Braking Systems

Braking Systems
An Introduction
Sivapuram Raghavendra
Student Program Chair Person
SAE India IIT Guwahati Student Chapter 2013-14
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Email: sivapuram@iitg.ernet.in
Automotive Lecture Series14
Visit us at:
Sivapuram Raghavendra (IIT Guwahati) Braking Systems Automotive Lecture Series14 1 / 67
Outline
1
Braking-I
Theoretical Aspects in Braking
Categories in Braking
2
Braking-II
Maintenance of Brakes
Other types of brakes
Outline
1
Braking-I
2
Braking-II
Brakes
Function and Requirement
Automobiles have become an important part in the present days
world. They are used in all elds like transport, travel, construction,
mining and also in sports like racing. The whole of the automotive
components can be divided broadly into chassis, steering, engine,
power transmission, suspension and brakes.
Brakes are used to control the speed of the vehicle thus avoiding
many accidents. This ensures a good control over the vehicle. They
are used to simply inhibit the motion and are of utmost importance to
ensure the safety of the passengers.
Brakes
Brakes
Brakes
Functioning
The function of brakes is to simply to slow down or decelerate.
This may occur by dierent actuating mechanisms and braking
systems. Most commonly used brakes convert kinetic energy of the
vehicle into heat energy by means of friction. The generated heat in
the brakes is released into the atmosphere by cooling. This is just
the application of First Law of Thermodynamics.
The Heat generated by friction is partly absorbed by the disc and
the rest is liberated into the atmosphere.
Brakes
Functioning
Brakes
Functioning
Braking
Requirements
Braking Distance
Braking Eciency
Anti - Fading
Weight Transfer
Braking Distance
The distance travelled by a vehicle after the complete application of
brakes is called its braking distance. It depends on the initial speed of
the vehicle, co-ecient of friction between the tires and the road and the
reaction time of the driver. Consider a vehicle of mass m, linear velocity
v to which when brakes applied, the braking or stopping distance is d.
mgd =
mv
2
2
d =
v
2
2g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Braking Distance
Braking distance should be such that the vehicle gets to a stop in a
minimum stopping distance. But, this should also be consistent with
safety.
The actual Braking distance is slightly higher than
v
2
2g
. The total
braking distance includes:
The distance covered within the reaction time of driver
The distance covered in the time between application of brakes and
the brakes being applied
The theoretical Braking Distance
Braking Distance
safety.
v
2
2g
. The total
Braking Distance
safety.
v
2
2g
. The total
Braking Distance
safety.
v
2
2g
. The total
Braking Distance
safety.
v
2
2g
. The total
Braking Distance
safety.
v
2
2g
. The total
Braking Eciency
It is calculated from the braking eort as the percentage of component
of weight of the vehicle acting on the particular wheel. The maximum
retarding force that could be applied at the wheels is given by F = W,
where is the co - ecient of friction between the tires and the road,
W is the component of weight of the vehicle acting on the wheel. For
100% ecient brakes, the vehicle experiences a retarding force as that of a
freely falling body of mass equal to that of the vehicle. Thus, 100% is the
theoretical limit for braking eciency.
Braking Eciency =
Brake Eort
Vehicle Weight
100
Braking Eciency
The passengers in the vehicle may be injured when the vehicle stops
suddenly due to high brake eciency. High brake eciencies also leads to
rapid wear of tyres and the brake linings. So, in practice, we use 50 - 80%
ecient brakes. The minimum allowable eciency for foot brakes is 50%,
and for hand brakes is 30%.
Anti - Fading
Due to prolonged application of brakes, their eectiveness decreases.
This is called fading. This mainly occurs while descending hills. The resin
binding the brake lining to the brake shoe vaporizes after getting heated up.
The contact between the drum and shoes (Drum brakes) or between the
disc and brake pads (Disc brakes) is lost. When the brake uid (Hydraulic
brakes) is heated up, air bubbles are formed. When the brakes are applied,
since the brake uid is incompressible, the pressure developed compresses
the air bubbles instead of forcing the brake uid to push the pistons in
brakes. This again results in fading. Employing a proper cooling system,
preventing leakages in the brake lines and using a friction material of high
temperature co-ecient prevents fading.
Weight Transfer
When the brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the component of
vehicles weight on the front wheel increases, and on the rear wheel decreases
by an equal amount. The inertia force and the braking force create an
overturning couple on the vehicle. So, there should be more braking eort
on the front wheel. Its observed that to achieve maximum eciency, 75%
of the total braking eort should be on the front wheels. But, such a high
braking eort might cause skidding while travelling on wet roads. So, a 60%
braking eort is used on the front wheels, in practice.
Weight Transfer
Figure: Free Body Diagram of a Vehicle when brakes are applied
Weight Transfer
When brakes are applied on all wheels, at equilibrium:
F = 0
R
F
+ R
R
= Wcos
R
F
+R
R
= Wsin +
Wa
g
a = g(cossin)
R
F
=
W(x +h)cos
b
R
R
=
W(b x h)cos
b
Wheel Skidding
The force of adhesion between the tires and the road depends on the
co-ecient of friction between the tires and the road, tire ination pressure
and the type of treading of the tire. Water, oil, mud on the road decreases
the co-ecient of friction. If the braking force is less than the force of
adhesion, vehicle decelerates and stops. If the braking force is greater than
the adhesion force, the vehicle slips, i.e., skidding occurs. Due to skidding
wear and tear of tires occur. The driver cant control the vehicle while
skidding. So, skidding depends on the braking force and the component of
vehicle weight on the wheel.
Prevention Methods for Wheel Skidding
A relief valve is sometimes used on the rear brakes if any time the
weight transfer is more. Braking is decreased by decreasing the brake
uid pressure in the rear lines. A relief valve on the front wheel
decreases the braking if the weight transfer is less while travelling on
wet roads.
Using an anti-skid device Dunlop Maxaretor Lucas - Girling Wheel
Slide Protection (Anti-Lock Braking System)
wet roads.
wet roads.
Outline
1
Braking-I
2
Braking-II
Brakes can be divided into dierent types, based on the following aspects.
Location
Construction
Method of Actuation
Extra Braking Eort
Location
Construction
Method of Actuation
Extra Braking Eort
Location
Construction
Method of Actuation
Extra Braking Eort
Location
Construction
Method of Actuation
Extra Braking Eort
Location:
Wheel Brakes
Transmission Brakes
From the heat dissipation point of view, wheel brakes are better since the
heat is dissipated at four wheels. Also, the braking torque is to be transmit-
ted through universal joints, propeller shaft and the rear axle. So, proper
provision is to be made in the design. Transmission brakes are advantageous
over wheel brakes in that they give uniform braking at all the wheels and
since the speeds are reduced at the dierential itself, they are stronger than
the wheel brakes of similar capacity. Universally, wheel brakes are used in
all automobiles.
Location:
Wheel Brakes
Transmission Brakes
all automobiles.
Location:
Wheel Brakes
Transmission Brakes
all automobiles.
Location:
Wheel Brakes
Transmission Brakes
all automobiles.
Construction:
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Method of Actuation:
Mechanical Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Electric Brakes
Vacuum Brakes
Air Brakes
Construction:
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Mechanical Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Electric Brakes
Vacuum Brakes
Air Brakes
Construction:
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Mechanical Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Electric Brakes
Vacuum Brakes
Air Brakes
Construction:
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Mechanical Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Electric Brakes
Vacuum Brakes
Air Brakes
Construction:
Drum Brakes
Disc Brakes
Mechanical Brakes
Hydraulic Brakes
Electric Brakes
Vacuum Brakes
Air Brakes
Extra Braking eort:
Servo Brakes
Power Brakes
If the load of the vehicle is more, the driver feels uncomfortable in applying
brakes, since he has to put more eort in applying the brakes. His eort is
complemented by an outside source, which may also be the transmission of
the vehicle. If the braking eort is partly supplied by an outside source, they
are called Servo or Power Assisted Brakes. If the complete braking eort is
supplied by the external source, they are called Power Operated or simply,
Power Brakes.
Extra Braking eort:
Servo Brakes
Power Brakes
Power Brakes.
Extra Braking eort:
Servo Brakes
Power Brakes
Power Brakes.
Drum Brakes
Figure: Brake Drum
Drum Brakes
A brake drum is attached to the rotating wheel which also rotates
along with the wheel. A back plate is mounted on the axle casing. Two
crescent shaped brake shoes are anchored on the back plate. One or two
retractor springs are used to keep the brake shoes away from each other
when the brakes are not applied. Brake shoes are anchored at one end while
a force is applied at the other end by some brake actuating mechanism.
The brake shoes get pressed against the rotating brake drum. Brake shoes
are coated with a material of high co-ecient of friction called brake linings
by means of a resin or rivets. This pressing, due to friction converts the
kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy which is liberated into the
surroundings on cooling down.
Drum Brakes
Adjuster is a kind of self-actuating mechanism present in drum brakes.
The brake shoes should move by a certain distance to get in contact with
the brake drum. The adjuster moves such that both the shoes get into
proper contact with the drum.
Drum Brakes
Figure: Leading Shoe
Drum Brakes
Figure: Trailing Shoe
Drum Brakes
The shoe which is dragged along due to the drums rotation is leading
and the shoe which is being thrown o due to its movement in opposite
sense to that of the drum is called trailing shoe. Self-energisation occurs in
case of leading shoe. The drag force on this shoe produces a torque in the
direction of rotation of drum about the pivot. This further increases the
braking action. In case of trailing shoe, the drag force prevents the shoe
from getting into contact with the drum decreasing the brake action.
Drum Brakes
Figure: Two Shoe Leading Type Drum Brakes
Types of Drum Brakes
They are divided based on whether the expander is xed or oating,
and whether the anchor is xed and oating. In a xed expander type,
application of more brake force at the leading shoe and less force at the
leading shoe. The reverse scenario is occurs while reversing the vehicle. In
a oating expander type, the braking force at the two shoes is balanced. In a
oating anchor type, same braking force could be applied at both the shoes
since both of them get self-energized. There are also two leading shoe type
brakes. But, the disadvantage is that they are sensitive to a slight change
in co-ecient of friction. And, there are two shoe trailing brakes. Since
the braking applied by them is less, they are generally complemented using
servo brakes. Wear on the shoes is uniform.
Disc Brakes
Types
Spot Type:
They can be divided into:
Swinging Caliper Type
Sliding Caliper Type
Clutch type
Disc Brakes
Types
Spot Type:
Clutch type
Disc Brakes
Types
Spot Type:
Clutch type
Disc Brakes
Types
Spot Type:
Clutch type
Spot Type Disc Brake
Figure: Spot Type Disc Brake
Spot Type Disc Brake
Hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into contact
with a disc or rotor. The disc is connected to the wheel and rotates along
with it. These actuators are present in a housing called Brake Calipers
secured to some stationary part of the vehicle. The pads cover only a small
portion of the disc.
Swinging Caliper Type Disc Brake
The caliper is hinged about a fulcrum pin and one friction pad is xed
to the caliper. The actuating force forces the other friction pad to press the
disc. The caliper automatically adjusts its position by swinging about the
fulcrum pin.
Swinging Caliper Type Disc Brake
Figure: Swinging Caliper Type Disc Brake
Sliding Caliper Type Disc Brake
There are two pistons between which uid under pressure is sent. One
friction pad gets pressed via the brake pad while the other indirectly via the
caliper. A brake pad is xed to the caliper itself. Both swinging and sliding
types have resulted in simpler and lighter construction.
Sliding Caliper Type Disc Brake
Figure: Sliding Caliper Type Disc Brake
Clutch Type Disc Brake
Figure: Clutch Type Disc Brake
Clutch Type Disc Brake
A pair of pressure plates carrying segments of friction material extends
over 360
around the two disc surfaces. This type of brake is generally

enclosed in a drum, which may be ribbed for better heat dissipation. These
brakes are of limited use.
Ventilation of discs
We know that the rate of heat transfer from a surface to a surrounding
uid directly proportional to the surface area.
Heat transfer rate due to Convection = hA T
So, the disc is vented, grooved, milled or dimpled to increase the heat
transfer rate.
Ventilation of Discs
Figure: Grooved and Dimpled Disc
Comparison between Disc and Drum Brakes
In disc brakes, the friction surfaces are exposed to cooling air directly,
while in drum brakes, heat is released into the atmosphere by
conduction through the drum.
There is no loss of eciency due to expansion
Less weight
Good Anti-fade characteristics
Less sensitive to co-ecient of friction changes
Rapid wear due to higher pressure intensity, diculty in installation
and initial cost are some drawbacks of disc brakes.
Less weight
Less weight
Less weight
Less weight
Less weight
Less weight
Parking Brake
It is also called emergency or hand brake. The vehicle can be brought
to a complete halt when the braking system fails. They are mechanically
actuated brakes. This brake is connected to the rear wheels via some mech-
anism. If in case, the rear brakes are of drum type, the brake cable from
this brake is connected to the brake shoes directly. The mechanism works
using a ratchet. When the rear wheels are mounted with disc brakes, an
entire drum system is to be mounted on the rear rotor, called an auxiliary
drum brake. Instead, a caliper actuated parking brake can be used.
Hydraulic Brakes
The main component of the hydraulic brakes is the master cylinder,
which contains as reservoir of brake uid. Master cylinder is operated by the
brake pedal and is connected to the wheel cylinders in the 4 wheels through
steel pipelines, unions and exible hoses.
Figure: Master Cylinder
Tandem Master Cylinder
It ensures reliability with no much extra cost. In this, separate lines
go to the front and rear brakes and it is so arranged that if the front lines are
damaged, rear brakes are still eective and vice-versa. When brake pedal is
applied, uid is transmitted to both the lines. If the front lines are damaged,
piston 1 will move till it reaches piston 2 then the pressure starts building up
between the piston 1 and the stop and the rear brakes get applied. If the rear
lines are damaged, the piston 2 moves till it reaches the stop, then pressure
starts developing between piston 1 and piston 2 and the front brakes get
applied. Such systems are called split systems.
Hydraulic Brakes
Figure: Tandem Master Cylinder
Hydraulic Brakes
Figure: Wheel Cylinder
Brake Fluid
Desirable Characteristics
High Boiling point
Lubricative
No corrosive action on any metal parts
No eect on rubber
High Storage Capacity
Brake Fluid
High Boiling point
Lubricative
No eect on rubber
Brake Fluid
High Boiling point
Lubricative
No eect on rubber
Brake Fluid
High Boiling point
Lubricative
No eect on rubber
Brake Fluid
High Boiling point
Lubricative
No eect on rubber
Other kinds of actuation
Electric Brakes
The current from the battery energizes an electromagnet within the
brake drum, which in turn actuates a mechanism to expand the shoes. The
severity of the braking is controlled by a rheostat, which is operated by the
driver through the foot pedal.
Other kinds of actuation
Eddy Current Brakes
They are not friction brakes. Their operation is based on Faradays
law of electromagnetic induction. They produce eddy currents which slow
down the motion.
Anti-Lock Braking System
Figure: Anti-Lock Braking System
Anti-Lock Braking System
It has an electronic control unit, 4 wheel sensors and at least 2 hy-
draulic valves. The ECU monitors the rotation speed of the wheels at all the
time. If any wheel is rotating slower than other wheels, the braking pres-
sure in the uid lines to that wheel is decreased preventing a lock. If any
wheel rotates faster than other wheels, braking pressure to that wheel is in-
creased. The ECU is programmed to sense the dierence in rotation speeds
only above a particular threshold because when a vehicle is in a turn, all the
wheels wont rotate with the same speed. The dierent speeds are provided
by the dierential. The main purpose of an ABS is to ensure good control
over the vehicle during emergency braking. Locked wheels slow down a car
but the vehicle cant be steered.
Outline
1
Braking-I
2
Braking-II
Brake Bleeding
In hydraulic systems, if any air enters the system, it leads to brake
fade. A bleeding valve is present on the back plate for this purpose. For
bleeding, the master cylinder is topped up completely with the brake uid
and a pipe is connected to the bleeding valve. Its other end is dipped in
the brake uid contained in some jar. When the brake pedal is pressed, the
bleeder valve is to be opened when some air bubbles and uid come out of
the pipe. The bleeder valve is now closed, the brake pedal is released and
pressed again after which the valve is opened again to let out some more air
bubbles. This procedure is repeated, till no bubbles come out of the uid.
Finally, the valve is closed.
Brake Squeal
Squealing brakes are a sign of one of two things: the friction material
is gone and the backing plate of the caliper is directly touching the rotor, or
the t of the brake pad against the caliper piston isnt as snug as it could
be. This results in a constant squeal that changes pitch depending on the
vehicle speed. It can be prevented by:
Shimming the brake pads to the caliper
Installing new brake pads
Applying an anti-squeal compound between the brake pad and the
caliper
Adding Chamfers to the brake linings
Brake Squeal
caliper
Brake Squeal
caliper
Brake Squeal
caliper
Brake Squeal
caliper
Outline
1
Braking-I
2
Braking-II
Brakes in a Bicycle
Figure: Single Pivot Side Pull Caliper Brake
Brakes in a Bicycle
Figure: V-Brake
Brakes in a Bicycle
Figure: Bicycle Disc Brake
Brakes in an Aeroplane
Figure: Aeroplane
Spoilers, which are the aerodynamic brakes. We know that the
aerodynamic resistance is directly proportional to the relative velocity
of the uid with respect to the surface. Some portion of the wings are
apped up to apply the brakes.
Disc brakes, made of ceramic, used on the runway
Super Brake, which involves making the thrust reversal. This is highly
powerful and used only on the runway.
Figure: Aircraft Disc Brake
Brakes in a Ship
Figure: Ship
Brakes in a ship
Spoilers, same function as that in the aeroplane, except that here, the
uid is water.
Thrust Reversal
Inboard Braking
The disc brakes are mounted on the chassis of the vehicle, instead of
directly mounting on the wheel hubs.
The rotor is made to move along with the wheels.
This decreases the Unsprung mass of the vehicle.
Unsprung mass is the entire mass of the vehicle below the
suspensions.
High unsprung mass leads to diculty in steering control during
emergency braking.
For a long bumpy track, high unsprung mass causes more energy to
be absorbed by the wheels and makes the ride worse.
Inboard Braking
Figure: Inboard Braking
Resources and Credits
Textbooks in Automobile Engineering
Internet
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around the two disc surfaces. This type of brake is generally

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