.ion will be impossible. Let it go;
t's useless for relaxatiun.
562 ,1.\ A / OM t ( W II11 711A H)GA
DEEPENING RELAXATION
Evon if the somatic and autonomic systems are not creating obstacles, the
mind may still be active, and this too can prevent deep relaxation. It has
been documented that when the body is relaxed and the subject purposely
entertains ext raneous thoughts, a biofeedback monitor keeping track 01'
skeletal muscular activity reacts irnmediately; showing clcarly that quieting
the mind is just as importanl lo relaxation as quieting the body.
Hatha yoga ineludes many techniques for making the mind still, Irom
concentration exercises on the surface of the body, to watching the breath
to more subtle abstract exercises such as "swecping the breath up and dowr
the body," or holding your attention on regions such as the navel center, l h!
point between the eyebrows, 01' the pit of the throat, whose anatmica
locations are not precisely defined. The results of these exercises are clea i
the rnechanisms obscure. We know only that the skeletal muscles rel ax
and that the autonomic nervous system fulfills its autonomous role i
rnanaging the internal organs and lissues of the body without the necessit
of conscious input. That is quite enough.
One word of caution about abstract exercises: those who are fl ght
sometirnes go off on odd tangents when t.hey try them. Anyone who
psychologically fragile should stick with more grounding concentratior
such as focusing their attenlion on the rise and fall of the abdomen du rii
inhalation and exhalation, 01' thinking of relaxing large body parts such
the head, neck, shoulders, arms, and forearms.
TH E RI SE ANO FAL L OF THE ABDOMEN
This is the beginner's first exercise for relaxation. You simply lie in t i
corpse postura and concenlrate on the rise of the abdomen with cal 11
inhalalion and the fall of the abdomen with each exhalation. Make t
breath as even as poss ible and walch its pace gradually diminish. Not
that inhalation merges smoothly into exhalation, but that exhalation dr "
not merge so smoothly into inhalation (chapter 2) . After you have pract icc i
t his exercise for sorne time, it will feel natural to allow your breath to sf J
at th e end of exhalation. It seems as if it could stop forever, as if you cou
literally expire. As discussed earlier, the end of exhalalion is the only ti r '
this s hou ld happen because that is the only time the diaphragrn
completely relaxcd.
Paradoxically, th is simple concen tration exercise in even breathing is al 1
one of the mosl advanced, and few pcople will be able to do it for long \Vi l
out falling asleep 01' letting their minds drift. Resorting to diaphragma
breathing. taking deeper' brcaths, complete brcaths. 01' breathing laster '1
rninimize those two prohlems, bul they also compromise relaxalion. B
even if th ese techniques are counterproductive as faro as rela..xation
/11, RliI AXAT/WI,' AI \ 71 J IElJI7,I TI ( )fI,' st'J
concerned, at least they prove that concentrating on the ris e and fall of the
abdominal wall is so relaxing that you have to be hyperalert not to drift.
This exercise is not easy
SWEEPING THE BREATH UP ANO OOWN THE BODY
There are many different relaxation exercises in the corpse posture that
involve sweeping the attention up and down the body in coordination with
the breath, usually from the toes lo the crown of the head during inhalation,
and from the crown to the toes during exhalation. You should breathe
norrnally at first and then gradually lenglhen the breath as relaxation
deepens. Your greatest challenge wiII be lo keep attentive,
There are many variations of this exercise. You can reversa directions
and inhale your attention lo the toes and exhale your attention to the top
of the head. 01' you can use your " breath" as a vehicle for traveling your
attention lo different parts ofthe body. The point ofall such abstract relax-
ation exercises is less complicated than may at first be apparent: they are
all tricks lo hold the mind steady while the body relaxes of its own accord.
THE SIXTY-ONE POINTS EXERCISE
One of the simplest but most interesting of the abstract exercises carnes
your attention to a succession of 61 points on the surface of the body
(fig. 10 .5) . Ifyou can hold your focus for a moment at each spot , by the time
you get all the way around the body and mind wiII be deeply relaxed. The
exercise can be done in many different ways , but the simplest is to pretend
t hat you exhale to each point. This means that at the beginning of cach
exhalation you lock your attention onto a specific point on the body, hold it
there throughout exhalation and the ensuing inhalation, and then move on
lo the next point at the start of the next exhalation. A variation is to imagine
a blue light at each point, As you becorne proficient you can lengthen the
time you hold your attention al cach point in one of two ways-by extending
your lime for cach inhalation and exhalation, 01' by holding your attention
at the same spot for more than one breath cyde.
Assuming that you are physically comfortable, the main challenge in
this exercise is holding your attention on each one of the sixty-one points
successively. You might get down lo the right hand, 01' partially back up to
the tip of'the right shoulder, and suddenly realize that you have lost awareness
of where you were. 01' if someone is leading you through th e exercise you
may suddenly find yourself being asked to concenlrate at sorne spccific
paint and have no idea of how you got there. In any event, this means lhat
you eilher went to sleep 01' let your attention wandcr, and this broke the
relaxation. The most certain remedy for such problems is daily practice and
beller preparation. which can indude a good night's sleep, an enthusiastic
to. RnA \ .IHUN Afl./J IIhIJIIATI()....' sh5
session of hat ha yoga, and a less soporific dieto
Ifyou have trouble keeping your concentration cven under ideal condi-
tions, try just focusing on the first JI points (the upper half ofthe body) and
come back to the beginning frorn there. 01' you can try breathing faster,
and thereby move more quickly through the exercisc. If you take i-second
inhalations and l-sccond cxhalations the entire exercise wiII take only two
minutes, and once you have memorized the points you can usually hold
your attention t hr oughout the cycle, at least al that rate. Then you can
slowly lengthen your breaths. Don 't be surprised, however, to lear n that
lengtheni ng t he exercise to just Iour minutes (z-second inhalations and
z-second exhalations) may croate a real challenge. Keep trying. Kee
improving t he conditions under which you do t he exercise, and keej;
gathering mor e experience. If you are determincd and patient t he exercisr
will fi nally work.
.,
.0
31l
38 31
CONCENT A ATI N G O N THE HEA AT CENTEA
The more steadily you hold your focus on a fixed spot the more advanccd
the exercise, and one of the most interesting is to hold your attention at the
heart center. Here we are not necessari ly speaking of something structural.
The "heart center" is an abstract concepL. You simply hold your attcntion in
t he regi n of the mid-chcst. You may notice that your concentration tends to
wander once in a whi le, flitti ng away especially at the junction of inhalation
and exhalation 01' at t he junction of exhalation and inhalation. So be sure
your breath is slow and even. Be especially aware ofyour oyes. Even though
t hey are closed you must hold the gaze stcady: tiny darting movements of the
eyes beneath t he closed lids correspond lo lapses in eoncentration. Hold this
exercise as long as you are cornfortable, building up your time gradually.
If t his practice is difficult for you, draw in your mind's eye a tiny elli pse
in t he hear t center. Then inhale up the ellipse and exhale down the ellipse,
Allowing your attention to move just an infi nitesimal amount makes the
exercise easier. And after rnaking use of this trick for a few weeks you can
go back and agai n try to hold your attention steadi ly on one point.
These exercises are usually done in the corpse postura, but they are
concent rat ions that relate as much to meditation as they do lo relaxation.
T'hey assume that you are relaxed; then they carry you beyond ...
MEDITATION POSTURES
Accor ding to many traditionalists, one ofthe mai n purposes of hat ha yoga
is to train the body and mine! for meditation. The relaxat ion exercises just
discussed are part of this training, and they can a lso be used in modified
form when we sit in meditative postures. Othcr exercscs that can prepare
you for meditation include sitting perfectly still in the meditative posture
of your choice; holding your attention within t he body and maint.aining
awarenes::; 01' musdes, joint.s, and the stl'llcture of the sitting postul'e;
remaining calm, comforlable, alert, amI still ; ami aboye aU breathing evenly,
si lently, and diapiJragmatically without jerks, pauses, 01' noise. Only when
you have achieved sorne mastery ol' these seemingly simple excrciscs in the
medit.ative sitting postures can actual training in meditation begin.
To get. an idea of what 's involved, sit cross-Iegged on the floor and focus
for a few secone!s on the body. Then prepare for mcditation-going heyond
the body lo work with the brcath and beyond the breath to examine the
operations of tiJe mind. To remain alert in mcditation the body has to be
erect., stablc, comforlable, and still. So why not stand? Because you do nol
want lo be concerned about tipping around in a gravitational field. Then
why not lie in t he cOl'pse pos ture? Because you do not want to doze off
instead of remaining alcrL. But what ir you can stay awake in tiJe
1' hat' s harder lo say, but something about meditation an ered
22 2'
17
23
24
53
b2
49 50 51
Stl 41
l.
.l6 60 15
15
21
<d 29 :lO
31
' 9
3
13
t.
35 43
36 42
JI
ti
I
B
10
Figure 10.5. To practice
the 61 poinl concenlration
and relaxat ion exe rcise, you
Iravel your at tent i on
sequentially lo 61 poinls on
the surface of or with in the
body. #1 and 61 is the
"poi nt bet ween the eye-
brows," #2, 14,26, and 60 is
the pi! of the throat, " 27,
29,31, and 59 is Ihe "heart
cerner," bctween Ihe
nipples, whch are in turn
28 and 30. #32 and 58 is Ihe
"navel center,"and #33, 45,
and 57 is Ihe upelvic
cenler." The rest are
obvious-shoulders,
e1bows, wrisls. lips of Ihe
fingers, hips, knees, ankles,
and the tips oC Ihe locs . The
exercise is easier if you
journey from beginning lo
end qllickly (2-4 minules
lola l, or one brealh and 2-4
seconds Cor each point); the
exercise may chalJenge
your alcrlness severely jf
you move Ihrough jt more
slowly. The main idea is lo
move quickly enough Ihal
YOll do nol falJ asleep or gel
conCused abo ul where you
are in lhe sequence.
S6fo A\ :t n 1.'111 OF11;11l/A I (JGA
spine-not merely erect, but erec t under its own power. Lying clown, it dO(
not work for most people.
So we must sit and sit erecto There are six main postures that aceompl is
this-sitting in a chair, kneeling on the 0001' 01' a bench, sitting in th e ero
legged easy posture, and sitting in what we'I1 caIl the c1assic meditative po
tures: the auspicious, the accompli shed, and the lotus poses. Most studen
of yoga would like to use one of th ese last threc, but nearly all WestCrIll'
will have difficulty doing that at first. In ancient India where the post u i
were refined, people sat on the ground 01' on their haunches with the fe
flat, and they grew up with strong and flexible hip and ankle joints, Th
had no trouble sitting flat on the 0001'. But in the West we sit mostly
chairs, couches, and automobile seats, and because of this we have troul
acclimating to these three traditional meditative postures.
'1'0 resolve sorne of these difficulties, we'Il first look at the arehitectL
of a generalized c1assic yoga sitting posture and then we'lJ discuss
anatornical features required to hold it upright. Next we'lJ examine prr
to make the pose easier for Westerners. Then we'lllook at the six stand; d
sitt ing postures in detail, and we'll end with sorne general guidelines I r
mastering them.
MAINTAINING THE GEOMETRY
When you are sitting correctly in one of the three c1assic medita n :l
postures, the pose is self-supporting, The spine is straight, the feet 'e
locked into positions that keep the lower extremities in place, and e
upper extremities stabilize the torso. When you have mastered them, I e
postures should be so comfortable that you are not aware of the body, a d
this perrnits you lo focus your mind on meditation.
THE RIGHT TETRAHEDRON
It is the geometry of these three post ures that makes thcm so sta ble, TI
are idcntical except for the position of the lower extrernities, and in al l If
them the body assumes the shape of a tetrahedron-the simplest PO ' 1 e
three dimensional structurc. All tetrahedrons are made up of'four triangu r
surfaces. In the classic meditation postures the base triangle les agaii
the 0001' and is formed by the thighs ami un imaginary line connecti ng t
two knees. The spine extends upward perpendicular from this triangl
l
posterior corner and fOl'ms the upright axis for both thc sccond and ti d
triangles, which are complete<! by the right and left upper ext remities restr
on the right and left lower ext remities al the knees. The rourth triangu r
sur'face, which completes the tetrahedron, is forroed by an imaginary )j
that connects the knecs, and by two Iines that rollow th e upper extremit
from th e knecs to a point near the top of the head (figo10 .). 'rhe yoo ~ >
between the axial skeleton and the lower ext remit ies therefore gives th e
posture the shape of a right tetrahedron. The triangle formed by th e lower
extremities provides a firm base for the posture, the ri ght angle between
the base triangle a nd the upright ax is of the s pi ne is what makes the
posture upright, whil e the upper extremities stabilize the upright axi s and
keep the t orso from pitchi ng forward.
THE AXIAL MUSCLES
'I'he erector spinae, the rnu scl e complex that attaches between various
vertebrae on the posterior side ofthe body and to the pelvi s (figs. 4.14, 5.5,
and 8.14), holds the back axis ofthe tetrahedron in a st raight line, flattening
the thoracic kyphosis and providing lift to that part of the vertebral
column. Since part of its inferior attachment is 10 the pelvis, the erector
spinae also acts to increase the lumbar lordosis. In the c1assie cross-legged
sitting posture, it is the Ioremost muscle group that counteracts slumping
(that is, the Ilattening of the lumbar lordosis followed by its further rounding
to the rear). The erector spinae also acts 10 creatc what we call an axial
extensi n. which is an overall lifting of the axis of the body.
Two more muscles-e-the quadratue /umborums-lie anterior to
(beneath, when approached in a dissection) the lowermost portien of the
erector spi nae. These muscles, one on each sirle, take origin from the
posterior part of the i1iac crest and the sacrum, and insert on the upper
lumbar vertebrae and the izth rib (figs. 2.7, J.7, ).'j and 8.14). They function
as synergists to augment the Iunction of the erector spinae, acting roughly
like a string on a bow. Wh en they contraet, they bond the bow of the
lumbar curve forward, and so they ar e most effective when the lumbar
lordosis is already being rnai ntained by the erector spinae and th e iliopsoas
muscles.
Figure 10.6. A generic meditative
itting posture (in this case the
accomplished pose), wilh a right
Ictrahcdron supcrimposed on
the model. The base triangle
rests on Ihe ground, with its back
comer undemeath Ihe coccyx.
The middle upright line exlends
lo the top of the hcad at a right
angle (90) from the plane (and
back comer ) of the base trianglc.
,6X AI\'A7TI,\Tl (JI' 11.-1111.'. I UG,l
The longus eolli muscles on the anterior side of the cervical vertebral'
act Lo incroase lifl, in the region of the head and neck. And like tho erector
spinae in the thoracic regin, these muscles are situated on the convex side
of their vertebras (fig, 8.13). If Lhe longus colli muscles along with the
scalenes acting as synergists are not fulfilling their role in supporting thc
posture, the head and neck droop to Lhe real'.
THE I Ll O PSOAS MUSCLES A N D TH E SACROILlAC JOI NTS
The erector spinae, quadratus lumborums, longus colli, and scalenes operat
to keep the general orientation of the spine in a straight line, and in prii
ciple this eou ld mean a spine that is leaned forward, that is perpendiculs
to the Iloor; 01' that is tilted t the rear, Jt falls then to the psoas and iliac
rnuscles to maintain the real' axis ofthe tetrahedron at a 90 anglo from th
base triangle. The individual actions ofthe psoas and iliacus muscles di ff
however , even though Lhey share an attachment site on the upper part 1
the fmur, and these seprate roles are significant, Specifically, the iliac i
muscles sit you up by pulling forward on the ilia and favoring sacroil,
counternutation, while the psoas muscles sit you up by pulling forward 1
the lumbar lordosis and favoring sacroiliac nuLation tsee chapters 3 and
for more background).
The iliacus muscles are the simplest Lo understand because they
solely across the hip joints, from the Iernur Lo the ilium, fanning up and 01
to the inner surface of the ilium on each si de and acting as a pair Lo crea
an anterior pelvie tilt. Vou can feel these muscles in action ifyou sit uprig
in a straighL chair and Lhink of pulling the iJia fonvard to lhe exclusion
the sacrum. You want to leave the saerum behind in a posiLion of
nuLation (lig. .:wl, 01' aL least jn a neuLral posiLion betwcen nutation a
eountemutation. The actions of the i)jaeus muscJes are liubtle. You'"
the idea if you feel a IiCnse of lifting along wiLh a scnse 01' eontrolling t
angle of the lipine wiLh respect to the flour. HuL try to avoid a direet puHi
forward on Lhe lumbar spine, And even more to the point, avoid creaLing
lateral spreading of Lhe isernaJ tuberoliities. Just to make sure of Lhe lat t
squee7.e lhe hips together-and with the hips lhe isehia-Lo affi r
counternuLation.
The two psoas muselcs have a more complex acLionthan the iliaCllS musel
because they cach act aeross Lhrecjoints-thc hipjoillL, the saeroiliaejoir
and the 11Imhosacral joint-rather than just the hip joinl. Sint:e Lhe pso
muscles attach to the lumbar spine, they not only aeLwith the iliacus musel,
to flex the two hip joinls, they also plat:' tension on the lumbosacral jO!
between LS and the saenlm, and Lhey support nulatiol1 aL the saeroih.
joints (lig. (u).
1O.I<I:I ..l .'lCH/().\ /\/J.\I/ .1J1I.4'I/( )\ 569
To feel the effccts uf the psoas muscles over and above those thut are
characteristic of the iliaeus muscles, lift the posture as mueh as possible
with the iliacus rnuscles alone (which also produces a slight anterior pelvic
tilt, as mentioned aboye). ext, without releasing the ilacus tensi n, think
along completely different lines and pull the lumbar regi n frankly
forward, Look (01' a deep and peculiar feeling-an internal tcnsion that is
directed specifically to the lumbar spine from the femurs, a tension that
ultimately pulls the promontory of the saerum forward in relation Lo the
pelvic bonos. This is nutation. AIso look for the other components of
nutaton-i-the squeezing together of the ilia and an even more obvious
spreading apart of the ischial tuberosities. Full sacroi liac nutation is what
Lo aim for and hold in a classic meditation posture because it perrnits the
lumbar lordosis lo be maintained and even aceentuated without depending
so much on the il acus muscles and an anterior pclvic tilt. And it's also
helpful that spreading the ischia apart from one another during nutation
shifts the origins of the adductor muscles lateraUy. That is practieal and
significant for everyone who is struggling with tight adductors, which we'Il
soon see are the muscles that protest rneditative sitting postures the mosto
The lumbosacral joint and the sacroiliae joints are the weakest links in
the classic sitting poses, so be watchful. In the absence of good hip Ilexibility
t rying to perfect these postures foreefuJly by ratcheting the promonLory of
the saerum forward with the psoas muscles may strain one 01' more of these
weak links . And if this happens, pain emerges near the site of the strain-
lumbosacral pain close to the rnidline in the lower hack, and sacroiliac pain
at the real' of the pelvic bowl (chapter 61just an inch 01' so lateral to Lhe
midsagittal plane of the body. To avoid prohlems wiLh aU of these joints,
you mUliI work paLientiy with the exercises suggested for freeing up the
sacroilac joints in chapter 6. You are less likely to hurt Lhe rnp joinL
becausc it is designed for Oexion.
TH E GLUTEAl MUSCLES
The gluteus maximus museles (figs. .' .l', 3.10, and R.l)-JO) are hip extensors
and anLagonists to Lhe hip flexors, and one would at first assume that they
would inhibit sitting corrcctly in the el'Oss-legged postures, but Lhal ili not
the case. U's true that they act as antagonists to the hip Oexors in standing
hul paradoxically, in meditative sitting pstures lhey can actuaUy
support the action of the Iiopsoas muscles by acting as slings to lift. the
pelvis from unrlerneath. They do trus only Lemporarily, however, if and
when you momentarily double your efforts to sit straighLer. In contrast to
the eontinuing and highly d 'sirable isometric eonLraetion of the psoas
museles. kecping the glutells maximus muscles continuuusly under tension
would be too distraeting.
570 AII;1IlJ., /1 0 1' IIA 11fA HX'-A
The gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles (fig. 3.8, 3.10, tl.9-lo,
8.12, and H.14) are abductors of the thighs, and will thus aid any sitting
posture in which you are aiming to stretch the adductors and spread the
thighs apart, which is necessary for all three of the classic yoga meditative
postures. If you have a sudden urge to ti}' harder to sit up straight in tho
c1assicsitting postures, and ifyou feel that eITort in muscles deep to the mors
superficial glutcus maximus muscles, you are probably feeling the gluteu
medius and minimus. A" in the case of the gluteus maximus, such offorts car
only be of a momentary nature-more for educating the adductors aboui
new limits than for wrangling with them throughout a period of stting.
THE ADDUCTORS
Along with flexors (the iliopsoas), extensora (the gluteus maxirnus), arx
abductors (the gluteus medius and minimus), we al so have adductors fe
pu lling the thigh medially, a movement which we considered in detail i
chapter 6 in relation to forward bending. 1'0 understand why the adductor
are important here, experiment with the movements required for sittin
cross-Iegged. Sit on the floor with the knees up and the Ieet side by si
about a foot Irom the buttocks. Now pull one foot in toward the perineun
flexing the leg rnaximally against the thigh, and lower the knee lateral
toward the floor. Notice that the thigh has now been abducted, flexed, an
laterally rotated, and recall from chapter 6 that each and every one of the-
movements is resisted by the adductor muscles, And not only that: sine
the adductors attach betwecn the bottom of the pelvic bowl and the femu
they also act in the other direction, pulling forward on the base of t h
pelvis and causing the lumbar region to flatten or even round posterior l
This creates resistance to the 90 of hip flexion necessary for maintainir
the right tetrahedron.
In summary, the iliacus and proas muscles are most important for crealir,
90 hip flexon in the three cJassic sitting postures, and the adductors are
important for preventing it. Accordingly, the iliopsoas must be strong enoug
and the addllctors long enough lo pennit you to sit upright with a convincin
lumbar lordosis, flex the thighs I}00, abdllet them enough to bring the heels t
the position required by the posture, and rotate them latemlly enough to keel
the knees pressed to the floor-and do aHof this at the same time.
The most obvious (although long-term) solution is to strengthen t hl
psoas and iliacus muscJes with leglifts (chapt er 3) and gradually lengthel
the adductors with prolonged adductor stretches. The less obvious solutiOJ
is to free up the sacroiliac joints so that fuU nutation permits the ischi a-
and with the ischia the origins of the adductor muscles on the inferio
pubic ram -to be spread apart from one another. This has the samo
practical efTect as lengthening the adductors.
10 IlElAXl1nON1111"IJ MElJrrAHON 571
TH E HAMSTR INGS
What about the hamstrings? These musdes take origin from the
. . . furth t the rear than the inferior pubic
tuberoHltl es , which are even er o .
rarni and they certainly limit l1exon from the hip in forward bending
posi t'ons with the knees straight (chnpter 6) . In classic sitting postures,
however, in which the knees are bent, the hamstrmgs are not stretched at
all because thcir insertions on the tibia and fibula are drawn
ischial tuberosities. leaving them slack. They are a problem In sitt ing
postures only if they are injured.
THE PUBOFEMORAL L I GAMENT
Muscles establish the most important restrictions to hip l1exibility, but
there is another restriction within the hip joint itself-the pubofemoral
Iigament- which is one of the three extension-limiting ligaments that
spiral down to the neck of the femur from each of three parts of the
pelvis (fg, 3.6). Tensi n comes oITthese ligaments during a forward bend,
but when we abduct the flexed thighs in a stting postura, the head of the
femur is pulled away from the acetablllum, and this creates tensio.n in the
pubofemoral ligament, which runs straight laterally to
femur in the flexed and abducted thigh. In an anatomical dissection, this
ligament may even have to be cut to permit full the Ilexed
thigh. The pubofemoral ligament is one of the few hgaments In the
that can and should be stretched over a period of time by those who wish
to use the classic sitting postures. In the absence of that need, leave it
alone.
THE KN EE J OINTS
The knee joint (Iigs, ) .24-25) also inhibits sitting properly in classic
sitting poses. As seen in chapter), in an extended position it can .Wlthstand
extreme pressures because the joint capsule is taut and aU of ItS compo-
nents lit together perfecUy. In flexing the joint for walking, however, th.e
joint capsule and internal components have to become loose lo
motion. This is why almost aH severe knee injuries occur when the Jomt IS
in the flexL>d position. A sitting posture is less hazardous than others, but
still, folding the legs back towards the thighs, lateraHy rotating the at
the knee joint (chapter 7) and pressing the knees to the floor, and then staymg
in that for a long time, places an unusual strain on the joint. Not
everyone can accommodate to this position ovcrnight. Flexibility and
strenb
Tl h
hll8 to be developed in connective tissues that may have been held
in static positions, possibly for decades, and to accomplish this, the time-
honored solution is to strengthen the muscles that insert into the joint
capsule with standing postures (chaptcrs 4 and 7)
ANA1nMI () I ' IIA 11M I<H
orl
R IGHT-LEFT BALANCE
The cross-Icgged sit ting postures are inherently a.'iymmetrical because ono
has to be tucked in place belore the other on can be settled, and th is
cause small but habi t ual imbalances in t he muscles that act as extensi h,
(chapter I l. If you always place t he same foot down first, dozens o/
of muscles will deve lop differing lengt hs on the right and left
and ul.tJmately lead to imbalunces in the skeleton and ot her connecfiv(
tune the pelvis wilI develop a perrnanonr side-lo-side tilt as welJ a.
a twis t with respect to the rest ofthe torso In the sh rt thi .
. "o ru n rus rs sometmo,
the reason .for deep musclo pain in the hip on one side, hut in time it wil
t.he. right lower extremity 10 become :;horter than the left, Needless t.
sa
y,
. r,t IS importan to compensate or thesc imbalances by altemating t h,
pos tion feet. \Ve'U look al this matter experientially when we exarnin,
the ausprcious postura later in this chapten
PROPS
Tho ideal 10r meditation is sitting flat on the floor with optim,
curvaturos rn the vertebra l colurnn, but it may be sorno ti me (if'evnr) bet' .
'11 01 ,
you WI be able lo maintain such a position comfor tably, One solutinn is 14
support the pose with Orle 01' more props. Even though many tradition,
teac hCl'S are ardent ly opposed to !itJch devices, they can help get you sl<u.t
are useful for pointing you in l he right dircction. Sorne props mise U
hlps olhhe floor and take tension off the adducton;. sorne brace t he low
back from behind and re lieve tension on the eredor spinae and hip llexor
sorne hold the down and relieve tension on the hip extensor
rhe commonest und srmplest device is one that lifts the hips.
RAlSING THE HIPS
Most. of t he prob lems associated with the classic sitting postures can b
allevJated by ruising the hips I ) inches off the lloor (lig. 10.7). A roUed-u
is for this beca use it is finn and because you can vary t ll
thlckness to SUlt yourself. If the height is adjusted precisely, you feel as I
you can sit up stmight without straining and yet notice that sorne effort I
required.
You can sit straighter with a prop under t ite hips for several reasom.
The thighs are angled down, and as a consequence the reduced demand
lor flexion of thc thighs means t hat adduc101' muscles that are otherwisf
too shorl have mOl'eslack, Second, since the hips are lifted, the legs end UJ
fU/iher' underneath the thigh muscles and will not force the thighs into a
much lateral mtation. Third. with less streteh being placed on the aclductol
by and lateral rotation, these muscles have more room to perml
abductlOn. And last, the adductors are not pulling so insislentIy on t h
so . IUJA X H70(\; "M) ,11H Jn A 770N S7J
bot tom ofthe pelvis, so UlCiliopsoas rnu scles wiIl not have so much difficulty
maintaining t he back axis of the body perpendicular lo 1. he /loor.
If your support is not high enough to suit your particular needs, and
if you are deterrnined to sit, "st ra ight" no matter what, a strained and
ina ppropriatc posture results. The vertebral colurnn compensates for the
st ress by generating a lordosis that is higher in the back than normal. So
nstead of an anterior ly convex lumbar lordosis between the first lumbar
vertebra and the sacrum (LI to S I l, t he curvature Ilattens and deteriorates
in this region and you develop what might be called a thoracolumbar
lordosis, or one t hat is convex anteriorly betwcen about the eighth thoracic
and the second lumbar vertebral' lTR to L2l. The posture is awkward and
unnat ural; to make rnatters worse you can adjust to it easily and hegin to
sit that way habitually.
It is also important not to sit on a support that is too high. Your pose
may be satisfactory as far as the basic curvatures are concerned, but after
a few minutes it will be unstable and you wiII tend to pitch Iorward. '111is
wil! soon cause you to weave around and lose your concentration. A support
that frankly lifts the hips also causes you 1.0 lose the purity of t he right
totrahedron. You may be upright, but t he angle between the thighs and
trunk becomes an obtuse ra ther than a right anglo, and the proximal parts
of the thighs are not solidly agailliit t he floor.
KEEPI NG THE KNEES DOWN
Unstable thighs can be a big problem: ifyou are pushing your limits trying
lo sit in one ofthe three traditional cross-Icgged postures with minimal or no
elevation from a support, the knees wil! tend to float away from the floor.
especial1y the knee on the same side as the foot that is on topoThis situation
is less than ideal in lhe three classic sitting postures becausc lhe base tJiangle
of the tetrahedron depends on stable thighs. If the psoas and iliacus do Hut
have a rock-solid foundation from the lemur, the posturc gets tipp):
f igure 10.7. lile supported auspicious pose
(see fig. 10.11 for detai ls of tlle unsupported
posturel is propped here wilh a sandbag
that permits the model to maintain a
convincing lumbar lordosis, which is
required for a Ustraight" spine, Unless you
can f1ex your hip joint 90 with your thighs
ahducted and feet folded in, you may not be
able to sit comfortably and straight without
a firm prop under your ischial tuberosities.
574 A/VATOMI' 0/" IIA77M I ()(,A
It is muscular tension frorn the iliopsoas muscles that either lifts tI
knees cr pulls the tnran orward at an unattractive acute angle, and 0 1"
remcdy for this is to place 10-40 pound weights on your knees 10 hold th 1
down. This prop all by itself helps you rnaintain the correct lumbar lerd os
and permito you to minimize 01' even eliminate the need Ior a cushir.a
under the hips. A commercial apparatus has also been developed that \\ 1
preso the knees down painlessly and even1y on both sides. make a cus hi. 1
unnecessary, and yet maintain the posture in an exaet right tetrahedron
Keeping the knees down alIows you to place a1l of your attention on l .
ing the posturo with the iliacus muscles and creating sacroiliac nutan , n
with the psoas muscles, but it also takes the place of the work you W OIJ d
ordinarily do to maintain the pose. It improves the external appearanc If
the posture but changos its fundamental nature. The other disadvanr, e
is that it is irnpractical to carry such props around with you, so they 'e
generalIy fit only for home use.
BRACING THE BACK FROM BEHIND
An even more radical way to support the classic sitting posturas is to u. a
special manufacturod back support that puJls the lumbar region forwa 1.
These devices are quite comfortable, and they certainly place you in a st e
of case. The main problem is that they also put you 10 sleep. They shoi d
probably be reserved for those who usually sit on the floor but who e
ternporarily dccommissioned with low back problems, In c1asses taught y
many traditional teachers, such supports are viewed with considera' e
distaste.
THE MIDDLE GROUND
In the last analysis the important question is not whether props 'e
comfortable, but whether they are advisable, If you believe that much of r e
point of the meditation postures is 10 lift your energy and consciou sn: s
with your own internal efforts, props that make lhe posture too easy 1
only be counterproductive.
You have many options for training yourself to sit in the trailitiOl
postures. One is to forget aH about them for ayear or so and concent n
soJely on improving your sacroiliac and hip flexibility (chapter 6), ba
strength (chapter S), and abdominal strength (chapter 3). Then makl
serious effort to construct (or re-construct) a respectable meditat l
posture. 01' you can try 10 sit as straight as possible without any props
a1l while at the same time working 10 improve stren.,'1:h and flexibility w
a rigorous and balanced program of hatha Y0/:,"B postures. 'fhat may wor k
you are already fairly flexible. but ifyou are not it is a tough course indCl
Fina1ly, you can take til e middle ground with the judicious use of pr o}
10. RNAJlA nONA"D Mt-:JJTATI()/v S7S
you can use a cushion or folded blanket but adjust the height so that the
knees remain down without external weight and with only moderate effort.
The mi Id isometric effort needed to keep the lumbar regi n arched forward
and the knees down keeps you aware of the dynarnics of the posture and
yet allows you to maintain an inward focus,
If you take this last option, you can gradually lower the height of the
support as you lengthen your adductors and develop sacroiliac flexibility
for nutation. Those who are almost able lo sit flat on the Iloor comfortably
may even be able to get by with only a thin cushion placed under the fatty
portion of the hips behind the ischial tuberosities rather than directly
underneath them. This does not Iift you significantIy away from the floor
but it docs help you hold the lumbar region in its proper curvature. In any
case there may come a time whcn yuu feel that you havo reached your limit
for stretching the adductors, opening the hip joints, and Ireeing up the
sacroiliac joints (chapter 6), and in that event you should content yourself
with the imperfections, use the least conspicuous prop possible, and attend
to meditation.
THE SIX POSTURES
The three classic sitting postures can be challenging, but fortunately there
are easier poses you can use while you work up to the traditional ones.
We'U consider six meditation poses in an ascending curve of intensity and
cffort. The friendship posture tmaitryosona is exeellent ir you need (or
prefer) to sit on a chair; the adamantinc posture tucjrasana) while knccling
on a bench is probably the rnost comfortable; the easy posture tsuhasonat
is suitable for short periodo of stting before you are comfortable in the
traditional poses; the auspicious posture tsuiastihasana is the easiest of
the three c1assica1 postures; the accomplished posture tsiddhasana ) is valued
for stabilizing sexual energy; and the lotus posture tpadmosona s brings a
profound sense of repose.
THE FRIENDSHIP POSTURE (MAITRYA5ANA)
The friendship posture (maitryw>una) , in which you are sitting on a chair.
is best if you are just beginning to practice hatha yoga, if you are among
those who are nol abJe to sit comfortably in any position on the floor. or if
you usually sit on the floor but are in pain for one reason 01' another. And
even if you do not intend lo use the posture as your primary sitting pose in
lhe long run, it.is a usefullearning tool. 8tart with a wooden chair cushioned
just enough to enable you 10 sit still comfortably for 10-20 minutes. To do
the posture simply sit on tile edge of tile chair with lhe head, ncck, and
spine in a st raight line, the knees comfortably apart, the feet flat un lhe
Ooor, amI the hands resting on the thighs (lig. 10.X).
~ ANA10/lH'()f'UAI7/A !rK;A
The greatest advantage to this pose is that the lumbar lordosis is easy
to maintain. The thighs are at a 90 angle from the trunk, the fee! ar
planted solidly on the floor, and the arms are resting on the knees wher
they can hclp stabilize the spine, The vertebral column can be held erect
because there is no tension from the adductors and hamstring muscles 0 1
the underside of the pelvis, and also because the iliopsoas muscles exer-
only mini mal effort to maintain a right angle between the thighs and tlu
torso. T'his makes it easy to do breathing exercises. pranayama, anr
rneditation.
The disadvantage to the friendship pose is that sitting on the edge ofth
chair requires you to be constantly alert to keep your balance. Unlike t h
c1assic postures, your base does not form a salid triangle against the floo
and without that stability a big part of your attention must remain o
staying upright . If your awarcness lapsos, the posture will begin to 1><
and wobhle.
Sitting toward the real' of the chair is a more secure option because i
that position your back is steadied rom behind. The pelvis and sacrum ar
braced, and the position ofthe ilium against the back ofthe chair stabilizr
the origins of the erector spinae and quadratus lumhorum muscles. So i
this version of the friendship posture you can concentrate your attentio
on keeping a sense of lift to the spine and do not have to think aboi
stability. There are two downsides, however: it is too easy to relax, g
drowsy, and lose your concentraton, and the pressure of the chair agai n-
your back impcdes diaphragmatic (alt hough not abdominal) breathing.
Figure 10.8. It is easy to sit
slraighl in lhe friendship pose
(mailryasana), because neilher
rhe adduclors or lhe hamstring
mu des ueat!:' rension on le
base of rhe pelvis thal wuuld
cause a poslerior pelvic tilt (a
rotation of Ihe lop of Ihe pelvis
to lhe rear thal would in luro
degrade the lumbar lordosis). It
is also easy lo maximize sacro-
iliac nutation in lhis posture by
selectively contracting Ihe
psoas muscles. The main
disadvanlage of the pose is lhal
wilhoUI a broad base it lips
around (both fronl lo back and
from side lo side) fairly easily,
and yuu have tu remain hypcr-
alerl lo rnainlain labilily.
/O. UHAX.-t 1J( JN A.'V /l//,nITA7/0{l/ ~
THE ADAMANTlNE POSTUAE IVAJAASANA)
There are sevcral variations of the adamantine, 01' warrior pose
(vajrasana), but only two of them are suitablc 101' silling more than a few
minutes 01' so at a time. For the basic posture start in a kneeling position
with the thighs together and the head and torso vertical. The feet should
be together with their upper surfaces facing the floor and the heels slightly
apart. Now lower your body until you are sitting on the heels, which forces
full extensi n of the ankles. If the posture is beyond your capacity you can
use any combination of several props: supporting the ankles with a small
pillow 01' folded towel, placing a soft pillow betwcen the thighs and the legs,
01' placing a substantial pillow under the hips and between the feet ,
'ro develop enough flexibility for the basic posture, you can spread your
feet apart and sit bet ween them in one of three possible positions: with the
hcels up, with the heels in and the toes out, 01' with the heels out and the
toes in. In this last one you usually place sorne of your weight on the feet
as well as on the floor, If your knee and ankle Ilexibility do not permit
sitting squarely on the f100r in these three variations, most instructors
suggest that you place a supporting pillow between the feet jusi high
enough to make the posture comfortable.
The basic adamantine pose can be used for brief periods of meditation
and pranayarna, but unless you have grown up wit.h it in an Islarnic
culture, 01' have taken a decade or two of training in the formal Japanese
tea cerernony, sitting in this posture for more than a few minutes should be
approached cautiously. First of all, it rnay strain ligaments in the knec that
are not accustomed to prolongcd tension. Second, circulation may be cut
off in the legs as a result of the extreme Ilexion of the knees, causing a
pins-and-needles sensation. Finally, the pose places prcssure directly on a
superficial branch of lhe common peroneal nerve, which is subcutancous
just lateral to the head of the libula and which supplies several muscles on
the anterior si de of the lego If that nerve is traumatized by prolonged
b;tting in the adamantine pose, the muscles it supplies can be temporarily
paralyzed. You will experiencc numbness and a clinical syndrome-some-
one c1cverly but unjustiliably thought to call it "yoga foot drop"-in which
you are unable to flex the ankle when you step forward. Ir the trauma is
mild you will expericnce the symploms for only a few minutes al' at most a
few days. But ir you damage the nel"Ve to the poinL al which its a.xons
dcgenerate distally from the si te of their injury, you will have lo wait for
the nen'e fibers to regenerate from that site to the peripheral sensory
receptors and muscles before you regaill sensory and motor function.
This regeneration happens slowly but Hurely, at 1he rate uf about one mm
per day.
57H A/\ATnMI (JI IIAn'l H)GA
AHof these problema can be remedied by sitting ')-8 inches off lhe floo
on a srnall bench with a tilted-forward seat (Iig. 10.9). In this position t h
knees are incompletely Ilexed, and because of this, little pressure is plan
on the comrnon pcroneal nerve, and blood circulation is less impeded, TI
biggest advantage, however, is that none of'the muscular tensi n associan I
with cross-legged postures is presento It is easy for the iliopsoas muscles
tilt the back of the pelvis up and forward lo create a strain-free lurnl,
lordosis, even for those with severe restrictions in hip flexibility. The pel
is automatically placed in a Iorward tilt defined by the angle ofthe seat (ti
only sitling posture in which that happens) and this ereates an automa
lumbar curve that kceps the abdomen open and yet taut, which in tur
helpful for experimenting with different methods of breathing. The ot h r
attractive feature of this posture is that it is possible to sit cornfortably n
it for much longer than is possible for any of the three c1assic sitt ' g
poses-a1I without pins-and-needles sensations, lower back discornfort, a d
crarnped circulation,
The advantages lo sitting in the adamantine posture on a bench e
logical, obvious, and huge. So why is it not in widespread use, and why i
not included in the canon of traditional yogic meditation postures? T e
reasons fall into two categories. StructuralIy, the adamantine posture o
bench does not form a right tetrahedron, and it is therefore not as sta e
as the c1assic sitting poses. The thighs are not at a right angle frorn e
spine, the knees are not very far apart, and the upper extremities do 1 It
brace the posture as efficient1y as they do in the cross-Iegged posture!' f
you have gotten accustomed to one of the lhree c1assic sitting poses, d
you try this one as an alternative, you may sense a lack of groundedneb. -
a floating feeling and a sense lhal your energy is being dissipaled. If ' J
Figure 10.9. lhe adamantine posture
(vajrasanal on a bench is hard to match
for long periods of sitting. lhe psoas and
i1acus muscles work efficiently to keep
you uprighl. Ihe tilted-forward seal
places Ihe pelvis in a natural anterior
pelvic tiU thal encuurages a comforlable
lumbar lordosis, Ihe feel and knees are
not stressed. and problems with blood
circulation and damage lo Ihe common
peroneal nerve are minimized. lhe
disadvantages. often mentioned by Ihose
who have long accustomed Ihemselves lo
one of the Ihree c1assic sitting poslures
on Ihe noor. is lhal Ihis poslure Icaves
Ihem with an ungrounded, f10aling sensa-
lion Ihal distracts Ihcm frum meditalion.
JCJ.IU-:LAXI11/J/\ ANDIIINJI"l'Il11ON 579
cannot pul this feeling asirle or compensate for it in sorne manner, you will
probably not be content with this pose in the long runo But still, ifyou keep
having discornort with the other postures, and especial1y ir you wish to sit
in perfeet comforl for long pel'iods of time, it's worth a try. Perhaps you can
rnake it work.
THE EASY POSTURE (SUKASANA)
As the name implies, the easy posture (su}asana) is the first one beginners
learn when they are ready to sit on the floor. '1'0 do it, simply fold the lower
extremilies so that each leg rests on the opposite foot and sit up as straight
as possible. The lateral sidos of the feet are against the floor and the legs
and thighs muy point up at an angle of 20-}00 (fig, 1O.\Oa).
The easy posture is appropriate for 2-'; minute periods of meditation 01'
for breathing exercises at the beginning or end of a class, but it has several
disadvantages as a modtative posture. To understand why, try the follow-
ing experimento Sit flat on the floor and assume the easy posture, making
a moderate eITort to hold the back straight. Remembering that the psoas
and iliacus muscles insert on the femur, Iift the postura by using those
muscles, Notice that when you try to lift and straighten the vertebral
colurnn, the lumbar lordosis is pulled forward by the iliopsoas muscles, as
expected, but the thigh is also pulled toward the torso, raising the knees
(fig. 1O.lOb). This makes the posture unstable: the thighs float up and down
and the lumbar region floats back and forth.
Another reason this posture is unstable is that it doesn't form a true
right tetrahedron. Compared with the other cross-Iegged sitting poses, the
base triangle is smallel; since il is supported only by the lateral sides ofthe
leel rather than lhe full length of lhe thighs, and the elbows are bent 1)0,
making it difficult lor the upper limbs lo stabilize the posture.
A cushion that lifts you several inches olTlhe floor modifics lhe posture
to lhe point at which it bccomes more stable: the tlghs are closer lo being
horizontal and the hands can grasp the knees with the forearms extended.
And because ofthis you can lift the vertebral column wilhout springing the
thighs into a flexed position. This posture, supported by a thick. firmo
round pillow called a zafu cushion, is commonly used for maralhon pcriods
of sitting in ;;en meditative traditions, and is definilc!y worth exploring.
THE AUSPICIOUS POSTURE (SWASTIKASANA)
At sorne point serious students of yoga will want to try ane of the classic
silling poslures for ml.>c\itation, and the ane to start with is the easiest of
the three-the auspicious pose (swastikasaTla) . Place the left lool against
lhe opposite inner thigh with lhe back of the heel lo the right sid of lhe
genitals (fig. 10.lIa). Notice a prominent. bony knob on the medial side of
As mentionecl earlier, the right foot should be placed on the bottom every
other time you sit in the auspicious pose, as well as in alI othar cross-legged
sitting postures. After a few weeks, it becomes a simple matter of habit to
alt rnate. As a remindcr, you can place th ' left foo underneath on odd days
ofthe rnonth and the r ght foot underneath on even days of the month. Why
do this? With nothing on from the waist clown, watch yourself earefully in a
mirror and notice that the foot on the bottorn lifts the pelvis slightly on that
same sido. More specifically, if the left foot is on the bottom, the lea leg is
slightly further underneath the left thigh than the right leg is underneath
the right thigh. 'I'he proximal portien of the len thigh will therefore be
slightly higher than that of the right thigh, and as a result the crest 01' the
lea ilium will be slightly higher than the crest of the right iliurn. And since
the pelvic bowl is tilted tu the right, the vertebral column has to tilt slightly
to the right in the lumbar region, to the left in the thorax, and again to the
right in the neck. Ir you switch the positions of the feet you will notiee that
the postura] adjustrnents reverse thcmsolves frnm head to toe, leaving you
with an opposite set of right-lcft irnbalances. It is irnpossible to elirninate
them entrely, but it is a good idea to cornpensate for the imbalance on one
day with an cqual and opposite imbalanee the next. It becomes a matter of
routine and does oot violate the classic injunction 1.0 stick with one sitting
posture for mediUition.
Silo I1I\A1t),1/l U11I.117M I ()'711
the ankle. This is the medial malleolus, and it should be just to tho rigl
of the midline of the body. The lateral malleclus (fig, 6.S), on the opposi t
side of the ankle, rests against the floor, Next, tuck the latera! side of th
right foot. between the left leg and thigh. The two heels are now separan I
by the width of about four fingers. The lateral rnalleolus of the right ank
is now to the left of the medial rnalleolus of the left ankle. In other worr'
they cross one another in the rnidline, If the heels are not far enough apai
these bonos will be on top of one another and will cause discornfort. No
reaching between the r ght leg and thigh, pul the left foot up so it is fix- :1
between the calf and thigh muscles, Then sit straight and place the ha
lightly on the knees with the palms down (fig. i o.ub). 'I'he body is m v
st.abilized in the form of a right tetrahedron,
Figure 10.10a. The easy posture
(sukasana) isn't easy for long
hecause it doesn't have a stable
base. It is fine for a few minutes uf
meditation or breathing exercises
at the end of a class, during which
time you can make a special effort
to sit up straight. Otherwise, it can
be used as a more relaxed posture
for playing music or eating a mea!.
In any case, the foot that is pulled
in first should be alternaled
regularly. The pose is shown here
with the hands al the sides for
comparison with Ihe profiles of the
lhighs and back in figure 10.10h.
The hands would ordinarily be
placed on the knees.
a. b.
Figure 10.10b. When you try to sit
up straighter in the easy pose,
your psoas musdes act to pull the
lumbar lordosis forward, and your
i1iacus muscles act in emphasizing
an anterior pclvic til1.. That much
is fine. The problem. however, is
that the thighs are not slahilized.
and the hip f1exors create an
unwanted side cffect of
increasing hip f1exion (Iifting Ihe
knees), which makes sitling in this
posture for meditalion a constanl
batlle for tabilily.
I
Figure 10.11. To prevent imbalances in all the cross-Iegged sitting postures, the
fool thal is placed firsl should be alternated daily, such as the Idt fool first on
odd days of the month (a) and the righl foot first on even days of Ihe month.
The key feature of Ihe auspicious posture (swastikasana, shown here) is Ihat Ihe
feet are placed againsl lhe opposite thighs so that the medial malleolus of the
lowermost ankle and the lateral malleolus of the upper ankle are both situated
beyond the midsagittal plane (h). In other words, the malleoli cross one another
rather than being on top of one another. In Ihe case pictured above, Ihe left
fool (big loe side) is pulled up bctween the right calf and thigh. and Ihe right
foot (HUle loe side) is inserted between the left calf and thigh (b).
5112 Af\,.nJMl 01' /fA77/A }"IX;,l
'I'he auspicious pose is the easiest of the thrce classic sitting post uros
because the feet cross one another in the midline of the body and end up in
a natural and stable positon planted against the opposite thighs, The
adductors and pubofemoral ligaments are not stretched excessively, and the
knees and hip joints are not placcd under intense torque. Your main needs
for this pose will be lo develop hip flexibility and to acclimate lo torques and
pressures on the ankles. After that, almost everyone can be comfortable in
this posture. If you are using a cushion, adjust it to the point at which it is
high enough to support you but not so high that you do not need to make
mod rate efforts to keep the lumbar lordosis arched and the sacroiliaejoints
in full nutation. Decrease the height of the cushion over a long period of
time until you are sitting closer lo the floor, This pose is aptly named the
auspicious posture. You can settle into it indefinitely and without rcgret.
THE ACCOMPLlSHED POSTURE (SIDDHASANA)
The accomplishcd pose (sidrllzasana), also known as the perfect pose, is
said to be the meditativo posture of yoga adepts and renunciates. It is the
most demanding-and sorne say the most rewarding-{)f all the sitting
postures, but anyone who is reasonably comfortable with the auspicious
pose can begin to learn it.
Several variations of the accomplished posture are given in the hatha
yoga literature, bul for even the commonest one which we wiII describe
here, difTerent. authorities !,rive slightly different directions for how to place
the fect. Regardless of this, all agree that t.he backs of the hcels are to be
exactly in the midsagittul plane of the torso.
In men the base ofthe penis rcsts against t.he bottom heel, so when you
first explore the posture it is best nol to wear anything from the waist
down. Lift the penis, scrotum, and testes up and out of the way, and then
place the len heel underneath the inferior pubic rami (figs. 1.12 and 3.2) so
that there is barely room for the pens to emerge above the hecl. If you are
sitting squarely on the floor with no support to lift you up, the back of the
hecl wil! be situated sIighUy in front of the center of the pel;neum {fig.
10.12). Your weight will besupported by the thighs. the ischial tuberosities.
and by the left heel and inferior pubic rami.
'rhe corpus spongiosum of the penis tchapter 3) will be slightly
compressed from below by the medial aspect of the hee1, but it will be
prolected by the dcpth of the upside-down V formed by the inferior pubic
rami (fig. 10.13). The back of the hecl should be pressing against the inner
surfaces of the inferior pubic rami from which lhe L'Orpora cavernosa arise.
The skeletal foundation of the posture, which shows the contacl points of
the heel wilh the two ischiopubic rami , as weU as space for the penis
betwccn the hecl and the pubic symphysis, makes the nature of this pose
10 R/ :L1XAI70N Af\'/) IIff;J)/rA170N 5
83
. h Id be exactly
.' 'fhe corpus sponglOsum s ou
apparent immediately (fig. 10.13) d th t P of the V. Be earcful not
.. k d bet !en thc heel an e o
in the midline, loe e ' we the duetus defcrens, blood
ti cord {con<nmmg
lo get any part of the sperma le h 1 " bones and the heel. Make
ht between t e pe "le
vesscls, and caug . ' the firsl foot into position (in this case
doubly sure of this after um u and forward so that the skin
left foot) by pulling the skin ofthc are pul1ed taut.
and un.derlyin
g
tissues .of of the left foot is to the left of the
Notlcc that the m. 'r side of the hcel-pcnis and one testis to
lineo Adjusl the gemtals other. Then place the right foot aboye
one side and the other lo . ht heel is exaetly in lino with the baek of
the left so that the heel aboye and lo the front of the pubie
the left heel. You can lId rd or if that is not possible you can
. th foot lo ang e ownwa ,
hone, allowmg e . .i.: between the two ankles with-
ft 1 th and use it as a eUSl1lOn
fold a small, so e o 'I'he mal1eoli do not cross beyond
out violating the essenee of the ture The lateral malleolus o'
h d in the auspICIOUS pos .
one another as t ey o . f h idli e and also to the right ofthe
. t th right o t e mi m
the I;ght foot IS now o e . St . hten the spine and rest the hands
medial mal1eolus of the len foot.. radl
g
. d fingers to louch one another.
II . the thumbs an m ex
on lhe knees, a owmg .' ht tctrahedron (fig. 10.14). A..e, with other
'fhe body has now formcd a ng T' of the feet should be switehed
cross-Iegg
ed
sitting postures, the pOSI lons
on alternate days or siltings. . . h h I against the inner surfacc of

' k hould poslllon l e ce

\Vomen, I e meno s . th t the hecl wil1 have lo be placed
. ' B t thls means a
lhc inferior puble raml. u . f I ' tals well in front of the
. th ft tlssues o t le gem ,
direetly agamsl e so . fi th unl'on of the lower ends of the
fi Id
f kin whlch orms e
fourehclte (lhe o o s .' . lhe female because the
b
. . ) The hecl will be more mlruslve 111
la 18 mmora.
r
1012 lhe key fealure of the
lgure . . .
unpropped accomphshed poslure
(siddhasanal is lhal the of the
heel of lhc lowennosl fool IS placcd
at lhe perineum the
and Ihe genilalsl cxaclly 111 the
linc. lhe medial amI lateral malleoh
of Ihe respective feel are
localed shorl of the midsag'll
al
lane of Ihe body, so Ihal if lop
fool is laid down directly agall1st.
Ihe bottom foot. Ihe 1\\'0 malleoh
do nol resI on lop of anolher.
Mosl pcople will reqUlre a prop lo
make this posture comfortablc.
s!4 A .\A1DMI (JI' lIA17tA lOCA
upside-down V formed by the pubic ram is shallowor than in the male.
Some authorities describe a posture in whieh womcn sit with nothing 0 11
frorn the waist down and press the lower rnost hL'C1 between the labia, calli ng
the pose yoni siddhasaf/a. Other authorities state heatedly that worner
should never sit in any forro of the aceomplished pose. Those who find it
uncomfortable can use the auspicious pose.
It is sad that the aecomplished postura stabilizes and sublimates SCXua
energy because of the position ofthe feet with respect to the genitals. So ti
monitor the subUeties of the pose you have to monitor the position of t h.
lower heel in relation to the structuros Iying within the confines of h.
urogenital triangle (fgs. .14 and .1.17-2YJ. lf you are sitting straight in th .
I I
I
left inferior
, pubic
ramus; ts
medial
border is
mounl far

caver-

Figure 10.13. The skelelal delails of fig. 10.12 (unproppcd accomplisht'd pose)
reveal lhal Ihe tarsal bone of !he heel (lhe cakaneus) is locked squarely againsl
lhe inferior pubic ramio lhe soft tissucs al possiblc hazard in lhe male are Ihe
corpus spongiosum of lhe penis in lhe midline, and especially Ihe two corpora
avernosa, which lake origin along lhe medial borders of Ihe inferior pubic
rami o11 is Ihe possible damage lo arteries within Ihe corpus pongiosum and
Ihe corpora cavemosa thal . uggest conlraindicating exlensive practice of the
accomplished poslure in men who wish lo mainlain sexual aclivity. Wilh lhree
exceplions, a similar siluation occurs for a woman: lhe exposed porlion of Ihe
c1iloris is well oul of harm's way; lhe pubk arch is widl'r, lhus easing contact of
lhe heel wilh Ihe corpora cavernosa; and lhe back of lhe heel will be placed
squardy hetween lhe labia in lhe vaginal introilus (Dodd).
10 RH.A.\A nor: ,1f1,n MlifJ/TJI17UN sss
accornpl shed pose without a cushion, and if the saeroiliac joints are fused
or locked, the pelvis will rotate forward in exact proportion to how far the
lower baek arches. And if or as t he posture irnproves under these circum-
stanees (which means establishing a fuller lumbar lordosis and a straightar
posture), the inferior pubie rami are rotated to an even more acute angle
with respect to the floor, In men this catches the base ofthe penis between
two unyielding surface the bones of the foot and the inferior pubic rami o
In women, eoming more fully into the postura presses the lower heel more
deeply into the soft tissues of the externa! genitals.
It is at this point that sacroiliac joint mobility makes a big differenee. If
instead of being Iused or locked, the sacroiliac joint is capable of 5-10 of
movement between the extremes of nutation and counternutation, you wiII
want to establish full nutation. This can help the posture circuitously in
two ways: First, because nutation spreads the ischial tuberosities apart,
it eases tcnsion on the adductors, and this helps you sil straighter with an
intact lumbar lordosis. This can help you in all of the classic meditativo
sitting postures, but nutation is especially important in the accornplished
posture Ior yet another reason: with the sacroiliac joints in full nutation,
the pelvic bowl as a whole does not havo to be tipped quite so far forward
to complete the posture, and this means that in relativo terrns nutation will
have produced a slight posterior pelvic tilt and will have reduced the acuteness
of the angle betwecn the inferior pubic rami and the loor; In combination with
spreading the ischia apart, this makes a tittle more room for the penis, Each of
these effects i liny, but the resulta add up. It is not an exaggeration to
suggest that sacroiliacjoint mobi lity for nutation is ahnost as important lo
this posture as adductor and hip flexibility.
Figure 10.14. The completed accom-
plished posture. As in the ca e of the
unproppcd auspicious pose, the fool
that is placcd first should be alternaled
daily for Ihe accomplished pose. There
are Iwo opliolls for the upper foot.
one with a pad belween the ankles
(bul with lhe mallcoli short of lhe
midsagittal plane), amI lhe olher with
lhe lIpper leg rolated severely enough
lhat lhe upper fool is placed enlirc!y
aboye lhe genitals. rhe former is
easier; the latter, shown here, is more
lraditional. In any case, lhe loes are
lucked in belweell lhe calves and
lhighs as in lhe auspicious pose.
As to props, a supporting cushon changes the position of the heel and
altors the posture so completeJy that. even cal1ing it the accomplished pose
questionable. 11' you are four inches off the Iloor, the lower heel
":11 probably not even be in contact with the body and even the upper heel
wIII be the base 01' the penis, or, in t.he female, midway in the labia.
At three.anches the floor the lower heel can be positioned easily in the
ccnter of.the penneum in ether men or wornen, but it. may not press firrnly
at that Bite; and the upper heel is still below the genitals in the male and
at the Jevel 01' the opening 01' the urethra in the Iemala, One to two inches
off.the floor, the lower heel is situated in front 01' the center 01' the
permeum, and the upper hecl will now be slightly aboye the penis in men,
and at the level 01' the cltoris in women.
hatha yoga literature suggests that pressure 01' the lower heel
the penis is beneficia! for men who are attempting to maintain
cehbacy. At the same time we see occasional warnings that the accomplished
pose can cause impotcnce. There are two concerns. The first is that the
postura can cause numbness in the penis as the result 01' direct pressure on
the cutane?us .nerves. 11' you wish to maintain sexual activity you should
therefore sit without traumatizing those nerves. This is easy ifyou sit on a
lifts the ischial tuberosities-and with the ischial tuberosities
the inferior pubic rami-high enough so that the base 01' the penis is not
compressed. Also take care to sit with the heel perfectly in the midline.
Cutaneous nerves (nerves that distribute their fibers to the skin) never
cross the midline, and ifthe posture is adiustod perfectly no serious problems
are likely to befound.
A sec.ond. is potential!y more serious: impotence caused by
of the central arteries 01' the corpora cavernosa, the erectile
bodies 01' t.he penis (fig, 3.28a), from too much or too prolonged pressure
from the lowermost heel. Urologsts who specialize in sports medicine
c?mmonl
y
this problem in eyclists who fal! against the top tube 01' a
bcycle, a mishap which damages the arteries 01' the corpora cavernosa and
with their ablity to dilate. Stting on a support for the
accomphshed posture may prevent trauma to the central arteries 01' the
corpora cavernosa as wel! as numbness because the rear 01' the heel is
situatcd posteriorly and will not lock the corpora cavernosa quite so
firmly agamst the inferior pubic ramio
In summary, sitting up on a cushion that protects the vessels and nerves
01' the. base of the penis changes the posture from one that significantly
restraans sexual energy to one that moderates the sexual impulse more
subtly and provides support and nurturance gener'dlly to the base 01' the
body. A soft, supported posture seems more appropriate for men who are in
an active sexual relationship 01' who wish to maintain that potential. For
IIJ. RELAXAno!V A!VD MEO/TAno,... S!l7
men at least, sitting for hours daily in the accomplished pose in its puro
form-l1at on the Iloor with the penis locked in place-is appropriate only
for those who are in a state of celibal:y and who wish to remain so for the
rest 01' their lives.
]f women sit directly on the 0001', the back 01' the lower heel will be in
the exact place where both the urogenital and pelvic diaphragms are inter-
rupted by the vaginal introitus. We do not, have enough data to say whether
this heel position brings the same benefits (or problema) lo women as it
does to menoSorne women report that it is uncomfortable but harrnless,
others say that it is beneficial for restraining sexual energy.
If'you wish to master the accomplished pose, first sit in the auspicious pose
regularly for a few months, gradually decreasing the height 01' your support.
'I'hen make it an inch higher and try the accomplished pose. Because the backs
01' the heels are aligned in the midline 01' the body 1'01' the accomplished pose,
the adductors must be longer than for the auspicious posture (given a constant
height 01' the support), and for this reason the accomplished pose will create
more resistance lo flexion at the hip joints. Adjust the height until you are
stable and then gradually decrease it. Your final position will depend on
exactly what you hope to leam and gain from this posture,
THE LOTUS POSTURE IPADMASANA)
The lotus posture (padmasana) is one 01' the most beautiful postures in
yoga but it is not practical for most Westerners as a meditation pose. It
places peculiar stress on the knce and hip joints, and unless you have done
it in your formative years it is not likely to work satisfactorily. If mastered
it is said lo bring an incomparable feeling 01' repose and ealmness to the
mind. The lotus posture is also used in connection with numerous other
asanas such as the headstand (chapter 8), so it is worthwhile to practice
even if you do not intend lo use it 1'01' meditation.
'1'0 come into the posture place the lateral surfaces 01' the ankles against
the opposite thighs as close to the torso as possible. The fcet should be
upturned and the toes should rest against the lateral sides 01' the thighs.
Then straighten the spine and place the hands on the knees, generating the
right tetrahedron (fig. 10.15) . As with other cross-Iegged sitting postures,
the positions 01' the feet should be switched on alternate sitt ings for the
sake 01' balance, placing the left foot tirst and foJlowing with the right, then
placing the right foot first and following with the left.
Because the knce joints are hinges, the legs force the thighs into
extreme lateral rotation when the feet are lifted onto the thighs, and when
coupled \Vith an initiall1exion and alxiuction 01' the thighs, the extraordinary
lateral rotation places the hip joint in a stressed and unusual position. This
plus the stress on the knec is what makes this posturc so diflicult. Years 01'
consistent effort may be needed to alter the anatomy of the hip joints and
supporting ligaments enough to make the pose feasible. And even after
this, one knee is likely to resist resting squarely against the floor unless
you are sitting up on a cushion or other support.
MULA BANDHA
Yogis tell us it is important to apply mula bandha (the root lock, chapter 3)
in all the sitting meditative postures. Only by doing this, thoy say, can we
have a sound approach lo meditat on and govern the energy and vitality of
the base of the body. It is tho position of the lower extremities that
determines the experience ofthe root lock, and this depends on four things:
hip flexibility and the angle between the thighs and the pelvis, the amount
ofabduction ofthe thighs, the position ofthe feet and ankles, and the angle
at which the pcrineum faces the floor. Bccause these differ from posture to
posturo, and because the experience of the root lock is fundamental to tlu
experience of each, we shall have to consider the six standard pose:
individually.
In the friendship pose the base of the body feels opon. and because 01
this, concentration is needed to hold the root lock continuously. But if ;
soft, padded surface is placed against the front of the pcrineum, this prot
mildly stimulates the muscles of the pelvic floor and of lhe urogenita
triangle (chapter 3), You can use a folded-up washcloth for this purpose, 0 1
purchase a little wedge-shaped "mula bandha cushion." In either case tlll
prop will allow you to feel the essence of the rout lock and leave your mi ne
free for meditation.
In the adamantine pose the problem is similar. If you sit between th-
feet directly on the floor, you can hold the root lock only with constan
attention, especially if the thighs are together. bccause the perineurn i
isolated and puIJed opcn. On the other hand, ir the knees are spread apal
Figure 10.15. The lotus poslure is one of
the rnost irnporlant symbols of yoga,
noating in the \Valer and yel anchored
firmly to the earth beJo\\' by a single
strand. A<; a medilalion pose Ihe rotus
pose is beyond the reach of mosl
westerners, bur even if il is not used lar
thar purpose, il is important lo so many
other postures in hatha yoga Ihat il
should be practiced regularly. A'i for Ihe
olher cross-Iegged sitting postures, the
1001 posilions should be alternaled
daily.
/0. REI.L'011 f( Jf, II I\ D .uNJ1TA 170!\' s8y
the buttocks come together and the lock is easier to maintain. Sitting on a
bench, you can tilt the pelvis forward, pressing the urogcnital triangle
against the supporting plank and thus rnaking it Himple to hold the lock.
In the easy posture the acute angle of the thighs with the trunk makes
it difficult to hold the root lock for more than a fcw scconds. It's almost as
difficult as trying to hold the lock while squatting. It is easier to hold ifthe
thighs are more horizontal, as when the easy posture is lifted up by a
cushion and the front of the perineum (the urogenital triangle) is facing a
folded-up washcIoth 01' mula bandha cushion.
Of the three c1assic sitting postures, the root lock is most diffcult lo hold
in the lotus posture: the extreme position of the lower extremities tends to
draw the anus open and lo stretch the entire breadth of the pcrineum. At
the other end of the spectrum is the accomplished posture (without a
support ing cushion), in which the underneath h<-'CI places pressure against
the central tendon of the perineum and thereby stimulatcs the muscles of
the urogenital and pelvic diaphragms. Thi s rnakes it possible 1.0 hold the
lock spontancously in that posture with little additional attention. In order
of dfficulty, holding the lock in the auspicious pose is somowhere between
these two. As with the friendship, adamantine, and easy posturas. a
supporting prop at the front of the perineum makes it possible lo hold the
root lock with only the tiniest thread of attention.
MASTERING THE SITUATION
Yoga teachers never tire of saying that sitting postures require you to
remain straight, still, and comfurtable. But what do you do ir you cannot
lollow aHthree requirements al the same t ime? Where do you cornpromise?
Do you relax if relaxing droops your posture? Do you tense the body to
maintain stillness? If so, where and huw much? And how do you si t
comfortably if all the classic postu res are uncomforlable? Every teacher
will have a difTerent answer, and every teacher will answer dilerently to
students of difforing conslitutions.
Many tcachers fcel that sitting straight is most important. Only by
sitting with thc head, neck, and trunk in proper alignrnent is it possible to
keep a cIear mind. In the zen lradition a hall monilO!' whacks sagging
medilalors with a Ileisalw, a thl'ee-fout "encouraging slick," in order lo
rouse their postures and energies during long str'etchcs of sitting.
ITechnical notc : Like all aspects of zcn, there is a (ot more to doing this job lhan
just walloping someone on the back. It' s an art form 1hat involves the precise
administrati un of the requisite "sem;ol)' input" tu th e lIluscular region ol" the
shoulder jw;t medial to the spine of lhe scapula. Therc il' IiUle m l l ~ i n [iJr e r ror. It
infol'ms you -the recipient-that s itting straighl witl aJert the mind wonderfully
lind that if you put your life enerb'Y into what you have accepted in the momento
thejob ofth(, hall monitor next timc-may jusI be to pass you by.1
5'}O AI\:4TOMl OPIIA77fA Hx ,,..
Sttmg still is the next priority. When you attempt to improve the sitting
postures, it is always a ternptation lo kecp adjusting them: leaning forward,
arching the lumbar region, pulling the shoulders back, adjusting the positon
ofthe hcad, and correcting a sideways tilt, Youcan make all of these adjust-
ments whiJe you sit, but you should make them so slowly that tho movements
cannot be detected by an outside observen Obvious movements will dsturb
your concentraton, but ifyou slowly tighten the pertinent muscles and feel
the desired shifl take place over a period of 30-60 seconds, your posture
and conccntration will become lrrn without divcrting your attention from
rneditation. Your mind may be a bundle of nerves and random thoughts
anyway, but you will have no chance of centering it if you scratch, twitch,
and wcave around,
Comfort is third. One meditator has said that the posture should be as
easy as a coat hanging on a coat rack. And certainly you will be endlessly
distracted if you are uncomfortable. Pain warns of danger, and not honoring
that signal will place you at hazard. And pain is a common problern: every
one of the c1assic cross-legged sitting postures will become painful after a
20-60 minute period of sitting unless you have been practicing them and
acc1imating for a long time. So if you want to extend your sitting time it is
legitimate to push up to the point of pain, but then stop. (It, might be noted
that zen traditions are generally not in agreement with this advice. Ignore
pain, they say: it will pass.) In yoga, the customary attitude is not to force
yourself, but to choose a posture in which you can sit straight and rernain
still for 10-30 minutes and yet be reasonably eomfortable. The point is not
to set records, but to avoid disturbing your concentration.
A BALANCEO SET OF PO ST URES
Ifyou want to master the c1assicsitting postures it is best to use a sequential,
systematic approach. If you are a beginner, limit yourself to a balanccd set of
asanas for scveral months, inc1uding standing postures of all kinds, as well
as forward bending, back bending, twisting, the shoulderstand, and the head-
stand. The standing postures are important because they tone and balance
the muscles and joints of the pelvis. Twisted standing forward bends should
be perforrned with the feet wide apart for stretching the adductors.
Backbending postures such as the eobra and locust are hclpful both for
incrcasing the lumbar lordosis and for building strength in the back muscles.
Of the inverted postures, the many variations of the shoulderstand
strengthen, limber, and lengthen many of the key muscles of the body that
are important for correet sitting postures. 'rhe headstand has marvelous
effects in preparing you mentally for sitting. It alerts the mind and body,
and it wards off sleep in the early morning. Mter being in the headstand,
the entire body is more responsive to your efforts to sit correctly.
10. Ut:lAXA770N, I ( 1) JIIFDHAI10f\ 5'J
1
Many ot.her postures and exercises are helpful in ohvious ways. radling
each leg either with your back upright 01' Iying in lhe supine
stretehes the piriformis and obturator internus on each side. Placing the
soles 01' the feet against one another as closc as posshle to the groin in a
sitting position, and following this by prcssing down on the stretches
the adductors. The lotus posture and the preparatory half lotus are invaluable
for opening the hip joints and Ior toughening the knees.
Exercises to improve Oexibility should not be practiced in solation. If
ou merely stretch the <:onnective tissue 01' a joint capsule without at the
time building strength in the associated muscles, the joint will
become susceptible to injury. For sitting postures the knees and anklcs are
the hot spots, and if you do not keep them strong with standing postures,
sooner 01' later they are likely to be injured Irom the chronic strain of sitting.
THE OE FINI T I VE TEST
One test of whether 01' not you are sitting straight is to adjust your posture
near a wall. If two points on the back of the hips, two points on the upper
back, and one point on the back of the head barely touch the wall, you are
straight (fig. 10.16). This is the ideal; you will prubably be surprised to find
that you have a tendency lo pitch forward.
If you wish to try to meet the ideal, you will first have to tighten the
erector spinae and quadratus lumborum muscles in order to pull the body
backward into a perpendicular position. It won't take much effort but the
resulting posture will feel insecure, as though you would tip over if it were
not for the wall. To compensate for this you will have lo lift the posture
more insistently with the iliopsoas muscles, butjust enough lo balance and
not enough lo pitch you forward again.
At this stage, even ifthe four eontact points for the hips and the shoulders
are barely touching the wall, rnost people will have to drop the head baek
so much to contad the wall at the fifth point that the ehin comes up and
they are looking up 30-45. The most obvious rernedy for this is to tuck the
chin in and puIl the head back enough lo make contact, This does not
It feels awkward and looks ridiculous, like plebes braced at attentlon m
military academies. The solution: either use a cushion 01' increase your
capacity 1'01' sacroiliac nutation so you can increase the depth of
lordosis. Either of these options DI' both of them in eombinatlOn hft the
chest and puIl the back of the head to the real' without extending the neck.
AIl of the classic sitting poses become balancing postures at this stage.
Trying to sit straight while you arejust barely touching a wall at five
may be difficult, but it also underscores the three most
ments for sitting with an ereet spine without a supporting cushlOn:
sacl'OiliacOexibility, hip and gacroiliac flexibility, hip and gacroiliac flexlblbty.
5')2 ,IN,170MY or IIA17fA .OUA
MASTERING T H E P OSTURES
~ o U will probably havo to work patiently and for a long time to master the
sit t ing posturos. Tho most important thing is to sit in thom with intent and
purpose. Do the postures. Do not look for shortcuts, Do not yield to tho
temptation of placing tho firs t foot correctly and t hen plopping the other
one d.own in front of t.he opposite leg instead of locking it into place. lfyou
can SIL comfortably with the second foot in front of the first, you can learn
to sit correct Iy in the classic pose. Work and play with your personal
posturc-just one, not al l three-systematicalIy unti l you are sitting closo
~ ~ the ~ o o r AJways sit with full concentration. There is little to be gainod
I you SIL haphazardly In the beginning at least five minutes is needed for
settling into t he posture. The body yields to your intention only gradually
RELAXATION ANO BREATHING
That you shou ld re lax completely in sitting postures is a common miscon-
ception. What actually happens is that t he body an d mi nd should br
brought to a heightened state of attention and alertness, an awareness that
takes its origin from your core and permeates the head, neck, trunk, and
extrernities. The only skeletal muscles that are entirely inactive are thi
rnusc les of facial expression. The muscles of the upper extrernities should
be generally relaxed, especially th e shoulders, but t hey should be in a state
of readi ness, expressing just enough tone to stabilizo the post ure and
remind you of your geometry. The lower extremities are a different story.
They fonn your base, and even t hough there should be an overall feeling of
ease, they wil! ha ve to remain in a mild state of isometric contraction to
keep the post ure looking respectable,
Figure 10.1(,. l he dcfinitive test
of sitting straight requires that
the back of the head, chest, and
sacrulll barely touch a perpendi-
cular surface. preferably using an
unpropped cross-Iegged sitting
pos ture. This is a standa rd lhat
few can attain. lack of hip
f1exibility is a common problcm,
and must people droop their
hcads forward. l ry it anyway; it
will givc you feedback about
your pos ture.
10. Rl::I.AXAUO'... ' A.\LJ IlliLJJ1AHo,,,, 59}
After you havo settled on a meditat ion posture and have had sorne
experience with it, you can make improvements with specific brcathing
techniques. Start with diaphragmatic breathing and notice that inhala-
tion deepcns the lumbar lordosis, pulls the chest back, and lifts the head
and neck. Ordinary exhalations reverse all of these effects, permitting
your head and chest to come forward and allowing the lumbar lordosis to
flatten. But if you emphasize exhalation with the abdominal muscles by
pressing inward gently frorn below, you will quickly notice that this
prevents the posture from deteriorating. Make the movements as subtle
as you can so that sorneone watching you frorn the side would see the
posture improve only over a period of several minutes. As soon as you are
straight, still, and relaxed, do your meditation.
At the end of a period of sitting you should feel alert, centered, and wide
awake. But you will probably not feel like jumping up immediately to
resume your daily activities. Now you can relax. Simply "let go" and aIlow
gravity to bring you forward until the forehead is resting on the floor, You
can c1asp your hands behind your back, or you can make them into fists
and place one on each side of the groin. Rest there for as long as you like
(fig. 10.17). This is yoga mudra-the symbol of yoga.
KNOWER OF THE VEIL
Two veils are said to stand between the student and reality, between the
student and what the yogis caIl enlightenment-the veil of body and the
veil of mind. Patanjali's Yoga-Sufras begins with three terse aphorisms:
"Now an exposition ofyoga;" then, "Yoga is the inhibition ofthe modifica-
t ions of mind;" and last, "Then the seer rests in his own true nature." Few
students are prepared to make use of such stark and mysterious state-
rnents, but al! accomplished yogis honor them. They know that Patanjali is
not roferring lo hatha yoga but to meditation. and they know that. to shred
the veil of mind the aspirant must sit steadily and comfortably fol' long
pcl'iocls of time. 1'0 prepare for this the praetices of hatha yoga ~ r
suprcme. 'rhe cxpert in hatha yoga is even caIled a "knower of the vCll.
And within lhat realm alone there is much to know.
figure 10.17. Yoga mudra.
lhe symbol of yoga. and a
fitting end to ; practice of
meditation.
.. %1; '
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.ir ' , v-r J" o'. I .ra""{,'/<"
// 'hal tJ IIN"lh/ (1tN'.1el ",.1. wr j a""" kIVY/.".f/ /<"
.11/1/ 11.' 1"/ rnh// J/N/!l// /<:,1 h ///o.,, rr C#'e//NJ/'j/ N' a./ ""N'I r/
IN"JI /"1 t."J o. //.//
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{or&-. 7/7:
a
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/ 1"1 # Ih,/ / J J'Ar 4'phrJI 1,{"tI ca,,;'1 a m o
;;. ./tll(u/u:dO/' 1.f//,u'Ilt:n! a h((/l/a//. {eNI? C./N/. fE allaNJ
1/; 'CW9' /' //Icrklol/(,/I. ,r::1'// I/e ol /o'/ryJ / 1/ 10,1';;/ (/re
l,I'n/o /e/11 n/N/ //1<"/1/<'//10","9". ;f';/ / IAi- ,/0# o/ /I/rkll'tlw / J
t// N/U / /.k. 0../1//EI 't"/ !r/J l /? "
- Swarni Rama, in Medi/afioll and Its Prac/iri!, p. 9.
GLOSSARY
Abdomen '1he front and lateral surface of the torso betwecn the rib cage
and the pelvis.
Abdominal Has to do with the region below the rib cage and aboye the
pelvis, to the cavity below the respiratory diaphragm an d aboye the pelvic
cavity, to t he organs within that cavuy, and t o the sheets of superficial
muscles that surround the cavity.
Abduction The swinging of t he arrn 01' thigh out from t he midsagittal plane
of the body; also applies lo the lat eral movement of t he scapula; opposite of
adduction.
Abductor Any rnuscle t ha t swings an extrcmity out from the rnidsagittal
pla ne of the body.
Acetabulum The soeket of t he hip joint ; forms a deep concavity that
accommodates th c head of thc femur.
Acule angles Those between 0 and 1}00.
Adduction 'l'he drawing togcther of t he thighs, the dro pping clown of thc
arrn frorn an outstretched posi tion, and the medial movement of the scapula;
opposite of abduction.
Adductor Any rnusclc that pulls certain segme nta of an extremity in from a
re latively outstretched position.
Aerobic Literally, the presence of oxygen; during aerobio exercise, t he heart
and lungs are mi ldly stressed but are capable 01' supplying thc rnuscles with
onough oxygen t o keep up wit h t heir requi rements; contrast with anerohic.
Agonist A muscle that assists another one in sorne action; opposite of
antagonist.
Anal triangle 'l'he anatornical regi n defined by three linos, one between
the two ischial tubero ities (this boundary is shared with the urogenital
triangle), and two between each of thoso burnps and the tip of the sacrum and
coccyx; see also urogenital t riangle.
Anatomicul position Standing upright with the Iorearrns supinated (palms
fac ing the front),
Anerobic (or anaerobic ) Litcrally, an absence 01' oxygen; an anerobic
muscular effort requires more oxygen than can be supplied (over a short
pcriod of time) to a rnuscle or group of muscles by thc cardio-respiratory
sys tem, leading to an oxygen debt in thc rnuscle that is paid aer the activity
ceases: contrast with aerobic.
Ankylosis Complete 01' partial fusion of a joint which had once heen a
movable ;ynovial joint.
Annulus fibrosus The circular connective ti ssue sheath lhat makes IIp
most of an inlervertebral disk.
595
S')" GLO.\.\.IHI
A muscle that opposes the function of another muscle on the
side 01 abone, oftcn by restraining rnovernent al a joint; opposite of
agorust, '
An t : ior: A directional terrn meaning toward the front of t.he body whi le
stan ng In an upright posture with the palms of thc hands facing forward
The bones erthe upper and lower extrernities; see
pper and lower ext rornit ies for the specific bones: contrast with , .. l
skeleton. axra
Arm The segment of' the upp er extrernity between the shoulder and th
elbow. e
Ar t iculatc To forrn a joint.
Ar:ticula r p r ocesscs LiUle protrusion s of bone that Iorm joints bet wecn
adjacent vertebral arches.
Articulation Any joint, either a movable svnovial joint a fihrous joint 01'a
"
Atriu m, 01' (plural) The charnbers of the heart on the right and on
left receive blood frorn the vena cava rright side ) and the ulmonar
vein Oell side). p y
AutonOl:nic n ervous systcm, 0 1' ANS The part the nervous system that
controls organs and that operates more 01' less autonornously; see
also syrnpathetic and parasympalhetic nervous systems. '
to do with a central axis, either the axial skeleton of the bodv 0 1'
an axial line through sorne segmenl of an extremity. .
Axial s kelct on The skeletal support for the body as a whole and for the
head, .neck, and torso in particular; ineludes lhe skull (cranium and
seven vertebral', twelve thoracic vertebral', lwenty-folll'
IIbs (twelve on each slde), the stcmum, five lumbar vertebral' the sacr Ulll
ami the coccyx ; contrast wilh appcndicular skelet on. ' ,
Axilla The region 01' lhe armpit and lh e deep structures within.
Axon 'fhe cellular process of a neuron that transmits nerve impulses from
the cell body to tbe axon termioals.
Bone One the connect.ive t issues; contains cxtracellular bone salts
that. it harel. ext.ra cellular connective lissue fibers th at
make It slmnl,', and hvmg cells that support the cxt racellulal' cornponents.
of peripheral ncrves that supplie:; th e IIppcr
ext IClmty; del'lved lrom s pmal nelV'es belween C4 and TI ; see also plexus.
The brain st em, th e cer ebellum, and lh e cerebrum; see lhe sepa rate
hstrngs.
Bl'ain stcm 'rhe cont.inuation DI' lhe spinal cord into the brain.
Cal' t .i1agc O.ne l?e connective tissue:;; contains a specialized cxt ra cellu lar
malr'lx lh at gves ( rts characteristic strong but rubbery nature.
Cartila gcnou.... join t Ajoinl without a cavity 0 1' synovial fluid ' held
togethel' by fibl'ous cartil agc. . ,
Ccll body The part of the neuron that contains the nueleus; s uppcrts the
rest of the ccll metabnlically.
Central nel'VOUS system, or CNS The brain and spinal cord; see the
separate listings; contras wit.h peripheral nervous system.
Cercbcllum A large segrnent of t he brain locatcd posteriorly to the brain
stern and inferiorly to the cerebrum; alTects both unconscious ref1ex activity
and willed motor activity.
Cercbrum 'I'he largesl segment of the brain, composed of the right and left
cerebral hemispheres (the right brain and left brain); necessary 101' willed
activity, 101' conscious appreciation of sonsations such as pain, temperature,
touch, pressure, vision, audilion, taste, and smell, and for the higher
functions 01' the intelJect.
Cervical Ilas to do with the neck, its seven vertebral' and eight bilateral
cervical nerves, ami its anteriorly convex cclV'ical lordosis.
Circumduction The movement 01'he arm 01' thigh in its 1110st extreme
circular course.
Coccyx The lower most segment (the tai l bone) of the axial skeleton:
composed 01' a few tiny bones at the bottom of the sacrum.
Concentric Has lo do with an ordinary muscle contraction in which the
belly of t he musc1e as a whole shortens; opposite of eccentric.
Connective fissruC One of the Iour primary tissues; includes loose
connective tissue, fasciao, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bono, and blood; see
also epi thelia l, musclc, and nervous t issues.
Contraction Shortening of the individual musele fibers in a musele, 01'
act ivity of t he entire muscle; ineludes eccentric lengthening, com:entric
sho rtening, ami isometric aclivity.
Coronal 01' frontal plane Applies lo a vertical , side lO side plane, 01' lo
some structure thaL runs in that pIune ; contrast with sagittal and trnnsver::;e
planes.
Custal Having to do wilh the ribs.
Counternutation Movement at the sacroiliacjoints; mOOeratc slippage in
which lhe top 01' the sacrum rotates to the reur in relatioo lo the ilia, the
coccyx rutHtes forward. t.he ilia spread laterally, and th e ischial tuberosities
move medially; of nutation.
Cr oss-sect ional 01' t r an sve rse plane A plane perpendicular to the vertical
axis of the body ur of an extremity.
Crural Having lOdo wilh the crus, or the cl'lIra.
Crus , or c r u r a (pl ural) Literally "Ieg"; the portion oflhc diaphragrn (on
both the right and lefl sides 1that attaches bclween the central tendon of lhe
diaphragrn and the lumbar spine.
Deep A directiunal term mcaning bcneath the su rface of the body; opposite
of superficial.
Dendri t es The cellular proces5CS of neul'Ons lhat are specialized to receive
59li
information from other neurons (frnm interneurons and motor neurons) or
Irorn the environment (from sensory neu rons).
Denc rvate (or- more rarcIy, cnerva t e) To isolate from the nerve supply;
usualIy applied to cutting a motor nerve to a muscle, '
Dens See odontoid process.
The respiratory diaphragm and the pe lvic diaphragrn; see those
list ings,
A directional terrn mcaning toward the fingers 01' toes; opposile of
proximal .
Diastolie Has to do with t.he time bctwoon ventricular contractions when
the r ight and len ventricles are filling with blood; if the blood pressure is
12o/Ho, the diastolic pressure is xo mm Hg; opposite of systolic,
Ecce n t r ic lengthening A type of muscle contraction in which the belly of
the muscIe.as a whole but at same time resists Iengthening,
always agains t the force of gravity; opposite of concentri c.
En t c r ic nervous systcm The componunt al' the autonomic nervous system
t hat lies embedded in the wall of the gut and that allows the gut lo function
independently
Epi t hel ia l tissuc One 01' the four primary tissues; forms the boundary
between the external world and the interna] environment of musele and
connective tissue: see also connective tissue, musele tissue, and nervous
tissue,
Extension The unfolding of a limb or straightening of the trunk from a
flexed position; opposite of flexiono
Extensor muscles Act generally to extend, or unfold, the joints al' the
uppcr and lower ext.remilies; antagonists to t he flexors.
Extra- Outside of especial ly outside of cells; includes everything non-
cellular deep to the outerrnost surface ofthe skin: contrast with inter- and
intra-.
Ext remit y, or appendage Either the upper or lower extremity; contains
the appcndicular skeJeton, as opposed lo the axial skeJeton; see also upper
extremit.y, lower extremity, appendicuJar skcJeton, and axial skeleton.
Facet A small smoot h region of abone covered with alticulating cartilage for
forming a joint (always a gliding joinU with anot.her bone.
Facilitation Input. fmm axon terminaJs al' other neumns that increases
activity in the neurons on which t he axon lerminals impinge; produces an
increase in the number of nerve impulses per second that travel down the
axon of lhe affedro neul'On; opposit.e uf inhibition.
Facili tatory Tencling to induce facilitation.
Fascia :::ihcets 01' connective ti:;sue(tibers and cclls/ that support and givc
form lo org-dIlS and muscles throughout the body.
F ih r oca r t ila ge A spealized connective tis sue confaining a comhination uf
conneclive lissue liben; ancl cartilage.
(;/o..'iSAR I ' 599
Fihrous Has to do with joints of t hat type, o dense connective tissue that
rna kes up t.he capsule of joints, and to the substance 01' fasciae that surrounds
muscle,
Fihrous joint One in which no joint eavity is present and where hcavy
cnncentrations of fibrous connective tissue hold the joint together.
Flexion The folding in 01' <1 limb; opposite 01' extension.
Flexor muscles Act generally to old t he joints; antagonists lo the
oxtensors.
Forearm The segment of the upper extrernity between the elbow and the
wrist.
Frontal plane See coronal planeo
Hip bone See pclvic bono.
Hyalinc cartilage Found on lhe surface al' long bones of the exlremities;
facilitates movement of synovialjoints.
Hyperextension Extensi n beyond the norm.
Hyperventilation Overbreathing lo the extent of creating a subjective level
of discomfort; results in elevated levels of blood oxygen and lowered levels of
blood carbon dioxide.
Hypoventilntion Underbreathing; results in lowered leveIs 01' blood oxygen
and abnormally high levels of carbn dioxide.
I1ium One of three sogments of the hip bone; the largo wing-shaped portien
that articulates posteriorIy with the sacrum to complete the pe lvic bowl.
Inferior A directional term meaning toward the feet 01' below the head:
opposite of superior.
Inferior a r t icula t i n g proccsses Small bony processes that extend
inferiorly from the junction of the pcdicJe and lamina on both sides of a
vertebral arch; in combinat ion with the superior articulating the
next lower vertebra, the superior articulaling processes 1i:1I'm small. ghdmg-
typc facet joints,
Infe r ior pubic rami Wing-like extensions of the pubic fhat run .
inferiorly, posteriorly, and laterally from the region of the pllblC symphysls tu
the ischial tubcrosities.
Inhihition Input to neurons from axon terminals lhat decreases in
lhe neUl'Ons on which the axon terminals impinge; produces a decrease m the
numbcr of nerve impulses per second that travel clown the axon of the
affected ncuron; opposile of faciIitation.
Inhihitory Tending lO induce inhibition.
Innervate The nerve supply lo a structure, as when a motor ncrve
innervates a musele,
lnter - Betwecn, especially between ceHs, as in inte.ccHular substances or
spaces; contmsl wil\ e>.'tra- and intra-.
Intercostal nerves Bl'Bnches of spinaI nCI'ves 1'1-12 that supply inten.:ostal
600 G /.Q.\SAR I '
tbe t ween t he r ibs) muscles an d abdomi na l rnuscles.
Interneuron 01' association neuron Any neuron t hat is interposcd
bctween a motor neuron and a scnsory neuron.
disks segment a of fibrocartilage that
hn,k vertebral. u.odies; they contain a cen tral liquid core (tho nueleus
pu posus) and a superficial annulus fibrosis.
gaps in the spine through which spinal
net ves emerge.carrymg mixed spmal (motor and sensory) nerves: motor
fibers pass peri pheral ly to make synapt ic contact with skeletal museie
and glands: sensory fibors pass centrally to bring
intorrnation mto the cen tral nervous system.
Intr-a- of; relers to nuclei and other organellcs within the cell:
cont rast with extra- and inter-. '
Ischial tuberosities The sitting bonos ; see also ischium.
lschium. One t.he t hree fused-together cornponcnts of the pelvic bone th e
ot hers the ilium and the pubis: its rnost inferior surface is t he ischial
tuberosi ty,
Isometric A type of muscle contraction in which tensiun in
the muscle mercases (as a result of shortening of t he indivi dual muscle fibers
but lengt h of t h.e muscle stays t he same, as would happen if you were t
t ry to lift a locomoti ve,
lsotonic contraction A type 01' muscle contraction in which individual
rnuscle fbers produce movement about a joint as in wal ki ng running and
near'ly al l athlet ic endeavors. ' "
The of a pposition of two or more bones; same as articulation;
carhlagmous, librous, and synovial joints; sec individua llistings for
detmls.
A convex curvatme of the spinal column; t he c1inical
meamng ?f kyphosls IS an excessive thoracic curvature (humpback) t hat
develops m the upper back, often in association with osteoporosis.
Laminae 'rhe flattencd segments of the vertebral arch between the
t ra m;vers e processes and t he spinolls pmccss.
Latc:raI .A direetional term meaning to the side, using a midsagittal plane as
a pomt of reference.
Leg The segment of the lower extremity hetween the knce and the ankle.
An convex curvature of the spinal column; the clinical
meanmg l B an lumbar curvatm'e (swayback> that develops in the
lowcr back.
l nd u?es pelvic bone and hip joint, the thigh (wit l1
kneeJomt, lcg (wll h tIbIa amI tibula), ankle Iwit h tarsal bones), and
leet (wJth metatarsals and phalanb"Csl , as well as all associated musde:;
nerves, blood vessels, ami skin. .
I!aving to do with the lower hack, its live vertebral' and five
bllateml lumbar nerves. and its anterior!y convex lumbar lordosis.
GLU"' ,' 11ll 601
Lumbosacral plexus A plexus of nerves from LI t Ss t hat supplies t he
lower abdomen, pori neu rn. and lower exremities; seo also plexus,
Matrix Substance, material, 0 1' content; usual ly applied here to sorne
cxtracel1ular componcnt of conncctive tissues.
Medial A directional t errn meaning toward the rnid-line, or d osel' to the
midsagittal piune than sorne other structure,
Meniscus, or semil unar cartiJage The medial and lateral rnenisei are
incornplete, donut-shaped wafers 01' fibrocartilage that cushion the knee joint.
Motor Has t o do with output Irom the motor ne urons (located within thc
central nervous system) to skeletal muscles, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands t hroughout the body; contrast wilh se nsory,
Motor neuron One ofthree classes of neurons (the ot hcrs are interneurons
and sensory ne urons) : innervat es skeletal muscle fibers; counterpart to
sensory neurons .
Motor unit A motor neuron (including its dondrit es and axon) plus all 01'
t he muscle fihers that it supplies.
Muscl e fiber, 01' muscle ceU ' I'he individual cells in muscle tissue,
MuscIe tissue One 01' the four primary tissues; inc ludes cardiac rnuscle in
the heart, smooth muscle in t he walls of internal organs, and skeletal muscle;
see also opi thelium . connect ive t issue, and nervous tissue,
Myotatic stretch reflex A ref1excontraction of a muscle that occurs as a
!'Ci5ult of dynamic stretch.
Nervous tissue One 01' the four primary tissues; specialized for
oommunication; see also epi thelium, connective tissue and muscle tissue.
Neuron The genetic, ana tomical , and functional uni t 01' the nervous system;
a l'e\l t hat is spccialized to rcceive information from the environment or other
cell s and t t ransmit informat ion to ot her sites, frequently long distances; sce
motor neuron, interneuron, an d sensory neuron.
Nucleus pulposus 'rhe liquid core al' intervertebral disks; moves posteriorly
within t he dis k du ri ng a forward bend, anteriorly during a backbend, to the
right when bending left, to the left when bending right, and is compressed
during a twi st.
Nutation Movement at the sacroiliacjoints; a moderate slippage in which
the top of the sacrum rotates fonvard in relation Lo the ilia, the coccyx rotates
to the rear, the ilia move medially, and Ihe ischial tuberosities move laterally;
oppo:;ite of counternutat.ion.
Obtus e angles Those bctwecn yo and ISO".
Occipital The cranial bcme situated behind Ihe parietal bones; located Just
oUlside t he occipital lobe 01' the brain.
Odontoid process. or deos 'rhe tooth-Iike process of the axis lC2) around
which the atlas (el) rotates.
Parasympathetic. or vegetative ncrvous syst e m Supports the
day functioning of internal organs on an individual basis; cont rast wlth
602 GH )!>SAIl I
sympathetic nervous systern.
Pcdiclcs Segments 01'vertebral archcs: t he short colurnns 01'bone t hat
extend posteriorly from the vertebral bodies and that continue into t he Ilatter
ver tebral laminac (which complete the vertebral arch posteriorly).
Pelvic Hefers to the two hip bones, lo t he cavity that is cont.inuous wit h and
bclow the abdominal cavity, to t he diaphragm that defines the base 01't he
torso, or sirnply lo the regi n of the bOO)' vaguely below the abdomen and
aboye the thighs,
Pelvic, or hip bone A single bone lone on each sirle 01' the body) Iormed
from three seprate hones in the embryo (the iliurn, the ischium, and the
pubis); the two pelvic bones together with the sacrum form the pelvic bowl.
Pelvic diaphragm A comhination 01' fasciae and muscle that closes off the
base 01'the pelvic howl and supports the abdominopelvic vscera; the deepest
layer of the perineum, on which the geni tals are superirnposed externally.
Pelvis lneludes both pelvic bones; forrns the base of t he torso, and
articulates with the axial skeleton at the two sacroiliac joints.
Pericardial Has to do with the cavi ty (a potential space only) around the
heart whose outer boundary is the fibro us pericardiurn and which contains a
small amount 01' slippery fluid that allows the heart to expand an d contraer
without trauma; pericardial cavity is comparable to t he peritoneal cavity in
the abdorninopelvic cavity and the ple ural cavity t hat surrounds the lungs,
Pericardium The thin layers 01't issue that line the outer surface 01'the
heart (v;ceral pericardium) an d t he inner surface 01'the pericardial cHvity
(parietal pericardi um); also the fibrous pericardi um, a heavy connective tissUl
sack th at surrounds the heart and pericardial cavity collectively; see also
peritoneum and pleura.
Perineal Having to do wit h Ihe perineum.
Perineurn A diumond-shaped region whose borders are the bottom 01' the
pubic symphysis, the inner borders of the inferior pubic rum and isehial
tuberositics, and the SHcrotuberous Iigaments, which extend between the
ischial tuberosities and the inferior tip of the saerum and coccyx; contains thl'
pelvic diaphragm and a11 t he urogenit<'ll structures located within these
boundaries; the more eommon definition is the small region betwecn the anu!'
and the genitals.
Periphe r al nervous !>")'stcm. or PNS Tneludes motor and sensory roots of
spinal ncrves, spinal nerves, and autonomic plexuses and ganglia, that is, all
pHrts of the nervous system excepl the brain and spinal cord; contrast with
central nervous sy;tcm.
Peritoneal Has lo do with the cavity (a potential space only) between the
internal organs of the abdomen and pelvis.
PCI;toneum The Iining of the pcritoncal cavity; includes visceral
peritoneum lining the internal organs and parietal periloneum lining the
inner aspect 01'the bOOy wall; scc also pel;c-drdium and pleura.
Peroneal nerve (cornrnon peroneal nerve ) Arises (wilh the tibial nerve)
from lhe sciatic nerve; has two main branehcs, the deep peroneaJ nerve and
GI.U'SARI tiD)
Ihe superficia l peroneal nerve; t he latter can be by sit.ting
i ntemperutely on a hard surface in t he adamantm pose.
Phrenic nerve Originates from e3-S; su pplies the respiratory diaphragm.
Pleura The lining 01' t he pleural cavi ty; visceral pleura Iines the su rfaces of
the lungs and parietal pleu ra lines the in ner aspect of t h.e body wall and the
upper surface 01' t he respiratory daphragm: see also poritoneum and
per icardi um.
Pleural Has to do with the cavity (a potential space on ly) between the
lateral surfaces of the lungs and t he inner wall of the chest, and between the
base 01' the lungs and the upper surfaee 01' the diaphragm.
Plexus An intertwining and mixing 01' nerves; t he plexus
th e upper extremity, and t he lumbosacral plexus supplies t he lower ext remity,
Posterior A direct ional term meaning t oward t he back o' t hc .body while
standing in an upright posture with t he palms of the hands facing forward;
opposite of anterior,
Process A small exte nsi n of bone, not as long and prominent as a r:a
mus
and not as robust as a trochanter; in the .
ar tic ulating process of one vertebra .. 'S with the articulating
pr ocess al' t he next higher vertebra, forrning a srnal l facet j oint .
Pronation Rotation 01' t he wrist an d ha nd with re forence to t he elbow; ir
you stand and face t he palrns to the real', the Iorearrns are pronated; the
opposite 01' supination.
Proximal A dircctional term refen;ng to portions al' t he .
rc1at ively ncarer the pelvis and chest t han the finger t.ips and toe tIps; OppOSlte
of distal.
Pubic !>-yrnphysis A fibrocarti labrinous joint th at is the site al' union 01'the
two pelvic bones.
Pubis, or pubic bone One 01' the three of pelvic bone;
t he superficial region in front 01' the pubic symphysls, as m the mons pubiS.
Pulrnona ry Having to do with the lungs. The pulmonary circulation is the
circuil. of blood from t he hearl. (right ventric\e) to the lungs and back to the
hearl (1eft atl'ium); counterpart to systemic circulation.
Radius One of the two bones of the forearm; [oeat cd latcra11y (on the thumb
side) in the anatomical position; scc also ulna.
Ramus (p lural ramil Literally means "branch."
Rectus Straight; applicd here to the side-by-side, up-and-down
abdominal muscles, or lo the rectus femoris (t.he stnught head of the
quadriceps lemoris).
Respiratory diaphragm 'rhe dome-like sheet of muscl.e lhal spans the.
torso the chest and Ihe abdomen; its costHI portIan to le
base 01' the rib cage, and its erural portion (01' erus l attaches lo the um ar
spinc.
Right angl e A 900 anglc.
(,04 Gl.VSSAR Y
Sacra! Has to do with t he sacrurn, as in the post criorly convex sacra]
kyphosis and the five bilateral sacral nerves.
Sacrurn, or the sacred bone The lower rnost major segment 01' the spine;
articulates with t he iliurn on eac h sirle al th e sacroiliac joints; five pairs 01'
spi na l nerve exit t he sacrum.
Sagittal plane Aplane that ru ns t hrough t he body in an up-and-down and
front-to baek orientation; a rnidsagittal plane bisects the body down the
rniddle, and a parasagittal plane is paraJlel to t he midsagittal plane but t o om
side; contrast with coronal and transverse planes.
Sciatic nerve 'I'he largest nerve 01't he lumbosacral plexus; its two large
branches are the ti bia) nerve, whic h supplies the calf muscles on t he posterior
side 01' t he leg, a nd the common peroneal nerve, which supplies muscles on
the a nterior side 01' the leg,
Semilunar cartilage See meniscus,
Sensory Has to do wit h conscious and unconscious input from the body to
the cent ral nervous systern: conscious input ineludes pain, temperatura,
touch, pressure, visio n, audition, laste, smell: unconscious input ineludes
information for equi libriurn and se nso ry aspects 01' the au tonomic nervous
system; also includes associated sys te ms withi n t he central nervous sys tern ,
especially those t hat carry t he sensory info rmation to consciousness: contras t
wi t h mot or.
Sensory neuron One 01' three classes 01' neurons (the others are
interneurons an d motor neurons); synapses with interneurons that carry
incoming sensory information to consc ous ness in t he cerebral cor tex or that
t ake part in unconscious relexes: counterpart to motor neurons.
Sesamoid bone One that is with in a t endon; the largest sesamoid bone in
the body is the patella.
Sitting bones See ischial tuberosilies.
Solar (cocliac) plexus A major nerve plexus ofthe autonomic nervous
sys tem that Iies against the aorta between t he diaphragm and the bifurcatioll
01' the aorta (iIlustratcd on the cover 01' t his bookJ.
Somatic nervous system lnnervates skeletal muscle; rcceives sensory
inlormation from somatic senses such as pain, touch, vision, and audition.
Spinal cord The part 01' the central nervous system that e>.:tends I'rom the
brain stem into the veltebral canal; includes twelve thoracic segments, five
lumbar segments, five sacral scgments, and one eoecygeal scgment.
Spinal nerve A mixed (motor and sensory) nerve that exits from the spinal
cord seJ,'111entally in relation to each veItebra; contains both somatic and
autonomic components.
Spinous processes Extend posteriorly from each vertebral arch.
Suboccipital The rebrionjust inferior to the bas e of the skull posteriorly.
Superficial A directionaJ tenn meaning toward the surface; opposite 01'
deep.
Superior A directional term meani ng aboye t he feet or toward the head;
opposite 01'inferior;
Superior articulating processes Small bony pr?cesscs t hat
superiorly from the j unction 01't he pedicle and lamina on both sides of a
veltebral arch; t hey form Iaeet joints with the next lower vertebra: see also
pr ocesses an d inferior articulati ng processes.
Superior pubic rarni Wing-Iike extensions 01' pubic run .
superiorly, posteriorly, and laterally from the region 01' the puhic symphysis to
the ilia ,
Supination Rotation 01' the wrist and hand with reference to elbow; if
you stand and face the palms lo the front, the forcarrns are supinat ed;
of pronation.
Suture A fibrous joi nt that unites t he flat bones 01' t he cranium.
Sympathetic nervous system Supports the whole-body "fight-or-flight"
funct ion; gears up certain internal organs the musculoskeletal system for
emergeneies; contrast with parm,ympathetlc nervous systern.
Symphysis A cartilagi nous joint: sce also pubic symphysis and
intervertebral disk.
Synapse The point ofjunction between the axon terminal 01' one neuron and
its ta rget , usually either a rnuscle cell 01' another neuron.
Synovial fluid A slippery fluid faci litating
smooth and easy movement of the articulating hyaline cartilage .
Synovial joint A slippery movable joint t hat contains fluid ,.a
synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid, sli ppery cartilage on
the ends oflong bones that contad one another .m t he joint, and a
joint capsule that protects the surfaces and rctams t he synovial fluid m the
vicinity 01' the articulating surfaces.
Systemic Refers to the body as a whole; the systemic at
the left ventricle, leaves the heart in the aorta, flows to the caplllanes 01 the
body, and retums to the heart (ri ght atrium) by way 01' the vena cava;
counterpart to pulmonary circulation.
Systolic Has to do with the time during which the
contracting; if the blood pressure is 120/80, the systohc pressure IS 120 mm
Hg; opposite of diastolie.
Thigh 'l'he segment of the lower ext remity between the hip and the knee.
Th oracic Has to do ",th the thorax, or chest ; ineludes twelve and
twelve bilaterallhoracic nerves, the thoracic cage with nbs on .eachd
and the stemum in front , the posteriorly convex thoraclc kyphosls , an
" . h . d' h art and
the thoracic cavity; this cavity in tum contams t e IUm, e ,
pericardial cavity, as well as the lungs and pleural cavIl es.
Traru;verse or c r oss-sec tion al plane Aplane through the b0
y
that I
extends both' from front to back and from side to side ; cont ras t w1th corona
and sagittal planes.
Transverse process 'rhe bony protuberance (one on eac h 01' l' th
vertebra) that extends lut erally from the vertebral arch al the .IunctlOn o e
606 GH)SSAR I -
la mina a nd t he pedicle; see also process,
Trochan!er A large bony prorninence that re presenta t he sitos of rnuscle
attachments .
Tuberosity A bump on u bone that roprcscnts the sites of muscle
attachrnents; see also ischial t ubcrosity.
Uln a One of the two bonos of the forcarrn, located medially (on the little
finger side) in the anatomical position; see also radius,
Upper extremity lncludes the clavicle, scapula, arrn (with humerus), elbow
joint, [orearm (with radius and ulna), wrist (with carpal bonos), hand (with
metacarpals ami phalanges), as well as all associated rnuscl es, nerves, blood
vessels, and skin.
Urogenital trianglc The anatomicul region defined by three linos, one
between the ischial tuberosities tthis boundary is shared by the anal
triangle), and two between eac h of t hose burnps and the inferi or bor der of th c
pubic symphysis: see also anal triangle,
Vasoconstriction Constrict ion of blood vessels (usually smal1 arteres and
arteriolas) caused by sympathetic nervous sys lem input to smoot h muscle
surrounding t he vesse l; contrast wit h vasodilalion.
Vasodilation Dilati on of blood vessels (usually small arteries and arterioles )
caused by biochernical fact ors and diminished sympathetc ne rvous system
input to the srnooth muscle surrounding the vessels; contrast with
vasoconstriction.
Ventric1es The charnbers from which blood is pumped out of t he heart;
blood is pu mped into th e pulmonary circuit on t he right side and into th e
systemic circ uit on t he left sido.
Vertebra 'I'he bony unit of the vertebral column, or the spine; we have
seven cervical vertebrae (CI-7J, t welve thoraci c vertebrae ('rH 2), five lumbar
ver tebral' (LI-'5), a single fused sacrurn with five segmenta (SI-5), and a
rudirne ntary coccyx; eaeh vertebra contains a vertebral bcdy, a ver teb ral arch,
transverso processes, a spinous process, and superior and infe rior articulating
processes; see t he individual listi ngs .
Vertebral arch Made of up two pedicles and two laminae which mect
poster ior!y to complete t he arch; see al so vertebral bOOy, pedi cles, laminae,
and the inferior and superior articulating processes.
Vertebral body The cylindrically-shapOO portion of the vertebra whieh is
separated from its neighbors (one below and one aboye) by intervertebral
disk6; see also vertebral arch.
Vertebral canal The tubular portion of the vertebral column (just behind
the vertebral bodies) that houscs the spinal cord.
Visceral Having to do with the viscera (internal organsJ and other related
struetures such as smooth muscle, eardiae muscle, and glands.
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608
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
S ome of the ma terial in t his book first appeared in Yoga International
magazine in the following articles, authored by David uulter : "Building a
Foundat ion" issue # 1, "Postures an d Breathi ng" #2, Relaxat ion and Energy"
#3, " For Clarity of Mind " #4, "Anatomy of a Hea dstand " #';, "Th e Value of
Being Upside Down" #6, "Siddhasana" #7. "Straight frorn Ihe Hip " #1),
"Letting Go" #10, "Back Repair" #12, "Moving Gracefully" # 19, "Moving
Slowly" #20, "Self -Preservation" #21, "Physiology of Bhastrika" #22, "All
Knot ted Up" #23, "Give Yourself a Lift " #26. and "The Master Lock" #27.
l also wrote a first draft of one more article C'Don't Pause" #28), but this one
was comp lcted by Mick Grady, who in the end was rightfu lly listed as the 60Ie
author. Sorne of m)' original comrnentary that survived in that piece, howevor,
was re-wor ked Ior chapter 2 of t his book. I t hank Yoga lnternational for per-
mission lo use materials from al! of t hese articles in t he present work.
Most of the anatomical illustrations were derived from works now in t he
public domain, narnely Phi lip Sappey's IS8R-IXRy edi tion of Traite D'Anatomie
Descriptive, one plate t fi g. 2.8) from Al bmus on Anatomy (Dover Publications),
seven platos figs. 8.8-14 ) from Hech's Pictorial Archive o{ Nature and Science
mover Publicatlons), a few plates frorn t he ninth edition of Quain 's Elements
of Ana/ofllY (IHlh ), and severa] more from the sixth edition uf Morris 's Human
Anatomy (1914). See the individual illustrati ons for specifc credi ts th at honor
the moral rights of the aut hor (the doctrine of droit moral in 8erne convention
ru les ).
1 t ha nk many friends and col/eagues who contl"ibuted thei r time and
talents to this work. '1 had Pawlikowski generaled the charts for figures
2.1.,-14,2.18,2.21,2.27,3. 11{, J .J2, H.21, and 9.1';. Figures 2. 1, 2.2I)a-e, 42. 1\. 1,
8.3.10. 1, 10 " la, and 10.13 wcre re drawn frorn numerous SOUl"ces by Eben
Dodd. !"igure 4.8 was trace<! by the author fmm roentgenograms providl'<! by
Dr. Donald o. Bro ughton. Figure 6.23 was reprintl'<! by permission from E. 1.
Kapandji 's weH-known Physiolog)' of the Joints. 'rhe desi.,'11 and layout of the
text , illustrations, and cover were done by t he author, wilh encouragcment,
hints, and cautions from Lyle Glsen, Knmala Gerhardt, Jeanette Robertson,
and especiaHy Juyce Baronio. \Vhualso contributed the author's photograph.
Models for the postures, n descending order of the numbcr 01" their poses,
were: my son J amie C<Julter (chapter s 2-10), Bill Baos (chapters 2 and 4- 10),
Mike Ken' (chaplers 5 und 7-1) , nl'ian Wind (chapters 1- 3, 7---8, and 10), J oanne
Wallrt:!r(chapters 1, 4, and 6-9), Charles Cren8haw (chaptcrs J, (l , and 10). John
Hanagan (chapter 6 ), Josh Hajicek <chapter n, and L,Yle Olson (chapler 10).
1 thank aH of you fOl" bringing thi s work to life, as well as down to earth. I al60
wish to t hank Ihe hundreds of hatha yo..ra (eachers who have put up with my
technical questions OVL'l' tlle pust tbree dl'Cades. Many of these teachers huve
had long 8S60ciation with Ihe Hirnalayan lnstitule, and rnany others have oc'Cn
guest instructors from aHover lhe world. Withuut their input this book would
have had little 01' no legitimacy. [ also lhank Swami Hua, a cenlenarian \Vho
still teaches in l\lanhaltan, for introducing me to the seri es of forty-cight twists
and bends Ihal al"c illu!>l l"aled hCI'e-1 think fOl' Ihe first tim in chapter .
'1he unfail ing su pport 01' Swarni Ra ma, the founder 01' the Himal ayan
Institute, a nd 01' Pandit Rajmani Tigunait, its spir it ua l head, created the
atrnosphcre that madc it possible to compl ete this work, a long with a gencrous
all owance 01'ti me for t eaching, writing, and work on illustrations cour tesy 01'
t he In stituto directors. In a ddit ion , Deborah Will ou ghby, t he President 01' the
Institute a nd editor 01' }Jga lnternational , initiated me in the early 1990s in the
strictures 01' wri t ing magaz ine articles on technical subjects Ior a general audience,
Then a l a critical moment in the mid'1990 s, Madalasa Baurri's enthusi asm a nd
persistence in suppor ti ng th e work generate<.\ lhe energy nccd ed for litling t he
project off the ground and 1'01' enli st ing the editori al SUPPOlt 01' Anne Craig
who, as it happen ed, had already been put on noticc by Swamiji in II}RI that
she would do t he edit ingl.
Additional help on t he manuscript carne fr om many sources, Dr. Dal e
Buegcl, a n accomplishcd yogi and expert in manual medici ne, read a n early
draft. Dr. St eve Rogers , wh o by good fortune is both a physician and a journalist ,
read the entire rnanuscript critically. Mick Grady, who is both a journalist a nd
hatha yogi , commentcd on many individual sec tions, cspeciall y those rel atcd to
breathing. Rolf Sovik and Sandy Anders on, who completed their own book on
hatha yoga (}(ga, Mastering the Basi..s) a year ago, read the manuscript critical1y
for contento Dr. Dalia Zwick, a professor 01' physical thcrapy, contrihuted her
expertise 011 matters related to clinical kinesiology, Michacl Alter, the author 01'
Science o{ Flexibil ity, read and commented both on an ea r ly and a late draft ,
and Dr. Timothy MeCall read the final draft in preparaion 1'01' contributing the
foreword. Thanks to all 01' them. And finally, I wish lo thank my editor and
fri end, Anne Craig. The author, 01' course, assumes full responsibilit y 1' 01' al1
errors 01'ornission and cornmiss ion that st ill re main.
610
INDEXOF
ANATMICAL TEHMS
Text citations are indicated in Century Schoolbook plain, and pago references
for anatornical drawings, diagrama, and photographs are ind cated in itali es . In
both cases, boldfacing hi ghlights the locations of es pecially useful reerences.
Asymmetry (also seo symmet ry ), 227-228, 374, :lA7
front-to-back irnba lances, 228,4:37,471.473
side-t o-side imbalanccs, 471
Bones
articul ating processes, 215-217, 318. 39S-:397, 599, 605--606; 55.216-217, 224
atlas, 388-:194. 454-45S, 472,601: 219,221.225. 389,453, 4 72
axis , :UlI'l-392. 601: 219. 22.5. 'l89. 472
clavicle, 105,213, 2' 27, 326.4 55-457, 473, 606; 25.58. 77. 79. 1M . 212, 462, 464-465
coccyx,
145,17 /80,184-1 85,214. 221, 226, 567
craniurn, 388-.'190, 393 394, 447-448, 472. 495,501,528,531-532,596,605; 2 19,
225,3H9. 44 7. 453, 472
dens (SL'e also odonto id proces s), :U19. 598. 601: 219. :11;11. 172
femur, 140.1 42. 146-150. 164, 210-211,236-237,247,297, 30A, :110, 330, 333,
345-.'147.351, :S5, 363--365. 378.385. 398. 401.407. :20. 156, 502, f>68. 570-571, 573,
579,595.600; 79. 146-14 9, 152-/.';,7,212.30 'UJ9. 584
femoral eondyles, :l08. :110; 3ml
fibul a, 151 211. 301. 333. 335, 362. 368, 401, 571, fin. 600; 79. 2 12, :108-309. 3,76
gr eater trochanter; 146, 148. 246. 253; 146-149. 152-1.';3,464-46.5
hip bone, 141- 142. fi!19 600. 602: 144 . 146-147. 212
humerus, 53. 21:-1. 38f. 456. 4f>8, 466, 470, 482-483, fi06; 54, 58. 79,212,464-465
iliae spine
a nt er ior in feri or iliae spine, 142. 150. 161 ,237, 31f!, 347: 14:$.-147
a nterior s uperior iliae spine , 142. 318. 36. 1-364: 14:$.-147
ilium, 140-142. l47, 21f!. 2'27, 246, 254, 2119. 301, 3211. 3..10-3.12. 3.17--338, :140,
576. fi8\ . 597.
599-602.604-60fi; 143-148, 180- 181. 226. 279. 584
i .hia l t uberosities, 141-142. 151, 161. 180. 184. 230, 301. 330-331. 333, 346-347,

59!1-602, 604. 606; .<;6. 14:1...147, 181. 184- 185. 226. 279. 329. 573
ischium, 141-142, 3:llh132. 356-359, 568-570. M,. 600. f'()2; 14:J. ].1.';. 147. ,729
lamina, 215. 2' 2:3, 599-600, 602, 6Of>-606; 2 16-2 1R_224.:121
mall eol us
la teral mall eol us, 580. 58:J: :136. 581, 5I'i.7
medial mal1colus, 580. 58:1; 58 1. ,'i8.'1
met acar'pai s, 606; 2 12
metatarsals, 211 335 .600; 212. 336
611
61 2 tranoc 0/' A/\AT{)AflrJll 7F.HM S
olecranon, 53, 466; 25. 4
patella, 38, 164,211, 310-311. 347. 604; 150. 212, 308-:J09, 45P, 4l;.f
pedicles, 215.220. 223 , 599.602.605_606; 216-217.224, .121
pelvic bone, 141 -142, 144, 14li, 149. 177 ,210-211, 328. 346--347, 355 , 455,
569, [J&1, 599-600. 602603; 212. :129
phalanges, 211 ,213. 3:35, 61H), 606: 212, 336
pubie hone, 53, 14 1. 155. 181, 455 , 583. 5!19, 603, li05 : .';6, 143
pubic ramus
inferi or pubic ra rnus, 42, 142. 11l0, 185,333. 368, 372. :ui0, 48&-49 1.
521 ,570 57 1,582-58:1. 585-f>86. 5fJ9, 602; 56. 143-148, 180- 181. 491,584
superi or pubic rarn us, 141-142. 60f,; 56. 14: 148
radius, 53, 21a, 3l'\5, 60.1, 606: 54, 79, 212, 4(,4
rib tcago), 72-85, 107. 1ro- m . 121-1 24. 196-1 97, 200-201,21:1, 277-27R, 28 1, 283,
288-29 t , 3 19,326.390. 433 .474-175,527,603,605; 75,77-80. 214, 321
sacrum, 141-142.144.1 72,210-211, 213, 216, 2111-219, 327-328, 330-3.11, 331l, 34Il,
345-::146. 356-359, 397-3!Wl, 567--569, 597, 601 , 604; 14.1-145. 178-179. 181. 211,
220-221. 226,329, 464, .'i84
scapula, 57. 175, 2 10,21:-1, :WO, ssr, 45[>-4[>11, 466--167, 474, 479--183, 4Il5,
503 . 5 10-512,595.606:
spine of the scapula, 457, 589 : 2.5. 461, 41i5
skull , 210. 21:1, 3&, 472--17a, 496 , 5O!J, :>31, ;'00, 604 ; 214, 447
ste l'nllrn, 76. 197. 210 , 213, 32li, 392- 393, 3fJ6,456,473, 500 , 503,f>07_509. 512, 516,
5 18-fi:!0, 522; 7. 1, 75, 77-79, tso.211, !501, 509
taIU8,335
tarsal bones , 211, 3.15, l iOO: 3:16, ss
tibia, 148.211 , 297, 30R, 310, 333, 346 , 362, 401; 79.212. :108-309, :136, r>M
tibial condyles, 308-310
tr8U1sverse pl\}CCSS, 502,531,600.
C>05-fi06: ss, 14,t;. 216-219. 221, 224-226, 389. 4 72
ulna, 53 .213, 385,60.1. 606: 54, 79,212. 464
vertebra.
596-597,599-600. 603-606: 55, 70. 73.
78,148,178- 179, 214-2'.U, 225, 278, ;2 1. 472
vertebral arch, 211' 224, 278. 39 1, :J97. 454. 5lK). 602. 604-606; 216-2 17, 32 /
vertebral body, 5.1. 2 15-223,249. :117. 319, 3R9-392, 395 3!'l7, 453-454. 6110. 602 .
60;: 55, 73, 145, 17R. 216-218. 222, 224-225, ,121
Breathing methods
abdominal br eathing, 111-82, 108-120,123-124, 130, 287, 313,432 33, 474, ;'27,
552-554, 557, 576: 109, 1/ 7. 12,3, 136
a bdomino-diaphragmat ic breathing, (see abdomi nal breat hingl
cons t ri cted th oracic breathing. 103-106, 124, fi53; '''u
diaphragmat ic breathing, 18, 81-82,120 -128,1 31, 230 232, 2.'34, 200, 3 13,
432-434. 474 -471;, 526-528 ,55.3--554 ,557.562, 593: 12;' , 13 7
empowcred t horacic br eathing, 102-103. 10[>-106.288,293,315; 133
paradoxical breathing, 102, 107-108, 119 120,433,474 75; 107, 1,'15
th oraco-di aphragmatic breathing, (see diaphragmati ' breathi ng)
12
I/\'V/"X 01' ANA rost: 1/. 6 1)
Cavities
abdominal cavity, 76 , 1\:1, lOO, 156 .205, 244 , 6O:!
abdominopelvic cavity, 156-158, 165 , 176,182,281,1;02: 157
glenoid cavity; 57 , 385 , 4M, 48.1: 58, 464
pelvic cavity; 141, 156, 178, t st , 595
perieardial cavity, 156 . 602. 605: 7:, 77
peritoneal cavity, 157, 602: 157
pleural eavity, 72-73. 7!l, 86, 156,602-603, 605: 73, 77,8Q
thoracic cavity, 76 . 155-156. 204 . 605
Connective ti ssues, IR. 51-62, 64. 66. 229, 284, 312, 5S0, 571--fi72, 596, 60 1: 54-56.5R
Crus, of diaphragrn (see under muscles, diaphragrn, respiratoryl
Facilitation, 32 . :.44 , 546, 598-599
Feet, position of, 249. 282. 362,470.492 , 572, 584 , 588; 4U4-4U5
Gases
alveolar gases, 950-101; 97
blood gases, 68,95-101, 128,438,476; 97, 191
Golgi tendon organ, 41-42. 65. 175, ass, :168-369. 531, 549. 608; 43, 65
Hip Ilexibility, 16" , 16H, 171- 173. 243-2,14. 246. 254, 266. 274. 277, 327 , 332-334. 340-344. 348 .
354-357, 36 1 't80, 425-434. 450,477-481.484 505, 514,518,520,531,569. 571, 574. 82. 58",
591: 173, 2 77, .163-365, 367,426-428, 4:11, 433-4.14, 449,479- 481, 5:19. oSfl2
lnhibition, 32,41 . H 46-47, 544-546. 593, 45, 546
Joints
acetabulurn, 146 , 149, :l63, 36", 378, 420, 57 1, 595: 14.1,145-146, 226, 329
acrornio-clavicular joint, 456
ankle, (see al so talocrural) , 26. 209 , :1:16. 402 03,5f>6; 209,237. 336
ball-and-socket joints, 56. 3Bf,. 38.'i: 146
Iacet joints
rol' artieulating processes, 216-217,222-223. :118,385,405.598-,,99.
60:1,605: 216-218,220, 389
for ribs, 217.222-223,319,405, 598; 217-218,220, .121
hip joint, 140, 146--149, 151, 155, 236, 246, 248 , 25 1. 21:i3-255, 260 -263, 266 , 274, 306 ,
327. 332- :134.339-346. 3S0-:J5:l . 3/H-381. 398-399, 409 , 412, 420, 425, 429, 4.12. 488,
491-49:1, 514, f31- 5:14, 5fi8-569. s n . 575 . 582.587 'i88, 591; 143. 145-148. 209, 212,
485. 534.573
intervertehral disks, sa, 15 159,21[>--226, 249, 278. :.!S6. 29'2, 295 , 327,:185,388.
3!J[>--:l96,453 M , 479,600-601: 55, 70, 143, 148, tso. 179, 218 222, 224-225, 321
j oint capsules, 18.53-<>7. 59-60, 222- 223, 295, :110. :162. 571 , 59 1, 60S: 54. 14 7
knee joint, l fil. 207-209, 2'29, 2.16--238, 29 1 293,297. 305- 3 12, :117, 333, 35 1.
353 .368. 371>. 400-40 1.41 1,,'112,430.512.571. [>87, 600-601: 153, 3U8- 309, Jji(), 102
lumbosacral joint, fi6R-569
pubic symphysis, 5.'1. 141-142, 146. 177. i so, 582, 599 , 6IJ2-603. 6O-606: 56,
14.'1-147. 157, 178-179
rado-ulnar joints, 385
sacro iliac joint, 141 -144, 2JO, 278, 3 18, 338. :140 -341. 346. 349. 35 1.
ass-ase. 373 , :179. :J!J 399, 405-410, 4 12, 425, 41lIJ, 48f>-48!l. 53.'''-,, 31i. sas, 568 570.
575, 58:.!. 51:i1i , 597. 601 : 14.'1-145 , 117, 220,3/9 :120, :129, :/7,9, 406.639,584
l4 INO/>\ UFANATUMICIL
shoulder joint, 57 . :185. 466 , 470; 5H
stern oclavicular joint, 210, 213, 456
synovial joint, 56-57. 142, 216. 222. 328. 361 . :lS.'i, 388 , 394, :J!l6. 45:J, 595-.')96.
599-600. 605; .';8. 147, 308--.'1011. :121
talocrural joint, 33.'); 336
Ligaments
collateral ligaments, lateral and medial , 310;
cruciate ligarnents , anterior and post eri or, 310 ; .109
ext ensile ligament, 57. 226. 236, 316. :l27. 473. 572
iliofemoral ligament, 141" 2:J6, 399; 147. 2.37
iliolumbar ligaments, 142. 3f)O; 145
interspinous ligament, 223.500; 225
ischiofernoral ligarnent, 149.420; 147
Iigamenta nava, 223. 326, 500; 224
ligarnentum nuc hae, 223, 326. soe. 2'25
longitudinal ligaments
anterior longitudinal ligament, 271>; 225
posterior longitudinal ligament, filIO; 224-225
pubofernoral ligament, 149. 266. 278,488 .571 .582; 147
sacroiliac ligarnents, 142; 145
supraspinnus ligament, 223; 225
Meni scus, 308-310. 601, 604; .309
Motor unit, 548-550. 60 1; 545
Muscles
abdominal rnuscles
ext ernal abdomina l oblique, 154 ; 78. 1.';4-156. 459
internal abdominal oblique, 154 . 3l'!7; 78, 155-156. 226, 279, 162
rectus abdominis, 155. 163-171. l OO, 198, 201- 203,205, 238-239, 278,
2l:l:J, 347--348, 3:>4, 387, 398; 154-157. 170,203.237, .144, 462
transversus abdominis, 154. 387; 78. 148, 156.464
adductor longus, 247.249.256-2.')8.265,345
adductor magnus, 247-249.2;'6.345; ,'1OS
adductors (t high}, 42. 148.230. 247, 333- .:1:14, :lIi2. 3GB, 570. ;'72; I4!J-150. 152
agonist , 24 . 28. 64. 155.412. S12. 59;' -596; 141
an tagonst, 24 . 28. 64--65. 103, 164, 234, 247, 294. 299. 301. 408, 412-4l3, 512. 569.
595-596,;,9l:l-599
bceps hrachi i, 26-27. 466; 25. 58. 4.59- /(;0. 462-164
bceps Iernoris tsee hamstrings )
hrachia lis, 24; 25
coracobrachialis, 458; 462.464
deep back rnuscles
erector sp inae, 142. 2',W. 241. 21111. 286-289. 291, 300 -307. 337 , 398. soa,
512. 522, 507-51ill. 572 . [,76. f>91; 157,226. 279.
iliocost ali s, 280; 279
interspinal es, 280
intertra nsversarii , 2811
longissirnus, 280; 279
multifidus, 28lI
rotatores, 280
sernispinalis, 280. 473, 501; 226,16,';
spinalis, 280; 279
deltoid rnuscle, 458; 25, 154 ,159-461
diaphragm, pelvic, 1;' 3,156,15 159, iss. 176, UU-18:!. l R-Il:!b. 24 1 242. 241.
278.281,296,537,598,602; 185-186
diaphragm, respiratory, 62.74-82.108.113,153 , 155, 158-1 59, 16l , 11),'), 177,
197, 2114, ?AI-244. 278. 281. 303. 552 , 59fi, sss, 6113; 77-80,148. 157 .'104. 517
cent ral tendon, 76-80. 82-8,'j . 121, 184, 187, ;,H9, !i97; 78
costal portien of th e diaphragm. 76-7fl. 289; 78-80
cr ural portien of th e diaphragrn, 76; 78-79
dome of the diaphragm, 78-81,86, 1lI2-1 1I4. l OO, 114, 119-1 2.1, 177.
122-123
erector spinae (see deep back muscles)
e"..t ernal abdominal oblique (&.OC abdominal rnuscles)
gastrocnemius, 21l5, 293-294, 33;....3:16. 3liO-.'l52; 1.52-1.5.1.402, 46fJ-161 , 4W
glute us maximus, 147-148. 2a5. 246. 288, 297, 299, 301. 306. 398-399. 502, 510.
149,152-153,181, 460-161. 463
glur eus med ius, 148 .246-249. 2."J6, 2611, 299 , ;98. 570; 149. 152- 1.5.1, 1fiO-161.163
glutcus rninimus, 148. 241> 247. 2!l'J, 398 , 570; 117, 152-153.46,5
infraspi natus, 4SS . 466 , 485; 25, 58, 46.1
internal abdominal oblique (see abdominal rnuscles)
intnrtransversarii ( Sl OC decp back muscles)
gernel1i, inferi or gemell us and superior garnellus, 344-345; 149, 15.'1
harnstrings
biceps fernoris, 33:1. 401: 149.152-153. 308. 402. 460-461,463
scmi mernbranosus, :133; U;2-15:1. 461. 163
semite ndinosus, :1.1:1; 119. 152-15."1. 46 1, 16,'1
iliacus (see iliopsoas muscles)
iliocostalis (see dcep hack muscles )
iliopsoas
iliacus, 140.142.147-1411. 161.164, 172, 2:Jti. 278, 292. 311l, an. a19 , 331 ,

79. 148, I SO. lfX:i. 17(J, 2,'17, 24.';. :/12, 464. 578. f>80
psoas, lotO. 147-148, 161- 164. 170-1 72.236.278.292.301,317, 319 ,
340 ..341. :146- :l47. 354 , :156-:157. 360. a79. 421. 481. 486. 536, 568-70.
573-574. m9; 78-79. 118, 1.50. 168.170.2.'17.24.5.342,379.464,578.580
intercostal, 74 -711.81. 84. 86. 1U2-105. 1lI7. LJ1. 115. L21, 128, 154. 15l1. 11\'; 189.
19'1, 1!17, 1!l<J-200. 474. S52; m. 78. 11.1
external, 75 , 86. 103-1U4. 1lI7. 121. J211. 154. 197. 2()(1; 75, lI.1
inte r nal, 7f....76 . 105. 1M . 1:>8. 11l9. 192. 2()O; 7.5. 78
inte rs pinales (see deep back rnuscles l
latissimus dorsi , 24 . 258.4;>8. 466. 474, 479, 485; 1M. 156. 4(;tJ-..4tH
levator scapulac, '156-457. 466. 474. 501; 4 (;,'1
6 1')
longissimus (see deep ba ck rnuscles)
longus colli , fi68: 4r>4
multifidus (see deep back museles)
obliquus capit is, inferior a nd su pe rior; 472: 472
obturator intornus, 34 4-345. 591: 149.15.'1. l HO. 463
pectoral is majo r, 103,458, 461.,474. 479.485: 1.'>4-155. 459-460
pectoralis rninor , 456-457, 46(;: 46'2
pirifor mis, 339, :1,14-:145. fi91: 149. 152-15.1. 463
popliteus, 400-401: :/08. 402.465
psoas (see iliopsoas muscles)
quadratus lumborurn, 337. 576, 591: 78, 148, 279,
quadriceps femori s, 24 , 2R, 38. ,10, 64-6/;, 148, 150- 151, 208, Z:W-2.. 'U. 235-2..'l!l.
278.294. 296-29H,3U3-311.317,32I , 323,342.347,378,421.481.512.603;
es, 150, 170, 2.17, 306-30!1, :/42 179, 4/i9, 462. 490/. 53S-5,1f;
rectus abdominis (see abdominal rnuscl cs)
rec111S capitis post erior, major and minor, 472: 472
r ectus Iemoris, 14R, 150, 161. 164. 171-1 73, 237- 239, 278. 294. 301. 316-318, 3:l 1.
346-348. :J66, 489, ,193, 5:J6--5.'l7. 603: 147, ISO, /70. :;:17, ,142. 459-460, 46'.l
rhornbods, 1fi6-457. 466; 46:1
rotator culT, (also S(' 'C individual listings), 466, 48.1: 58
rotatores (see deep back muscles)
rotators
lateral r otato rs of the thi gh, 246-247, 24!t. 2r>6, 344-345
medi al rotatnrs of th e thigh, 246-247, 249. 2[>6, :l!l8
sartorius. ats. 150, 1.54,308,402,459
scalenes, 1115, 568: 71J, 464
se mimembra nos us (see harnstrings)
semispi na lis (seo dccp back muscl es)
semi te ndinosus (see harnstrings)
ser rat us anteri or, 17fi. 4fi6, 483. 4ti5: 14-15.'l, 460. 462-4fJ3, 4&'1
soleus, 265. 3,r;O-:J52, 50:l; J5,'l, 402, 463
spinalis tsee dccp back muscles)
sp lenius capit is, 47:i , 501: 27[1
sp lenius cervicis, 280; 27.'1
ster nocleidornastoid, 326. 473: 154, 46'.l
st rap muscles of th e neck, 280,392. 473. ['{JI , 221i. 472
suboccipital (see also individual Iistings), m. 472-'17:1. 604; 279.472
subsca pularis, 4511. 466. 485: 58, 79. 41i2, 464
super ficial tran sverse perineal, 1114, 187; 184-1&5
sup raspinat LI S. 458, 466; 25. 58.16:1
teres major, 458, 482 , 485: 2.5, 46:1. 4(j[j
teres minor, 458. 466; 25 , 58, .f6,'l
t ransversus abdorni nis (sce abdominal muscles )
trapezius, 456-457. 466. 501. 5.'l1 532: 154. 461.472, .s:J,1
t rceps brachii, 23-25. :I11i, 430. 41ili. 479. 485, 512: 25,43,58. :116, 460-461 ,463
61(,
/"VES OF ANA IDM/CA I. n :RM.\' /'1 17
Nerves
common peroneal, 577-578. 602, 604; 152. S7B
intercostal nerves , 86, 5119: B7, .5.'i1l
phrenic, 116-RB. 552. 603: 77, B7
sciatic, 33!I , 602, r.o4: 152
spinal, 29 , 2 17. 222-2'l3. 596. 599-6(){).soa, 604; :10.33,35. 39. 43. 45. 87. 220
Nervous systern, central
brain ste rn, 88.90-91. 101. 596-597. 604: 100. 545
cerebral cortex, 31, 34-:16 . 38, 4U. 50-51, /;6. 88. 54(;, 604; . .545
cerebellum, 32,34, fi96-597; 100, 5405
cer ebrum, 32.34, 596-fi97
rnedulla, AA, 555-556; .15,87, 100
pons, 88; 87. 100
spinal cord, 29-:12 , 34, 36, 38, 41, 44. 46, m , 86, 1111 9,97-98. 215, 222. 3!IO.
543-544. 561, [.96-597. 602. 604. 606; :.JO, :1:1. ,105, .17. 39, 4:1. 45. 87. 645. 558
Nervous system, gene ra l, 22-23.27-51 , 61-li2. 64-66. &'>-91. 100-101. 1:l0. 306. 444-44 6.
541-5 46.548.554-562, fi9fi-606; :10. :1.1. 35 . 37. 39. 4:1. 4,5. 87. lOO, MI>. 5r>8-l>9
autonomie, 68 , Ba-91. 100,444. 446. 551, 5!'">4-5fl2. 596, sss, 602, 604: 100,558. 596
ent er ic, 3Rl . f>6O-56I , 598
parasympathetic, 89-90. 444. 560 -56 1. 596. 601, 605; 558--5fi9
peripheral nervous sys tcm, 29 , 1;97. 602; 559
sornat ic n ervous system, 68 , 65 -R9. roo, 38 1, 541. 543-551. 604
sympat het ic, 89-90. 10[1-108,324.381,4.19. 444-14fi. fi54-561, 605-6I H;: 558-1;059
Neurons
associat ion neurnns Iinter ncurons). 29. 32. 47. 600: :/:I
axons, 31--:i2, 36, as. 54.1 544. sss. 598-599. f1l11 , sos, ::I, ,15. :17. 4:1. 4.5. .545
cell bodies, :n , 500-597: .'1.1. 4:.J, 45. .545
dendrites, ss, 543-544, 597, sor, 33.35
synaptic te r minals, 32: 3:.J
mot or neurons, 29-17. 57, b'2, (;5-66. 86, 88-89. 114, 175, 291, 54:-544. 546. 548,
552. 598.600-601. 1;04; .'1.1.:.J5. ,17, 39. 4.1,15. H7, 100. .'i45
sens ory ncuron, 29. 38, 44. 5!1b. 600 -601. 604: .'/0, 3,1, 4.'1, 45
Nutation an d counternutat ion , 328-332, 3:lR, 340 -341. 346. 349351. 35rt-3f1O, 372-373,
379.412,425--130. -15[>-456, 480 , 467-181/. fi21. !i3fl-53!t, 568-570. 574-575, 582, 585. fi91. 597. 601;
329
dont oid process, :188-391. 59B. (;()1: .1Il..'I
Paralysis
flaccid paralysis, 34
spastic paralysis, :i4. :ili: 3,
Pa raplegia, 36 . AA: H7
Pelvic diaphragrn (see under muscles, diaphragm l
Ph arynx, 70-7J . 196
laryngopharynx. 71.74: 70
nas opharynx, 71; 70
oropharynx, ;1. 74: 70
Pneu mothorax, 72-74: 7:1
61
7
(, 18 I NV EX U/-"ANAHJII I/CAI 71';I/:>
Pressure
a.mnspheric pressure, 95-96 , 1[>8. isz, 438; 9 7
blood pressure, 204. 238, 437-446, 452, 504 , 524-.';26, &18, 560; 4.'19-440, 525
intra-abdorninal pressure, 8 1, 1fi8-1611. 176-178,1 82. 186, 192, 201, 204-206.
242 24, ,258,278,281283,292,002,313, 323 ,359,479; 282.314
intrathoracic pressure, 74, 9!I. 157- 159 , 176, 204, 302. 3::l
Quadriplcgia, 36 .88; 8 7
Reflexes
c1asp knifc reflex, 40-42,64-65; 4:1
crossed-extcnsion reflex, 46; 45
flexion reflex, 44-47; 45
myotatic stretch t''kneej cr k"), 38-40.601; :I!J
Relaxa tion, 27- 28 , 32 . :i4, 62-6.1, :ljl5, 319, sss, [>60-56,' , fi92; 4,1, 63,65,545. 551,564
Respiratory diaphragrn (see under muscles, diaphragm)
Respiratory sinus arrhythrnia, 91
Respiratory system
alveo li, 68, 70-71. 90 . 93-96, 191; 69
bronchial tree , 70 , 93, 55.',, 557; 71
bronchus, 70 , 9a; 70-71
glottis, 18,72-7:\,84,99, 102, lf>8-lfi9, 164, 176, 196-200. 204, 236, 240, 21l1 , 302,
321 ,443; 70. 196
Iarynx, 70-74, 93. 177. 196, 539; 70, 77
lungs, 68-74. 76-86, 91- 94, 106. 109. 129. lOO, 240. 3 14, 354-3f,fi, 438, 444, 474-176,
1' .., 7. 603; 69. 71 . 73. 77. 93
palate, 611; 70
pharynx (see pharynx and its subcategories on p. 617)
Scoliosis, 225
Skeletal systcm
appendicu lar skeleton, 210-2 11. 227. sss, 596. 598; 212
axial skeletun, sro, 213, 227, 35." 567 , 596-598, 602; 214
pelvic bowl, 53, 14 1-147,151,156,1 71, 177- 179,211.318,328,331,343,
346, sss, 456 , 569-570, 58 1, fiSfi, 599, 602 ; 79. 170,329
pelvic girdle, 455
shoulder girdlo, 45[>-41'>6
spine (see vertebral colurnn )
vertebral column, 53, sa, 85, 144. 21 0. 21: 226, 249-250, :U8, 327, 346, ass 3nll.
412 .453-454.477 567. 572 576. 57n. 58 1. 603.606; 144. 214, 218. 221..SOI
Symrnetry (also ree asymmetry), 62, 227 -228. 387, 471
front-back symrnetry, 228.437.471-473
right-left symmetry, 47 1; 472
Tendon
Achill es tendon, 402. 4r>fJ-461. 4/;,3
hamstring, 346. :l;8, 4tH. 5:11; 1iS, 153
patullar; as. 150 , 310; 150, 30li -.10fl. 459
quadriceps lemoris, 3 10; 150, 308- .109, /,s9
Vestibular system, with semicircular canals and utricle, 47-511. /;(i
IX
INDEX F PRACTICES
Abdominopelvic exercises
abdominal lift (see uddiyana bandha)
agn sara, sa, 116, 188-201. 204- 206. 354; 190-191 , 19:1-194
A and P breat hing, 181l-1!10, 195; 191
as hwini mudra, 18'- 187, 192,204-205,230, 2116. :lOO, 537: 414
fire dhauti, 199
mu la bandha (root lock), 182-1 87. 192, 199. 204 -205, 2116, :lOO, 5BIl-58.'l; :100
nauli, 116, 201 -203, 205: 203
nauli rnadhyama, 201-203: 203
root lock (see mula bandha )
uddiyana bandha, 116, 195-205; 196. 198. 203
Accomplished postura (see meditativo sitting pos tures)
Adarnan t i ne post ure tsee medtative sit ting post ures)
Anglo, 247-249 ,360, :178, 422 , 424; 248, 423-424
Arch, 284. 537; 536
Auspicious posture (see medi tative sitting posturas)
Backward bends, standing
relaxed standing baekbend, ll38- ll40. 276, 331-332; 2:19,275
who le-body backward bend, 236-240, 2..'>0; 237, 3M
Bow
advanced bow, 305 -306; 307
beginner's how, :l05, 307; :106
intermediare bow, :lOS
Breathing exercises
alternate nostril breathing, 130 131: 1.10
bellows breath, 93,97,99, 115-1 l!C1 , 195; 117-118
complete breath, 9'2, 106. 128- 129; 128
even breathing, 76, 110-11:( 120, 127 . 131,234,239,355,552,562
kapalabhati, 115-120, 194-195.528: 117-118
two:one breathing, 111 , 121, 5fi6
Bridge, 477 .499. 52S, 532 . 5:l6-5:1S; ,s:Ir,..,i,'/7
Camel, 148. 273, 277 .320-323; :122 '12.1
Candlo posture, 500-503; 50 1, 51 1
Cat stretch, 187, 194, 199. 20"2; 187. 194, 198
Celibate's pose, 208, 479-48L; 48 1
Child's pose, 213, 326, 352-.'m5. 4&1; ,352
Cobras
advanced cobra, 292-29:1. :107. :i32; 292
classic beginning cobm, 284-28/;; 285
diaphragmatic real' lift , 84-85, 110. 125. 288. 313; 84
Ior rostricted mohility, 295
open-air cobra, 294
raising IIp and down with br eathing, 32:1
u: INUJ:,\ 0/<
supported int erm ed a te cobra, 290-2!11; 2!1O
with rclaxed lower extremities, 288-289
with reversed breathing, 289
Corpse, 27. 32,62-6:1. 82. lOO, 107- 1lJl:1, 110-111. 119-121 . 123.218. 312-313, 327. 445, 475-171;,
526.541. 547-55:l. 562-,565: 63.547,564
Cow-face, 311 , 413, 478; 417
Crocodi lo
advanced crocodile, 550-55 1: 551
easy crocodiIe, 123-124; 124
stret ched crocodilo, 122-123, 287; 123
Crow, 478---'179, 481-4 82; 478
Crunch, 140. 359; 141
Dog
down-facing dog, 183. 187, 326, 334, 336,349-352. 354. 356-31; 7.402,466 .
482 1l6; :1!W.482-48."I
upward-facing dog, 103. 1A.1. 293-294. 296. 3.14. 336 . 3[>8-.159. 466 .483,486; 295
Dolphin, 484--4 85; 484-485
Eagle, 50, 267-26!J; 268-269
Easy posture (see meditative sitting posturesi
Extended lateral anglo, 422; 42:J
revolving extended lateral angle, 422. 424; 424
Fsh, 103. 166-167. 312,314-315. 32.1, 499, 528 ,535-:;:16; 167. :/15. 5:15
Forward bends
forward bends frnm the hips, 208,240. 243-24 6.264. 276. 343-349;
245-246. 283. 417
forward bends frorn the waist, 240-243. 359; 242-24:1. :J3S. 342
Friendship poslure (sce meditative sit ting postures)
Half lotus
half lotus in (he shoulderstand, 369, 42.'\, 513- 516; 5U;
half lotu s in the spinal twist, 425. 434
half lotus in threading-the-needle, 425.533-534; 533
Hamstrings-quadrieeps thigh pull, 41-42. 64 - 65. 151; 6.5
Headstand
bregma headstand, 446-448. 452.1M-455. 473 . 489 ; 447. 453
crown headstand, 446-455. 473; 447.4.51. .1[">3
Hip-opcning exercises, 361-380; 363-365. "167. "171 ,172.374-377,379-380
l nverted acton, (i03-507. [,24-[;28, 53:1: 505-.'06. 525
ful l posture (see viparitakarani mudra l
passive inverted act ion, 1i04
rclaxed easy inverted acti on, 505 . 5(/,!;
Knee-to-ea r, 517. 52b. 5:14; 6.14
Leglifts
double legli s, 163-166. 168-169. 314, 408. 410. 521; 1M. 409
li re exercise, 161- 163 . 166. till, 172, :m!l; Ui2
lcglifts with rclax ed abdome n, 167; 168
si ngle leglift , 160 161; U;O
'''"01'..'1: OF t novc rtce 621
superfish leglift, 166-167,208, 357 , 5.1.'i; 167
Locusts
active half locust , 297
advanced full locust, 302-303; 303
beginner's fuU locust , 299 -300; 300
intcrmediate Iull locust, 300-301; :101
simple fuUlocust, 298-2!l9; 300
supportcd half locust, 298: 299
Lotus posture (see meditativo sitting postures)
Lotus posturc (other than meditative)
lotus posture in the full spinal twi st, 4:14, 533; 434, 533
lotus posture in the headstand, 49:1; 494
Lumbar lift, 312-:11 4, :I:t:J; :11."1
Lunge, (also see warrior posturesi, 28, 311, :178, 4 UI-t22; 28, 419, 421
Meditative sitting postures
accomplished, 42. 582-587. 689: 567, 583-585
adamantine, 357 , 577- 579.588-[>89. 60:1; 578
auspicious, 42. 566.572. 579-(i82; .573.581
easy, 64 , 103. 5:11\, 566 . :;79. 689; 5.15. 580
Iriendship, 575-576,588-['89; 576
lotus, 176,314,434-435, 49:J, 514 , 533-535, [>66, ,>87-588; 2 71. 315. 434, 491, 588
Mountain, 210,2:10-231.234, 254; 231
Neck exercises, 48-49,392-395.528-5:11; 392.529
Passive supine backbending, 317 - 320; 319, ,121
Peacock, 32. 159. 17:!-176. 204- 200, 4[:>6. 466; 174-1 75
Pigcon, 339,360, 362. :176-.178; 377
Plank, 348-349. 466; :149
Plow, 369, 425. 477, 505.507.514. 5 16-521, 524- 52l; 517. 519. sss-ss
classic plow, 517-521; 519
half plow, 3li9,516-,517; 517
lilled pIow, 523 ..524 .524
Posterior stretch, :WO. 343-::149. 3!'J3. 36 1. 369-373, 381; :140-34/ , 344
Prone boats, 6.'1-64. 103, 30:l-:i05; M . "104
Rolaxation exercises
61 points exereise, .5M
hcart center concentrat.ion, 56
rise and fall 01'abdome n, 552- 553. fi62-56.'l
sweeping breath up and down th e body, 563
tnnsion-relaxation excrcises, 549
Scorpion, 1'*'--488: 487
Shoulderstand
beginning shouldersta nd, 50H; ,r;/l9
classic shoulderstand, 5Oll-5U9 , 514, 24-5211; 509-510
lfted shoulderstand, 522-211; 52."1, 52.5
quarter plow, 507
internally SUPP0l'ted s houldorstand (also see candlcl, 09-512; 510-.5/1
21
1'>22 IflVEX 01' PRA(.-nCD'
Side bends, 249-254, 200
side bend with feet apart, 2.')1-2.';.1; 251
si de bond with feet together, zso, 253: 2!W, 2fi2
side bend with one knce on the floor, 21;.1-2.<;4; 2.'3
Simple stretches
side-to-side stretch, 2:11 -233; 232
standing twist, 234-23fi. :195-398. 410-417: : ~ 5 397
overhead stretch, 233-234; 2:13
Sitting boats
Ilat-bottom boat, 171-172: 17:1
boat with a keel, 172-173: 17:1
Sit-up, 140.169-171; 170
Stick, 479-481; 479,481
Sun salutations, 40, 106. 129,205,401,496.555
'I'hreading-the-needle, 5:-11534; 5:1:1
Trapezius stretch (see threading-the-necdle)
Tree, 2fi9-2 71. 467: 27U-271
'I'riangles
classic triangle, 260-263.113.418: 261
externally supported triangle fOI" beginners, 259 -2fiO; 2.5!1
internally supported triangle fOI" beginners, 256-2fif1: 2.57
preliminary stance, 25r>-256. 113
revolving triangle, 26.1-267.418; 264-266
Twists
and bends, standing, 311-:l12.411 13; 414-417
clouble leglifl supine twist, 40S-HO; 409
inverted twists, 424---42[,.492
rclaxed supino twist, 407: 407
simple supine twist, 105-406; 406
sitting twist, 425-429; 426-428
full spinal twist, 434-435; 4:14
half spinal twist, 429-434: 431.43:-1
simple sitting twist, 425-426; 426
Two-handed cobra, 479-41l1: 480
Viparitakarani mudra, 5O:!,5tJ6..-507: 506
Warnor
warrior 1, 28, 421-422; 28. 421
warrior n, 419-420: 419
YOg-d nidrasana, 5:18-5:19; 5:19
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
David Coulter received a Ph. O. in anatorny from the University 01' Tennessee
Center for the Health Sciences in 1968. From 1968 to 1986 he taught various
microscopic, neuroscience, and elementary gross anatomy courses in the
Department of Anatomy of the University of Minnesota (Medical School) in
Minncapolis, MN. During that period he aIso served as a principal investigator
for neuroscience research funded by the National Institutes of Health and the
National Science Foundation, He next taught in the Department of Anatomy
and Cell Biology at Columbia niversity College 01' Physicians & Surgeons
(1')86 tu 1988), and since then has practiced ami taught a style 01' bodywork
called Ohashiatsu in New York City and elsewherc. Dr. Coulter has been
practicing yoga since 1974. He was initiated by Swami Veda (formerly Dr.
Usharbudh Arya of Minneapolis, l'vfNl, trained under Swami Rama frorn 1975
to 1996, and studied under Pandit Rajmani Tigunait at the Hirnalayan Institute
sinco ly8l'i. From the inception 01' his intcrest in yoga, Dr. Coulter has been
committed to correlating his understanding 01' the practices of that discipline with
accepted prineiples of'biornedical science. (Photo by Joyce Baronio.)
62]
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