DNA structure

DNA is usually a double-helix and has two strands running in opposite directions. (There are some
examples of viral DNA which are single-stranded). ach chain is a polymer of subunits called nucleotides
(hence the name polynucleotide).
ach strand has a bac!bone made up of (deoxy-ribose) sugar molecules lin!ed together by phosphate
groups. The "# $ of a sugar molecule is connected through a phosphate group to the %# $ of the next sugar.
This lin!age is also called "#-%# phosphodiester lin!age. All DNA strands are read from the %# to the "# end
where the %# end terminates in a phosphate group and the "# end terminates in a sugar molecule.
What is RNA?
Ribonucleic acid, or RNA is one of the three major biological macromolecules that are essential
for all known forms of life (along with DNA and proteins). A central tenant of molecular biology
states that the flow of genetic information in a cell is from DNA through RNA to proteins !DNA
makes RNA makes protein". #roteins are the workhorses of the cell$ they play leading roles in
the cell as en%ymes, as structural components, and in cell signaling, to name just a
few. DNA(deo&yribonucleic acid) is considered the !blueprint" of the cell$ it carries all of the
genetic information re'uired for the cell to grow, to take in nutrients, and to propagate. RNA(in
this role(is the !DNA photocopy" of the cell. )hen the cell needs to produce a certain protein, it
acti*ates the protein+s gene(the portion of DNA that codes for that protein(and produces
multiple copies of that piece of DNA in the form of messenger RNA, or mRNA. ,he multiple
copies of mRNA are then used to translate the genetic code into protein through the action of
the cell+s protein manufacturing machinery, the ribosomes. ,hus, RNA e&pands the 'uantity of a
gi*en protein that can be made at one time from one gi*en gene, and it pro*ides an important
control point for regulating when and how much protein gets made.
-or many years RNA was belie*ed to ha*e only three major roles in the cell(as a DNA
photocopy (mRNA), as a coupler between the genetic code and the protein building blocks
(tRNA), and as a structural component of ribosomes (rRNA). .n recent years, howe*er, we ha*e
begun to reali%e that the roles adopted by RNA are much broader and much more interesting.
)e now know that RNA can also act as en%ymes (called ribo%ymes) to speed chemical
reactions. .n a number of clinically important *iruses RNA, rather than DNA, carries the *iral
genetic information. RNA also plays an important role in regulating cellular processes(from cell
di*ision, differentiation and growth to cell aging and death. Defects in certain RNAs or the
regulation of RNAs ha*e been implicated in a number of important human diseases, including
heart disease, some cancers, stroke and many others.
What Foods Are in the Protein Foods Group?
All foods made from meat, poultry, seafood, beans and peas, eggs, processed soy products,
nuts, and seeds are considered part of the #rotein -oods /roup. 0eans and peas are also part
of the 1egetable /roup. -or more information on beans and peas, see 0eans and #eas Are
2ni'ue -oods.
3elect a *ariety of protein foods to impro*e nutrient intake and health benefits, including at least
4 ounces of cooked seafood per week. 5oung children need less, depending on their age and
calorie needs. ,he ad*ice to consume seafood does not apply to *egetarians. 1egetarian
options in the #rotein -oods /roup include beans and peas, processed soy products, and nuts
and seeds. 6eat and poultry choices should be lean or low7fat.
Introduction
&roteins are macromolecules (heteropolymers) made up from '( different )amino
acids* also referred to as residues. +elow about ,( residues the term peptide is
fre-uently used. A certain number of residues is necessary to perform a particular
biochemical function* and around ,(-%( residues appears to be the lower limit for a
functional domain si.e. &rotein si.es range from this lower limit to several hundred
residues in multi-functional proteins. /ery large aggregates can be formed from
protein subunits* for example many thousand actin molecules assemble into a an actin
filament. )arge protein complexes with 0NA are found in the ribosome particles*
which are in fact #ribo.ymes#.
Amino acids
The basic structure of an amino acid is -uite simple. 0 denotes any one of the '(
possible side chains (see table below). 1e notice that the $-atom has , different
ligands (the 2 is omitted in the drawing) and is thus chiral. An easy tric! to remember
the correct )-form is the $30N-rule4 when the $-atom is viewed with the 2 in
front* the residues read 5$3-0-N5 in a cloc!wise direction.
The polypeptide chain
Two amino acids are combined in a condensation reaction. Notice that the peptide
bond is in fact planar due to the delocali.ation of the electrons. The se-uence of the
different amino acids is considered theprimary structure of the peptide or protein.
$ounting of residues always starts at the N-terminal end (N2'-group).
Secondary structure elements
The polypeptide chain of a protein seldom forms 6ust a random coil. 0emember that
proteins have either a chemical (en.ymes) or structural function to fulfill. 2igh
specificity re-uires an intricate arrangement of "-dimensional interactions and
therefore a defined conformation of the polypeptide chain. 7n fact* some
neurodegenerative diseases li!e 2untington#s may be related to random coil
formation in certain proteins. The two most common secondary
structure arrangements are the right-handed -helix and the -sheet* which can be
connected into a larger tertiary structure (or fold) by turns and loops of a variety of
types. These two secondary structure elements satisfy a strong hydrogen bond
networ! within the geometric constraints of the bond angles * and . The -
sheets can be formed by parallel or* most common* antiparallel arrangement of
individual -strands.