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93

Chapter 12
INTRODUCTION TO PILE GROUP DESIGN
12.1 Types of pile groups
A pile group can be defined as an ordered arrangement of piles with the purpose to
carry concentrated loads - point loads from e.g. columns and line loads from e.g.
walls in super structures - and transmit them to deeper soil layers or to the bed
rock, Fig. 12.1. The column or wall rests on a foundation plate. When using only a
shallow foundation, the purpose of these plates is to spread out the concentrated
load in order to decrease the acting stress on the soil as much as possible. When
instead a piled foundation is used, the foundation plate as well constitute a so called
pile cap the purpose of which is to transmit the load from the column or wall. to the
piles.
-
-
Fig. 12.1 A piledfoundation
Ipilegroup: palgruPPipilecap:pdlplint
.,'.,.".-
94 DIMENSIONERING AV pALGRUPPER
Fig 12.2
_..:-----..,+-
P;Ie. c:.o.?
(a) Plane pile group
Pile groups
(b) General (3D) pile group
In the general case, a pile group must be able to support vertical, horisontal as we,ll
as moment loads, although the vertical loads are dominating. When load from a wall
is to transmitted, a type of strip footing will constitute the pile cap and the problem
can be treated as a plane one; we speak of a plane pile group, Fig. 12.2a. Also a pile
group with a limited pile cap supporting a column can be designed in such a way
that it can be considered as a plane structure. Sometimes, however, the loads from
the super structure is such that that the pile group acts as a three-dimensional
structure, Fig. 12.2b.
(a) Point bearing pile group (b) Friction pile group
Fig. 12.3 Types of pile groups with respect to bearing
Ch. 12 Introduction to Pile Group Design 95
Depending on the type of piles used in the pile group - point bearing piles, see
Ch. 9, or friction piles, see Ch. 10 and 11- we speak of a point bearing pile group and
of a friction pile group, Fig 12.3. The latter type is sometimes also called a floating pile
group as the piles can be considered to "float" in the soil.
12.2 The pile group structure
Pile group design aims at determining the number and arrangement of piles
necessary to support a given load from e.g. a wall or a column. The simplest type of
pile group, from statical point of view, is the one with only vertical piles supporting
a vertical load. If such a pile group is symmetrically arranged, with respect to
geometry as well as stiffness, the load can simply be equally distributed to the piles.
Quite often, however, the pile group must contain inclining piles with the purpose to
carry horizontal loads from the super structure. Still, the group must act as an
isostatic structure and, hence, only equilibrium equations are needed for the
computation of pile loads. However, in general, also a "simple" plane pile group is to
be considered as a hyperstatic structure and we have to apply proper methods for such
structures from the discipline of Structural Mechanics. Strictly speaking, even a pile
group with only vertical piles (and vertical load) is hyperstatic as soon as it contains
two or more piles; the stiffnesses of the piles determine the distribution of the load.
In the following section of this chapter, different rules and assumptions
concerning pile group design will be discussed. Thereafter, in Ch. 13, the com-
putation of pile groups with only vertical piles is treated. In Ch. 14, computation
methods for pile groups also with horizontal loads and inclining piles are given.
Finally, in Ch. 15, methods for computing more general pile groups are given.
12.3 Design rules
12.3.1 Practical design of pile groups
For the practical design of a pile group, a number of issues have to be addressed.
Below, the most important of those are listed.
The pile group should be designed in such a way that it is as simple as possible to
compute as well as possible to carry out in practise.
The pile group should be given an economical design, i.e. it should contain as few
piles as possible and the pile cap should be as small as possible.
96 DIMENSIONERlNG AV pALGRUPPER
For the given load on the pile cap, the group should be designed in such a way
that only axial forces occur in the piles.
For the chosen piles (point bearing piles or friction piles in cohesive or granular
soil), the design bearing capacity must be computed according to the code (see Ch. 4
to 6).
Rules for pile spacing must be accounted for (see Subsection 7.3.3).
A satisfactory force transfer between cap and piles as well as in pile joints should be
assured.
To avoid transversal load on and beam action in inclining piles as well as to
facilitate installation, a maximum inclination of 3:1 is chosen in practise.
In very soft clay as well as in water (e.g. a pile group supporting a harbour pier),
the stability of point bearing piles in a group must be checked.
A friction pile group in soft soil (clay), should be design in such a way that
possible settlements will occur uniform.
12.3.2 General assumptions for computation of pile groups
The following assumptions are generally made in order to facilitate the computation
of pile groups:
The pile cap is assumed to be infinitely stiff (with exception for caps with large
extensions) .
It is assumed that the connection between the pile top and the cap statically acts as a
hinge, Fig. 7.4a.
The piles are assumed only to take up axial loads and neither will get support nor
additional load from the surrounding soil.
The piles are assumed to act as linearly elastic members in a structure, i.e. the
stiffness of a pile no. i can be expressed as
K. = E Ai (12.1)
I 1.
I
where E is the elastic modulus (Young's modulus) of the pile material, Ai the
cross section area and ( the length of pile no. i.
12.3.3 Pile spacing
The spacing between individual piles in a pile group must be so chosen that they will
not interact or contact each other during installation. In soft clay, there is also a risk
for strength reduction if the piles are installed too close to each other and in loose
Ch. 12 Introduction to Pile Group Design 97
granular soil, there is a risk for densification. Further, in densly urbanised areas,
damages on neighbouring structures might occur due to soil heaving. In Table 12.1,
the minimum spacing for piles with circular (d) and square ( ) cross sections are
given according to the Building Code and the Bridge Code. It is seen
that larger spacing is required for longer piles. In Fig. 12.4b, minimum spacing
independent of pile diameter are given according to the Bridge Code.
Table 12.1 Minimum pile spacing
Pile length Point bearing piles and friction piles Friction piles in cohesive soil
I
in granular soil
(m) d (m) b (m) d (m) b (m)
<10 3d 3.5 b 4d 4.5 b
10 - 25 4d 4.5 b 5d 5.6 b
>25 5d 5.6 b 6d 6.8 b
'SH'ft
,..------ pile CAp
rhingel
o n ~ r
axial
t o ~ e ~
Fig. 12.4
Literature
(a)
Hinged piles and pile spacing in pile groups
(b)
Axelsson, K. (1992). Group Piles - Bearing Capacity and Design, Div. of Soil Mechanics,
Lulea University of Technology, Skrift 92:4, Lulea
Popov, E. P. (1990). Engineering Mechanics of Solids, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs
98 DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
99
Chapter 13
PILE GROUPS WITH VERTICAL LOAD AND PILES
13.1 The plane pile group
Consider a piled strip foundation of the type in Fig. 13.1a. In such a foundation, the
same pile arrangement is generally repeated after a certain standard length along the
strip footing, Fig. 13.1b. Provided that the load acting on the footing is distributed
with a constant intensity, or repeated in the same cycles as the pile arrangement, only
such a standard length of the foundation need to be considered and the problem can
be considered as a plane one, Fig. 13.1c. We will now focus our interest on such a
plane pile group and try to reveal its properties.
Any plane pile group of the type in Fig. 13.1c with more then two rows of vertical
piles is hyperstatic; it is not possible to determine the pile forces in three or more rows
of vertical piles, caused by a vertical load acting on the pile cap, only by utilising
equilibrium equations. (In the plane case we have three equilibrium equations avail-
(a) (b)
0 0 0
- --
]
0 0
0 c
- _.
0 0
0 c 0
Fig. 13.1 A piled stripfooting considered as a plane problem
100 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
Fig. 13.2
t
(a)
Symmetrically arranged pile groups
t
(b)
t
able: one vertical and one horizontal projection equation and one moment equation.
Hence, in the case of only vertical load and piles, we have two equilibrium equations
for the determination of the pile forces in n pile rows; the problem is then n-2 times
statically indeterminate.)
Although a vertically loaded plane pile group with more then two vertical piles
(and a 3D pile group with more then three vertical piles) is hyperstatic, the pile forces
are simple to determine in the very special case of a symmetrically loaded pile group
with "symmetrical" elastic properties. For example, if the piles in the plane pile
group in Fig. 13.2a all have the same axial stiffness (e.g. point bearing piles of the
same type and of the same length) and are symmetrically arranged, we would
believe that each of the piles will get the same force, i.e. the vertical load divided by
the number or piles: Qj = V / n. The same holds for a symmetrically arranged and
symmetrically loaded three-dimensional pile group, Fig. 13.2b. However, to come to
this conclusion, we have implicitly used a displacement method (telling that if the
pile cap settles vertically, without rotation, piles with equal stiffnesses will obtain
equal forces).
13.2 Axial stiffness and the concept of elastic line of action
Consider the plane pile group in Fig. 13.3 with s pile rows and with n
j
piles, each
with the axial stiffness K
1
in row no. 1, n
z
piles, each with the axial stiffness K
z
in
row no. 2 etc and e.g. n
j
piles, each with the axial stiffness K
j
, in row no. i to the s:th
row with n
s
piles, each with the axial stiffness K
s
The position of the s pile rows,
with respect to a chosen reference point, is defined by the coordinates
Ch. 13 Pile Groups with Vertical Load and Vertical Piles 101
v
Fig. 13.3
I
tv
1
Z
--_I 1 S
n
1
11
2
n'
n
s no. of ?,Ie;c:,/row 1
K
1
I
K: K
s
1

--:;,r
X
J
X
z
I
Xi
X
n
Ii}

1[-


The elastic line ofaction for a plane pile group with only vertical piles
We would now like to know where on the pile cap (i.e. at which position x) a
vertical load V must be put in order only to get a vertical displacement (settlement)
of the cap without any rotation. (When designing a pile group, the engineer might
ask the reversed question: How to arrange the piles and the pile cap for a given
vertical load so that the cap only undergoes a vertical settlement?) To do so, we
apply the displacement method and proceed in the following steps:
The pile cap is given a vertical displacement v.
This displacement compresses all piles with the amount v thus giving rise to axial
forces in all the piles, e.g. the force K; . v in each of the piles in row no. i.
Vertical equilibrium for this displaced configuration requires that
J,: V - K\ . n\ . v _ ... - K; . n; . v -'" - K
s
n
s
v = 0
or
Moment equilibrium for the displaced configuration requires that
n Vx-(Kn ,v)'x - .. -(K,n.v)x.- .. -(Kn v)x =0
\ \ \ I I ISS m
102 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
or with (13.1)
"" K. .x
- ..J I I
X = : : : : : : : : = = ~
IKj
where
(13.1a)
(13.1b)
denotes the total axial stiffness in pile row no. i.
In Fig. 13.3, the line with the position x, along which the vertical load V must act
in order that the pile cap only will undergo vertical displacement (settlement), is
indicated. This line is called the elastic line of action. The knowledge of the position of
this line will greatly facilitate the design and computation of pile groups.
The total axial stiffness of the pile group is
K=""K.
v ..J I
j=I,s
With (13.1) we thus get the structural equation
(13.2a)
(13.2b)
between the (structure)load V,acting on the cap in the position x, and the vertical
(structure) displacement v of the cap.
Exercise: Determine the position of the elastic line of action for the plane pile group
in Problem 13.1. Also compute the total axial stiffness of the pile group.
13.3 Moment load, rotational stiffness and pile centre
Consider again the pile group in Fig. 13.3 and let us now investigate its response
for a moment load M acting on the pile cap, say in the intersection between the
elastic line of action and the bottom of the cap, the point PC in Fig. 13.4. It can be
shown that any point on the elastic line of action for; a pile group with only vertical
piles, is an elastic centre in the sense that a load acting in such a centre only gives rise
to an associated displacement. Thus if a moment load acts in such a point, the body
studied will only undergo rotation with respect to this point.
.elastit line of action:elasttsk verkningslfnje; ... elasticcentre:. eliisiskt centrutf! .
Ch.13 Pile Groups with Vertical Load and Vertical Piles 103
In order to determine the relation between a moment load, acting in the chosen
point PC, and the rotation of the pile cap, with respect to this point, we again apply
the displacement method and proceed as follows:
The distances between the different pile rows and the point PC are denoted r
1
, r
z
,
... r;, ... r
j
, see Fig. 13.4
The pile cap is given a clockwise rotation m with respect to Pc.
This rotation gives rise to elongation of the piles to the left of PC and compression
of the piles to the right of Pc. For example, the piles in row no. 1 are elongated by
m r
1
and the piles in row no. s are compressed by m r
j

The elongation of the piles to the left of PC gives rise tensioin forces, e.g. K
1
m/j ,
in each of the piles in row no. 1. The compression of the piles to the right of PC
gives rise to compression forces, e.g. K
j
m r
j
in each of the piles in row no. s.
Moment equilibrium with respect to PC requires that
n M-K
1
(mrl)rl-K
z
(mrz)r
z
--K; (mr;)r; _ ... -
- K . (m . r ) . r = 0
j j j
where the notation according to (8.1b) has been used. We thus get
(13.3a)
b K m ~
U S S
rnr;
1
I
I
I
I
IR,-m-li1r
I
I
I
I ~ 1
~ _ _ _ _ _ I PC tn-r,.!
~ v - - - - I - -- '.,- - - 0- 1
m-I"
J
Fig. 13.4 A moment load acting in the pile centre gives rise to only rotation
104 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
of the pile cap
where
is interpreted as the rotational stiffness of the pile group.
(13.3b)
Exercise: Show that the sum of the pile forces for the configuration in Fig. 13.4 is
zero, i.e. there is no resulting vertical force acting on the pile cap meaning that no
vertical discplacement takes place; the moment M thus only gives rise to rotation m!
Exercise: Compute the rotational stiffness for the pile group in Problem 13.2.
13.4 Structural equations and computation of pile forces
13.4.1 Structural stiffness equations for a plane pile group with vertical piles
Having determined the position x of the elastic line of action for a pile group with
only vertical piles and computed the vertical structural stiffness K
v
according to
Fig. 13.5 Structural loads V and M acting in PC and giving rise to associate
displacements v and m
Ch.13 Pile Groups with Vertical Load and Vertical Piles 105
(13.2a) and (13.1b) as well as the rotational stiffness K
m
according to (13.3b), we can
combine the two structural stiffness equations (13.2) och (13.3) to the matrix equation
(13.4)
where, thus, V and M are the structure loads acting at the pile centre PC and v and m
are the associate structure displacements of the pile cap, Fig. 13.5. The 2x2-matrix
in (13.4) thus expresses the structural stiffness of the pile group. It is seen that this
stiffness matrix is diagonal. This is an expression for the very fact that loads and
displacements are referred to an elastic centre of the regarded structure, the point Pc,
a point where a force only gives rise to an associated displacement.
13.4.2 Solution of the problem by the displacement method
In the displacement method for analysing hyperstatic structures, displacements in
certain points (like frame corners) are chosen as primary unknown. For our "simple"
structure, the vertical settlement and the rotation of the pile centre PC, Fig. 13.5, are
the primary unknown displacements in the analysis. In a next step in this method,
the structural stiffness equations are established, in our case on the form (13.4). We
then thus have to solve this system of equations for the two primarily unknown. This
is sstraitforward for a true diagonal coefficient matrix; we get from (13.4)
(13.5a)
m = M / K
m
(13.5b)
Knowing these displacements of the pile cap, the compressions (or extensions) of
the individual piles can be computed in the next step. Consider e.g.the piles in row
no. i. These piles will be compressed by
(13.6)
With reference to Fig. 13.5, the distances r, are measured positive in the x-direction
(to the right) and the rotation is measured positive in the clockwise direction.
(Physically, if a rotation gives rise to extension of a pile, the plus-sign in (13.6) must
be changed to a minus-sign.)
106 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
13.4.3 Computation of pile forces
If we have computed the compressions (or extensions) of the different pile rows in
a pile group, we can determine the pile forces since we know the axial stiffnesses of
all the piles, e.g Q; = K; . q; , or with (13.6)
(13.7)
with the sign rules indicated in the preceeding subsection. The obtained pile forces
according to (13.7) must be checked against the design bearing capacity of these piles.
If the design bearing capacity of any or some of the piles is fOW1d to be exceeded at
this stage, the pile group have to be redesigned, e.g. by adding piles in some row(s)
or by adding a new pile row.
13.5 Friction pile groups
13.5.1 Pile stiffness
As soon as we deal with hyperstatic pile structures, the stiffnesses of the piles
influence the force distribution. For point bearing piles, the axial stiffness is
indisputable and expressed by (12.1). For friction piles, is determined as the ratio
between the acting axial pile force Q and the responding settlement of the pile, d.
Section 10.3. Thus,
(13.8)
see (10.3). Since the pile settlement varies with soil type, depth, shaft properties etc.,
it is in general much more difficult to determine axial stiffnesses for friction piles.
However, if only the pile forces are looked for, and the cap displacement, only the
ratios between the stiffnesses of the different pile rows will influence the result. These
ratios are easier to estimate than the absolute values of the stiffnesses.
13.5.2 Soil influence on load distribution
Consider again a pile group with a vertical force acting along the elastic line of
action, e.g. the plane and 3D groups in Fig. 8.2. As was established in Section 8.2, the
cap of such a pile group settles vertically without rotation. Piles with equal axial stiff-
Ch. 13 Pile Groups with Vertical Load and Vertical Piles 107
i
I 1
1
!
I
I
;
IV
1"1
...

I
l
I

,
(a) Point bearing pile group (b) Friction bearing pile
in clay (ult. Load)
(c) Friction bearing
in sand (ult. Load)
Fig. 13.6 Load distribution close to ultimate load
nesses will then experience the same axial force, Fig. 13.6a. However, for friction pile
groups and for loads close to the failure load, the forces in the centre piles and in the
comer piles tend to diverge from each other. Thus, in cohesive soils, the comer piles
tend to take a higher loads then the centre piles, Fig. 13.6b. In granular soils, the
situation is the reversed: here the centre piles tend to take a higher load then the
comer piles, Fig. 13.6c.
Problems
13.1 The point bearing plane pile group in the figure has
four pile rows (spacing 1.5 m) each with three piles.
The piles are driven to the bed rock (pile lengthes
according to figure). Determine the position x of the
elastic line of action for the pile group, as measured
from the very left pile row. All piles are of the same
standard type. (Answer: X= 1.69 m)
13.2 For the pile group in Problem 8.1, compute the axial
and rotational stiffnesses if concrete piles of the type
SP2 (O.27mxO.27 m) are used.
(Answer: K v = 1.579 EA; Km = 4.218 EA)
108 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV pALGRUPPER
13.3 The pile group in Problem 8.1 is centrically (Le. 2.25
m to the right of the very left pile row) loaded by a
vertical force V= 5.0 MN. Establish structural stiffness
relation and compute the settlement and rotation of
the pile cap.
(Answer: V = 3167/ EA; m = 664/EA)
13.4 Continue the computation in Problem 8.3 and
determine all pile forces. Will any of these forces
exceed the corresponding design bearing capacity?
(Answer: Q I = 409 kN (per pile), Q2 = 434 kN, Q 3 = 404 kN, Q 4 =
419 kN)
v
13.5 The point bearing pile group in the adjoining figure
supports a centrically placed vertical load of 10 MN.
a) Determine the pile centre.
b) Establish the stiffness relations of the group and
compute the vertical settlement and rotation of
the pile cap.
c) Determine all pile forces.
(Answer: a) X = 4.72 m from row no. 1; b) V = 0.257 VIEA,
m = 0.006 VlEA; c) QI = 317 kN, (in each pile), Q2 = 251 kN, Q3 =
223 kN, Q4 = 235 kN, Q5 = 277 kN, Q6 = 481 kN,
Q
7
=771 kN)
13.'6 The point bearing pile group in the adjoining figure
has 5 vertical piles, each with the same length 1 and
section area A.
a) Define the concept of elastic line of action and
determine its position.
b) The pile group is designed for a vertical load V
acting along the elastic line of action. After
installation, it is observed that one of the piles in
the second (right) pile row has been broken and
cannot be considered as load bearing. Determine
the risk for uneven settlement of the pile cap for
this case, i.e. the rotatation m. (Answer: X = 0.32 m;
m = 0.25 VLIEA)
109
Chapter 14
HORIZONTAL LOAD AND INCLINING PILES
14.1 General
In this Chapter, we will extend the problem and also allow for horizontal loads
acting on the cap of a plane pile group Since, according to the code, piles gene-
rally are not allowed to support horizontal load, the pile group must then also
contain inclining piles; the horizontal component of the forces in these inclining
piles is thus supposed to balanse the horizontal load H acting on the pile cap, Fig.
14.1a.
As a first step, to facilitate the establishment of the governing equations as well
their solution, we will try to determine the position of the elastic centre of a pile
group with both vertical and inclining piles.
14.2 Determination of pile centre
Consider a pile group with two or more sub groups of piles each containing one or
more rows of parallel piles, Fig. 14.1b. In order to determine the elastic centre for
such a pile group, the elastic line of action for each of the sub groups of piles must
:JH
(a) Horizontal load and inclining pile (b) Sub groups of piles
Fig. 14.1 Pile groups with inclining piles
110 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
I I
(a) (b)
Fig 14.2 Pile centre for a pile group with two sub groups of parallel piles
first be determined. Let us, however, first focus on the simpler problem with a pile
group with just two sub groups each of which containing parallel pile rows, Fig.
14.2a. We thus first determine the elastic lines of action for these two sub groups
according to (13.1). Consider now the intersection of these two lines, the point PC
in Fig. 14.2a, and a point load P (but no moment load) acting in this point, Fig.
14.2b. This load can always be represented by its vertical and horizontal
components V and H. The load P is counteracted by the forces appearing in the
piles. Let QfJ denote the resultant to the pile forces in the sub group of inclining
piles and Q
v
the resultant to the pile forces in the sub group of vertical piles.
According to the discussion in Section 13.2, these resultants respectively act along
the elastic lines of action of the sub groups, Fig. 14.2b. The resultants QfJ and Q
v
are easily determined by two projection equations" of equilibrium, see Fig. 14.2b.
Hence, in the case of a pile group with two sub groups of parallel piles, the
intersection of the two elastic lines of action, the point PC, is of importance to
determine as it possesses certain properties which could facilitate the analysis of
Ch. 14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 111
PC ?
!I
).PC
i\
/ I \
/ ! \
I
\
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.3 Appropriate and unfavourable arrangements of sub pile groups
the group as a whole. We define this point as the pile centre of the pile group.
Whether it is a true elastic centre or not will later be discussed.
To conclude, for this type of pile group and for (only) a point load acting in the
pile centre, the counteracting resultants Q
p
and Q
v
can be determined only by
using equilibrium equations; the problem of determining these resultants is thus
an isostatic one. This does not mean that the pile group as a whole is isostatic, still
we need to know the axial stiffnesses of all the piles in order to determine the
individual pile forces, i.e. a displacement method must be applied, d. Section 13.2.
If a pile group contains three sub groups of parallel piles as in Fig. 14.3, it is
proper to chose the number of piles and their inclination in such away that the
three elastic lines of action intersect each other in one and the same point which
thus defines the pile centre of the pile group, Fig. 14.3a. If this is not the case, as in
Fig. 14.3b, a pile centre cannot be found in the sense of a point where all lines of
action of the sub groups intersect each other in one and same the same point. It is,
of course, not necessary to find a pile centre in this meaning; we can reduce the
load on the pile cap, V, H and M, to any point and define this as a pile centre. The
only problem arising is that the stiffness coefficient matrix in the displacement
method will be a full3x3 matrix, see Section 15.1.
112 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV pALGRUPPER
14.3 Displacement of a pile cap with vertical and horizontal loads
14.3.1 Pile group with inclining piles
Consider the plane pile group in Fig. 14.4 with one sub group of mutually
parallel inclining piles (axial stiffnesses Kf3l'Kf32, ... Kf33, ... Kf3r' inclination ~ O and
one sub group of mutually parallel vertical piles (axial stiffnesses Kyl' K
Y2
,... KyJ.
Based on these stiffnesses, the elastic lines of action are determined for the two sub
groups of piles and the pile centre PC is found. In this pile centre, the three
structure loads V, Hand M act, Fig 14.4. We now would like to determine the
movement of the pile cap caused by these loads, i.e. its vertical settlement v, its
horizontal displacement h and its rotation m with respect to Pc. In the following
subsection, we first focus on the relation between the point loads V and H and the
displacements v and h.
~ ~ V H
~ ; ~
I I
/1
I
/ I
/
Fig. 14.4 Pile group with vertical and inclining piles
Ch. 14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 113
y
If
II i
II ,
II :
/I-
II
II
II
I
I I
/-----_.
- - - - ---
(a)
ff Kf3i' YCOSf3


. I
I
; I
H
-. -- - ---
_.t-.
-','-
I I
h
I
,

- - -- If
I
-- ----,I ::t-
II
II h sin f3
I
I
II
I I
II
II
I
I
I
fK . f3
{3'
( b)
Fig. 14.5
Compression of inclining piles due to displacements v and h
114 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
14.3.2 Structural equations between point loads and cap displacements
In order to determine the relations between the point loads V and H, acting in
the pile centre, and the displacements v and h of the pile cap, we apply the
displacement method to the structure in Fig. 14.4 temporarily disregarding the
moment load. We thus give the pile cap a vertical displacement v (keeping h=O)
and compute the vertical load V
y
and the horizontal load H
y
necessary to keep
this configuration in equilibrium, Fig. 14.5a. The vertical displacement v of the cap
will compress the vertical piles by v and the inclining piles by v cosf3 , Fig. 14.5a,
giving rise to forces K
y
;' v in the vertical piles and KfJi . v . cosf3 in the inclining
piles. A vertical equation of projection for this displaced configuration gives
r S
l V
y
- L KfJi . v . cos
2
f3 - L K
y
; v =0
;=1 ;=1
Further, a horizontal equation of projection gives
r
f-: H
y
- LKfJi v cosf3 sinf3 = 0
;=1
(14.1a)
(14.1b)
Now consider the other displaced configuration, i.e. the pile cap is given a hori-
zontal displacement h to the left (keeping v =0), Fig. 14.5b. For this configuration,
the inclining piles will be compressed by h . sin f3, yielding the pile forces
KfJi . h sin f3 , while the vertical piles will remain unaffected. The vertical and hori-
zontal equations of projection for the configuration in Fig. 14.5b are
r
-1-: V
h
- L KfJi .h . sin f3 .cos f3 = 0
;=1
r
f-: H
h
- LKfJi h sin
2
f3 = 0
;=1
(14.2a)
(14.2b)
Finally, consider the case when the pile cap is simultaneously displaced by v and
h. Such a configuration requires for equilibrium the vertical acting load
(14.3a)
from (9.1a) and (9.2a), and the horizontal acting load
(14.3b)
Ch. 14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 115
from (14.1b) and (14.2b). Rewriting (14.3) on matrix form gives
(14.4)
where, in the stiffness matrix, the notation (13.2a) for the total axial stiffness of a sub
group of piles have been used. Thus, (14.4) expresses the stiffness relation between
the acting point loads on the pile cap and the responding displacements, the latter
of which are the primary unknown in the analysis. To solve for v and h, we just
have to invert the 2x2-coefficient matrix. We also note that this matrix is symmetric.
14.3.3 Rotational stiffness
In the discussion in the preceding subsection, we did not consider any moment
load M, i.e. to achieve equilibrium for the two displaced configurations, any
moment force was obviously not needed. It can be shown that this is the case if the
point loads acts in PC, i.e. the intersection between the two elastic lines of action.
In Ch. 15 we will consider more general pile groups and find that the moment
load and the point loads must interact to achieve equilibrium for cases like those
in Fig. 14.5 as soon as an elastic centre not is found.
Now consider the case when a moment load is acting in PC of the pile group in
Fig. 14.4. We again apply the displacement method thus giving the pile cap a
rotation m with respect to the pile centre Pc. This rotation gives rise to com-
pressions and extensions of the different piles in the two sub groups depending on
the distances between their lines of action and PC, see Fig. 14.6. Following the
procedure in Section 13.3, we find that moment equilibrium here requires that
or, shorter
M = (IK; .r/).m
The rotational stiffness
(14.5a)
(14.5b)
(14.5c)
116 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV PALGRUPPER
Q
/; 11
1 I
/ I
I I
/ I
1 I
,rr
p
/ i
I
f4
/
'nm r
l
Fig. 14.6 Moment load acting at PC
of the pile group thus takes the same principal form as (8.2) for a group with only
vertical piles.
14.4 Structural stiffness equations and computation of pile forces
14.4.1 Structural stiffness equations
The complete stiffness equations for the pile group in Fig. 14.4, loaded in the
pile centre with point loads V and H and moment load M, are obtained by
combining (14.4) and (14.5) to
Ch.14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 117
r
V Jr
Kv
+ Kf3 . cos
2
f3 Kf3~ s f3. cos f3 0 Jr
v
J
H = Kf3sinf3cosf3 Kf3,sin
2
f3 0 h (14.6)
MOO K
m
m
where, thus, the displacements v, h and m are the primary unknown in the
analysis. Again, the zero elements in the stiffness matrix expresses the non-
coupling between the responses of the point load and of the moment load when
these are acting in the elastic centre Pc. Solving this equation of system for the
primary unknown gives
[
v] 1 [ Kf3 . sin2 f3
h = det - Kf3 . sin f3 . cos f3
with the determinant
(14.7a)
and
14.4.2 Computation of pileforces
(14.7b)
(14.7c)
Having determined the displacement of the pile cap according to (14.7), the
compression or extension of the individual piles are also defined. The inclining
piles will obtain the compression v cos f3 +h. sin f3 due to the displacements v and
h, d. Subsection 14.3.2. The plus-sign in the second term only holds if the piles
inclines against the acting horizontal load H; in the reversed case it is exchanged
for a minus-sign. The forces in the inclining piles is thus computed as
Qj3i = Kj3i (v . cosf3 h . sin f3 m. rj3i )
The forces in the vertical piles are computed according to (8.7) or
Q
. = K .(v +m . r .)
Vl Vl - Vl
(14.8a)
(14.8b)
Note that the choice of signs in (14.8) depends on the directions of the acting loads
H and M, on the direction of the inclining piles and on the position of the pile
centre, see Figs. 14.4, 14.5 and 14.6.
118 DEL D DIMENSIONERlNG AV PALGRUPPER
14.5 Computation of isostatic and semi-isostatic pile groups
14.5.1 Isostatic and hyperstatic pile groups
Pile groups are in general hyperstatic, i.e. the pile forces cannot be determined
only by using equilibrium equations; the problem must be solved by using e.g. a
displacement method as in the preceding sections and in Ch. 13. Strictly speaking,
a plane pile group is hyperstatic as soon as its number of piles is higher then three
(or higher then two in the case of only vertical piles). However, the piles in a row
of a plane pile group are generally identical; if we only can determine the total
forces in each of the pile rows, we can simply divide that by the number of piles in
the row to get the individual pile forces. By doing so, we have, as a matter of fact,
implicitely used the displacement method; we have distributed the pile row force
to the piles in proportion to their stiffnesses. Below, we term a plane pile group
isostatic if the pile row forces can be determined only by using equilibrium
equations.
14.5.2 Computation of isostatic pile groups
In a plane problem, we have three available equilibrium equations, i.e. one vertical
and one horisontal equation of projection and one moment equation. It is thus
possible to determine three unknown pile row forces just by an equilibrium
analysis. Hence, if we only are interested in determining the pile forces, and not
the cap displacement, and the pile group has just three pile rows, we do not need
to apply the displacement method.
Some typical isostatic pile groups are shown in Figs. 14.7 and 14.8. For the pile
group in Fig. 14.7, the equilibrium analysis is carried out. This is a common
isostatic plane pile group with two rows of vertical piles and one row of inclining
piles designed to carry vertical and horisontalload as well as moment load. In this
special group, the two vertical pile rows have the same number of piles implying
that the elastic of action is situated halfway between the rows (I} =1
2
=1/2) and
explaining the special form of the solution..
Note that if a plane pile group does not have to support a horizontal load and
does not contain any inclining pile row, it can only have two (vertical) pile rows to
be isostatic (one vertical projection equation and one moment equation available
to determine the two pile row forces), Fig. 14.8c.
Ch. 14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 119
H M ~ :
V - Q
1
COS f3 - Q
2
- Q
3
= 0
~ H
Q
y
1 i
H - Q
1
sin f3 = 0
/ .
~ :
. I
/ .
- I - I
I
PC : M + Q - - Q - = 0
2
2
3
2
I
/
I
,
I
I Q
1
= H / sinf3
1
- V HIM
Q =--_._--
2 2 2 tanf3 I
1f
liz - V HIM
1
2
1
3
Q =--_._+-
3 2 2 tanf3 I
~ p
tQy
Fig. 14.7
A "standard" isostatic pile group
Fig. 14.8
Isostatic pile groups
120 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AV pALGRUPPER
14.5.3 Semi-isostatic pile groups
Plane pile groups generally contain more then two or three pile rows; they are
often designed with two (or sometimes even three) sub groups of piles each
containing a number of parallel pile rows, Fig. 14.9. Such a pile group is of course
hyperstatic and above, in Sections 14.3 and 14.4, we applied the (improvised) dis-
placement method to solve for the cap displacement and the pile forces. For each
sub group of parallel piles, we determined the elastic line of action in order to, if
possible, locate the elastic centre of the pile group. If a force acts along such an
elastic line of action, the piles in the sub group will be equally compressed and, by
use of the displacement method, this force will be distributed to the individual
piles in proportion to their stiffnesses.
Consider now the plane pile group in Fig. 14.10 with two sub groups of
inclining piles. In the pile centre PC, the intersection of the two elastic lines of
action, a point load P is acting, but no moment load. For this case, the two resultant
forces, along the elastic lines of action of the two sub groups, can be determined
solely by an equilibrium analysis. With notations according to the figure we get
(14.8a)
(14.8b)
from which the resultant pile sub group forces are solved to
~
/i
,
/ .
I
/ I
I !
imlin
J
;r
Ii
I
/ I
I
/ I
I
I / I
7/.
K f J ~ K v
Fig. 14.9 Semi-isostatic pile groups for a point load in PC
Ch.14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 121
V
G
a
~
V
\
/
/
I ~
I
#QA
, Q
e
Fig. 14.10 A semi-isostatic pile group. Computation of pile forces
(14.9a)
Q
B
= . (13 1 13 (V. sin f3A - H.cos f3J
SIll A + B)
(14.9b)
In the special case that f3A = f3B = 13 , (9.9) is simplified to
- 1( V H)
Q
A
= 2" cosf3 + sin 13
(14.10.a)
- 1( V H)
Q
B
= 2 cosf3 - sin 13
(14.lOb)
These resultant sub group forces are then /I distributed among the individual piles
in each sub group in proportion to the pile stiffnesses.
It must be observed that a pile group, like those in Figs. 14.9 and 14.10, acts as
an semi-isostatic group, in the sense discussed above, only if the resulting point
load (from the super structure, e.g. a column or wall) is acting in the pile centre.
Further, such a group does not act as a semi-isostatic one for moment loads in Pc.
The response of moment loads must be computed in the way described in Section
122 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AVpALGRUPPER
13.3 and Subsections 14.4.1 and 14.4.2 utilising the rotational stiffnesses of the sub
groups.
For a pile group of the type shown in Figs. 14.9 and 14.10 with also moment
load acting in PC, a full displacement analysis, according to Section 14.4, is
however not necessary (if only pile forces but not cap displacement are asked for).
The response of point load in PC can be obtained in the semi-isostatic way just
described, while the response of moment load in PC is computed using the
equations (14.5), (14.7c) and (14.8).
14.6 Settlement of friction pile groups
As was addressed in Subsection 13.5.1, it might sometimes be difficult to estimate
the absolute values of friction pile stiffnesses. To check the cap displacements
obtained from a displacement analysis, one could apply the following well-
established thumb rule: To obtain the (vertical) consolidation settlement of the cap
of a vertically loaded friction pile group in clay, the vertical load V is supposed to
be transmitted to a level below the pile cap corresponding to two thirds of the pile
length (21/3). From this level the load is spread out, e.g. by the 2:1-method, and
the consolidation settlement of the clay below this level is determined in the usual
way. See also Das (1995), Section 8.17.
Problems
14.1 In the adjoining figure, the pile group with only
vertical piles in Problems 8.1 to 8.4 is supplemented
with a row of inclining piles and with a horizontal
load H= 1 MN. Determine the number of inclining
piles if the pile load 900 kN not may be exceeded.
Determine also the forces in all vertical piles. (Answer:
Qf3 =4.12 MN, 5 incl. Piles needed; Q1 = -639 kN, Q2 =
28.5 kN, Q 3 =360 kN, Q4 =584 kN)
14.2 Determine all pile forces for the plane pile group in
figure if V =3 MN and H =0.1 MN. Standard piles
of equal length. (Answer: Q 1 =282 kN (per pile), Q 2 =
401 kN, Q3 =307 kN, Q4 =195 kN, Q5 =332 kN)
(

\ -,
Ch. 14 Horizontal Load and Inclining Piles 123
14.3 For the pile group in the adjoining figure,
detennine the limits x and y for a vertical load V =
2.8 MN and a horizontal load 0.1 V in order that no
pile will experience tension. (Answer: x~ 0.83 m,
y ~ I 5 m)
14.4 Detennine all pile forces for the pile group in figure if
V = 4.0 MN and H = 0.1 V. Wil it be required to
redesign the group if the design bearing capacity is
450 kN. (Answer: Qa =227 kN, Qb =7 kN, Qc =340 kN,
Qd =673 kN, Q~ =340
o
o
40
o
o
o
o
o
o
4D
~ :::0
=r>
/2D::c =
=0
::0 ~
H
D--------*
14.5The arrangement of a piled strip foundation is
shown in figure. All piles are shaft bearing standard
piles of equal length. Detennine all pile forces as
expressed in the load V =12 D q. Detennine also
the design value of V, if the design load capacity of
the piles is 400 kN. (Answer: Forces per
pile: QI =0.0656 V, Q2 =0.0516 V, Q3 =0.0376 V, Q4 =
0.0831 V, Q5 =0.0686 V, Q6 =0.0542 V, Q7 =0.0398 V;
V design = 4813 kN)
14.6 The pile cap in figure is centrically loaded by an
inclining force P. Detennine limit value of the
inclination angle a, if no pile should experience
tension. Standard piles with equal length are used.
(Answer: a S 18)
14.7 Determine all pile forces for the plane point bearing
pile group in figure. Must the pile group be
redesigned if the design bearing capacity of the point
bearing pile is 450 kN? If so is, propose proper
measures. (Answer: Forces per pile: Q) = 947 kN, Q2 =
477 kN, Q3 =322 kN, Q4 =296 kN, Q5 =395 kN)
124 DEL D DIMENSIONERING AVpALGRUPPER
14.8 A point bearing pile group is to be designed
according to figure.
a) Determine the elastic line of action for the sub
group of vertical piles.
b) Determine the inclination of the piles in row no.
7 so that a unique pile centre (elastic centre) is
found.
c) Establish the stiffness relation for the pile group
and determine the displacements v, h and m of
the pile cap.
d) Determine all pile forces expressed in the load
parameter v.
(Answer: a) 1.38 m to the right of pile row no. 3; b) 8
c) v = 0.14 VlEA, h = 0.37 VlEA, m= - 0.36 VlEA (i.e.
clockwise!), d) Per pile: Q1 = 0.05 V, Q2 = 0.06 V, Q3 =
Q4 = 0.02 V, Q5 = Q6 =0.03 V, Q7 = 0.01 V
14.9 The bridge abutment in figure must be piled. (Clay to
great depth, cu =40 kPa.) Design the pile group in
SK3 and GK3: determine pile arrangement and pile
length. The given loads have been computed for the
abutment width 6 m and for the preliminary
assumed measures x =3.00 m and y =3.80 m.
(Answer: If the pile length 25 m is chosen, 10 vertical piles
and 6 inclining piles are needed.)
=t1
C.53tn
l
J
-
-------
I n
I 5,12 MN
I ,
I ; ,
, I '
,
I
I
I
,
,
, ,
'.
I
l-
X
Y
H=O.1

c/c.
rows .i
4
cia:!
c.
u
-40 kPC(
'"
125
Chapter 15
COMPUTATION OF GENERAL PLANE AND
THREE-DIMENSIONAL PILE GROUPS
15.1 General plane pile groups
15.1.1 Pile group and choice of pile centre
Consider a pile group with s rows of vertical and inclined piles, Fig. 15.1. A pile row
no. i is assumed to contain n
i
piles each with an axial stiffness K
j
and inclination f3i'
For such a pile group, the true elastic centre is difficult to find and, therefore, we
choose a point to which the load is reduced and call this the pile centre Pc. As s?on as
this chosen pile centre does not coincide with the true elastic centre, a full 3x3-
stiffness matrix is obtained, d. (14.6).
1
2 1
~ v
~
PC H
d
.s
Fig. 15.1 General plane pile group

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