APPENDIX A

Loss-of=Containment Causes in the

Chemical industry
Plunt Invent q Discharged to Environment Due ta Loss of Containment
(Note: This cannot presume to be an exhaustive list of causes.)
I. CONTAINMENT LOST VIA AN OPEN-END ROUTE TO ATMOSPHERE
A. Due to genuine process relief or dumping requirements
B. Due to maloperation or equipment in service, e.g., spurious relief valve opera-
C. Due tooperator error, e.g., drain or vent valve left open, misrouting of materials,
tion or rupture I s k failure
tank overfilled, unit opened up under pressure, etc.
11. CONTAINMENT FAILURE UNDER DESIGN OPERATING
CONDITIONS DUE TO IMPERFECTIONS IN THE EQUIPMENT
A. Imperfections arising prior to commissioning and not detected before start-up
(due to poor inspection or testing procedures)
1. Equipment inadequately designed for proposed duty, e. g. , wrong materials
specified, pressure ratings of vessel or pipework inadequate, temperature rat-
ings inadequate, etc.
2. Defects arising during manufacture, e.g., wrong materials used, poor work-
manship, poor quality control, etc.
3. Equipment damage or deterioration in transit or during storage.
4. Defects arising during construction, e.g., welding defects, misalignment,
B. Imperfections due to equipment deterioration in service and not detected before
the effect becomes significant (due to inadequate monitoring procedures in
those cases where deterioration is gradual
1. Normal wear and tear on pump or agitators seals, valve packing, flange gas-
2. Internal and/or external corrosion, including stress corrosion cracking
3. Erosion or thinning
4. Metal fatigue or vibration effects
wrong gaskets fitted, etc.
kets, etc.
649
Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis, Second Edition
by Center for Chemical Process Safety
Copyright 2000 American Institute of Chemical Engineers
650 Appendix A. Loss-of-Containment Causes in the Chemical Industry
5. Previous periods of gross maloperation, e.g., furnace operation at above the
6. Hydrogen embrittlement
ried out correctly-poor workmanship, wrong materials, etc.
design tube slun temperature (creep)
C. Imperfections arising from routine maintenance or minor modifications not car-
111. CONTAINMENT FAILURE UNDER DESIGN OPERATING
CONDITIONS DUE TO EXTERNAL AGENCIES
A. Impact damage, such as by cranes, road vehicles, excavators, machinery associ-
ated with the process, etc.
B. Damage by confined explosions due to accumulation and ignition of flammable
mixtures arising from small process leaks, eg. , flammable gas build-up in ana-
lyzer houses, in enclosed drains, around submerged tanks, etc.
C. Settlement of structural supports due to geological or climatic factors or failure
of structural supports due to corrosion, etc.
D. Damage to tank trucks, rail cars, containers, etc., during transport of materials
on-or off-site
E. Fire exposure
F. Blast effects from a nearby explosion (unconfined vapor cloud explosion, burst-
ing vessel, etc.), such as blast overpressure, projectiles, structural damage,
domino effects, etc.
G. Natural events (acts of God) such as windstorms, earthquakes, floods, lightning,
etc.
,
IV. CONTAINMENT FAILURE DUE TO DEVIATIONS IN PLANT
CONDITIONS BEYOND THE DESIGN LIMITS
A. Overpressuring of equipment
1. Due to a connected pressure source
a. gas pressure source
( 1) gas breakthrough into downstream low-pressure equipment due to
failure of a pressure or level controller, isolation valve opened in error,
etc.
(2) pressurized backflow into low-pressure equipment, e g , due to com-
pressor failure
b. liquid pressure source
(1) pumping up of blocked-in gas spaces
(2) hydraulic overpressuring due to a block-in condition downstream
(3) excessive surge or hammer, such as by sudden valve closure on liquid
transfer line
2. Due to rising process temperature
a. loss of cooling
(1) loss of coolant flow, e.g., to a reactor cooler, to a distillation column
(2) elevated coolant temperature, e g , loss of cooling water fans, etc.
(1) heater control faults, such as on steam or hot oil heated systems
condenser, etc.
b. excessive heat input (thermal)
Appendix A. Loss-of-Containment Causes in the Chemical lndustfy 65 1
c. excessive heat generation (chemical)
(1) reaction runaway, e.g., due to loss of reaction diluent, high feed to
inadequate mixing or temporary 10s of reaction subsequently leading
to a runaway, etc.
(2) exotherming due to ingress of catalytic impurities, e.g., backflow
from ethylene oxide consumer unit into feed tank
(3) exotherming due to mixing of incompatible chemicals, e.g. H,SO,
with NaOH
(4) exothermic decomposition of thermally unstable or explosive material
such as peroxides, e.g., due to temperature rise, overconcentration, or
deposition on hot surfaces
3. Due to an internal explosion arising from formation and ignition of flamma-
ble gas mixtures, mists, or dusts.
a. ingress of air, e.g., due to inadequate purging of equipment at plant start-
up, due to loss of nitrogen purge on flare headers, storage tanks, centrihge
systems, dryers, etc.
b. loss of critical inert diluent, e.g., loss of nitrogen padding on an ethylene
oxide storage tank, 10s of nitrogen to the make-up section of a nitragen/air
solids conveying system
c. failure of explosion suppressants
d. flammable excursion in oxidation processes, e.g., due to high air or oxygen
rates, or loss of conversion
4. Due to physically or mechanically induced forces or stresses
a. expansion upon change of state, e. g. , freezing of water in pipe runs
b. thermal expansion of blocked-in liquids, e.g., in heat exchangers or long
c. ingress of extraneous phases, e.g., gas compressor failure due to liquid
D. Underpressuring of equipment (for equipment not capable of withstanding
vacuum)
1. By direct connection to an ejector set or to equipment normally running
pipe runs
carry-through to machine suction, condensate hammer in steam lines, etc.
C.
under vacuum
a. due to equipment mahnction, e.g., loss of liquid seal due to failure of a
b. due to operator error, e.g., isolation valve left open, etc.
a. pumping out of tanks or vessels
b. emptying or draining elevated blocked-in equipment under gravity
a. condensation of condensible vapors, e.g., vessel blocked-in after steaming
b. cooling of noncondensable gases or vapors, e.g., storage tank by heavy
level controller causing vacuum to be applied upstream, etc.
2. Due to the movement or transfer of liquids
3. Due to cooling of gases or vapors
rainfall in summer
4. Due to solubility effects, e.g., dissolution of gases in liquids
High metal temperature (causing loss of strength)
1. Fire under equipment, e.g., due to spillage, pump leak, etc.
652 Appendix A Loss-of-Containment Causes in the Chemical Industry
2. Flame impingement causing local overheating, e.g., on hrnaces due to mis-
3. Overheating by electric heaters, e.g., due to failure of high temperature
4. Inadequate flow of fluid via heated equipment, e.g. furnace tube failure on
5. Higher flow rate or higher temperature of the hotter stream, or lower flow
alignment or maladjustment of burners
cutout
loss of hot oil flow
rate or higher temperature of the colder stream, via a heat exchanger
D. Low metal temperature (causing cold embrittlement and overstressing)
1. Overcooling by refrigeration units, e.g., due to control faults, wrong refriger-
ant, etc.
2. Incomplete vaporization and/or inadequate heating of refrigerated material
before transfer into equipment of inadequate temperature rating, e.g., due to
control faults on a liquid ethylene vaporization unit
3. Loss of system pressure on units handling liquids of low boiling point
E. Wrong process materials or abnormal impurities (causing accelerated corrosion,
chemical attack of seals or gaskets, stress corrosion craclung, embrittlement, etc.)
1. Variations in stream compositions outside desigp limits
2. Abnormal impurities introduced with raw materials or wrong raw materials
3. By-products of abnormal chemical reactions
4. Oxygen, chlorides, or other impurities remaining in equipment at start-up
5 . Impurities entering process from atmosphere, service connections, tube
due to inadequate evacuation or decontamination
leaks, etc. during operation