Abstract

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the status and
utilization of information and communication technologies in
polytechnics in South Eastern States of Nigeria. The population of the
study consisted of 67 Secretarial Studies teachers. Questionnaire was
used as instrument for gathering data for the study. Data collected were
analyzed using mean scores, percentage and frequency tables. The null
hypotheses established for the study were tested using t-test for paired
samples as reported from computer-generated analysis. Results of the
study showed that: (a) most Information and communication
technologies were not available meaning that the status is low. (b) Only
Word processing and spreadsheet software were available in sufficient
quantities (c) The study showed overwhelming evidence that ICT was of
immense benefits to teaching and learning in polytechnics. (d) It was
found that ICT were not sufficiently utilized in the polytechnics (e) It
was found that ICT posed very serious challenges to Secretarial Studies
Teachers in the polytechnics. Such challenges include: budgetary and
training challenges. It was found that HO1 formulated and tested in the
study was accepted indicating that there is no significant difference as a
result of ownership of institution regarding the status of ICT in the
polytechnic and tested in the study was accepted indicating that there is
no significant difference as a result of ownership of institution regarding
the utilization of ICT in the polytechnic in the South Eastern States. On
the basis of these findings. The following recommendations were made:
(a) The National Board for Technical Education should as a matter of
urgent provide ICT infrastructure to polytechnic in the Eastern States.
(b) The NBTE should constantly review the curriculum of Secretarial
Studies to include in addition to Word Processing, such other packages
as PageMaker for Desktop Publishing, Spreadsheet, Database. (c) The
Teacher training institutions should include in their programmes such
computer applications as Internet Browsing for research purpose,
PowerPoint for teaching presentation and SPSS for research analysis. (d)
The administration of polytechnics should spend more budgetary
allocation to the acquisition ICT infrastructure to better equip the
teachers and students. (e) Given the present low status of ICT in
Polytechnics, the administration of Polytechnic should encourage private
sector funding of polytechnic education by appealing to industries that
are the direct beneficiaries of polytechnic education to make donation to
the polytechnics. (f) The Nigerian Association of Business Education
(NABE) as its contribution to professional development should organize
regular enrichment courses for members. This is done by similar
organizations such as the Science Teacher Association of Nigeria
(STAN).
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
The main application of Information and Communication
Technologies in education has thus far been in the area of distance
education, which has been the subject of many experiment using various
modalities in the past tow decades. Historically, the application of
computer technologies to distance education has concerned primarily
computer-assisted learning (CAL), mainly through the use of stand-alone
systems. The results of CAL have been mixed, many CAL applications
having failed in the past because they were improperly conceived of as
ways of “replacing” the teacher.
The use of telecommunication and/or broadcasting technology,
combined with informatics where appropriate, provide possibilities for
increased spontaneity, interactivity and accessibility. Some of the most
successful efforts in use of Information and Communication
Technologies in developing countries have been with interactive radio
instruction in the formal classroom (in this approach “interactive” truly
describes the relationship of the learners to the teacher, even through
only one-way physical communication is employed). One-way television
has been used to broadcast courses into classrooms, but this medium is
limited by lack if interactivity.
Several opportunities are opening for Information and
Communication Technologies in education in transforming the
learner/teacher relationship, the means of transmission of the educational
message, the production and use of educational materials, and the
organization and function of educational structures. First and foremost,
developing countries should accord priority to connecting schools and
universities to national and international distance education facilities,
databases, libraries, research laboratories and computing facilities.
Interactive sharing of information and ideas is critical to the mission of
education. This world involve promoting and supporting dialogue and
collaboration among teachers and researchers; between learners and
learners; between classrooms and communities. Second, the use of
Information and Communication Technologies in distance education
should be actively pursued, particularly to provide on-going learning
opportunities at the community level. In addition to being cost-effective
based on new functionality, easier access and economics of scale,
Information and Communication Technologies will be critical in
building a culture of lifelong learning in both urban and rural areas.
Through differentiation, specificity, and better learner and teacher
control, Information and Communication Technologies can
accommodate the individual needs of most users. It will be critical to
creatively explore how relatively equipment can be made available to
various needy user communities, i.e through centres visited by students,
mobile equipment such as computer bus classrooms, etc. in some cases
improvements in existing technologies rather than entirely “new”
technologies can best be used to meet the needs of learners. For
example, the new compression and digital transmission technologies are
giving new life to “traditional” educational television, by permitting
many more channels to be broadcast over a given bandwidth at a much
lower cost per channel, and in the case of direct-broadcast satellite, over
a wider geographic area. Efforts must be made to create multi-channel
learning environments, as single media projects have tended to fail in the
past. Finally, Information and Communication Technologies should also
be used to reduce the communications and administrative costs of
educational institutions. Many institutions suffer from managerial
insufficiencies, which could also be significantly improved by the
application of Information and Communication Technologies. Such
action, if implemented properly, should result in higher staff morale,
greater understanding of the needs of students and an enhanced ability to
provide appropriate support services. It is very important that these
efforts to make effective use of Information and Communication
Technologies in education foresee the human element. Although
educational technology may enable a reduction in the teacher-to-learner
ratio or in qualifications of on-site teachers, it cannot (and in the
foreseeable future should not) replace human decisions and interaction in
the educational process; specialized teaching and support staff will still
be needed, and in fact will have to take on new responsibilities and learn
new skills to serve as intermediaries and motivators, oversee student
testing follow up on feedback, etc. As long as learning is a human
endeavor, there will always be a need for human “teachers” in some
capacity.
Statement of the Problem
The multiplicities of problems facing formal schools today are
well known. On one level, they are discussed in terms of low numbers of
qualified teachers and large number of students per class; inaccessibility
and inflexibility of schools and universities; outdated and irrelevant
curricula and methods of learning; and lack of quality educational
materials. On another level, there is a tremendous gap between
relationships between schools and communities, teachers and learners,
and learners and learners as well as a lack of interest in the endeavor of
learning, critically thinking and reflecting.
Several of the top rated business education research topics
identified by Rader and Wilhelm (2001) are directly related to utilization
of technology in the teaching/learning process. Business teachers are
expected to integrate technology in the teaching/learning process; they
must use technology so that it supports instruction and enables learners
to use technology as an important tool to meet their information and
learning needs. Barriers to using technology in education include lack of
teacher time, limited access and high costs, lack or vision or rationale for
technology use, lack of training and support, and current assessment
practices that may not reflect what has been learned with technology
(OTA, 1995).
Researchers found that while there is increased attention to the
need to prepare new teachers to use technology effectively, most new
education graduates still have limited knowledge of how technology can
be used in their professional activities, based on the report finding, the
author concluded that “Overall, teacher education programe do not
prepare graduates to use technology as a teaching tool” (Fletcher and
Deeds, 1991:184). To ensure that future teachers can effectively
integrate computers into instruction and assessment, a comprehensive set
of guideline for general technology training for all teacher preparation
program was developed in the United State by the International Society
for Technology in Education (ISTE) (1993) and adopted by the National
Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) effective
September, 1994. these standards established necessary computer-related
skill for individuals seeking initial certification or endorsements from
teacher preparation programs. Competencies focus on the ability of
teacher candidates to utilize and integrate a wide variety of educational
computing and to increase teacher productivity.
A review of literature published between 1990 and 2000 has
revealed that the use of Information And Communication Technologies
is growing in Africa, despite many constraints. That lack of ICT
utilization by business teachers is a major handicap in tertiary
institutions according to Adeya (2001) makes this study inperative

Purpose of the Study

The major purpose of this study is to determine the status and
utilization of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in
Secretarial studies as perceived by Secretarial Studies teachers in
Polytechnics in South-Eastern State of Nigeria. Specifically the study
will.
1. Determine the extent of availability of information and
communication technologies in the Polytechnics.
2. determine the perceived benefits of information and
communication technologies in the Polytechnics
3. determine the extent of utilization of information and
communication technologies in the Polytechnics
4. Determine the challenges posed by information and
communication technologies to Secretarial Studies teachers in
the Polytechnics.
5. Examine if there is any significance difference in the status and
utilization of information and communication technologies in
the polytechnics.
Significance of the Study
This study will be beneficial to three identifiable groups, namely
the Polytechnic educational institutions, the government and the business
teachers.
This study by investigating the benefits of information and
communication technologies in improving the quality of polytechnics
education will be extension improve the quality of life in the wider
society. Furthermore the polytechnics will benefit through enhanced
teaching, learning and method of assessment, which ICT provides. It is
also expected that this study will enable the polytechnics appreciate the
role ICT in research and sourcing of information for staff and students.
This will help to assert the position of polytechnics as centres of
academics excellence comparable to similar institution in
technologically advanced countries.
This study by identifying the competencies required of Secretarial
studies teachers will enable them perform their jobs effectively and
efficiently. Such competencies will help the business teachers teaching
methodology as well as assessment of student work. Knowledge of
opportunities and capabilities provided by ICT will help business
teachers in their research efforts and in supervising their students’
research work.
By understanding the current status of Information and
Communication Technologies in polytechnics with regard to
accessibility of information and communication technologies this study
will further expose the lapses creating room for emphasis in staff
training and professional development.
 The challenges posed by Information Communication
Technologies would create the need for government/private sector
participation in the provision of Information and Communication
Technologies. This cooperate is needful since the private sector
organization such as banks, insurances and manufacturing industries are
the direct consumers/employers of polytechnic products.
The findings of this study would highlight areas of government
scholarship and fellowship to deserving teachers to improve their
knowledge, skills and competencies in the areas of information and
communication technologies.

Research Questions
In order to achieve the purpose of this study, the following
research questions are advanced.
1. What is the extent of availability of information and
communication technologies in polytechnics?
2. What are the perceived benefits of information and
communication technologies to teaching and learning in the
polytechnics?
3. To what extent are information and communication
technologies utilized in the polytechnics?
4. What are the challenges posed by information and
communication technologies to Secretarial studies teachers in
the Polytechnics?
5. Is there is any significance difference in the status and
utilization of information and communication technologies in
the polytechnics.
Hypotheses for the Study
In addition to the foregoing research questions, this study will test
the following hypotheses formulated for this study.
Ho1 There is no significance statistical difference in the opinion of
Secretarial studies Teacher concerning the availability of
Information and Communication Technologies in the Federal and
State Polytechnics.
Ho2 There is no significant statistical difference in the opinion of
Secretarial studies Teachers concerning the utilization of
Information and Communication Technologies in the Federal and
State Polytechnics.

Limitation of the Studies

Some obvious constraints emerged in the pursuit of this project.
The researcher in the course of carrying out this research met with some
disappointments especially tracking the respondents to complete the
questionnaire. While some reluctantly accepted to respond to the
questionnaire. Some bluntly refused to accept the questionnaire.
Another major obstacle bothered on finance. Insufficient money
to undertake some important journeys further militated against the early
completion of this project.
The early ejection of the Post graduate students from the Hostels
also constituted problems as the researcher has to come from home to
see her supervisor who in some cases was unavoidable absent or traveled
on official tours.
Delimitations of the Study
This study was primarily concerned with the Polytechnics in the
South Eastern State. These included the Federal Polytechnics in
Unwana-Afikpo, Oko and Nekede-Owerri, and the State Polytechnics in
Aba and Enugu. The study, therefore, covered Polytechnics in the Public
education sector and therefore excluded private Polytechnics.
The study concerned only qualified secretarial studies teachers
and therefore did not include other lecturers.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This Chapter embodies the review of literature relevant to this
study. In the course of doing this, the researcher has reviewed book,
journals and some electronic journals to ascertain the level of related
researches and reviews in these areas. The bulk of the materials gathered
are discussed under the following heading.
1. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework
2. Status of Information and Communication Technologies in
Secretarial studies.
 3. Utilization of Information and Communication Technologies in
Secretarial studies.
4. Benefits of Information and Communication Technologies in
Secretarial studies.
5. The Challenges posed by Information and Communication
Technologies in Secretarial studies.
6. Related empirical Studies.
7. Summary of Related Literature

Conceptual and Theoretical Framework

Theories of adult learning are highly relevant to information
technology training. Heerman (1986) and Zemke (1984) indicated that
self-direction, intrinsic motivation, role of problem solving, and
immediate value in learning activities have been shown to be critical in
computer learning tasks. In the preparation of instructional leaders,
including teachers, training should incorporate competencies in software
knowledge versus system-specific skill (Lammers, 1986).
Using computers and computer-based learning systems in
education is viewed as a major contributor to increased learning.
Learning theories such as those by Pask, Spiro, and Salomon are
considered especially relevant to the use of information technology in
learning Pask (1975) developed the Conversation Theory, and it applies
to learning of any subject matter. Information technology incorporates
“teachback” method is where one person teaches another what he/she
has learned, and where students learn relationships among the concepts.
The Cognitive Flexibility Theory builds upon other constructivist
theories and related to the work of Salomon in terms of media and
learning interaction (Spiro & Jehng, 1990). Spiro and Jehng stated, “By
cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure
one’s knowledge, in adaptive response to radically changing situational
demands” (p. 165). This theory is largely concerned with the transfer of
knowledge and skills beyond the initial learning situation “Cognitive
Flexibility Theory is specially formulated to support the use of
interactive technology” (Kearsley, 1998:l). Salomon (1979) developed
the Symbol Systems Theory which is intended to explain the effects of
media on learning. Included among the principles of the Symbol
Systems Theory are the symbolic coding elements of particular media,
which require different mental transformations (that affects the mastery
of specific skills), and the reciprocal relationship between media and
learner (each can influence the other). In 1991, Salomon, Perkins, and
Globerson reported the extension of the framework of Salomon’s theory
to computers.
A constructivist approach for vocational education programs “…
where learners may work together and support each other as they use a
variety of tools and information resources in their guided pursuit of
learning goals and problem solving activities” (Wilson, 1995:5) seems
appropriate as a foundation for a study of secondary vocational teachers’
views regarding information technologies. The learning environment
includes computers and other technologies along with an abundance of
available information. Therefore, the need for the teachers, or
instructional leaders, to be competent in information technologies and to
be prepared to address current and future needs of the learners is critical
for the transfer of learning and for learners to transition to the workplace.
Sormumen and Chalupa (1994) indicated that the use of technology
cannot be fully effective unless teachers receive adequate training and
support.
For a few years now a number of works on the integration of
Information and Communication Technologies as teaching material in
university have tended to establish a more or less explicit relation
between resorting to interactive environments and a constructivist
epistemological stance. (Dalgarno, 1996). There are three broad
principles that together define the constructivist view of learning.
The fundamental principles, is that each person forms his own
representation of knowledge, building on their own individual
experiences, and consequently that there is no single “correct”
representing of knowledge (Von Glaserfeld, 1994). The second
principle, normally attributed to Piaget, is that people learn through
active exploration, and that learning occurs when the learner’s
exploration uncovers an inconsistency between his current knowledge
representing and his experience. The third principle, normally attributed
to Vygotsky (1978), is that learning occurs within a social context, and
that interaction between learners and their peers is a necessary part of the
learning process. These works on the integration of Information and
Communication Technologies as teaching material that sustains a
“constructivist revolution” in university implies two postulates is that
ICT enhances teaching-learning relation. The adoption of “new
technologies,” insofar as they make the learner responsible, and
eventually favour learner and learner-teacher interaction is the result of
a significant rupture between the teacher and traditional or behavioural
approaches to teaching.
 The second implies the primacy of teaching material over
epistemological orientations. Because ICT material allows or involves an
interaction, it is assumed that learning will be its product. Thus this
material guarantees the constructivist nature of learning and the
collaborative dimension of teaching. (Choi and Yeom, 1996; Marton,

Status of Information and Communication Technologies in

Education.
Recently the integration of Information and Communication
Technologies in university teaching and particularly in teacher training
has been the topic of much debate. The student-to-computer ratio is
computed by diving the total student population by the number of
computers available for student use. Similarly, the teacher-to-computer
ratio refers to the quotient of total number of teaching staff by the
number of computers that can be used by teachers. These statistics are a
useful index of the level of ICT resources and use in a given school.
Finding from the survey indicate that there is an urgent need to
improve student-to-computer ratios if a country is to successfully
integrate ICT in the public secondary school system. For the survey
carried out by Thornburg (1999) reveled that two of the 100 schools
surveyed no longer have computers currently in use whether for
administrative or educational purposes. Of the 98 schools with working
computers, two dedicate s their units to administrative (i.e., non-
instructional) use. Thus, only 96% of the sample has computers used for
educational purposes either by teachers by students or by both.
Furthermore, only 95 schools have computers that can be used by
teachers. The same number of schools has computers for students use.
 Much educational software is multimedia in form, thus the
number of multimedia computers available to teachers and students in a
school is indicative also of the usefulness of a school’s ICT resources for
teaching and learning.
The computers available for educational purposes in the schools
surveyed are predominantly able to support multimedia applications.
Eighty-six percent of computer available to students and 87% of those
available to teachers have CD-ROM drives and sound cards.
The number and variety of software applications available in a
school also indicates the extent of use of computers and related tools.
Research findings show that the types of applications that are in
use in the schools are predominantly “office software” or “productivity
tools”, i.e, word process, spreadsheets, database management, etc. There
is relatively less variety in the available software in terms of the different
types of curricular and pedagogical tools (e.g., simulations, drill and
practice, tutorials, etc.).
Of the subject areas in the secondary school curriculum, Science
and Technology, English and Mathematics are typically those for which
educational software is available for use by students. On the other hand,
there seems to be a relative dearth of educational software for music and
arts classes, and particularly for subject areas that require local content
in the local language such as Araling panlipunan (Social Studies) and
Filipino (National Language and Literature).
Hardware peripherals such as printers, scanners, digital cameras,
etc. also expand the functionality of computers, and the presence of such
devices in the school suggests the extent of use of computers for
educational purposes. Printers predominate as far as peripherals
available at respondent schools are concerned, both for instructional and
non-instructional use. Aside from printers, however, the availability of
other types of peripherals are quite limited. For instance, only 21.9
percent of the schools have scanners and a miniscule 3.1 percent (3
schools) have digital imaging device. Less that 10% of the schools have
projection devices that would be useful during class presentations.
The presence of networked computers may also indicate a higher
level of efficiency in the management of educational resources (e.g., the
caching and sharing of files, distribution of Internet connection, etc.).
Only nine out of the 100 respondent schools have a local areas
network, with only seven of these with computers that can be used for
educational purposes connected to the LAN. The number of networked
computers for teaching and learning in these seven schools range from
one to 176. The majority of the LANs used a single server (55%) while
the rest have between 3 to 10 servers. All servers run on Windows NT,
one of the most commonly used server operating systems worldwide.
Given the student-to-computer ratios and the types of software
and hardware peripherals described above, it is not surprising that the
predominantly for basic computer skills training (typically under
Technology and Home Economics or THE). Respondents were asked to
identify the subject areas where computers have been used for teaching
and learning activities. Almost all of the schools that have computers for
educational use (96.9%) cited THE in fact, 93.7% percent offer a full
computer skills course under THE. Respondents also reported the use of
computers in some way in the subject areas Science (77.1%), Math
(67.7%) and English (62.5%). These responses are consistent with the
claims regarding the availability of educational software discussed
previously. The lack of curriculum-relevant digital resources in the local
language would explain the relative infrequency of use of computers for
Filipino, Social Studies and Values Education.
Since the second half of the 90s, and particularly since the
explosion of accessibility to the World Wide network, one notes a rapid
development in the scientific literature dealing with the integration of
Information and Communication Technologies in the preservice
curriculum. Although particularly “dynamic” in the Anglo-Saxon world
this literature is emerging in all industrialized countries. It can be
categorized into two general domains. On the one hand, there is a
profusion of writings on the integration of Information and
Communication Technologies in university education, particularly in the
United State and in Australia. On the other, still in the Anglo-Saxon
world, but now more in Europe that in the US, one finds an abundant
literature dealing with the integration of information systems and of
computer communication in teacher education. If, from an
epistemological perspective, the approach is avowedly reformist in the
first domain, this is not the case in the second.
Despite the discourse extolling the virtues of computers and of
Information and Communication Technologies unearths few systematic
researches carried out in this field. These can be classed into three
categories of varying importance. The first touches upon the
effectiveness of resorting to different forms of Information and
Communication Technologies as a means of favouring or of sustaining
learning. This types of research leads to the question of how teachers
define the nature of knowledge, the process of knowledge construction
by students, and the role of both the teacher and teaching materials in the
midst of this process. The second deals essentially with the analysis and
identification of teacher or student attitudes towards hardware and
software environments. The third refers to the identification of the
degree of penetration of Information and Communication Technologies
in university teaching.
For a few years now a number of works on the integration of
Information and Communication Technologies as teaching material in
university have tended to established a more or less explicit relation
between resorting to interactive environments and a constructivist
epistemological stance. (Dalgarno, 1996). There are three broad
principles that together define constructivist view of learning.
The fundamental principal, is that each person forms their own
representation of knowledge, building on their own individual
experiences, and consequently that there is single “correct”
representation of knowledge (Von Glaserfeld, 1994). The second
principle, normally attributed to Piaget, is that people learn through
active exploration, and that learning occurs when the learner’s
exploration uncovers an inconsistency between their current knowledge
representation and their experience. Bruner was the first espouse a
detailed theory of instruction based on this principle, in his discovery
learning thory (Bruner, 1962). The third principle, normally attributed to
Vygotsky, is that learning occurs within a social context, and that
interaction between learners and their peers is a necessary part of the
learning process. Vygotsky (1978) describes those capabilities that are
beyond the learner on their own, but are able to be carried out with the
assistance of more knowledgeable peers, as capabilities in the zone of
proximal development.
 These works on the integration of Information and
Communication Technologies as teaching material that sustains a
“constructivist revolution” in university implies tow postulates. The first
postulate is that teachers share a constructivist or socio-constructivist
representation of the teaching-learning relation. The adoption of “new
technologies,” insofar as they make the learner responsible and
eventually favour learner and learner-teacher interation, is assumed to be
the result of a significance rupture between the teacher and traditional or
behavioural approaches to teaching.
The second implies the primacy of teaching material over
epistemological orientations. Because ICT material allows or involves an
interaction, it is assumed that learning will be its product. Thus this
material guarantees the constructivist nature of learning and the
collaborative dimension of teaching. (Choi and Yeom, 1996; Marton,
1994). As an aside it is interesting to note that this representation of the
role of educational material is quite similar to this discourse held by the
Ministry of Education of Quebec over the last twenty years (Government
of Quebec, 1979).
Most of the research is about teacher and/or student attitudes with
reference to information science, understood in its widest sense and,
more particularly, about individual-computer interaction. The majority
of research projects are on the constructs of anxiety and of stress in
interactive situations with computers (Brown, 1996; Hudiburg, Ahrens
and Jones, 1994; Hudiburg, Brown and Jones, 1993; McBride and
Nagle, 1996; Ngin and Simms, 1996). This body of research flows from
a relatively recent trend, mostly found in the US and less so in England
and in Germany. It is a trend identified with social psychology and with
the psychology of work, whose major object of study is the impacts of
changes brought to work environments, notably at the time of major
technical modifications. Although this field of research is relatively
young in that it deals with the implications of the implementation of
computer technologies in different working or educational environments,
it reflects well-established tradition in the psychology of work and,
notable, in ergonomics.
Although specific research dealing with learner or teacher
attitudes toward Information and Communication Technologies are few,
it is a grow field (Brock and Sulsky, 1994; Larose et al., 1998; Larose,
Lafrance, Grenon, Roy and Lenoir, 1998; McBride and Nagle, 1996).
The construct of anxiety being new in this field, principal advancement
is occurring in the domain of the development of valid and reliable
instruments of measure and evaluation (Chappell and Taylor, 1997;
Potosky and Bonko, 1998; Yaghi, 1997). Unfortunately, insofar as it
relates to the use of computer in an educational context, most of this
research in the framework of a larger reflection on the implications of
the construct of anxiety in reference to computers in the teaching
situation, or on the probability of learning. However, few studies exist
on social bases as well as on the effects of socio-economic differences
on the anxiety felt in relation to computer technologies.
Yet these questions are of crucial importance in that they refer
directly to the position we adopt towards the social mission not only of
universities but also of the educational system as a whole. In fact, they
lead us directly to the key-question of the educational network’s mission,
as an instrument of equalization of opportunities as well as of social
mobility (Larose, 1997a). thus, it may seen obvious that the stress or
anxiety felt by a student confronted with the necessity of using a
computer in a learning or performance context could vary depending on
his degree of computer literacy, the latter itself possible being linked to
whether or not the student has had prior access to a personal computer
and for what length of time.
Certain studies tend to show, to this effect, that the level of
infiltration of domestic microcomputer technologies various according to
the social class. Nakhaie and Pike (1998), in a study based in Cananda-
wide data, note that domestic computer technologies are seeping very
slowly and sparsely to the working class. Confirming the results of prior
studies, this research shows that parental school is the best predictor of
the availability and of the utilization of a home computer. In the same
vein as Bourdieu, the authors affirm that the middle and upper classes
adopt Information and Communication Technologies as an integral part
of their social reproduction strategy. The strategies nature of the mastery
of Information and Communication Technologies as a basis for
“knowledge economic,” and thus for the survival of economic and social
advantages enjoyed by the middle and upper classes, is confirmed by
many recent studies, both European (Bell, 1996; Greenan et Mairesse,
1996) and North American (Gera, Wulong et Lee, 1997; Morissette et
Drolet, 1998), dealing with the impact of computer-use on the standing
of employee salary.
In spite of the above, we were unable to find studies, in the
scientific documentation, outlining the relationship between the anxiety
felt towards the integration of computer technologies in university
pedagogy and the social origin of the students, or even the frequency and
duration of access to or ownership of a home computer. We were also
unable to find studies dealing with between access to a home computer,
the socio-economic standing of the students and their performance in
terms of their studies. Yet, a recent study (Attewell et Battle, 1990),
although conducted with elementary-school children, brings forth two
disquieting questions in terms of the impact of social distribution of
technological environments. On the one hand, the authors note that
children with access to a computer at home tend systematically to obtain
better scores in reading and in mathematics than their peers who do not
have this opportunity. On the other hand, the children from lower socio-
economic background, but who also have access to a home computer, do
not perform as well as their peers who come from a higher socio-
economic class. In both cases, the data collected centers on populations
attending schools in which Information and Communication
Technologies are widespread and have been subject to systematic
implementation through the program of massive computerization of
public education set forth by the Clinton administration.
As mentioned earlier there is little research presently available
that provides stable data on ICT use profiles among university
professors. When they do exist, as is the case in some recent Canadian
research (Proulx & Campbell, 1997) as well as in certain less recent
American research (Geoghegan, 1994; Easeyitan & Hirschbuhl, 1992;
Mackowiak, 1991), such data fail to take into account the type of
integration of Information and Communication Technologies in
teaching.
In fact, the studies currently available, in their dealings with the
integration of new computer technologies in University teaching, present
individual cases, or case studies as they may be called. For those studies
dealing with the teaching profile of a university, these are limited to the
computer-literacy profile of the teaching staff. By so doing they restrain
or exclude all reflection on the nature of the relationship that should
exist between the representation that teachers have of the teaching-
learning relation and the types of technological support to which they
turn.
Several authors suggest that the inclusion of Information and
Communication Technologies in teaching by teachers who do not have
certain individual characteristics such as having “traditional qualities”
necessary for an adequate teaching intervention, or mastering the
Information and Communication Technologies, may do more harm than
good (Dekerckhove, 1997; Rheaume, 1997). In reality the scientific
literature on this matter is split into two major schools of thought. The
first, very power in the Pacific “Anglophone” countries, most
particularly in Australia, identifies integration of Information and
Communication Technologies both as a condition of survival of
university institution and as a context favouring the modification of
teaching practices in a socio-constructivist epistemological perspective.
These approaches favour the development of cooperative teaching
practices, thereby showing to advantage the integration of networked
environments (Dalgarmo, 1996; McNaught, 1996).
A second school of though, more pragmatic than the first,
considers that the integration of Information and Communication
Technologies in university teaching is not and will not be particularly
associated with the modification of teaching practices and will not affect
by itself the epistemological stance of practitioners. Teaching will
remain essentially traditional, characterized by a neo-behaviorist
epistemological perspective. As teaching material. Information
technologies simply take the place of print or the use of the chalkboard,
or of the “low resolution overhead projection” (Gosper & al., 1996;
Tapper, 1997).
So, as the research demonstrates, with a little preparation and
technical support, but without varying their teaching strategy with
respect to the traditional university approach, teachers integrate data
entry of their course notes or the more-or-less interactive electronic
manual into their practice. In this same perspective, they may take into
consideration the “learning” dimension of the education relation and
provide their students with diverse tools that they will have to manage
by themselves in the course of their studies (Mclntre & Wolff, 1998).
The integration of tools such as “online” formative self-evaluation
software or access to glossaries and complements of course notes
entered as tele-accessible hypertext, respond principally to these types of
preoccupations (Dirand and Larose, 1997; Larose, 1997b, 1998).
The hypothesis formulated by Bloom in his elaboration of the
concept of mastery learning is identical to the one discussed here
(Bloom, 1979; Bloom and Broder, 1950). The increase of time and the
frequency of access to information as well as the regularity of feedback,
particularly if it is stripped of the affective component associated with
summative evaluation, guarantees learning in the learners. If the learner
still does not perform, it will be because of individual characteristics;
therefore failure will be the learner’s responsibility and not that of the
teacher, of the context of teaching or of the institution. Having recourse
to computers does not challenge the teaching strategies or the teacher’s
position on the relation to knowledge or on its construction. The
professor is simply better equipped (at least in theory) to reproduce a
teaching model in a context where he can no longer have direct contact
with the learner and the latter equipped to compensate this loss of
individual contact “in real time,” or if one prefers, in a class situation.

Utilization of Information and Communication Technologies

Education.
The study by Thornburg (1999) further showed that only 13 out of
the 100 respondent schools can access the Internet and even then only
for a limited time and not time and not exclusively for educational
purposes. Of these schools, only nine and eight allow teachers and
students, respectively, access to computers that can go online. Three
schools dedicated Internet time to administrative tasks while another has
Internet access only for the personal use of one of its staff. Only one
school uses, its Internet time exclusively for educational purpose. In
most cases, Internet access is hared between administration and
education use. The number of teachers and students who are actually
able to use of computers suggests the extent of ICT use in the school.
The majority of the schools claim that only half or less of their student
users are either tool. Furthermore, a large majority of these student users
are most seniors or juniors since the Computer Education classes are
most commonly offered at these year levels. Such distribution of access
appears tied to the primary ICT-related goal of most schools to prepare
their graduate to join a workforce that demands basic proficiency in the
use of productivity tools. (Thornburg, 1999).
 Connectivity adds great value to a school’s computer resources.
With email and the Internet, teachers and students can, among other
things, communicate and collaborate with peers, colleagues, and experts
anytime, anywhere and can access a wealth of learning resources online.
Whether or not a school has Internet access therefore is another indicate
of how much technology is being used to enrich the learning process.
For purposes of classroom instruction, moreover, the number of
computers with simultaneous access to the Internet is key. The study
showed that the numbers of computers that can go online and are
available for educational use are, in most cases, quite limited. Almost
half of the schools have only one computer that can access the Internet.
The mean student-to-computer with Internet ratio is 1,763:1 (std=2,190).
Time online is also in general fairly limited, ranging from 1.5
hours to 160 hours on the average per month. The mean access time (for
education and non-educational purposes combined) per month is 32
hours (std=42.5). A little over half of the schools access the Internet for
an average of less than an hour per day. Bandwidth (or the speed by
which data can be transmitted through the network) is also a limiting
factor.
Given these limitation, it was not surprising that 75% of the
schools claimed that not more than 10% of their teachers are actually
able to use the Internet for teaching-related activities. Slightly better
percentages were found with respect to student use of the Internet for
learning task. When asked what education activities teachers and
students performed using the Internet, doing research was the most
common response. Using email and bulletin boards for communication
and collaboration were less frequently practiced. Even less so designing
and maintaining web site. In fact, only one of the schools surveyed
reported having a web presence. In the past fifty years, especially,
technology has made information, once a scarce resources, abundant.
With computers and Internet technologies in particular, more people can
not have access to more information more quickly than ever before.
Moreover, the exponential growth in access to information has led to a
corresponding exponential growth in the production of new information,
and this has forced us to rethink our notions of what we need to learn
and how we should learn it.
Educational institutions acknowledge that they must move apace
with the technology-driven changes in society and economy. In today’s
knowledge society, not only must schools ensure that learners possess
the competencies to wield these new information and communication
tools productively, they must equip learners with the critical and analytic
tools necessary to live and flourish in an information –saturated
environment. Mastery of facts has become less important than the ability
to contextualize these facts and derive their meaning within specific
contexts. Thus, learners must develop three fundamental skills: 1) how
to find information; 2) how to determine if what is found is relevant to
the task at hand; 3) how to determine if the relevant information is
accurate.
Acquisition of these three fundamental skills sets the parameters
for the use of ICT in schools. The tools that in part created the demand
for information literacy skills in the first place can, if used effectively, be
the best tools to help learners meet these demands. The integration of
ICT in the teaching and learning process is, potentially, one of the most
viable interventions towards educational reform. The models of effective
ICT use, however, cannot be constructed overnight. A variety of
technological, curricular, pedagogical, institutional, cultural, and
financial issues need to be addressed, and the complex interaction among
these various factors means that constructing the best practice models
would involve much “thought, experimentation, and a willingness to
spend the time to develop and refine strategies until they are proven to
be effective.
The majority of the school claim to have used computers for
educational purposes for at least two years. First year to fourth year
students in 68% of the schools have used computers for learning in some
way for three to five years, and 16% of the schools for even longer than
that.
When asked about the goals that determine how computers are
used in their schools, respondents considered preparing students to join
the workforce, improving student achievement, and making the learning
process more interesting their three important goals (see table 5.). Lower
than rankings for goals such as promoting active learning,
individualizing the learning process, and encouraging cooperative
learning suggest than these goals, although not considered unimportant,
are less of priority and that the prevailing notion of technology
intervention is focused on the acquisition of basic technical skills and is
still embedded in traditional pedagogy.
This seems to be borne out by the responses to the question of the
type of computer skills that, according to the school’s goals, students
should acquire by the end of their fourth year. Almost all of the
respondents cited basic skills such as “operating a computer” and
“writing documents with a word processing”. Fewer respondents
claimed higher-level skills such as “calculating with spreadsheet” or
“writing simple programs” as part of the skill set they would like their
students to acquire. Understandably since very few of the schools have
Internet access, e-mail and Internet-related skills are given limited
emphasis.
ICT use in some of the schools has also not been formalized. Only
76% of the schools have written policy or statement regarding the use of
computers and/or the Internet. In most cases these written policies focus
on present and future use of the computers, staff development, and the
assignment of computers-related tasks, less so on hardware and software
related issues or on the issue of “equity of access”, i.e. ensuring equal
access to all students and staff.

Benefits Of Information And Communication Technologies In

Education
For decades, there had been a lack of delivery systems designed to
adjust teaching to individual students in an economics class (Oliver,
1973; Wilkes, 1986; Saunders and Welsh, 1990). Advocates of ICT in
economics education argued that ICT packages provide students with
learner autonomy that is crucial to the learning process (Cullimore et al.,
1996; Brooksbank et al., 1998; Lim, 1998). The following sections
discuss the different aspects of learner autonomy: learner control, task
orientation and critical reflection.
Research studies of ICT use in economics education have shown
that ICT empowers students and allows them access to the discipline
(Scheraga, 1986; Smith and Smith, 1989; Hallberg, 1996; MacDonald
and Shields, 1998; Breddon, 1999; Katz, 1999; Simkins, 1999; Lage et
al., 2000). The ICT tool used in economics courses include: tutorial,
testing, simulation/game, database, spreadsheet, and tools of local area
network and the internet (Whitehead, 1996). Each provides opportunities
for students to think ‘in an economics way’.
Learner control refers to the options in the ICT package that allow
students to make decisions about what sections to study, and what paths
to follow through the interactive material (Siegel, 1994). In contrast to
traditional methods of instruction, ICT gives students the opportunity to
determine when instruction will occur and at what pace. It does so by
providing facilities that give students control over the presentation of
content and the sequence of the learning activities (see table 1), and
hence by promoting learner autonomy (Laurillard, 1988).
Students can set the pace of instruction and work through the
course content at a rate commensurate with their ability and motivation.
They have the option to repeat portions when necessary or desired, and
change the speed at which they progress through each section.
Moreover, students exhibit a wide range of navigation routes. Some
begin by looking at what they already know, while others start with
unfamiliar concepts and principles: Some work through the materials in
a linear fashion, while others leave an exercise half done to explore
another section before returning to complete the initial exercise
(Laurillard, 1993). These navigational opportunities facilities students’
own earning style (perez et al, 1995).
While the teacher who prepares the materials may determine what
is delivered, students have a substantial amount of control over the rate
of learning and the learning sequence. Students are then in a better
position to make judgments about their progress and to monitor their
own learning needs. This ultimately results in a more favourable feeling
towards learning, more efficient operation in the learning environment,
and better performances in their examinations (Chou, 1993; Taylor,
1996).
To ensure that learner autonomy is promoted, students must be
capable of critically reflecting upon their learning experiences (Little,
1991). Reflection encompasses processes such as integrating and
accommodating new information, planning immediate and long-term
goals, evaluating current actions against feedback and goals, and relating
all these to the structure of the whole (Gagne and Driscoll, 1988).
Laurillard (1993, p. 64) defines this process as reflection on the goal-
action-feedback cycle: ‘The presence of a goal is prefigured in the unity
between action, feedback and integration; these aspects of the process
only make sense with the direction provided by a goal. The link between
them is only made if the learner can reflect on the relationship between
them all.’
In her research study of first-year economics undergraduates,
Soper (1997) claims that the insertion of questions throughout the
tutorial mode in WinEcon (see Figure 1) encourages critical reflection
on the part of students and promotes learner autonomy. Rothkopf (1970,
p. 328) hypothesizes that inserted question give rise to ‘inspective
behaviours’ which ‘give birth to learning’. As these inserted questions
usually require application of principles or concepts to new examples,
they encourage students to process the content of the instruction more
thoroughly; in fact, to transform it, in the effort to apply it in a new
situation (Watts and Anderson, 1971).
In order to gain access to the world of academic concepts,
principles and theories, Perkins, Crismond, Simons and Unger (1995)
state that students must be offered access to a wide repertoire of higher-
order knowledge, accessible representations and rich contexts that
facilities activities of relevant knowledge.
Since Wundt (1912) claimed that all though processes were
accompanied by images, numerous studies have been conducted to
investigate instructional strategies facilitating the visual though process
(Levin and Lesgold, 1978; Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Mayer and Sims,
1994). The instructional effectiveness of visualization and animation as
devices for facilitating the visual learning process has been a primary
issue in many recent ICT studies (Resnick and Johnson, 1988; Reiber,
1990; Reusser, 1993, Mayer, Bover, Briman, Mars and Tapangio 1996).
These representations offer effective ‘conceptual anchors’, ‘disclosing
important networks of relationships in a vivid and memorable way’
(Perkins etal., 1995).
There are some economic concepts that are especially difficult to
teach by lecture and discussion – for example, the law of diminishing
marginal returns and the multiplier effect. Many studies have shown that
visualization and animation in ICT packages such as WinEcon facilitate
this understanding by affording access to the academic environment of
economics ideas (Sloman, 1995; Hobbs and Judge, 1995; Soper, 1997;
Brooksbank et al., 1998; Lim 2001a)
ICT packages, such as WinEcon, demonstrate exactly what
happens through graphical animation and simultaneous changes in an
table within the same screen. This allows students to see the connections
between concepts by changing one representation that leads to changes
in the other representations. It allows an almost unlimited number of
possible scenarios as compared to textbooks or traditional modes of
instruction without computers. These serve as objects for students to
think about, and thus help students to develop certain aspects of
economic thinking.
Moreover, the visual presentation employs teaching strategies
based on the methods of phenomenography defined by Marton and
Ramsden (1988). One such strategy is present the learner with new ways
of seeing a concept or principle (Marton and Ramsden, 1988). Diagrams
in WinEcon are built up step by step. For example, in the plotting of the
demand curve, a table depicting the relationship between price and
quantity demanded against price and quantity demanded is first
presented (see Figure 2). The X-Y Certesian of quantity demanded
against price is situated next to the table. As the student clicks on each of
the coordinates in the table, the corresponding point is being plotted on
the graph. After all the points are plotted, a line is drawn through all the
points to show the individual demanded curve. winEcon allows students
to discover how the curve is built up rather than being presented with the
completed diagram (Lim, 2001a).
The other strategy suggest by Marton and Ramsdent (1988) is to
focus on a few critical issues and show how they relate to each other. It
is very common for student not to be able to distinguish between a
movement along the demand curve and a shift of the demand curve. The
step-by-step plotting of the curve and the multiple representations
mediate between idiosyncratic and informal analyses of concepts and
relationships, and more formal analyses by:
a) Attracting and directing student attention;
b) Representing domain knowledge involving explicit or implicit
movements or shifts; and
c) Explaining complex principle or phenomena such as functional
relationships among economic variables (Reusser, 1993).
Although such visualization and animation has the undoubted
advantage of allowing students to see economic relationships and
analyses more clearly, teachers have to be mindful of the limitations of
these diagrams.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider whether the attributes of
visualization and animation are congruent with the specific learning
requirement of the given task (Reiber, 1990). The issue of whether there
are adequate narratives explaining their instructional roles in the given
material must also be considered (Mayer et al., 1996).
Very often, students see the study of economics as a mass of
garbled concepts that must be memorized for tests. However, the
treatment of the nature of economics emphasizes deductive and
inductive thinking. Oliver (1973) argues that, if a classroom explanation
is to be a valid training in economics and is the correct explanation, then
it must take account of the kind of thinking required in economics: that
is, the learning and teaching activities must scaffold deductive and
inductive thinking process.
Under the instructional design of ICT tutorial packages, students
are usually presented with an initial series of rule screens, which have
been designed to present (1) the definition of the concept, (2) the list of
steps in the procedure and (3) the statement of relationship between
concepts. After these rule screens, students may view either the example
screens or the practice screens. The example screens demonstrate the
procedure of show an application of the principle, while the practice
screens allow students to apply the rule to a specific object or event
(Shlechter, 1991). These screens provide the full set of scaffolding
activities in the limited bandwidth of the human-computer interaction.
Therefore, the instructional design of ICT tutorial packages provides
students with the cognitive structures necessary for dealing with abstract
economic relationships. On the contrary, most ICT packages do not
encourage students to formulate questions and answers of their own.
This may impede the development of epistemic knowledge and problem-
solving skills among students. When students are not encouraged to
formulate questions and answers of their own, they may not understand
how the manifestly practical reality of economic life can be analyzed
meaningfully via such a structure (Hansen and Salemi, 1990). Activities
must be designed to support and to be supported by ICT in order to
develop epistemic knowledge and problem solving skills.
The feedback afforded by ICT packages is usually provided
continuously (rather than just at the end of the module), reinforcing the
positives (rather than emphasizing the negatives), and focusing feedback
on how performance can be improved in the future (rather than dwelling
on the past). Such feedback deals explicitly with any misconceptions that
the students have and may help in self-correction. When feedback is
delivered as soon as possible after the act that imitated it, it can become
a very powerful reinforcer: that is, it is possible to change behaviour
quickly and to maintain it in strength for long periods of time (Skinner,
1986). More effective feedback also allows for a context of exploration,
where initial investigation of the problem helps in developing one’s
thinking about the solution, where ‘it is all right to be wrong’; in fact,
where being wrong to begin with is an important step on the way to
knowledge. If students can acknowledge that ‘it is all right to be wrong’,
then they are more likely to claim authorship of knowledge. They are
more likely to think that others’ knowledge claim may not be the final;
and perhaps, they are more likely to look behind what is usually taken
for granted (Povey,1997). Thus, ICT opens up possibilities for
conjecturing and taking risk; it opens up the possibility of a different
(more emanicipatory) relationship to knowledge.
ICT packages, especially those with inserted questions and tests,
help monitor a very important component of learning-misconceptions.
Misconceptions might arise when students try to fit new information to
familiar interpretation. For example, as has been stated, many students
perceive price as a means of exploitation by sellers. There is a need to
identify this erroneous interpretation and correct the misconception
quickly. One advantage of ICT packages is the immediate and
predominantly encouraging feedback provided to students. It does more
than simply inform students that their response in correct or incorrect.
When an incorrect response is made, the feedback my prompt students
for the correct response by giving hints. When a correct response is
made, the ICT package my provide explanation for students to validate
their interpretations of the question and response.
However, it should be noted that the essence of economics is
analysis. ICT will not do justice to economics if it reinforces economic
theory as a set of ideas to be learned and nothing more (Fels, 1990). ICT
needs to be situated in a learning environment where students are taught
to think ‘in an economic way’. The learning and teaching activities in
this environment must support and be supported by ICT to ensure
students can see that the economic concepts and principles serve as an
analytical toolbox for economists to identify and solve real-world
problems.
More effective feedback also allows for a context of exploration
where initial investigation of the problem helps in developing one’s
thinking about the solution, where ‘it is all right to be wrong’; in fact
where being wrong to begin with is an important step on the way to
knowledge. If students can acknowledge that ‘it is all right to be wrong’
then they are more likely to claim authorship of knowledge. They are
more likely to hold their knowledge claims contingently; they are more
likely to thank that other’s knowledge claims may not be the final; and
perhaps, they are more likely to look behind what is usually taken for
granted (Povey, 1997). Thus, ICT opens up possibilities for conjecturing
and taking; it opens up the possibility of a different (more
emanicipatory) relationship to knowledge.
It is very difficult to answer the ‘what if?’ questions in economics
with traditional textbooks, lecture and discussion methods (Lim and
Stoecker, 1995). The internet, simulation programs, database and
spreadsheet applications may allow students to see the relevance of their
studies by providing them with opportunities to address these ’what if?’
questions. At the same time, such experiences fulfill the pedagogical
goals of allowing students to apply theories, use evidence and recognize
the legitimate range of application of economic analysis (Velenchik,
1995).
 The teacher can also integrate spreadsheet applications into the
course. For example, if one looks at the price of a good and the quantity
of the good, one might link the increase in quantity demanded of the
good to a fall in its price. However, one can always fine alternative
explanation that link the increase in the quantity demanded of the good
to an increase in income, an increase in price of substitutes or an
increase in population size. Quite different inquiries will all produce
encouraging results and none is incorrect.
Spreadsheets can handle complex and interacting formulae and are
also flexible in that changes of the variable can be made quickly and
easily. Thus, they are very useful for such inquiries in economics (Cook,
1987). Students can explore the effects of the changes in variable on the
quantity demanded of the good. They can also attempt to develop
complex models of their own and test them against other real-world data.
This process supports interpretation and analysis, which provides better
access to the academic environment of the economics discipline (Judge,
1996).
However, discovering relationships based on real-world data is
difficult. The real world is far less organized than many students expect
and exact relationships do not exist. The use ICT may serve as an
‘anchor’ for course activities, but guidance has to be given, especially
during the beginning of the course, to help students acquire and develop
data-handling skills.
Data-response-type questions can be set to help give students a
focus while they are investigating and analyzing the data (Welford,
1986). Moreover, part of the responsibility of gathering data can be
shifted to students. Gathering data is actually part of the task of
becoming an economist. If the teacher does the data collection, the
authenticity of economics education is taken away. These activities
should be integrated into the economics course to support the
opportunities provided by ICT.
There is a need for students to understand at the outset that
economics course go beyond memorization of key terms and
manipulation of equations. Students are expected to develop thinking
skills along with an appreciation of the importance and relevance of the
concepts taught. By providing a relevance to real life through ICT, there
is bound to be a trade-off between course breadth and depth (Hansen and
Salemi, 1990). Teachers must find the balance to optimize learning
outcomes given the constraints of curriculum and resources.
Although the dialogue may essentially be between the teacher and
student, certain discussions and interactions may be carried out with ICT
as a tool. For examples, the ICT package may describe the conception,
set the task goal and give feedback on the student’s action. The student
adapts his or her action in light of the ICT package’s description and
reflects on the interaction to modify the description, while the teacher
reflects on the student’s performance and adapts the task goal in light of
the student’s description. Moreover, the dialogue may be based on past
experience or ‘though experiments’ rather than actually involving
action-on-the-world. The student’s reflection on that imagined
interaction and the discussion with the teacher may be sufficient to
enable the student to represent those interactions with the world (Lim,
2001b),
Although ICT packages may be interactive, they may lack the
various dialogic dimensions of learning. Teaching and learning in the
classroom are distributed between the teacher, the students and many
other tools, such as textbooks, worksheets, notes, whiteboards, videos,
televisions, newspapers and ICT. Dialogues among students, and
between students and teachers, promote the guided construction of
knowledge in the learning environment (Lim, 2001b). this section does
not intend to explore how ICT replicate or fails to replicate such social
relations that surround learning in the design of ICT packages. Instead,
the discussion is on how the use of ICT promotes these dialogic
processes in the learning environment, namely the dialogues between the
teacher and student, and dialogues among students.
Bloom (1984) maintains that one-to-one tutorial teaching provides
the ideal learning environment. Laurillard (1993) also claims that a one-
to-one, face-to-face meeting between the teacher and student provides
access to the academic environment. Although it is impossible to design
an ICT package completely on a pure conversation model, ICT packages
afford an environment for such a model to be applied: a one-to-one
dialogue between the teacher and student. As the rest of the students are
working through ICT packages at their own pace, there are opportunities
for the teacher to engage in a one-to-one dialogue with individual
students in the ICT learning environment. This dialogue may take place
face-to-face or may be mediated by ICT, such as asynchronous
discussion boards or synchronous chats.
The one-to-one dialogue between the teacher and student ‘ensures
intensive intellectual participation on the part of the student, guides
students through optimal sequences of discrete pieces of economic
knowledge accumulating to a desired learning objective, diagnoses and
treats errors in reasoning, and builds on unique characteristics of
individual students’ (Sumansky, 1985, p: 482). Such dialogue, with the
ICT package as a tool, offers an adaptive learning environment that may
help students to access the academic environment. Research studies by
Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimor and Scot, (1994) suggest that if
negotiation with an authority, usually the teacher, is essential. Here, the
critical feature is the nature of the dialogic process. The role of the
authority figure has two important components. The first is to introduce
new ideas or cultural tools where necessary and to provide the support
and guidance (for students) to make sense of these for themselves the
other is to listen and diagnose the ways in which the instructional
activities are being interpreted to inform further action.
In a more recent study by Pea, Edelson, and Gomez (1994), the
ICT package allows students to work together with other students or
with scientists across the boundaries of space and time. The software in
the package supports students as they conduct scientific inquiries as
members of a community. The ICT package also requires students to
record their activities, observations and hypotheses as they perform
scientific inquiry. Hence, it allows the students to share and comment
upon each other’s work, which encourages communication and
collaboration. Moreover, sharing responsibilities creates a safe
environment where getting the wrong answer is not a problem so long as
students can analyze why learn from their mistakes.
Although student dialogues are encouraged when students are
assigned to work in pairs or small groups at a limited number of
computers, they are also present when each student has a computer.
Crook (1994) notes that ICT-based tasks involve many subtasks (for
example, creating a button for a HyperCard stack or making columns
with word-processing software), leading to situations where students
need help and find their neighbours a convenient source of assistance.
The habit of such dialogues once established carries over into ICT or
non-ICT activities. Moreover, students often look over each other’s
shoulders, comment on each other’s work, offer assistance and discuss
what they are doing (Crook, 1994).
Recent comparisons of traditional mathematics instruction to its
computer-assisted counterpart also yielded positive learning results
related to the use of technology, including commercially available
problem-solving software (Fletcher, Hawley and Piele, 1990). Similarly,
studies by the Cognition and Technology group at Vanderbilt University
of their video series entitles “The Adventure of Jasper Woodbury”
showed positive results (Cognition and Technology Group, 1992). This
series itself is of particular interest to library media specialists: each
“adventure” is a fifteen – to twenty –minute story that embeds all the
information students need to solve a particular mathematical problem;
students need not only mathematical skills but skills in identifying
evaluating, and using information to each their solutions. The series thus
provides a strong example of the ways in which information skills are
inherent in the contemporary curriculum and can be linked to
achievement in curricular areas (Marcoux and Nauman, 1996). This link
is underscored by the findings of a more recent study that suggests
supplementing the Jasper videos with a variety of contextual tools and
follow-up activities will help students apply their learning to new
situations (Baron and Others, 1995).
Positive results have also been reported for technology-based
science learning –for example, in a comparison between high school
biology students who used only a videodisc-based simulation of frog
dissection and those who performed a dissection but did not use the
videodisc. On a test of anatomical identification, there was no significant
difference between the two groups, suggesting that learning at least some
kinds of information by simulation can be as effective as learning it
through hand-on experience. Perhaps more importantly, a group of
students who used the simulation as preparation for an actual dissection
significantly outperformed those who did the dissection only, suggestion
once again the value of the library media specialist’s role in urging
teachers to incorporate instructional media carefully and appropriately
into their lessons Kinzie, Straus and Foss, 1993).
The report also describes positives learning effects of technology
for young children and for special needs students. Since effective
instruction for any population involves a number of interacting elements,
it is not surprising that research on these special populations looks at a
complex of factors rather than only at the comparative effects of
technology-based and traditional instruction. Much of the research in
these areas thus focuses on instruction that is supplemented with
computer experiences, and the result suggest the utility of technology-
based enrichment for these populations.
Similar results were discussed in the report’s review of four of the
more recent applications of technology to education:
telecommunications, videodisc, hypermedia and adaptive testing. While
the studies related to hypermedia and to adaptive testing did not address
issues of direct concern to library media specialists, several studies
related to telecommunications and interactive videodiscs are particularly
relevant because they suggest the relationship of information literacy to
student achievement. An evaluation of National Geographic’s Kids
Network, for example, indicated that fourth and fifth graders who had
engaged in telecommunication-based science activities made
significance gains in such skills as the use of graphs for organizing
observations, the interpretation of data, and the identification of map
locations (Weir, 1992). Results of several of the studies related to
interactive video-disc-and particularly one that investigated students’
abilities to extract relevant information for problem solving –also
underscore the link between information use and student achievement
(Grossen and Lee, 1994). As students engage more and more frequently
with these information-rich technologies, their abilities to identify,
evaluate, and use information will become increasingly important to
their achievement.
Among the most useful of the report’s findings for library media
specialists is a discussion of specific software design characteristics that
seem to make a different in the amount and quality of student learning.
While each of the six individual characteristics was gleaned from
comparatively few studies – the report itself covers a comparatively
short period- the group generally reinforces findings from years of
earlier research. Library media specialists, who play an important role in
selecting and evaluating new media products for learning. Will find the
list a helpful addition to our existing knowledge base.
In general, offering students some control over the amount,
review and sequence of instruction can result in higher achievement than
having the software control all instructional decisions. However, low-
achieving students and students with little prior content knowledge are
likely to require more structure and instructional guidance than other
students (Bialo and Sivin-Kachala, 1995).
Several studies demonstrated the importance of having learners
exercise some level of control over the pace and sequence of their
instruction. For examples, fifth and sixth graders who controlled the
amount of time they spent on each screen of an interactive video on
comets significantly outscored a comparison group who used the same
software but did not control its pace (Dalton, 1990) Similarly, high-
school students who used versions of basic geometry software that
allowed them to add or bypass example, practice, and review screens
demonstrated significantly greater achievement than students who used
versions of the same software that offered no such control (Hannafin and
Sullivan, 1995). Other studies suggest caution before exposing some
students to software that offers a high degree of learner control: While
high-achieving students seemed to profit from software that places few
restrictions on learner control, low-achieving students and those with
little prior knowledge of the content seemed to achieve great gains with
programs that included guidance and structure. (Shin and Schallert,
Savenye, 1994).
In tutorial and practice software, programs with feedback
providing knowledge of correct responses were found to be superior to
programs that require students to answer until they are correct (Clariana,
1990). Not surprisingly, several studies have shown the value of
software that guides students toward making correct answers rather than
research focused primarily on college and university students, the effect
has been demonstrated with younger learners as well: low-ability
eleventh grader who received knowledge-of-correct-response feedback
during social studies reading comprehension practice were significantly
more successful that students who had received only answer-until-
correct feedback (Bialo and Sivin-Kachala, 1995).
Software that includes embedded cognitive strategies provides
students with a learning advantage. Helpful cognitive strategies include
repetition and rehearsal of content, paraphrasing, outlining, cognitive
mapping or diagramming, drawing analogies and inferences, generating
illustrative examples, specific techniques for reading in the content
areas, and using pictorial information (Bialo and Sivin-Kachala, 1995).
Research on the effectiveness of embedded strategies is still
limited, although interest seems to be growing in the ways such
strategies can provided directly within software to encourage learning.
Two studies reviewed for this report examined the effects of embedded
strategies with high school students. In one study, tenth graders who
used an embedded-strategies version of a HyperCard biology stack
significantly outperformed a group that used a stack without such
strategies; the strategies that were embedded were similar to those noted
above, and the learning task involved insect identification (Barba and
Merchant, 1990). In the other study, learning diable high school students
used software in which thy had to choose a correct diagram in response
to a logic problem. The students who used a version of the software that
instructed then to generate a diagram before choosing the correct one
significantly outperformed students who used a version that did not
include this embedded strategies. Furthermore, the embedded-strategy
group also significantly outscored the others on more difficult logic tasks
(Grossen and Carnine, 1990).
 Animation and video can enhance learning when the skills or
concepts to be learned involve motion or action (Bialo and Sivin-
Kachala, 1995). Three studies addressed the contributions of animation
and video for students in the age range serve by library media specialists,
and all three suggest that these characteristic can enhance learning. In
one study, poor-reading second graders who used a program that
included animated objects without spoken labels recalled significantly
more of the objects’ names than did similar students who used a version
with labels but no animation (Calvert and Others, 1990). Fourth graders
who used an animated version of a program on Newton’s laws of motion
developed specifically for elementary students achieved at a
significantly higher level than did students who used a version with still-
frame graphics (Rieber, 1991).
Researchers who compared the effects of audio-only and
computer controlled multimedia on the story-comprehension abilities of
kindergarten students found that the students who had received the
multimedia version made significantly more summary and inference
statements and offered a wider variety of information than did the audio-
only group. These students (including some who were at-risk) were also
more likely to include the story’s key components-the beginning, the
problem, the attempt to resolve the problem, and the final resolution.
The researchers concluded that the video included in the multimedia
version helped students to form mental representations for stories and
suggested that such representations might help students develop their
general sense of story structure, an important pre-reading skill
(O’Banion and Others, 1993).
 Students using hypermedia software can benefit from an interface
that includes a graphical browser, or navigation map, that shows the
links among the various screens of information (Bialo and Sivin-
Kachala, 1995).
In general, then, recent research on the effects of technology on
student learning consistently demonstrates the value of technology in
enhancing achievement. It is important to note, however, that the studies
reviewed were limited both in number and in design: the report’s five-
year span covers only a brief period in the history of instructional
technology, and several of the studies tell us that “more is better”
because they evaluated technology-based approaches as additions to
other instruction rather than as substitutes for it. Nevertheless, this latest
cycle of research confirms the contribution of interactive media to
student learning and suggests a number of avenues for further
exploration of the nature and dimensions of this relationship.
The findings in the report also reinforce years of findings about
technology’s positive effects on students’ self-concepts and support the
potential of educational technology to improve students’ attitudes about
themselves and about learning.
Educational technology has been found to have positive effects on
student attitudes toward learning and on student self-concepts. Students
felt more successful in school, were more motivated to learn, and had
increased self-confidence and self-esteem when using computer-based
instruction. This was particularly true when the technology allowed
learners to control their own learning (Bialo and Sivin-Kachala, 1995).
Three studies provide evidence of the positive impact of
educational technology on students’ overall self-concepts. In one, CBI-
using urban elementary students expressed stronger feelings of school
success than peers in another school who did not use CBI (Rhyser,
1990). In another, fourth graders grew in self-esteem and self-confidence
when computers were placed in their homes and their school. (DeGraw,
1990). And in the third, high school mathematics students in a
classroom-instruction-plus-CBI group gained significantly more on a
measure of self-concept of academic ability than did their peers in a
classroom-only-instruction group (Reglin, 1989). These findings are
notable in light of what teachers and library media specialists have
observed for years: students who view themselves as successful learners
are more likely to enjoy school, to put forth their best efforts, and to
achieve even more learning success.
Research related to technology and student attitudes in specific
curriculum areas and with specific technologies reinforces these general
findings. For example, a number of studies in language arts suggest that
integrating computers into the curriculum can help improve student
attitudes toward writing and spelling practice; studies in mathematics,
science, and social science echo these positive findings (Anderson-
Imman, 1994). Similarly, studies involving telecommunications projects,
video-based technologies, and CD-ROM have documented positive
effects of technology on student attitudes (MAGI, Educational Services
Inc. 1992). Newbold’s CD.ROM study reflects what library media
specialists have seen over the past decade: sixth graders reported more
positive attitudes toward electronic encyclopedias than toward their print
counterparts, and those who had actually used a CD-ROM encyclopedia
were more positive toward writing and toward using the library
(Newbold, 1993).
 Individual studies within the group summarized above involved
elementary, middle, and high –school students and often focused on at-
risk groups (e.g., inner-city, rural, or learning-disabled students) for
whom issues of self-concept and positive motivation are especially
important. No research on learner control was reported with elementary
students, but studies with high school students suggest the importance of
this element to the development of positive attitude (Hannafin and
Sullivan, 1992).
Library media specialists are responsible for working with
teachers to evaluate and select much of the software that makes its way
into classrooms, and one of the most intriguing paragraphs in this section
of the report offers some guidance for the evaluation and selection
process. It discusses the wide variety of software types that can
positively affect students’ attitudes through the fundamental step of
helping students become more effective learners:
Well-designed tutorial and practice and “enhance” hyper-
textbooks can make challenging concepts and principles easier to
understand. For example, students’ who are visual learners can benefit
from still and motion graphics and video presentations included in
instructional software. Tool software-software that makes it possible to
accomplish a task more easily or effectively (e.g., a word processor or
spreadsheet package)- can foster creativity and curiosity and make the
task easier to accomplish. For instance, revising an essay on (a)
computer means working on just the parts the students wants to change
(rather than) rewriting the entire essay. Simulation software can offer
students highly interactive, intrinsically rewarding experience that
textbooks cannot provide. For example, technology can allow students to
role-play the president of United State, an 18th-century America pioneer,
or an international detective (Bialo and Sivin-Kachala, 1995).
Only a half-dozen studies reviewed for the report address the
effects of technology on student-student interactions, and these are too
scattered in specific focus to allow strong concluding generalizations.
Nevertheless, the report suggests several important insights related to
this dimension of technology and learning: Greater student cooperation
and sharing and helping behaviours occurred when students used
computer-based learning that had students complete against the
computer rather than against each other. Small-group collaboration on
computers in especially effective when students have received training in
the collaborative process (Bialo and Kachala, 1995).
In general, then, research on the contextual factors related to the
use of technology in schools is beginning to outline a number of factors
and interactions that contribute to effective technology-based learning
environment. Library media specialists have a great deal of experience
and expertise in creating and sustaining such environments, and these
insights from classroom-based research support the theory and research
emanating from the library media field.
Instructional technology researchers have sought document the
positive effects that technology can have on student learning. This
report, which is the latest in this long line of attempts, addresses the
effects of technology on student self-concept and attitudes about
learning, and on interactions involving teachers and students in the
learning environment.
Although the report focuses on classroom research and excludes
studies conducted in library media centers, it provides useful insights for
library media specialists and, indeed, for all school personnel who are
concerned about using technology to promote student learning. Among
is broader conclusions that offer such insights are the following.
Introducing technology into the learning environment has been
shown to make learning more student-centered, to encourage cooperative
learning, and to stimulate increased teacher/student by technology are
more evolutionary than revolutionary. These changes occur over a
period of years, as teachers become more experienced with technology.
Course for which computer-based networks were used student-teacher
interaction with lower-performing students, and did not decrease the
traditional forms of communication used. Many students who seldom
participants online (Bialo, and Kachala, 1995).
These conclusion suggest the complexities of teaching and
learning in the technology-rich environments that will be common in
education in the next century. They offer both challenges and
encouragement to educators who are committed to fostering learning-not
just keystroking and mouse clicking-within those environments.
The Challenges Posed By Information and Communication

Technologies in Schools

Today, the information and communication technologies afford

the exciting opportunity to begin questioning some of the basic

assumptions and the choices that were predicated on them and to re-open

discussions around the nature of learning, the content of learning and the

role of facilitators and places for learning. We must seek to use learning

systems to encourage reflection, creativity, expression, cooperation,

social responsibility, democratic values, and tolerance. Learning modes

will become a diversified mixture of self-instruction, group work and

tutoring. This process will be complicated and difficult, particularly as

there are many different audiences of learners to be targeted-students,

skilled workers, general public, pre-school, and primary level,

secondary, tertiary, etc.

The commercialization of education represents a critical

challenge. Trend analysts widely agree that “edutainment” and distance

learning are among the information products and services which will

develop the most rapidly in the next few years. But the home education

software market is now considerably bigger than the courseware market

for schools, due in large part to the higher development cost in the latter
market and the problem of teacher training (McKinsey & company

1996). This may continue to skew the industry towards “edutainment”

products. It is important that the market not be oriented only by industry;

educators should become involved in the courseware planning and

development process so as to benefit fully from the new opportunities.

Efforts will also have to be made so that the less profitable areas of

education are not ignored. The market must not overshadow the need for

sound instructional principles and clarity of learning goals.

Perhaps the major emerging challenge is that of content and of

creation of a stock of programmes which can be used locally, nationally

and internationally. But, apart from a few privileged sectors such as

language teaching, informatics training, and practical know-how (which

often remain at the margin of formal education systems), attempts at

transnational use have come up against many difficulties (language

differences; disparate pedagogical methods, diplomas and curricula;

legal problems concerning the copying and use of audiovisual

materials).

Developments in formation and communication technologies are

changing the nature of literacy and literacy instruction. However,

scholars have noted that many challenges exist to using technology for

literacy instruction in the future.

The question is not whether new developments in information is

how we will respond to it.

Leu and kinzer (2000) argue that current social and technological

changes will have a dramatic affect on our understanding of literacy in

the future. What it means to be “literate” will be different years from

now. The challenge is to train our children now to be prepared for these

new literacies of the future.

According to Leu and Kinzer (2000), several challenges face the

integration of literacy instruction and information and communication

technologies (ICT). The authors identified three broad challenges to

include: budgetary challenges, professional development challenges,

challenges to equal benefits from technologies and budgetary challenges

According to Leu and Kinzer (2000) never before have

educational systems had to wrestle with the kinds of expenses that they

will face in the future. For them, contrary to what many might think, the

cost of placing hardware into classrooms is not the major budgetary

obstacle. While some countries or districts may be limited by capital

investments in technology, the costs of sophisticated hardware are

dropping rapidly. The real challenges will come when trying to pay for

maintenance and supply costs. Monthly internet charges, telephone

charges, printer ink, paper, etc. all add up very quickly.

In developing nations trying to pay for such basic necessities as

food and medical care for their populations, investment in ICT may

simply be beyond their reach. However, the problem is not limited only

to poor nations. Even the U.S faces imposing infrastructure challenges.

For instance, a recent report indicated that the u.s. Would need to spend

$ 13 billion annually for technology related expenditures for K-12

schools.

Leu and Kinzer (2000) further noted that having a committed,

knowledgeable teacher pool is critical for training students in new

literacy and technologies. However, they opined that training the

teachers is itself an enormous challenge. They identified a number of

challenges that must be overcome if children are to be effectively

educated for future literacy. Firstly, monies must be allocated to train

teachers how to use technology for instruction. The U.S. Department of

Education recommends that 30% of schools’ technology budgets be

spent on staff development. Research indicates that districts are typically

spending only about 6% on staff development. Secondly, professional

development must be a continuous process. Information and

communication technologies are changing at an ever-increasing rate.

Teacher training in this area must be viewed as a continuous process.

Thirdly, College and university teacher training must change. Few

teacher education programs currently offer preparation for technology

use in the classroom. Those that do often; offer this as a separate course.

Because teachers do not use ICT for their own research, they are

unprepared to incorporate these technologies into their own classrooms.

Furthermore they opined that the nature of teacher authority must

change. Information and communication technologies put increasing

control in the hands of students. Teachers cannot control everything that

students may learn or access. Students may raise questions or issues

unanticipated by the teacher and for which the teacher has no prepared

answer. Many teachers may feel this as a threat to their authority. Leu

and Kinzer suggest that teachers must move from being the authoritarian

center of the classroom, to a participant/ facilitator for children’s self

directed education. They also noted that teachers should be trained using

the same methods with which they are to teach. It makes little sense to

call on teachers to use new technologies to train their students when the

teachers are trained using old-fashioned lecture-based instruction.

Teacher training should model the methods teachers are called upon to

use in their classrooms. According to them, teachers should have

many information and communication technology resources available

for their own professional development. Preliminary research suggests

that new technologies can be effective in staff development. Again,

using only print resources to train teachers in digital technologies just

does not make sense.

Leu and Kinzer (2000) also noted the challenges to equal benefits

from new technologies. They observed that new information and

communication technologies have the capacity to benefit all humans.

However, these benefits are not automatic. Indeed, these new

technologies raise new problems as well. Leu and Kinzer further

observed that children have access to all kinds of inappropriate materials

thanks to ICT. The further said that while protecting children by limiting

their access may have some clear benefits, it raises issues of teacher

power and freedom of speech that must be addressed. According to

them, advances in computer technology make it possible for third parties

to monitor the web use patterns of individual users. For instance, Intel’s

Penitium III chip transmits its unique serial number across the internet.
This has energized some critics to call for a slow down on computer

implementation in our schools and even in society in general.

Leu and Kinzer (2000) noted that computer technologies have the

capacity to make all human’s lives better. However, because of social

and economic inequalities both among and within nations, the benefits of

ICT accrue to some advantaged groups and not others. The problem here

is not a matter of technology, but a problem of power.

In the past, linguistic and cultural dominance was exercised by the

nations who wielded military or economic power. Leu and Kinzer stated

that in the future, nations that possess superior information and

communication resources may be able to “set the stage” on which the

rest of the world must play. Leu and Kinzer worry that this will have the

effect of limiting the cultural and linguistic diversity (and richness) that

the internet stands to provide. They ask, for instance, whether English

will be the only language of international communication, or whether the

internet will become a vehicle for the dominance of U.S. pop culture.

“One hopes not,” they add.

The difficulty schools experience in meeting the technical

demands of having technology in the classroom is made apparent

hardware breakdown. As these machines are fairly fragile and may

malfunction if not handled properly, it is not surprising that 87% of the

schools have had problems with their hardware at least once or twice

within a one-year period. Thirteen percent have had hardware problems

more than once every two months. A few schools (13.3%), however,

have managed their ICT equipment well and have never experienced

problems with their hardware.

Getting broken computers repaired is, in turn, not a simple matter

for many of the schools. When asked to recall the last time a computer in

their school broke down and to estimate the amount of time it took for

the computer to be repaired, respondents in 425 of the schools said that it

took a month or more. Nineteen percent claimed that the computer has

never been repaired. On the other extreme, respondents in 30% of the

schools report that the computer was repaired within a week.

The two most common problems encountered by schools when

computers or any hardware break down is first, the lack of funds to pay

for the repairs and second, the absence of anyone in or near the school

who has the know-how to diagnose and fix the problem.

In the absence of computer a technician employed in the school,

especially if the school is in a relatively remote area and/or has limited

funds, technical support will be a key issue in sustaining ICT use in the
classroom. One stark example is the case of two rural schools located far

from the city that found out soon after the delivery of the computers

under the DECS computerization program in 1998 in one school and

in 1999 in the other that a number of the units were not working

properly. These computers were never replaced or repaired.

Related empirical studies

Several studies have been conducted that addressed relationships

between selected demographic variables and computer use. One such

study was Zidon and Miller (1990) who found that weak relationships

existed between demographic variables, such as age, gender, and years

of teaching, with perceptions of computer use. The study cited is related

the present study, which seeks to determine the status and to information

and communication technologies in polytechnics based on demographic

issues such as ownership of institutions namely states and federally

owned institutions.

Conversely, in a study of teachers perceptions of the need for

computers, Princeton research associates, Inc. (1993) addressed

technology in the classroom for the National Education association, and

found that almost two-thirds (595) of teachers under 35 years of age

believed computers in the classroom were essential while only 29% of

teachers over age 55 shared this belief. Furthermore, half of the teachers

in low technology schools had home computers. The report concluded

that many teachers lack access to technologies they believe to be

essential resource. This study has some relationship with the present

study in the sense that both are interested in the studying the perception

of teachers regarding the use of information and communication

technologies.

In a related study, Martin & Lundstrom (1988) found that having a

computer in the home and having taken computer coursework

contributed to home economics teachers’ attitudes toward computers.

This study has some link with the present study, which also seeks to

determine the benefits of utilizing information and communication

technologies in teaching and learning. Several studies have addressed

factors related to the use of information technology by vocational

teachers. McCaslin and Torres (1992) found three factors that accounted

for 54% of the variance in vocational teachers attitude toward using

microcomputers in-service training, namely, their educational value,

confidence in their use, and apprehension about their use. The above

study discussed some of the challenges resulting from the utilization of

information and communication technologies. This is also an important

area, which the present study is trying to address.

Two studies (Kotrlik and Smith, 1989; Fletcher and Deeds, 1994)

supported apprehension of using computers thorough measures of

computer anxiety. Both studies reported that younger teachers were

more likely to have higher levels of computer literacy and computer

anxiety decreased as computer literacy increased. The present study is

geared toward highlighting some issues, which militate against the

effective use of information and communication technologies in the

learning and teaching situation.

Birkenholz, Stewart and craven (1989) studies the extent to which

instructional technology had been adopted in secondary programs of

agricultural education. The study documented the rapid increase in the

use of technology in agricultural education and found that teachers

supported the development of technological advances for use in their

curriculum. The present study is related to the above study because it is

aimed at determining the status of information and communication

technologies, though not in secondary Secondary schools, but in

polytechnics.
 Gonzenbach and Davis (1999) stated that, “not only are new

products and technologies constantly developing and changing, their

impact is reshaping methods and materials used for classroom

instruments”. The study cited here is related to the present study since it

tried to identify the usefulness of information and communication

technologies in enhancing classroom instrument through applications of

appropriate methods and materials.

In summary, the review of research has shown that information

technology is generally considered to be essential by business, industry,

and education. A need for student to possess information technology

competence to enter into, and succeed in, the global market place has

been shown (Gonzenbach & Davis, 1999). Avenues of instructional

methods and delivery have been established. Support for these is

embedded in several key learning theories, namely, the cognitive

Flexibility Theory, Symbol Systems Theory, and conversation theory.

The need exists for instructional leaders to possess information

technology knowledge and skill so they can link learning in the

classroom to the workforce. These studies focused on the information

technology skills, knowledge and perceptions of vocational teachers, and

their use of this technology in the transfer of learning. They are therefore

greatly considered to the focus of the present study.

Summary of Related literature

The review of literature comprised of in depth meaning of

the terms information and communication technologies which formed

the basis for this study.

First, the theoretical framework has expounded that in the

preparation of instructional leaders, including teachers, training should

incorporate competencies ion software knowledge versus system-

specific skill. Furthermore, it was theorized that using computers and

computer based learned systems in education is viewed as a major

contributor to increased learning. Learning theories are considered

especially relevant t to the of information technology in learning.

Second, the literature review has explored the status and

utilization of information. The authors agreed that changing the design

of the ICT tool to fit the learning environment though an expensive and

time consuming enterprise will certainly improve learning. Moreover,

within the same learning environment, the learning needs of students

may differ and the opportunities of the ICT tool may not be taken up.

Although the opportunities and limitations of ICT have been discussed,

the emphasis of the discussion has been on the learning and teaching

activities in introductory economics that support and are supported by

ICT.

Again, the review showed that the integration of information and

Communication Technologies as teaching material in university have

tended to establish a more or less explicit relation between resorting to

interactive environments and a constructivist epistemological stance.

The reviewed further showed that teaching and learning activities

have to be organized to take up the opportunities, benefits and

limitations of ICT. The activities planned and organized have to ensure:

the continuity between ICT and non-lessons, the employment of ICT and

non-ICT tools to provide mutual support for one another, and the

interactions between the tools and course participants. With a better

knowledge of how these activities may be organized, teachers are more

likely to take up the opportunities provided by ICT to ensure effective

teaching and learning.

Furthermore, reviewed literature showed that the feedback

afforded by ICT packages is usually provided continuously (rather than

just at the end of the module), reinforcing the positives (rather than

emphasizing the negatives). And focusing feedback on how performance

can be improved in the future (rather than dwelling on the past). Such

feedback deals explicitly with any misconceptions that the students have

and many help in self-correction. When feedback is delivered as soon as

possible after the act that initiated it, it can become a very powerful

reinforce: that is, it is possible to change behaviour quickly and to

maintain it in strength for long periods of time.

Again, more effective feedback also allows for a context of

exploration, where initial investigation of the problem helps in

developing one’s thinking about the solution, where ‘it is all right to be

wrong’; in fact, where being wrong to begin with is an important t step

on the way to knowledge. If students can acknowledge that ‘it is all right

to be wrong’; then they are more likely to claim authorship of

knowledge. They are more likely to hold their knowledge claims

contingently; they are more likely to think that others’ knowledge claims

may not be the final; and perhaps, they are more likely to look behind

what is usually taken for granted. ICT opens up possibilities for

conjecturing and taking risk; it opens up the possibility of a different

(more emanicipatory) relations that are in use in the schools are

predominantly “office software” or “productivity tools”, i.e., word

processing, spreadsheets, database management, etc, while there is

relatively less variety in the available software in terms of the different

types of curricular and pedagogical tools (e.g., simulations, drill and

practice, tutorials, etc.).

The research works so far reviewed were carried out in the

advanced countries and mostly at the university level. Not much has

been done in Nigeria school setting and more so at the polytechnic level.

This study is, therefore, an attempt to fill this gap.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter deals with a description of the methods and

procedures adopted in carrying out this study. The methodology will be

presented under the following headings; the research design, area of

study, population of the study, instrument for data collection, validation

of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, questionnaire distribution

and retrieval, procedure for data analysis, technique for the scoring of

questionnaire items and hypotheses testing.

Research Design

The research considered survey design as the most appropriate

design because according to best, (1984), Osuala, (1982), it is directed

towards people, their opinions, attitudes and behaviours, this study is

aimed at gathering the opinions of Secretarial studies teachers in

polytechnics in the south-Eastern States of Nigeria, hence the

appropriateness of survey design.

Area of study

The area covered by the present study will include the five State

owned and federally owned polytechnics located in the five South

Eastern State of Abia, Anambra, Enugu, Ebonyi and Imo.

Population of the Study

The population of this study was made of 67 Secretarial studies

teachers from the five polytechnics under study. There are three federal

polychnices and two state Polytechnics as shown in Table I. No sample

was taken from the population since the number was considered not too

large to be wholly included in the study.

Table 1

Distribution of the population according to polytechnics

S/No Name of institution population

1 Federal Polytechnic, Oko 15
2 Federal Polytechnic, Nekede-owErri 16
3 Federal Polytechnic,Uwana-Afikpo 14
4 Abia State Polytechnic,Aba 10
5 Institute of Management & Technology, Enugu 12
Total 67
Source: personnel department of the respective institutions

Description of the instrument used

The instrument Used for data collection for this study is a

questionnaire developed with appropriate guidance of the supervisor.

The instrument consists of five sections. Items in the instrument were

structured such that the respondents would express their opinions

utilizing a five-point Likert type scale (Orlich et al, 1975). These items

will be grouped into clusters to facilitate analysis.

Section one: Demographic data

This section of the instrument sought information on the

demographic back of the respondents. This included information on the

name of institution and ownership of institution.

Section two Items on the availability of information and

Communication technologies in the polytechnics

Section there contained items designed to out the benefits of

information and communication technologies in the state and federally

owned polytechnics under study.

Section four Items on the utilization of information and

Communication technologies in the polytechnics

Section four contained items designed to out the benefits of

information and communication technologies in the state and federally

owned polytechnics under study.

Section Five Items on the challenges posed by information and

Communication technologies in the polytechnics

Section five contained items designed to identity the challenges

posed by information and communication technologies in the state and

federally owned polytechnics under study.

Validity of the Instrument

The face validity of the instrument t was established through the

utilization of a panel of four experts (the Supervisor inclusive) from the

Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, and

Nsukka. The panel ensured the instrument reflected the various parts of

the content domain in appropriate proportion.

Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability correlation value for the instrument was obtained

through the statistical application of Cronbach’s homogeneity coefficient

alpha. Van den Bergh (1987:43) suggested, “…an alpha value of at least

more than 0.60 indicated a good reliablility of scale”. An alpha-value of

at least 0.60 was the target number set as a goal for the acceptance of

instrument.

Through the study, it was found that an overall alpha value was

0.85. Therefore, the reliability of the instrument was acceptable for use

as as instrument to measure the status and utilization of information and

communication technologies in polytechnics.

Questionnaire Distribution and Retrieval

The copies of the questionnaire were administered by the

researcher through the assistance of professional colleagues/friends in

the various institutions

Table 2

Number of questionnaire actually retrieved

S/No Name of Institution Number Number

Percentage
 Distributed Retrieved Return

1 Federal Polytechnic,Oko 15 11 73%

2 Federal Polytechnic, Nekede- 16 9 56%
Owerri
3 FederalPolytechnic,Uwana- 14 12 85%
Afikpo
4 Abia State Polytechnic, Aba 10 4 40%
5 Institution of Management & 12 9 75%
Technology, Enugu
Total 67 45 67%

Technique for Data Analysis

Data collected by the use of survey Instrument was analyzed using

descriptive statistics. S specifically, Mean was used to answer research

questions 1 – 4. For each research question, the responses related to it

were tallied and weighted. The total weighted frequencies were used to

calculate the mean scores for each item, using the mean statistical

formula below.

Mean (x) = fx

Where f = frequency

X = point scale

N = total respondents
Securing Of Questionnaire

The five-point Likert type rating scale was used to rate the

respondents to the items on the questionnaire. Weights were assigned to

the scale as follows:

Research

Question Responses Weights Key

1. Very Much Available 5 VMA

Very Available 4 VA

Available 3 A

Somewhat Available 2 SA

Not Available 1 NA

2. Very Highly Agreed 5 VHA

Highly Agreed 4 HA

Agreed 3 A

Not Quite Agreed 2 NQA

Not Agreed 1 NA

3. Very Highly 5 VHA

Highly Utilized 4 HU

Utilized 3 U

Somewhat Utilized 2 SU
 Not Utilized 1 NU

4. Very Highly Challenging 5 VHC

Highly Challenging 4 HC

Challenging 3 C

Not Quite Challenging 2 NQC

Not Challenging 1 NC

Decision Rule

A questionnaire item with a mean score > 3.0 was considered

acceptable while an item with a mean score < 3.0 was considered not

acceptable

Hypotheses Testing

In testing the null hypotheses, the mean of the rating (x) on each

statement variable was used as the raw score to facilitate the t-test

computation. For purpose of testing the hypotheses, the responses from

the Federally and State owned polytechnics were separated and

compared against each other. Paired samples t-test was used to test for

significant difference in the perception of Secretarial studies teachers in

relation to their response because it is mathematically equivalent to the

analysis of variance when the number of groups equals 2 (Glass and

Hopkins, 1984:234).
 Using the means of the paired observations as raw scores, that t-

test value was found using Computer Analysis Tool known as Analyze-

it.

Decision Rule

If t-test value calculated is less than the t-critical value at 0.05

level of significance, the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that the

difference is not significant and that the apparent difference in the mean

rating of the Secretarial studies teachers in the state and federally owned

polytechnics can be well attributed to sampling error. If however, the

calculated t-value is greater than the t-critical value, the null hypothesis

is rejected.
 CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSOIS OF DATA

This chapter presents and analyzes the data collected by the use of

survey questionnaire. There were four research questions and two much

hypothesis the hypothesis were all tested in the process of analysis.

Only the statistical tools of mean value and T-test described in chapter

III were used.

To answer each of the four research questions, the mean rating of the

responses to each questionnaire item was calculated as fully shown in

Appendices

Research question 1

What is the extent of availability of information and communication

technologies in polytechnics?

In answering this question, the respondents were required to rate

item 1-13 according to the extent such ICT are available in their

institutions

Table 3

Mean score of teacher in response to availability of ICT are

available in their institution

S/N Statements x Decision Percentage
1 word processing 3.44
software for
production of
letters, memos etc
2 Spreadsheet 3.00
Software for
Solving some
Mathematical and
Graphical
problems Available 15%
3 Computer 2.73 Not
Peripherals such Available
As scanners, CD
Writers, printers,
Cameras, plotters etc.
4 Complete 2.58
Multimedia
Computer systems
5 Database 2.56
management
software for
aiding important
management
decisions
6 Power point 2.47
Software for
Making
Conference and
Workshop
presentations
7 Internet browser 2.40
for sourcing
information
8 E-mail software 2.37
for
communicating
with peers and
colleagues
9 Multimedia 2.33
computer
projectors for
making
presentations
10 Recreational 2.33
games and
software for
cooling off when
anxiety mounts in
the course of
learning
11 Devives of 2.20
digital imaging
and video
processing

12 Tutorials software 2.13

in different
courses

13 Desktop 2.08
publishing
software for
composing and
typesetting

85%
Table 3 revealed that Secretarial studies teachers felt that there are

insufficient information and communication technologies in the

polytechnics. One two (15%) of the items had mean score > 3.0. The

other items representing 85% were insufficiently available.

Research Question 2

What are the perceived benefits of information and

communication technologies to teaching and learning in the

polytechnics?

In answering this question, the respondents were required to rate

items 14-31 according to their perceived benefits of ICT to teaching and

learning based on the extend they agree with the statements.

Table 4

Mean scores of teachers on perceived benefits of information and

communication technologies to teaching and learning in polytechnics

S/N Statements x Decision percentag

e
1 ICT increases teacher 4.67 Agree 100%
effectiveness through
visualization and
animation
2 ICT is very useful of ICT 4.62
tutorial packages
3 With E-mail and Internet,
Teachers and students can
communication
and
collaborate with peers
and colleagues

4 Using computers and 4.55

Computer-based learning
System can contribute to
learning

5 The feedback afford by 4.40

ICT provides positive
reinforcement and
focuses feedback on how
performances can be
improved in the future.
6 Connectivity adds great 4.29
value to a school’s
computer resources
7 The increase in time and 4.28
access to information
guarantees learning
8 Demonstration which 4.26
ICT provides through
graphical animation
makes students to see
connection between
concepts
9 ICT encourages 4.24
teaching-learning
interaction
10 ICT aids programmed 4.24
instruction and feedback
gained strengthens the
learning by students
11 ICt allows student to 4.24
share and comment upon
each other’s work which
encourage
communication and
collaboration
12 Use of ICT packages 4.22
encourages more student
dialogue than traditional
classroom
13 Visualization and 4.20
animation help student
to develop analytical and
critical thinking.
14 ICT helps the teacher in 4.16
the assessment of
students performance

15 ICT packages provides 4.07

students with learner
autonomy that is crucial
in the learning process
16 ICT reduces anxiety in 4.02
the students by providing
entertainment in the
course of learning.
17 ICT helps students 3.80
to
access their performance
in class assignment
18 ICT gives students the 3.69
opportunity to determine
when instruction will
occur and at what peace
Table 4 shows that all Secretarial Studies Teachers (100%) perceived

that ICT was of immense benefit to teaching and learning in

polytechnics.
Research Question 3

To what extent are information and communication technologies

utilized in the polytechnics?

In answering this question, the respondents were required to rate

items 32-44 according to the extent these ICT are utilized in the

institution.

Tables 5

Responses according to the extent these ICT are utilized in the

institution.

S/N statements x Decision Percentage

1 Word processing 3.22
software for production
of letters, memos etc Utilized 80%
2 Spreadsheet software for 2.66
solving
some
Mathematical
and
graphical problems
3 Desktop publishing 2.66
software for composing
and typesetting
4 Database management 2.36
software for aiding
important management
decisions
5 Computer peripherals 2.33
such as scanners, CD
Writers, printers,
Not
Utilized
6 Internet browser for 2.33
Sourcing
information
7 Tutorials software in 2.20
Different courses
8 PowerPoint software for 2.18
Making conference
and
Workshop presentations
9 Complete multimedia 2.04
Computer systems

10 Multimedia computer 1.98

Projectors for making
presentations

11 Recreational games and 1.89

Software for cooling off
When anxiety mounts
is
The course of learning
12 Devices for digital 1.87
Imaging and video
processing
13 E-mail software for
Communicating with 92%
Peers and colleagues
Table 5 shows that almost all Secretarial Studies Teacher agreed that

ICT is not utilized in polytechnics.

Research Question 4

What are the challenges posed by information and communication

technologies to Secretarial studies teachers in polytechnics?

 In answering this question, the respondents were required to rate

items 45-55 according to the challenges ICT posed to Secretarial studies

Teachers.

Table 6

Responses according to the challenges ICT posed to Secretarial

studies Teachers.

S/N Statements x Decisio

n
1 Cost of acquisition of ICT equipment and 4.24
accessories
2 Cost of maintenance of ICT equipment 4.11
3 Using the computer multimedia projectors 3.93
to make presentation during teaching
4 Cost of training staff in the use of ICT 3.91
equipment
5 Plans for software acquisition 3.87

6 Cost of hardware replacement or 3.80

upgrade
7 Equity of access time to equipment 3.69
available
8 Sending, searching for and using 3.64
electronic forms of information
9 Making illustrations with graphical 3.62
programs
10 Using ICT to assess the performance of 3.62
students
11 Writing simple programs 3.49
12 Communicating via e-mail with teachers 3.47
and other students

13 Operating a computer (saving files, 3.42

printing, keyboarding)

14 Writing documents with a Word 3.42

processor (typing, editing, layout)

Table 6 shows that information and communication technologies pose

serious challenges to Secretarial studies Teachers since rating on all the

item statements recorded a mean score > 3.0.

Test of hypotheses

The two null hypotheses formulated at the beginning of the study

to validate the answers to the research questions were tested here. In

testing the null hypotheses, the mean of the rating (x) on each item or

statement in the questionnaire base on ownership of institution

(Federal/State) were used as the raw score to facilitate the t-test

computer analysis.

Null hypothesis 1 (Ho1 )

There is no significant statistical difference between the status of

Information and Communication Technologies in the State and Federal

Polytechnics. (p <. 05)

 The data required for carried out the t-test was readily provide in

Appendix 9

Following the computer analysis carried out (see Appendix 10), in

testing the null hypothesis the following result was arrived at:

Observe t-value = .43

Critical tab t (95t12) = 1.782

Decision:

Null hypothesis is accepted since calculated t-value (.43) < Critical tab t

(95t 12) = 1.7821

Null Hypothesis 2 (Ho2 )

There is no significant statistical difference in the utilization of

Information and communication technologies in the State and

Federal Polytechnics. (p <. 05)

Following the computer analysis carried out (See Appendix 13), in

testing the null hypothesis the following result was arrived at:

Observed t-value = 0.08

Critical tab t (95t12) = 1.782

Decision:
Null hypothesis is accepted since calculated t-value (.43) < Critical tab t

(95t12) = 1.782

FINDINGS

The following findings were made in the study:

1. It was found that except for word processing and spreadsheet

packages which were available in some polytechnics, computers

and computer peripherals such as printers, scanners, and cameras

plotters e.t.c. were not available, resulting to low status of ICT in

the polytechnics.

2. It was found that the cost of acquisition and maintenance of

ICT equipment and accessories posed a serious challenges to

Secretarial studies teachers

3. It was found that using computers and computer-based learning

system could contribute positively to learning and teaching because

the feedback afforded by ICT provides positive reinforcement and

focuses feedback on how performances could be improved in the

future.

4. It was further found that ICT allows students to share an d

comment upon each other’s work which encourages communication

and collaboration.
5. It was found that ICT increases teacher effectiveness through

visualization and animation.

6. It was also found that teachers were not utilizing tutorial

software in teaching different course.

7. It was also found that teachers were not using Internet

browsing for sourcing information.

8. It was found that only Word processing and spreadsheet

software were available in sufficient quantities

9. The study showed overwhelming evidence that ICT was of

immense benefits to teaching in polytechnics.

10. It was found that ICT were not sufficiently utilized in the

polytechnics

11. It was found that ICT posed very serious challenges to

Secretarial Studies Teachers in the polytechnics. Such challenges

include: budgetary and training challenges.

12. It was found that H01 formulated and tested in the study was

accepted indicating that there is no significant difference as a

result of ownership of institution regarding the status of ICT in the

polytechnics in the South Eastern States.

 13.It was found that Ho2 formulated and tested in the study was

accepted indicating that there is no significant difference as a

result of ownership of institution regarding the utilization of ICT

in the polytechnics in the South Eastern States.

DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS

Status of information and communication technologies in the

polytechnics

This study found that information and communication

technologies were not available in sufficient qualities in polytechnics.

This means that status of ICT is very low. This findings agrees with

Thornburg (1999) who found only two of the 100 schools surveyed had

computers in use whether for administrative or educational purposes.

The study who found that only word processing and spreadsheet

software were available n reasonable quantities. This supports the

findings of Thornburg (1999) that the types of application that are in use

in schools are predominantly “office software” or productivity tools such

as word processing, spreadsheet, etc. He noted that there is relatively

less variety in the available software in terms of the different types of

curricular and pedagogical tools such as tutorials, simulations, drills etc.

 Benefit of information and communication technologies in the

polytechnics

The study further found that learning and teaching benefit

immensely from the use of ICT. This finding supported the earlier

findings in Cullimore et al 1996, Brooks bank et al 1998 and Lim, 1998

who argued that ICT packages provide students with learner autonomy

that is crucial to the learning process. Supporting the findings in this

study, also are Scheragea, 1986, Smith and Smith 1989, Katz, 1999 and

Lage et al 2000 who found that ICT empowers students and allows them

access to various disciplines. The findings of this study further supported

Chon, 1993 and Taylor, 1996 who found that ICT helps student to make

judgment about their progress and monitor their own learning needs.

Some of the benefits according to earlier research findings include

helping students to comprehend difficult to understand concepts, helping

students to engage in learning, providing students and helping student to

better meet individual needs (National Education Association, 2003)

Utilization of information and communication technologies in the

Polytechnics.

While the study found ICT useful or beneficial to learning and

teaching, it was however found that the level of utilization of ICT was
very low. The result of the study showed sufficient utilization of ICT for
production of letters. This is only one out of the 13 uses of ICT
identified for this study. This findings does not deviate so much from
earlier researches. For instance Thornburg (1999) found that only 13 out
of 100 respondent schools could access the internet even when he
observed that connectivity adds great value to a schools’ computer
resources. Given this limitation, Thornburg (1999) further disclosed it
was not surprising that 75% of the schools claimed that not more than
10% of their teachers are actually able to use the internet for teaching
related activities.
Challenges of information and communication technologies in the

Polytechnics

This study has revealed that ICT poses of lot of challenges to

secretarial studies teachers. Such challenges mainly are in the areas of

funding, personnel training, and maintenance of equipment. This finding

supported the earlier of Len and Kinzer (2000) who identified three

board challenges to include budgetary challengers, professional

development challenges and challenges to equal benefits from new

technologies.
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Restatement of the Problem

Business teachers are expected to integrate technology in the

teaching/learning process; they must use technology so that it supports

instruction and enables learners to use technology as an important tool to

meet their information and learning needs. The need for teacher training

is echoed throughout the literature, addressing computer use in

vocational education. According to a series of studies, lack of expertise

in using the computer was a major barrier to using the microcomputer

and related equipment.

The issue of status and utilization of information and

communication polytechnics in Nigeria has been a source of debate. This

study examined the status and utilization of information and

communication technologies to teaching and learning in polytechnics in

South Eastern State of Nigeria. To do so effectively, this study (1)

determined the extent of availability of information and communication

technologies in the polytechnics. (2) determined the perceived benefits

of information and communication technologies in the polytechnics (3)

determined the extent of utilization of information and communication

technologies in polytechnics (4) determined the challenges posed by

information and communication technologies to Secretarial Studies

teachers in the polytechnics, and (5) examined if there is any significant

difference in the status and utilization of information and

communication technologies in the polytechnics.

Summary of Procedure Used

The instrument used for data collection in the study was structured

questionnaire. The questionnaire items were designed to answer four

research questions. The questionnaires were administered personally and

through friends in the polytechnics used. The questionnaire was

administered to 67 secretarial studies teachers. Forty-five of the number

representing (65%) completed and returned their questionnaires. The

data obtained were analyzed using mean scores and percentages and

frequency tables. The mean scores were used as scores for the purpose of

testing hypothesis. The t-test values were found through computer

analysis for paired observations. The report generated through the

computer analysis was also presented in the appendix.

Summary of findings

The following findings were made in the study:

1. It was found that except for word processing and spreadsheet

packages, which were available in some polytechnics, computers

and computer peripherals such as printers, scanners, cameras and

plotters, were not available, resulting to low status of ICT in the

polytechnics.

2. It was found that the cost of acquisition and maintenance of ICT

equipment and accessories posed serious challenges to the

Secretarial studies teachers

3. It was found that using computers and computer-based learning

system could contribute positively to learning and teaching

because the feedback afforded by ICT provides positive

reinforcement and focuses feedback on how performances could

be improved in the future.

4. Furthermore it was further found that ICT allows students

to share and comment upon each other’s work, which encourages

communication and collaboration.

5. The study showed overwhelming evidence that ICT was of

immense benefits to teaching and learning in polytechnics.

6. It was found that ICT posed very serious challenges to

Secretarial Studies Teachers in the polytechnics. Such challenges

include: budgetary and training challenges.

7. It was found that H01 formulated and tested in the study was

accepted indicating that there is no significant difference as a

result of ownership of institution regarding the status of ICT in the

polytechnics in the South Eastern States.

8. It was found that H02 formulated and tested in the study

was accepted indicating that there is no significant difference as a

result of ownership of institution regarding the utilization of ICT

in the polytechnics in the South Eastern States.

Implications Of The Study

This study has implications for the administration of polytechnic

education in Nigeria, to the teacher training institutions, the National

Board for Technical Education and to the students.

The implication to Teacher Training Institution is quite obvious.

Training of teachers should be geared market and social demands. It is

accepted that no curricular no matter how well planned, organized and

implemented can be better than the quality of its teachers. The hallmark

of any educational system is in the quality teachers. Therefore the

university responsible for teachers must trace up for the task of teacher

training by providing the necessary ICT became the teachers cannot give

what they do not process.

The leadership of the polytechnics must embrace in massive staff

development programme in computer training to further equip the

teachers on the effective application of ICT for instructional purposes.

There are several alternative strategies for achieving them. In-home

computer training could be organized whereby expects are invited to

tutor lecturers on several computer application. Alternatively in-service

training could be organized whereby staffs attend short courses outside

the polytechnic were they are exposed to various computer techniques.

The findings of the study have revealed a very black future for the

teachers who lack computer knowledge. They may soon lose relevance

since their knowledge and skill is soon becoming obsolete. To avert the

imminent danger the teachers themselves should undertake self-

improvement courses at their expense if they must remain relevant in the

global economy.

This study revealed that most polytechnics lack adequate

infrastructure in information and communication technologies. Where

such facilities existed, they are grossly inadequate thereby making it

inaccessible to the teeming population found in polytechnic. The

findings of this study have therefore revealed black future for graduates

of the polytechnics because the ill-equipped graduate will not be able to

fit into the labour market with its preponderance of computer

applications.

The findings that there are inadequate ICT have serious

implication for NBTE as the financier of polytechnic programmes.

Firstly, the findings revealed inadequate funding. There is an urgent

need for NBTE to re-address the issue of funding to enable the

polytechnics acquire the much need ICT infrastructure.

Furthermore, the NBTE as the curricular makers for training of

secretaries should consider the review of secretarial curricular to

emphasize and built in more computer programmes such as Internet

browsing and other application packages such as PageMaker, Microsoft

Excel and Database Management system which is very important in the

office.

Two null hypotheses tested in this study revealed no significant

differences in the mean responses of secretarial studies teachers due to

ownership of institution. One would have expected the situation of ICT

to be better in Federal Polytechnics than in state Polytechnics. This

confirms the institution that Federal Institution is not better funded. Both

Federal and State are therefore advised to increase funding to

Polytechnics if the highly canvassed technological advancement of this

nation must be realized.

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were

made.

Secretarial Studies teachers are unanimous in saying that the

status of ICT is low in polytechnics. This portends danger for the growth

of secretarial profession and training.

There is a general agreement that ICT are not utilized in teaching

and learning. This is a dangerous development for sound training of

secretaries and development of the secretarial profession.

Secretarial studies teachers agreed entirely on the challenges

posed by ICT. They identified budgetary as well as professional

development challenges.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and conclusions drawn, the

following recommendations were made:

1. The National Board for Technical Education should as a matter of

urgent provide ICT infrastructure to polytechnics in the south

Eastern state.

2. The NBTE should constantly review the curriculum of Secretarial

Studies to include in addition to word processing, such other

packages as PageMaker for Desktop publishing, spreadsheet,

Database.

3. The teacher training institutions should include in their

programmes such computer applications as Internet Browsing for

research purpose, PowerPoint for teaching presentation and SPSS

for research analysis.

4. The administration of polytechnics should spend more budgetary

allocation to the acquisition ICT infrastructure to better equip the

teachers and students.

5. Given the present low status of ICT in polytechnics, the

administration of polytechnic should encourage private sector

funding of polytechnic education by appealing to industries that

are the direct beneficiaries of polytechnic education to make

donations to the polytechnics.

6. The Nigerian Association of Business Education (NABE) as its

contribution to professional development should organize regular

enrichment courses for members. This is done by similar

organization such as the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria

(STAN).

Suggestions for further study

1. Similar studies are recommended for the universities and colleges

of education as a means to determine aggregate statue and

utilization of ICT in tertiary education system in Nigeria.

2. A study should be carried out to determine the cost implication

of ICT in each of the polytechnic under investigation.

3. With the emergence of private Polytechnics, it is also

recommended that similar studies be carried out with a view to

comparing the status and utilization of ICT in public education

system and private education system.

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the central Region Annual Research Conference (44th). Chicago,
IL ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED319903.
 APPENDIX 1

REQUEST FOR RESEARCH DATA FROM SECRETARIAL

STUDIES IN THE FIVE POLYTECHNICS IN SOUTH-EAST
STATES OF NIGERIA

Department of Vocational Teachers Education

University of Nigeria,
Nsukka
Date:
Sir,

Request to complete questionnaire items for research purpose

I am a PG student of the Department of Vocational Teacher
Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka. I am presently doing my
project work on secretarial studies Teachers Perceptions of the status and
utilization of information and communication Technologies (ICTs) in
Secretarial Studies in Polytechnics in the South-Eastern States of
Nigeria.
This study requires some vital information from you to enable me
reach some vital decisions.
I will therefore be highly grateful if you would avail me some
information, which will be helpful to me in this regard. The information
supplied will be treated with the strictest confidence and will be used for
academic purpose only.
Thank you

Yours faithfully,

Maureen Orie Azuka (Mrs.)

 APPENDIX 2
QUESTIONNAIRE

Section 1 Demographic Data

(a) Name of Institution :…………………………………

(b) Ownership State Federal

Section 2 Perception of Secretarial studies teachers on the availability

of information and communication Technologies in the
Polytechnics.

The following items are designed to determine the availability of

information and communication Technologies in polytechnics. Rate the
following statements by marking (√) in the appropriate column
according to level of availability.

Key: VMA Very Much Available

VA Very Available
A Available
SWA Somewhat Available
NA Not Available
S/N Statement VMA VA A SWA NA
1 Completer multimedia Computer
Systems
2 Multimedia computer projectors
for making presentations
3. Computer peripherals such as
scanners, CD writers, printers,
cameras, plotters etc.
4. Word processing software for
production of letters, memos etc.
5. Spreadsheet software for solving
some mathematical and graphical
problems
 6. PowerPoint software for making
conference and workshop
presentations
7. Database management software
for aiding important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and software
for cooling off when anxiety
mounts in the course of learning.
9. Desktop publishing software for
composing and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in different
courses
11. Internet browser for sourcing
information
12. E-mail software for
communicating with peers and
colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging and
video processing.

Sections 3 perception of Secretarial studies teachers on the

benefits arising from the use of information and

communication Technologies in the Polytechnics.

Key: SA Very Highly Agreed

A Highly Agreed

UD Agreed

D Not Quite Agreed

SD Not Agreed
S/N Statements VHA HA A NQA NA
14. ICT is very useful in providing
instructional design of ICT
tutorial packages
15. Use of ICT packages
encourages more student
dialogue than traditional
classroom.
16. The feedback afforded by ICT
provides positive
reinforcement and focuses
feedback on how
performances can be improved
in the future
17. Connectivity adds great value
to a school’s computer
resources
18. With E-mail and Internet,
teachers and students can
communicate and collaborate
with peers and colleagues.
19. Using computers and
computer-based learning
system can contribute to
learning
20. ICT encourages teaching-
learning interaction
21. ICT reduces anxiety in the
students by providing
entertainment in the course of
learning.

22. The increase in the time and

access to information
guarantees learning.
23. ICT packages provides
students with learner
autonomy that is crucial in the
learning process.

24. ICT gives students the

opportunity to determine when
instruction will occur and at
what peace.

25. ITC help students to access

their performance in class
assignment.

26. ICT aids programmed

instruction and feedback
gained strengthens the learning
by students

27. ICT increases teacher

effectiveness through
visualization and animation

28. ICT helps teacher in the

assessment of students
performance

29. Demonstration which ICT

provides through graphical
animation makes students to
see connection between
concepts
 30. Visualization and animation
helps students to develop
analytical and critical thinking

31. ICT allows students to share

and comment upon each
other’s work which encourage
communication and
collaboration

Section 4 Perception of Secretarial studies teachers on the utilization of

Information and Communication Technologies in the
Polytechnics.
The following items are designed to determine the utilization of
information and communication technologies in Polytechnics. Rate the
following statements by marking (√) in the appropriate column
according to level of utilization.

Key: VHU Very Highly Utilized

U Highly Utilized
SU Somewhat Utilized
NU Not Utilized
S/N Statement VHU HU U SU NU
32 Complete multimedia computer
systems
33. Multimedia computer projectors for
making presentations
34. Computer peripherals such as scanners,
CD writers, printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
35. Word processing software for
production of letters, memos etc.
36. Spreadsheet software for solving some
mathematical and graphical problems
37. PowerPoint software for making
workshop, seminar and conference
presentations
38. Database management software for
aiding important management
decisions
39. Recreational games and software for
cooling off when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
40. Desktop publishing software for
composing and typesetting
41. Tutorials software in different courses
42. Internet browser for sourcing
information
43. E-mail software for communicating
with peers and colleagues
44. Devices for digital imaging and video
processing

Section 5 Perception of the challenges posed by information

and Communication Technologies to secretarial
Studies Teacher in the Polytechnics.

The following items are designed to determine the challengers of

information and communication technologies in Polytechnics. Rate the
following statements b marking (√) in the appropriate column according
to level of challenge.

Key: VHC Very Highly Challenging

HC Highly Challenging
 C Challenging
SC Not Quite challenging
NC Not Challenging

S/N Statements VHC HC C NQC NC

45 Cost of acquisition of ICT equipment
and accessories
46. Cost of training staff in the use of
ICT equipment
47. Cost of maintenance of ICT
equipment
48. Equity of access time to equipment
available
49. Cost of hardware replacement or
upgrade
50. Operating a computer (saving files,
printing, keyboarding)
51. Writing documents with a word
processor (typing editing, layout)
52. Making illustrations with graphical
programs
53. Writing simple programs
54 Sending, searching for and using
electronic form of information
55. Communicating via e-mail with
teachers and other students
56. Using the computer multimedia
projectors to make presentation
during teaching
57. Using ICT to assess the performance
of students
56. Plans for software acquisition.
 APPENDIX 3
Computation of Mean for Combined Federal and State Polytechnic
S/N Statement SA A UD D SD MEAN
5 4 3 2 1
1 ICT is very useful of ICT 32 12 - - - 4.62
tutorial packages
2. Use of ICT packages 14 29 - 2 - 4.22
encourages more student
dialogue than traditional
classroom
3. The feedback afforded by 21 22 1 1 - 4.40
ICT provides positive
reinforcement and focuses
feedback on how
performance can be
improved in the future.
4. Connectively adds great 18 22 5 - - 4.29
value to a school’s computer
resources
5. With E-mail and internet, 30 13 2 - - 4.62
teachers and students can
communicate and
collaborate with peers and
colleagues
6. Using computers and 26 18 1 - - 4.55
computer-based learning
system can contribute to
learning
7. ICT encourages teaching- 16 25 3 1 - 4.24
learning interaction
8. ICT reduces anxiety in the 13 23 6 3 - 4.02
students by providing
entertainment in the course of
learning.
9. The increase in time and 13 31 - 2 - 4.28
access to information
guarantees learning
10. ICT packages provides 12 27 3 3 - 4.07
 students with learner
autonomy that is crucial in
the learning process
11. ICT gives students the 10 20 10 2 2 3.69
opportunity to determine
when instruction will occur
and at what pace.
12. ICT helps students to access 10 25 4 3 3 3.80
their performance in class
assignment
13. ICT aids programmed 18 21 5 1 - 4.24
instruction and feedback
gained strengthens the
learning by students
14. ICT increase teacher 23 20 2 - - 4.67
effectiveness through
visualization and animation
15. ICT helps the teacher in the 13 27 4 1 - 4.16
assessment of students
performance
16. Demonstration which ICT 15 27 3 - - 4.26
provides through graphical
animation makes students to
see connection between
concepts
17. Visualization and animation 18 20 5 2 - 4.20
helps student to develop
analytical and critical
thinking.
18. ICT allows students to share 19 21 3 1 1 4.24
and comment upon each
other’s work which
encourage communication
and collaboration

Section 3
S/N Statement VMA VA A SWA NA X
 5 4 3 2 1
1 Complete multimedia 6 7 9 8 15 2.58
computer systems
2. Multimedia computer 4 8 7 6 20 2.33
projectors for making
presentations
3. Computer peripherals 4 9 12 11 9 2.73
such as scanners, CD
writers, printers,
cameras, plotters etc.
4. Word processing 13 8 11 12 1 3.44
software for production
of letters, memos etc.
5. Spreadsheet software for 10 7 9 11 8 3.00
solving some
mathematical and
graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for 8 5 5 9 17 2.47
making conference and
workshop presentations
7. Database management 8 7 4 9 20 2.56
software for aiding
important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and 7 5 4 9 20 2.33
software for cooling off
when anxiety mounts in
the course of learning
9. Desktop publishing 6 3 6 10 14 2.00
software for composing
and typesetting
10. Tutorials Software in 3 6 6 9 21 2.13
different courses
11. Internet browser for 8 4 7 5 21 2.40
sourcing information
12. E-mail software for 7 5 6 7 20 2.37
communicating with
peers and colleagues
13. Devices for digital 5 6 5 6 23 2.20
 imaging and video
processing
Section 4
S/N Statements VUA VU U SU NU X
5 4 3 2 1
1 Complete multimedia 1 8 5 9 22 2.04
computer systems
2. Multimedia computer 4 4 2 12 23 1.98
projectors for making
presentations
3. Computer peripherals such 4 4 2 12 23 1.98
as scanners, CD writers,
printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
4. Word processors software 12 8 8 12 5 3.22
for production of letters,
memos etc
5. Spreadsheet software for 7 3 11 6 18 2.66
solving some mathematical
and graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for 5 5 4 10 21 2.66
making workshop, seminar
and conference
presentations.
7. Database management 5 8 4 9 19 2.36
software for aiding
important management
decision
8. Recreational games and 4 3 5 5 28 1.89
software for cooling off
when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
9. Desktop publishing 6 8 8 10 13 2.64
software for composing
and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in 5 4 7 8 21 2.20
different courses
11. Internet browser for 6 8 5 5 21 2.33
communicating with peers
 and colleagues
12. E-mail software for 5 3 3 6 24 1.82
communicating with peers
and colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging 4 5 1 6 29 1.87
and video processing

Section 5
S/N Statements VHC VC C SC NC X
5 4 3 2 1
1. Cost of acquisition of ICT 26 7 10 1 1 4.24
equipment and accessories
2. Cost of training staff in the 13 21 7 3 - 4.24
use of ICT equipment
3. Cost of maintenance of ICT 19 15 9 1 1 4.11
equipment
4. Equity of access time to 10 16 16 1 2 3.80
equipment available
5. Cost of hardware 12 14 17 2 - 3.42
replacement or upgrade
6. Operating a computer 9 13 14 6 3 3.42
(saving files, printing,
keyboarding)
7. Writing documents with a 8 15 13 6 3 3.42
word processor (typing,
editing layout)
8. Making illustrations with 10 18 10 4 3 3.62
graphical programs
9. Sending, searching for and 12 16 9 5 3 3.64
using electronic forms of
information
10. Communicating via e-mail 12 13 10 4 6 3.47
with teachers and other
students
11. Using the computer 19 14 5 4 3 3.93
multimedia projectors to
make presentation during
teaching
12. Using ICT to assess the 14 11 11 7 2 3.62
performance of students
13. Plans for software 15 15 10 4 1 3.87
acquisition
 Appendix 4
Computation of Mean Score for Federal Polytechnics
Section 2
S/N Statements SA A UD D SD X
5 4 3 2 1
1. ICT is very useful in 20 10 1 - 1 4.36
providing instructional
design of ICT tutorial
packages
2. Use of ICT packages 10 20 - 2 - 4.18
encourage more student
dialogue than traditional
classroom
3. The feedback afforded by 13 17 1 1 - 4.31
ICT provides positive
reinforcement and focuses
feedback on how
performance can be
improved in the future
4. Connectivity adds great 11 16 5 - - 4.19
value to a school’s
computer resources
5. With E-mail and Internet, 22 8 2 - - 4.75
teachers and students can
communicate and
collaborate with peers and
colleagues
6. Using computer with 18 13 1 - - 4.53
computer-based learning
system can contribute to
learning
7. ICT encourages teaching- 10 20 1 1 - 4.22
learning interaction
8. ICT reduces anxiety in the 10 15 4 3 - 4.00
students by providing
entertainment in the course
of learning.
9. The increase in time and 9 22 - 2 - 4.28
 access to information
guarantees learning
10. ICT packages provides 6 21 2 3 - 3.94
students with learner
autonomy that is crucial in
the learning process
11. ICT gives students the 7 12 8 2 2 3.53
opportunity to determine
when instruction will occur
and at what pace
12. ICT helps students to 8 16 2 3 3 3.72
access their performance in
class assignment
13. ICT aids programmed 12 16 3 1 - 4.21
instruction and feedback
gained strengthens the
learning by students
14. ICT helps the teacher 16 15 1 - - 4.47
effectiveness through
visualization and animation
15. ICT helps the teacher in the 10 18 3 1 - 4.16
assessment of students
16. Demonstration, which ICT 10 19 3 - - 4.03
provides through graphical
animation, makes students
to see connection between
concepts
17. Visualization and animation 12 16 3 1 - 4.22
helps student to develop
analytical and critical
thinking
18. ICT allows students to 13 16 1 1 1 4.22
share and comment upon
each other’s work which
encourage communication
and collaboration

Section 3
S/N Statements VMA VA A SWA NA X
5 4 3 2 1
1. Complete multimedia 4 5 6 7 10 2.56
computer systems
2. Multimedia computer 3 5 5 5 14 2.31
projects for making
presentations
3. Computer peripherals 4 6 7 9 6 2.78
such as scanners, CD
writers, printers, cameras,
plotters etc.
4. Word processing software 9 5 9 9 - 3.44
for production of letters,
memos etc
5. Spreadsheet software for 8 5 6 8 5 3.09
solving some
mathematical and
graphical problem s
6. PowerPoint software for 7 4 3 5 13 2.59
making conference and
workshop presentations
7. Database management 4 4 3 5 13 2.59
software for aiding
important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and 4 4 2 6 16 2.19
software for cooling off
when anxiety mounts in
the course of learning
9. Desktop publishing 5 6 5 7 9 2.72
software for composing
and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in 2 3 4 7 16 2.00
different courses
11. Internet browser for 7 2 3 5 15 2.41
sourcing information
12. E-mail software for 7 1 2 7 15 2.31
communicating with peers
and colleagues
13. Devices for digital 4 4 3 6 16 2.22
imaging and video
processing

Section 4
S/N Statements VHU VU U SU NU X
5 4 3 2 1
1. Complete multimedia - 7 2 7 16 2.00
computer systems
2. Multimedia computer 3 3 - 10 16 1.96
projectors for making
presentations
3. Computer peripherals such 4 4 7 6 16 1.96
as scanners, CD writers,
printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
4. Word processors software 7 5 7 10 3 3.09
for production of letters,
memos etc.
5. Spreadsheet software for 6 2 5 6 13 2.44
solving some mathematical
and graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for 4 3 2 7 16 2.13
making workshop, seminar
and conference
presentations.
7. Database management 5 4 3 6 14 2.28
software for aiding
important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and 2 3 2 4 21 1.78
software for cooling off
when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
9. Desktop publishing 5 4 6 9 8 2.66
software for composing and
typesetting
10. Tutorials software in 3 3 4 8 14 2.16
 different courses
11. Internet browser for 5 3 4 4 16 2.28
sourcing information
12. E-mail software for 5 3 3 5 16 2.25
communicating with peers
and colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging 4 4 - 3 21 1.97
and video processing

Section 5
S/N Statements VHC VC C SC NC X
5 4 3 2 1
1. Cost of acquisition of ICT 17 4 9 1 1 4.09
equipment and accessories
2. Cost of training staff in the 7 15 6 3 1 3.75
use of ICT equipment
3. Cost of maintenance of ICT 11 11 8 1 1 3.94
equipment
4. Equity of access time to 6 12 11 1 2 3.94
equipment available
5. Cost of hardware 7 10 13 2 - 369
replacement or upgrade
6. Operating a computer 6 9 10 6 1 3.41
(saving files, printing,
keyboarding)
7. Writing documents with a 7 11 8 5 1 3.56
word processor (typing,
editing, layout)
8. Making illustrations with 7 13 8 3 1 3.38
graphical programs
9. Writing simple programs 6 9 11 5 2 3.47
10. Sending, searching for and 8 14 6 3 1 3.78
using electronic forms of
information
11. Communicating via e-mail 6 10 6 4 6 3.19
with teachers and other
students
12. Using the computer 12 10 3 4 3 3.75
 multimedia projectors to
make presentation during
teaching
13. Using ICT to assess the 7 8 10 6 1 3.44
performance of students
14. Plans for software 9 12 7 3 1 3.78
acquisition
 Appendix 5
Computation of mean score for state Polytechnic
Section 2
S/N Statements SA A UD D SD X
5 4 3 2 1
1. ICT is very useful in 11 2 0 0 0 4.85
providing instructional
design of ICT tutorial
packages
2. Use of ICT packages 4 9 0 0 0 4.31
encourages more student
dialogue than traditional
classroom
3. The feedback afforded by 8 5 0 0 0 4.62
ICT provides positive
reinforcement and focuses
can be improved in the
future
4. Connectivity adds great 7 6 0 0 0 4.53
value to a school’s
computer resources
5. With E-mail and internet, 8 5 0 0 0 4.62
teachers and students can
communicate and
colleagues
6. Using computer with 8 5 0 0 0 4.62
computer-based learning
system can contribute to
learning
7. ICT encourages teaching 6 5 2 0 0 4.31
learning interaction
8. ICT reduces anxiety in the 3 8 2 0 0 4.01
students by providing
entertainment in the course
of learning.
9. The increase in time and 4 9 0 0 0 4.31
access to information
guarantees learning
10. ICT packages provides 6 6 1 0 0 4.38
students with learner
autonomy that is crucial in
the learning process
11. ICT gives students the 3 8 2 0 0 4.08
opportunity to determine
when instruction will occur
and at what pace
12. ICT helps students to 2 9 2 0 0 4.00
access their performance in
class assignment
13. ICT aids programmed 6 5 2 0 0 4.31
instruction and feedback
gained strengthens the
learning by students
14. ICT increases teacher 7 5 1 0 0 4.46
effectiveness through
visualization and animation
15. ICT helps the teacher in the 3 9 1 0 0 4.15
assessment of students
performance
16. Demonstration, which ICT 5 8 0 0 0 4.38
provides through graphical
animation, makes students
to see connection between
concepts.
17. Visualization and animation 6 4 2 1 0 4.15
helps student to develop
analytical and critical
thinking
18. ICT allows students to 6 5 2 0 0 4.31
share and comment upon
each other’s work which
encourage communication
and collaboration

Section 3
S/N Statements VMA VA A SWA NA X
 5 4 3 2 1
1. Complete multimedia 2 2 3 1 5 2.61
computer systems
2. Multimedia computer 1 3 2 1 6 2.38
projects for making
presentations
3. Computer peripherals 0 3 5 2 3 2.61
such as scanners, CD
writers, printers, cameras,
plotters etc
4. Word processing software 4 3 2 3 1 3.46
for production of letters,
memos etc
5. Spreadsheet software for 1 1 2 4 5 2.46
making conference and
workshop presentations
6. PowerPoint software for 1 1 2 4 5 2.46
making conference and
workshop presentations
7. Database management 1 3 1 4 4 2.46
software for aiding
important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and 3 1 2 3 4 2.59
software for cooling off
when anxiety mounts in
the course of learning
9. Desktop publishing 1 3 1 3 5 2.38
software for composing
and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in 1 3 2 2 5 2.46
different courses
11. Internet browser for 1 2 4 0 6 2.38
sourcing information
12. E-mail software for 0 4 4 0 5 2.54
communicating with peers
and colleagues
13. Devices for digital 1 2 2 1 7 2.15
imaging and video
 processing

Section 4
S/N Statements VHU VU U SU NU X
5 4 3 2 1
1. Complete multimedia 1 1 3 2 6 2.15
computer systems
2. Multimedia computer 1 1 2 2 7 2.00
projectors for making
presentations
3. Computer peripherals such 0 3 1 1 8 1.92
as scanners, CD writers,
printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
4. Word processors software 5 3 1 2 2 3.54
for production of letters,
memos etc.
5. Spreadsheet software for 1 1 6 0 5 2.46
solving some mathematical
and graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for 1 2 2 3 5 2.31
making workshop, seminar
and conference
presentations.
7. Database management 0 4 1 3 5 2.31
software for aiding
important management
decision
8. Recreational games and 2 0 3 1 7 2.15
software for cooling off
when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
9. Desktop publishing 1 4 2 1 5 2.61
software for composing and
typesetting
10. Tutorials software in 2 1 3 0 7 2.31
different courses
11. Internet browser for 1 5 1 1 5 2.69
 sourcing information
12. E-mail software for 0 2 2 1 8 1.61
communicating with peers
and colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging 0 1 1 3 8 1.61s
and video processing

Sections 5

S/N Statements VHC VC C SC NC X

5 4 3 2 1
1. Cost of equipment and 9 3 1 0 0 4.62
accessories
2. Cost of training staff in the 6 6 1 0 0 4.38
use of ICT equipment
3. Cost of maintenance of ICT 4 4 5 0 0 4.54
equipment available
4. Equity of access time to 4 4 5 0 0 3.92
equipment available
5. Cost of hardware 5 4 4 0 0 4.07
replacement or upgrade
6. Operating a computer 3 4 4 0 2 3.46
(Saving files, printing,
keyboarding)
7. Writing documents with a 1 4 5 1 2 3.07
word processor (typing,
editing, Layout)
8. Making illustrations with 3 5 2 1 2 3.46
graphical programs
9. Writing simple programs 5 2 3 1 2 3.54
10. Sending, searching for and 4 2 3 2 2 3.31
using electronic forms of
information 4
11. Communicating via e-mail 6 3 4 0 0 4.15
with teachers and other
students
12. Using the computer 7 4 2 0 0 4.08
multimedia projectors to
 make presentation during
teaching
13. Using ICT to assess the 7 3 1 1 1 4.08
performance of students
14. Plans for software 6 3 3 1 0 4.08
acquisition
 APPENDIX 6
Summary of weighted Mean of Federal and State Polytechnic on
status of Information and Communication Technologies in
Polytechnics in South Eastern States of States of Nigeria

S/N Statements ALL FP SP

1. Complete multimedia computer system 2.58 2.56 2.61
2. Multimedia computer projectors for 2.33 2.31 2.38
making presentations
3. Computer peripherals such as scanners, 2.73 2.78 2.61
CD writers, printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
4. Word processing software for 3.44 3.44 3.46
production of letters, memos etc
5. Spreadsheet software for solving some 3.00 3.05 2.76
mathematical and graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for making 2.47 2.59 2.46
conference and workshop presentations
7. Database management software for 2.56 2.59 2.46
aiding important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and software for 2.33 2.19 2.69
cooling off when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
9. Desktop publishing software for 2.08 2.73 2.38
composing and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in different courses 2.13 2.00 2.46
11. Internet browser for sourcing 2.40 2.41 2.38
information
12. E-mail software for communicating 2.37 2.31 2.54
with peers and colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging and video 2.20 2.22 2.15
processing
 APPENDIX 7
Summary of Weighted Mean of Federal and State Polytechnics on
Utilization of information and Communication Technologies in
Polytechnics in south Eastern States of Nigeria

S/N Statements ALL FP SP

32. Complete multimedia computer system 2.04 2.00 2.15
33. Multimedia computer projectors for 1.98 1.96 2.00
making presentations
34. Computer peripherals such as scanners, 2.33 2.50 1.92
CD writers, printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
35. Word processing software for 3.22 3.09 3.54
production of letters, memos etc
36. Spreadsheet software for solving some 2.66 2.44 2.46
mathematical and graphical problems
37. PowerPoint software for making 2.18 2.13 2.31
conference and workshop presentations
38. Database management software for 2.36 2.38 2.31
aiding important management
decisions
39. Recreational games and software for 1.89 1.78 2.15
cooling off when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
40. Desktop publishing software for 2.64 2.66 2.61
composing and typesetting
41. Tutorials software in different courses 2.20 2.16 2.31
42. Internet browser for sourcing 2.33 2.28 2.69
information
43. E-mail software for communicating 1.82 2.25 1.61
with peers and colleagues
44. Devices for digital imaging and video 1.87 1.97 1.61
processing
 APPENDIX 8
RAW DATA FOR TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS 1
S/N Statements FP SP
1. Complete multimedia computer system 2.56 2.61
2. Multimedia computer projectors for 2.31 2.38
making presentations
3. Computer peripherals such as scanners, 2.78 2.61
CD writers, printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
4. Word processing software for 3.44 3.46
production of letters, memos etc
5. Spreadsheet software for solving some 3.05 2.76
mathematical and graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for making 2.59 2.46
conference and workshop presentations
7. Database management software for 2.59 2.46
aiding important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and software for 2.19 2.69
cooling off when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
9. Desktop publishing software for 2.73 2.38
composing and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in different courses 2.00 2.46
11. Internet browser for sourcing 2.41 2.38
information
12. E-mail software for communicating 2.31 2.54
with peers and colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging and video 2.22 2.15
processing
 APPENDIX 9
Paired Observations used as raw data for computation
of T-test for H0 1

Mean Scores
S/N FP SP
1 2.6 2.6
2 2.3 2.4
3 2.8 2.6
4 3.4 3.5
5 3.1 2.8
6 2.6 2.5
7 2.6 2.5
8 2.2 2.7
9 2.7 2.4
10 2 2.5
11 2.4 2.4
12 2.3 2.5
13 2.2 2.2
 APPENDIX 10
T-test Report for H01 Generated through Computer Analysis

Test Paired samples t-test

Alternative Mean Scores: FP = SP

Hypothesis
Date
Performed by 17 February
2006

n 13

Mean Scores n Mean SD SE

FP 13 2.554 0.389 0.1078
SP 13 2.585 0.313 0.0869
Difference 13 -0.031 0.256 0.0711

Difference Between
Means - 0.031
95% CI - 0.186 to 0.124

t statistic - 0.43
2-tailed p0.6727
 APPENDIX 11
Raw Data for Testing of Hypothesis 2
S/N Statements FP SP
1. Complete multimedia computer system 2.56 2.61
2. Multimedia computer projectors for 2.31 2.38
making presentations
3. Computer peripherals such as scanners, 2.78 2.61
CD writers, printers, cameras, plotters
etc.
4. Word processing software for 3.44 3.46
production of letters, memos etc
5. Spreadsheet software for solving some 3.05 2.76
mathematical and graphical problems
6. PowerPoint software for making 2.59 2.46
conference and workshop presentations
7. Database management software for 2.59 2.46
aiding important management
decisions
8. Recreational games and software for 2.19 2.69
cooling off when anxiety mounts in the
course of learning
9. Desktop publishing software for 2.73 2.38
composing and typesetting
10. Tutorials software in different courses 2.00 2.46
11. Internet browser for sourcing 2.41 2.38
information
12. E-mail software for communicating 2.31 2.54
with peers and colleagues
13. Devices for digital imaging and video 2.22 2.15
processing
 APPENDIX 12
Paired Observations used as raw data for Computation
Of T-test for H02
S/N Mean Scores

PF SP

1 2 2.2

2 2 2

3 2.5 1.9

4 3.1 3.5

5 2.4 2.5

6 2.1 2.3

7 2.4 2.3

8 1.8 2.2

9 2.7 2.6

10 2.2 2.3

11 2.3 2.7

12 2.3 1.6

13 2 1.6
 APPENDIX 13
T-test Report for H02 Generated through computer Analysis
analysed
with:
analyse-
it +
General
1.73
Test Paired Samples t-test
Alternative
Hypothesis Mane Scores: FP = SP Date
Performed by DR. EzINWA B. AZUKA 17 February 2006

n 13

Mean Scores n Mean SD SE

FP 13 2.292 0.345 0.0957
SP 13 2.585 0.498 0.1381
Difference 13 -0.008 0.366 0.1016

Difference
Between Means - 0.008
95% CI - 0.214 to 0.229

t statistic - 0.08
2-tailed p0.9409