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22.

CHAPTER 22 - AUTOMATIC-REPEAT-REQUEST STRATEGIES


As pointed out in Chapter 1, there are two categories of techniques for controlling transmission errors
in data transmission systems: the forward-error-control (FEC) scheme and the automatic-repeat-
request (A!) scheme" #n an FEC system an error-correcting code is used" $hen the recei%er detects
the presence of errors in a recei%ed %ector it attempts to determine the error locations and then corrects
the errors"
#f the e&act locations of errors are determined, the recei%ed %ector will 'e correctly decoded: if the
recei%er fails to determine the e&act locations of errors, the recei%ed %ector will 'e decoded
incorrectly, and erroneous data will 'e deli%ered to the user (or data sin()" #n an A! system a code
with good error-detecting capa'ility is used" At the recei%er, the syndrome of the recei%ed %ector is
computed" #f the syndrome is )ero, the recei%ed %ector is assumed to 'e error-free and is accepted 'y
the recei%er" At the same time, the recei%er notifies the transmitter, %ia a return channel, that the
transmitted code-word has 'een successfully recei%ed"
#f the syndrome is not )ero, errors are detected in the recei%ed %ector" *hen, the transmitter is
instructed, through the return channel, to retransmit the same code-word" etransmission continues
until the code-word is successfully recei%ed" $ith this system, erroneous data are deli%ered to the data
sin( only if the recei%er fails to detect the presence of errors" #f a proper linear code is used, the
pro'a'ility of an undetected error can 'e made %ery small"
$e ha%e de%oted many chapters to %arious types of error-correcting codes and decoding methods for
FEC" #n this chapter we present %arious types of A! schemes and the com'inations of A! and
FEC, called hy'rid-A! schemes" +a,or references on A! are listed at the end of this chapter"
22.1. 22.1 Basic ARQ Schemes
*here are three 'asic types of A! schemes: the stop-and-wait A!, the go-'ac(-- A!, and the
selecti%e-repeat A!" #n a stop-and-wait A! data transmission system, the transmitter sends a code-
word to the recei%er and waits for an ac(nowledgment from the recei%er, as shown in Figure .."1" A
positi%e ac(nowledgment (AC/) from the recei%er signals that the code-word has 'een successfully
recei%ed (i"e", no errors were detected), and the transmitter sends the ne&t code-word" A negati%e
ac(nowledgement (-A/) from the recei%er indicates that the recei%ed %ector has 'een detected in
error: the transmitter resends the code-word" etransmissions continue until an AC/ is recei%ed 'y the
transmitter" *he stop-and-wait A! scheme is simple and is used in many data communication
systems0 howe%er, this scheme is inherently inefficient 'ecause of the idle time spent waiting for an
ac(nowledgment for each transmitted code-word" 1nless the code length n is e&tremely long, the
fraction of idle time can 'e large0 howe%er, using a %ery long
F#21E .."1: 3top-and-wait A!"
'loc( length does not pro%ide a solution, since the pro'a'ility that a 'loc( contains errors increases
rapidly with the 'loc( length" 4ence, idle time is reduced at the e&pense of increased frequency of
retransmissions for each code-word" +oreo%er, a long 'loc( length may 'e impractical in many
applications 'ecause of restrictions imposed 'y the data"
#na go-'ac(-- A! system, code-words are transmitted continuously" *he transmitter does not wait
for an ac(nowledgment after sending a code-word0 as soon as it has completed sending ore, it 'egins
sending the ne&t code-word, as shown in Figure .."." *he ac(nowledgment for a code-word arri%es
after a round-trip delay, which is defined as the time inter%al 'etween the transmission of a code-word
and the receipt of an ac(nowledgment for that code-word"
5uring this inter%al, - -1 other code-words ha%e also 'een transmitted" $hen a -A/ is recei%ed, the
transmitter 'ac(s up to the code-word that was negati%ely ac(nowledged and resents that code-word
and - 6 1 succeeding code-words that were transmitted during the round-trip delay (i"e", the
transmitter pulls 'ac( and resends - code-words)" 7f course, a 'uffer must 'e pro%ided at the
transmitter for these code-words"
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At the recei%er, the - 6 1 recei%ed %ectors following an erroneously recei%ed %ector (a recei%ed %ector
detected in error) are discarded regardless of whether they are error-free or not" *herefore, the recei%er
needs to store only one recei%ed %ector at a time" 8ecause of the continuous transmission and
retransmission of code-words, the go-'ac(-- A! scheme is more effecti%e than the stop-and-wait
A#, and it can 'e implemented at moderate cost" *he go-'ac(-- A999! scheme 'ecomes
F#21E ..".: 27-'ac(-- A! with - : ;"
F#21E .."<: 3electi%e-repeat A!"
ineffecti%e when the round-trip delay is large and the data transmission rate is high" *his inefficiency
is caused 'y the retransmission of many error-free code-words following a code-word detected in
error" *his inefficiency can 'e o%ercome 'y using the selecti%e-repeat strategy"
#n a selecti%e-repeat A! system, code-words are also transmitted continuously0 howe%er, the
transmitter resends (or repeats) only those code-words that are negati%ely ac(nowledged, as shown in
Figure .."<" 8ecause code-words must ordinarily 'e deli%ered to the user in correct order, a 'uffer
must 'e pro%ided at the recei%er to store the error-free recei%ed %ectors following a recei%ed %ector
detected in error" $hen the first negati%ely ac(nowledged code-word is successfully recei%ed, the
recei%er then releases the error-free recei%ed %ectors in consecuti%e order until the ne&t erroneously
recei%ed %ector is encountered" 3ufficient recei%er 'uffer must 'e pro%ided0 otherwise, the 'uffer may
o%erflow, and data may 'e lost" *he selecti%e-repeat A! is the most efficient one among the three
'asic A! schemes0 howe%er, it is also the most comple& one to implement"
#n an A! system the recei%er commits a decoding error whene%er it accepts a recei%ed %ector with
undetected errors" 3uch an e%ent is called an error e%ent" =et >(E) denote the pro'a'ility of an error
e%ent" Clearly, for an A! system to 'e relia'le, >(E) should 'e %ery small" *herefore, the relia'ility
of an A! system is measured 'y its error pro'a'ility >(E)" 3uppose that an (n, () linear code C is
used for error detection in an A! system" $e define the following pro'a'ilities:
>c : pro'a'ility that a recei%ed %ector contains no error0
>d : pro'a'ility that a recei%ed %ector contains a detecta'le error pattern0
>e : pro'a'ility that a recei%ed %ector contains an undetecta'le error pattern"
*hese pro'a'ilities add to 1 (i"e", >c" ? >d ? >e : 1)" *he pro'a'ility p depends on the channel error
statistics, the pro'a'ilities >(@and >e depend on 'oth the channel error statistics and the choice of the
(n, () error-detecting code C" A recei%ed %ector will 'e accepted 'y the recei%er only if it either
contains no error or contains an undetecta'le error pattern" *herefore, the pro'a'ility >(E) that the
recei%er commits an error is gi%en 'y
*he pro'a'ility >e can 'e made %ery small relati%e to >c 'y choosing the code C properly (e"g", a long
4amming code or a long dou'le-error-correcting primiti%e
8C4 code)" Consequently, the error pro'a'ility > (E) can 'e made %ery small" For a 83C with
transition pro'a'ility p, we ha%e
#n 3ection <"A we showed that for an a%erage (a, () linear code,
Com'ining (.."1), (..".), and (.."<), we can o'tain an upper 'ound on > (E)"
0. EXAMPLE 22.1
Consider a 83C with transition pro'a'ility p : 1B
6<
" 3uppose that we use the
dou'le-error-correcting (1B.<, 1BB<) 8C4 code for error detection in an A!
system" *hen"
and C .-.B Ddou'le-error-correcting primiti%e 8C4 codes satisfy the 'ound
C .-(E-() for p C 1@.F" $e see that >e G >c" 1sing (.."1), we find that
*his result illustrates that using a relati%ely small num'er of parity-chec( digits, an
A! system can achie%e %ery high relia'ility"
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Another measure of the performance of an A! system is its throughput
efficiency (or simply throughput), which is defined as the ratio of the a%erage
num'er of information digits successfully accepted 'y the recei%er per unit of time
to the total num'er of digits that could 'e transmitted per unit of time D1, .F" All
three 'asic A! schemes achie%e the same relia'ility0 howe%er, they ha%e different
throughput efficiencies" -e&t, we deri%e the throughput for each of the three 'asic
A! schemes" For simplicity, we assume that the feed'ac( channel is noiseless"
*he assumption may not 'e realistic, 'ut the results gi%e a good indication of
the effecti%eness of each A! scheme" For throughput analysis of %arious A!
schemes with noisy feed'ac( channel, the reader is referred to D1F"
$e first deri%e the throughput of the selecti%e-repeat A! scheme" $e recall
that with this scheme the transmitter sends code-words to the recei%er continuously
and resends only those code-words that are negati%ely ac(nowledged" *he pro'a'ility
that a recei%ed %ector will 'e accepted 'y the recei%er is
For the usual situation where >, G >c, then > >c" *he pro'a'ility that
code-word will 'e retransmitted is simply
For a code-word to 'e successfully accepted 'y the recei%er, the a%erage num'er of retransmissions
(including the original transmission) required is
*hen, the throughput of the selecti%e-repeat A! is
where (@n is the rate of the (n, () code used in the system" $e see that the throughput
1;HI depends only on the channel error rate"
#n a go-'ac(-- A! system, when a code-word is negati%ely ac(nowledged,
the transmitter resends that code-word and the - 6 1 su'sequent code-words that
were transmitted earlier" *herefore, for a code-word to 'e successfully accepted
'y the recei%er, the a%erage num'er of retransmissions (including the original
transmission) required is
Consequently, the throughput efficiency of a go-'ac(-- A! system is
$e see that the throughput t;28- depends on 'oth channel 'loc( error rate 1 - > and the round-trip
delay -" $hen the channel error rate is low, the effect of the round-trip delay, (1 - >)-, is insignificant
and the throughput is high0 howe%er, the effect of (1 - >)- 'ecomes significant when the channel error
rate is high, and the throughput is sharply reduced" *he go-'ac(-- A! pro%ides satisfactory
throughput performance for systems in which the round-trip delay is small and the data transmission
rare is not too high 7therwise, its throughput performance 'ecomes inadequate"
#n deri%ing the throughput of a stop-and-wait A! system, we must consider the idle time spent
waiting for an ac(nowledgment for each transmitted code-word" =et 5 'e the idle time from the end of
transmission of one code-word to the 'eginning of transmission of the ne&t" =et -r 'e the signaling rate
of the transmitter in 'its per second" #n one round-trip delay time, the transmitter can transmit a total of
n ? 5 r digits if it does not stay idle" 5uring the inter%al from the 'eginning of transmission of one
code-word to the receipt of a positi%e ac(nowledgment for that code-word, the a%erage num'er of
digits (including the idling effect) that the transmitter could ha%e transmitted is
*herefore, the throughput efficiency of a stop-and--wait A! system is
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*he factor 5r@n may 'e interpreted as the num'er of code-words that could 'e transmitted outing the
idle time of the transmitter" $e see that the throughput can ne%er achie%e the ma&imum %alue (@1;
e%en if the channel is noiseless (> : 1)" For data transmission systems in which the data transmission
rate is low and the round-trip delay is short, D can 'e made relati%ely small compared with the code
length n" #n this case, the stop-and-wait A! pro%ides satisfactory throughput performance: howe%er,
its throughput performance 'ecomes unaccepta'le for systems in which the data transmission rate is
high and the round-trip delay is large, such as satellite communication systems"
From the analysis of throughput performance ,ust gi%en, we see that the selecti%e-repeat A! is the
most efficient scheme, whereas the stop-and-wait A! scheme is the least efficient one *he
throughput of the selecti%e-repeat A! does not depend on the round-trip delay of the system,
whereas the throughputs of the other two A! schemes do" #n communication systems for which the
round-trip delay is large and data rate is high, the parameter - for the go-'ac(-- A!
F#21E .."J: *hroughput efficiencies: the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer,
the selecti%e-repeat A! with a recei%er 'uffer of si)e - : 1.I (the solid triangles represent
simulation results), and the go-'ac(-- A!"
and the parameter 5r@n for the stop-and-wait A! may 'ecome %ery large" #n this case the throughput
for the go-'ac(-N A! drops rapidly as the channel error rate increases, whereas the throughput of the
stop-and-wait A! 'ecomes unaccepta'le"
*he high throughput of the selecti%e-repeat A! is achie%ed at the e&pense of e&tensi%e 'uffering at
the recei%er and more comple& logic at 'oth transmitter and recei%er" *heoretically, infinite 'uffering
is needed to achie%e the efficiency ((@n)>" #f a finite 'uffer is used at the recei%er, the 'uffer may
o%erflow, which reduces the throughput of the system0 howe%er, if sufficient 'uffer (say, a 'uffer that
is capa'le of storing - code-words) is used at the recei%er, e%en with a reduction in throughput, the
selecti%e-repeat A! still significantly outperforms the other two A! schemes in systems for which
data transmission rate is high and round-trip delay is large DJ, H, 1B-1.F" *his situation is discussed in
the ne&t section" Figures .."J to .."A show the throughput efficiencies of the selecti%e-repeat A! and
the go-'ac(-- A i ! for %arious code lengths and round-trip delays" *he channel is a 83C" 3e%eral
%ariations of the go-'ac(- - A! scheme ha%e 'een proposed D<, A, I, KF" *hese %ariations impro%e
the throughput efficiency0 howe%er, they are still less efficient than the selecti%e-repeat A! scheme"
F#21E .."H: *hroughput efficiencies: the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer"
the selecti%e-repeat A! with a recei%er 'uffer of si)e - : H1. (the solid triangles represent
simulation results), and the go-'ac(-- A!"
F#21E .."A: *hroughput efficiencies: the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer,
the selecti%e-repeat AC) with a recei%er 'uffer of si)e - : 1B.J (the solid triangles represent
simulation results), and the go-'ac(-- A!"
22.2. 22.2 Selectie!Re"eat ARQ S#stem $ith %inite Receier B&''er
#n this section we present a practical selecti%e-repeat A! system in which the recei%er employs a
finite-si)e 'uffer D1B, 11F" =et - 'e the num'er of code-words that can 'e transmitted during a round-
trip delay period" For simplicity, we consider only the case for which the si)e of the recei%er 'uffer is
- (i"e", the recei%er 'uffer is capa'le of storing - code-words)"
Each code-word to 'e transmitted has a sequence num'er" *he range of the sequence num'er is set to
<- (i"e", code-words are num'ered from 1 to <-)"
*hese num'ers are used cyclically (i"e", a new code-word following a code-word with sequence
num'er <- is num'ered with 1 again)" For a recei%ed 'uffer of si)e -, if the range of the sequence
num'ers is <-, the recei%er will 'e a'le to distinguish whether a recei%ed %ector with sequence
num'er q is a new %ector or a %ector that has 'een accepted and deli%ered DHF" (*his will 'ecome clear
in the following discussion") 1sing the num'ering system descri'ed, m : Dlog. <-1 'its must 'e
appended to each code-word"
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3uppose that an (11, () linear code is used for error detection" $hen a %ector is recei%ed its syndrome
is computed" #f no errors are detected, the recei%ed %ector is either deli%ered to the user or stored in the
recei%er 'uffer until it is ready to 'e deli%ered in the correct order" #f the recei%ed %ector is detected in
error, it is discarded and a space in the recei%er 'uffer is reser%ed for storing that %ector at a later time"
$hen a code-word is ready for transmission it is num'ered and stored in the input queue of the
transmitter" After its transmission, the code-word is sa%ed in the retransmission 'uffer of the
transmitter until it is positi%ely ac(nowledged"
*he ac(nowledgment arri%es after a round-trip delay" 5uring this inter%al - 6 1 other code-words are
transmitted" A code-word is said to 'e a time-out %ector if it is transmitted (or retransmitted) for a
round-trip delay time" $hen a code-word in the retransmission 'uffer 'ecomes a time-out %ector, it
must 'e either positi%ely or negati%ely ac(nowledged" $hen an AC/ for a code-word in the
retransmission 'uffer is recei%ed, the code-word is released from the retransmission 'uffer0 howe%er,
when a -A/ for a code-word in the retransmission 'uffer is recei%ed, a retransmission of that %ector is
initiated" A third possi'ility that neither an AC/ nor a -A/ is recei%ed when a code-word 'ecomes a
time-out %ector (e"g", the ac(nowledgement is lost in the return channel)" #n this e%ent the transmitter
regards that the unac(nowledged time-out %ector was unsuccessfully transmitted or lost, and
retransmission is initiated for this %ector"
8efore we detail the transmission and retransmission process, we introduce another concept" =et qo 'e
the sequence num'er of the earliest -A/9ed (negati%ely ac(nowledged) or unAC/9ed
(unac(nowledged) code-word in the retransmission 'uffer" *he forward inde& (F$L), denoted 'y f*,
of a code-word with sequence num'er q in the retransmission 'uffer or input queue with respect to the
earliest -A/9ed or unAC/9ed code-word in the retransmission 'uffer is defined as the remainder
resulting from di%iding q - qo 'y <-" +athematically,
Clearly, B C f* C <-"
22.2.1. 22.2.1 TRANSMISSION AND RETRANSMISSION PROCEDURE
$hen the transmitter sends a code-word it also computes the forward inde& f* of the code-word in the
retransmission 'uffer that is to 'ecome a time-out %ector (we will refer to this %ector as the current
time-out %ector)" *hen, the transmitter decides whether the ne&t code-word in the input queue is to 'e
transmitted or a retransmission is to 'e initiated" *he decision rules follow:
1" #f the current time-out %ector is positi%ely ac(nowledged and its forward inde& f* is less than - (or
there is no time-out %ector in the retransmission 'uffer), the first code-word in the input queue is to 'e
transmitted" #f the input queue is empty, the transmitter sits idle until a new code-word arri%es or a
retransmission is initiated"
." #f the current time-out %ector, say %,, is either -A/9ed or unAC/9ed and its forward inde& f* is less
than -, a retransmission for %1 is initiated" #f the current -A/9ed (or unAC/9ed) time-out %ector is the
earliest %ector in the retransmission 'uffer that has not 'een positi%ely ac(nowledged (fr : B), all the
code-words in the retransmission 'uffer with forward indices equal to or greater than - are mo%ed
'ac( to the input queue for retransmission at a later time" *hese are the code-words that ha%e 'een
transmitted, howe%er, when they arri%e at the recei%er, the recei%er 'uffer is full and has no space to
store
F#21E ..";: 3electi%e-repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer of si)e - : ;"
them (this e%ent is referred to as 'uffer o%er o B" *herefore, these code-words must 'e retransmitted
(see Figure ..";)"
<" #f the forward inde& fr of the current time-out %ector is equal to or greater than -, the first code-
word in the input queue is the ne&t to 'e transmitted (this %ector may 'e a code-word that was mo%ed
'ac( to the input queue from the retransmission 'uffer owing to the recei%er 'uffer o%erflow)"
*he transmission and retransmission operations of the transmitter are illustrated in Figures .."; and
.."I"
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22.2.2. 22.2.2 RECIVER'S OPERATION AND ERROR RECOVERY PROCEDURE
-ormally, the transmitter sends code-words continuously to the recei%er" *he recei%er chec(s the
syndrome of each incoming recei%ed %ector and sends an AC/ to the transmitter for each successfully
recei%ed %ector" $hen the channel is quiet the transmission proceeds smoothly, error-free code-words
are deli%ered to the user in consecuti%e order, and the recei%er 'uffer is empty" *he recei%er is said to
'e in the normal state when the recei%er 'uffer is empty and no space is reser%ed for any -A/9ed
'loc("
#f the recei%ed %ector is detected in error, or a recei%ed %ector with an out-of- order sequence num'er
is detected while the recei%er is in the normal state, the recei%er sends a -A/ to the transmitter and
enters the 'loc(ed state" #n the 'loc(ed state the recei%er proceeds to chec( the syndromes of the
incoming recei%ed %ectors, it stores those %ectors that ha%e )ero syndrome at the proper locations in
the recei%er 'uffer, and reser%es proper locations for the %ectors whose syndromes are not )ero until
the recei%er 'uffer is full" N
B
%ectors are deli%ered to the user" $hen the retransmitted code-words
arri%e after a round-trip delay, their syndromes are chec(ed again" *he %ectors that are successfully
recei%ed ()ero syndrome) are stored at the reser%ed locations in the recei%er 'uffer" 7nce the earliest
-A/9ed %ector is successfully recei%ed, the recei%er outputs that %ector and all the su'sequent
consecuti%e )ero-syndrome %ectors (held in the recei%er 'uffer) until the ne&t -A/9ed %ector is
encountered (see Figure ..";)" #f all the %ectors in the recei%er 'uffer are released and all the reser%ed
locations are freed after the earliest -A/9ed %ector has 'een successfully recei%ed, the recei%er returns
to the normal state"
F#21E .."I: *ransmission and retransmission procedure"
#f not all the %ectors in the recei%er 'uffer can 'e released to the user, or if there are still reser%ed
locations in the recei%er 'uffer for the -A/9ed %ectors, the recei%er continues its error reco%ery
process until all the -A/9ed %ectors are successfully recei%ed"
-e&t, we descri'e the detailed operation of the recei%er in 'oth the normal and the 'loc(ed state"
22.2.3. 22.2.3 NORMAL-STATE OPERATION
$hen a %ector with sequence num'er q is recei%ed, the recei%er chec(s its syndrome and computes its
forward inde& (F$L), denoted 'y f, with respect to the last accepted and deli%ered %ector" =et go 'e
the sequence num'er c)f the last accepted and deli%ered %ector" *he forward inde& f of the current
recei%ed %ector is defined
as the remainder resulting from di%iding q - go 'y <-0 that is,
if no errors in the current recei%ed %ector are detected, and f : 1 (f : 1 indicates that the current
recei%ed %ector has the correct sequence num'er), the recei%ed %ector is accepted and deli%ered to the
user" *he recei%er then chec(s the ne&t incoming recei%ed %ector"
#f either the current recei%ed %ector is detected in error, or its forward inde& f is not equal to 1 'ut
less than - 1(1 C f C - indicates that the sequence num'er of the current recei%ed %ector is out of
order), the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state" *here are three cases to 'e considered" #n the first case, for
which the syndrome is not )ero and f : 1, the recei%er discards the erroneously recei%ed %ector and
reser%es the first location of the recei%er 'uffer for that %ector" #n the second case, for which the
syndrome is not )ero and f M 1, f 6 1 %ectors 'etween the last deli%ered %ector and the current
recei%ed %ector are lost"
*he recei%er re,ects the current erroneously recei%ed %ector and reser%es the first f locations of the
recei%er 'uffer for the lost %ectors and the re,ected %ector" #n the third case, for which the syndrome is
)ero 'ut f M 1, f 6 1 %ectors 'etween the last deli%ered %ector and the current recei%ed %ector are
lost" *he recei%er then reser%es the first f 6 1 locations of the recei%er 'uffer for the lost %ectors and
sa%es the current recei%ed %ector at the f th location of the recei%er 'uffer"
#f the forward inde& f of the current recei%ed %ector is greater than -, it is regarded as a %ector that
was pre%iously accepted and deli%ered0 it is then ignored, and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter" *he
recei%er stays in the normal state and processes the ne&t incoming %ector"
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*he flowchart shown in Figure .."K details the recei%er operations in the normal state"
22.2.4. 22.2.4 BLOCKED-STATE OPERATION
*he recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state when either a recei%ed %ector is detected in error or a recei%ed
%ector with an out-of-order sequence num'er is detected" $hen the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state,
each su'sequent )ero-syndrome recei%ed %ector is held in the recei%er 'uffer at a proper location, and
a space in the recei%er 'uffer is reser%ed for each erroneously recei%ed or lost %ector" $hen the 'uffer
is full, all su'sequently recei%ed new %ectors are re,ected and the 'uffer o%erflows"
=et %i 'e the earliest %ector that has not 'een successi%ely recei%ed" $hen a retransmitted copy of %i is
successfully recei%ed, the recei%er releases wi and the su'sequent )ero-syndrome %ectors held in the
recei%er 'uffer (see Figure ..";)" 3uppose that the recei%er can release = ?1 consecuti%e %ectors
including %i (i"e", %i, w ,?1," N" %i?=, where B C = C -)"
8ecause the retransmission is selecti%e, and since %i?i to %i?= were successfully recei%ed 'efore %0 the
%ectors following the retransmitted copy of %i are new %ectors $i?-, ,?- ?1, O, $ ,?-?=-1" $hen
these = new %ectors arri%e their syndromes are computed" *he %ectors that ha%e )ero syndrome are
then temporarily stored in the recei%er 'uffer until they are ready to 'e released, and proper locations
in the recei%er 'uffer are reser%ed for those %ectors that ha%e non)ero syndromes"
F#21E .."K: -ormal-state operation of the recei%er"
#f the retransmitted copy of %i is not successfully recei%ed, the )ero-syndrome %ectors held in the
recei%er 'uffer cannot 'e released to the user" *herefore, there are no places in the recei%er 'uffer to
store the new %ectors, % ,?-, %i-E-?1, ON (since the 'uffer si)e is -)" #n this e%ent, the 'uffer
o%erflows and the new %ectors, %iP-, i?-?, ON will 'e re,ected no matter whether they are
successfully recei%ed or not"
=et go 'e the sequence num'er of the earliest %ector that has not 'een successfully recei%ed" #n the
'loc(ed state, when a %ector with sequence num'er q is recei%ed its forward inde& with respect to the
earliest unsuccessfully recei%ed %ector, denoted 'y #f, is computed" *his forward inde& l is defined as
the remainder resulting from di%iding q - qo 'y <-0 that is,
#f the current recei%ed %ector has )ero syndrome and its forward inde& #f C -, it is stored in the
recei%er 'uffer and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter" #f the current recei%ed %ector is detected in error
and its forward inde& l C -, it is re,ected and a space in the recei%er 'uffer is reser%ed for this %ector0
also, a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" #f lf M -, the recei%er then computes the 'ac(ward inde& (8$L)
l' of the recei%er %ector with respect to the last recei%ed %ector that was stored in the recei%er 'uffer or
for which a space in the recei%er 'uffer is reser%ed" *his 'ac(ward
inde& @' is defined as the remainder resulting from di%iding qp - q 'y <-0 that is,
where qp is the sequence num'er of the last recei%ed %ector that was stored in the recei%er 'uffer or for
which a space in the recei%er 'uffer is reser%ed, and q is the sequence num'er of the current recei%ed
%ector" =f la C .-, the current recei%ed %ector is regarded as a %ector that was pre%iously accepted and
deli%ered" #t is then ignored and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter" if l' M .-, the current recei%ed
%ector is a new %ector0 howe%er, since the recei%ed 'uffer is full, the 'uffer o%erflows" #n this e%ent,
the current recei%ed %ector is re,ected and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" *he recei%er9s operation in
the 'loc(ed state is detailed 'y the flowchart shown in Figure .."1B"
F#21E .."1B: 8loc(ed-state operation of the recei%er"
22.2.5. 22.2.5 THROUGHPUT EFFICIENCY
#f we assume that the channel errors are randomly distri'uted (i"e", a 83C) and the feed'ac( channel is
noiseless, we can deri%e a lower 'ound on the throughput efficiency of the selecti%e-repeat A!
system D11F" 3uppose that a proper (n, () code is used for error detection" =et p 'e the transition
pro'a'ility of the 83C" *hen, the pro'a'ility > that a recei%ed %ector will 'e accepted 'y the recei%er
is
=et
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7
*hese are the pro'a'ilities of success of the second, third, and fourth retransmissions of a code-word,
respecti%ely" $e define
*hen, the throughput efficiency of the selecti%e A! with a recei%er 'uffer of si)e - is lower 'ounded
as follows:
(Assuming that the num'er of 'its used for sequence num'ers is small compared with the code length
n, its effect on the throughput is ignored")
For %arious n and -, the lower 'ound on the throughput gi%en 'y (.."11) is compared with the
throughput of the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer and the throughput of the go-
'ac(-- A!, as shown in Figures .."J to .."A" $e see that the selecti%e-repeat A! with a recei%er
'uffer of si)e - is less efficient than the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! 'ecause of the reduction in 'uffer
si)e at the recei%er0 howe%er, it significantly outperforms the go-'ac(-- A!, particularly for
communication systems in which the round-trip delay is large and data rate is high" #f the round-trip
delay is ta(en to 'e ;BB ms (suita'le for satellite channels), the data transmission rate corresponding to
11 : H.J and - : 1.I (Figure .."J) is 1BB ('ps, the data rate corresponding to 11 : .B.J and - : H1.
(Figure .."H) is 1"HJ +'ps, and the data rate corresponding to n : 1B.J (Figure .."A) is also 1"HJ
+'ps"
*he selecti%e-repeat A! descri'ed in this section can 'e e&tended for any recei%er 'uffer of si)e
greater than -, say .-, <-, ON" 7f course, the throughput efficiency increases as the 'uffer si)e
increases" Figure .."11 shows the throughput with 'uffer si)e equal to .-"
3electi%e-repeat A! that operates with a finite recei%er 'uffer and a finite range of sequence num'ers
was first studied 'y +et)ner DHF" 7ther selecti%e-repeat A! schemes employing finite recei%er
'uffer, can 'e found in D1, 1; 11 1I-;B, and .HF"
F#21E .."11: *hroughput of the selecti%e-repeat A! with a finite recei%er 'uffer: (1) si)e - and
(.) si)e .-, where - : H1."
22.3. 22.3 ARQ Schemes $ith (i)ed (odes o' Retransmission
#t is possi'le to de%ise A! schemes with mi&ed modes of retransmission one such scheme is the
selecti%e-repeat plus go-'ac(-- (3 ? 28-) A! D1.F" $hen a code-word % in the retransmission
'uffer 'ecomes the earliest negati%ely ac(nowledged %ector, the transmitter resends v and other
%ectors in the selecti%e-repeat (3) mode (i"e", only % and other negati%ely ac(nowledged %ectors are
retransmitted)" 5uring the 3 mode, the recei%er stores those %ectors that are successfully recei%ed"
*he transmitter remains in 3 mode until either 9Q is positi%ely ac(nowledged or has 'een
retransmitted % times 'ut the transmitter fails to recei%e an AC/ for %" #n the first e%ent, the transmitter
proceeds to send new code-words" $hen the second e%ent occurs the transmitter switches to the go-
'ac(-- (28-) retransmission mode"
*he transmitter stops sending new code-words, 'ac(s up to %, and resends % and - 6 1 succeeding
%ectors that were transmitted following the with 3 h retransmission attempt for ;" *he transmitter stays
in the 28- mode until % is positi%ely ac(nowledged" At the recei%ing end, when the th with
retransmission of % is detected in error all the su'sequent - 6 1 recei%ed %ectors are discarded
regardless of whether they are successfully recei%ed or not" *he recei%er continues this operation until
% is successfully recei%ed" *hen, the recei%er releases ; and all the consecuti%e error-free %ectors
following % that were held in the recei%er 'uffer" $hen the 3r ? 28- A!
is used the recei%er 'uffer must 'e a'le to store %(- 6 1) ? 1 %ectors to pre%ent 'uffer o%erflow,
Figure .."1. illustrates the transmission@retransmission procedure for 3 ? 28- with % : 1, namely
one retransmission for a -A/9ed %ector in 3 mode and all su'sequent retransmissions of the same
%ector in 28- mode" Following the second consecuti%e -A/ for a gi%en %ector (e"g", 'loc( ; in
Figure .."1.) the recei%er simply discards all - 6 1 su'sequent %ectors until the successful reception
of the erroneous %ector" #n the transmitter and in the recei%er, counters would 'e required to (eep
chec( on the num'er of transmission@retransmission attempts made for each
F#21E .."1.: 3 ? 28- A! for % : 1 and - : H"
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8
%ector to determine whether an 3 or 28- type of retransmission is required" #f more than one %ector
that has 'een transmitted twice unsuccessfully is stored in the transmitter retransmission 'uffer, these
%ectors must 'e queued for successi%e independent go-'ac(---type retransmissions" *he earliest
dou'le--A/9ed %ector" say ri, is retransmitted in the 28- mode, followed 'y - 6 1 %ectors that were
pre%iously transmitted after wi and su'sequently discarded 'y the recei%er" *his action is repeated
until an AC/ for %1 is recei%ed" *hen, the same procedure is repeated for any su'sequent dou'le-
-A/9ed %ectors in the retransmission 'uffer" *he throughput efficiency of the 3 28- A! has 'een
analy)ed D1.F" For % : 1, its throughput efficiency is
where > is the pro'a'ility that a %ector will 'e successfully recei%ed" For % M 1,
For % : B, the 3 ? 28- scheme 'ecomes the con%entional go-'ac(-- A!, and
Figure .."1< demonstrates the throughput performance of the 3 ? 2E- A! for % : 1 and ."
*hroughput efficiencies of other A! schemes are included
F#21E .."1<: *hroughput efficiencies of the 3 28- with % : 1 and ., - : H1. and is : .B.J"
in the same figure for comparison" $e see that 399N9 ? 2#- A! significantly outperforms the
con%entional go-'ac(-- A! in throughput for high 'it-error rate and large round-trip delay" $e also
see that with the same recei%er 'uffer si)e, the 3 ? 28- A! is inferior to the selecti%e-repeat A!
descri'ed in 3ection ..". for high channel error rate0 howe%er, 3 ? 28- A! requires simpler logic
at the transmitter and recei%er than the selecti%e-repeat A!"
#n selecti%e-repeat A!, when a code-word in the retransmission 'uffer is negati%ely ac(nowledged a
single copy of this -A/9ed code-word is retransmitted" A simple %ariation of this single-copy
retransmission is to repeat a -A/9ed code-word multiple times to increase the pro'a'ility that a
retransmitted code-word will 'e recei%ed successfully"
*his multiple-repetitions strategy is called stuttering (3*)" *he first selecti%e-repeat A! incorporated
with a stuttering mode of retransmission, (nown as 3 ? 3* A!, was proposed 'y +iller and =in
D1.F and was later impro%ed 'y $eldon D1<F" *he 'asic idea of $eldon9s 3 ? 3* A! scheme is to
repeat a -A/9ed code-word multiple times, with the num'er of repetitions increasing each time until
the 'uffer o%erflows" *he scheme operates as follows:
1" First retransmission $hen a code-word is negati%ely ac(nowledged for the first time it is repeated
n1 times in its first retransmission"
." 3econd retransmission #f all n1 copies in the first retransmission of a code-word are negati%ely
ac(nowledged, the code-word is repeated @;. times in its second retransmission"

q" qth retransmission #f all the nqR1 copies in the (q 6 1)th retransmission of a code-word are
negati%ely ac(nowledged, the code-word is repeated nq times"
After q retransmissions, if a code-word is still negati%ely ac(nowledged, the 'uffer o%erflows at the
recei%er" *he transmitter continues to retransmit the code-word" #n each retransmission the code-word
is repeated nq times" *he transmitter sends new code-words whene%er it does not ha%e repetitions to
send" *his process continues until the code-word is positi%ely ac(nowledged" For q : 1 and B1 : 1, the
3 ? 3* A! 'ecomes the con%entional selecti%e-repeat A!"
*he throughput performance of $eldon9s 3 ? 3* A! depends on the choices of the repetition
parameters B1, n.,, *hese parameters can 'e chosen to optimi)e the throughput performance for a
gi%en recei%er 'uffer si)e" *his A ? 3* A! pro%ides some impro%ement in throughput efficiency
o%er the selecti%e-repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer presented in 3ection .."10 howe%er, it is
harder to implement"
22.4. 22.4 *#+rid ARQ Schemes
Comparing the FEC and A! error-control schemes, we see that A! is simple and pro%ides high
system relia'ility0 howe%er, A! systems ha%e a se%ere draw'ac(- their throughputs fall rapidly with
increasing channel error rate" 3ystems using FEC maintain constant throughput (equal to the code rate
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9
: (@n) regardless of the channel error rate0 howe%er, FEC systems ha%e two draw'ac(s: First, when
a recei%ed %ector is detected in error it must 'e decoded and the decoded message must 'e deli%ered to
the user regardless of whether it is correct or incorrect"
8ecause the pro'a'ility of a decoding error is much greater than the pro'a'ility of an undetected error,
it is hard to achie%e high system relia'ility with FEC" 3econd, to o'tain high system relia'ility, a long
powerful code must 'e used and a large collection of error patterns must 'e corrected" *his ma(es
decoding hard to implement and e&pensi%e" For these reasons A! is often preferred o%er FEC for
error control in data communication systems, such as pac(et-switching data networ(s and computer
communication networ(s0 howe%er, in communication (or data storage) systems where return channels
are not a%aila'le or retransmission is not possi'le for some reason, FEC is the only choice"
*he draw'ac(s in 'oth A! and FEC can 'e o%ercome if two error control schemes are properly
com'ined" 3uch a com'ination of the two 'asic control schemes is referred to as a hy'rid A! D., .IF"
A hy'rid system consists of an FEC su'system contained in an A! system" *he function of the FEC
su'system is to reduce the frequency of retransmission 'y correcting the error patterns that occur most
frequently" *his increases the system throughout"
$hen a less frequent error pattern occurs and is detected, the recei%er requests a retransmission rather
than passing the unrelia'ly decoded message to the user" *his increases the system relia'ility" As a
result, a proper com'ination of FEC and A! pro%ides higher relia'ility than an FEC system alone
and a higher throughput than the system with A! only" Furthermore, since the decoder is designed to
correct a small collection of error patterns, it can 'e simple" *he FEC scheme can 'e incorporated with
any of the three 'asic A! schemes"
A straightforward hy'rid A! scheme is to use a code, say, an (n, () linear code that is designed to
simultaneously correct and detect errors" $hen a recei%ed %ector is detected in error the recei%er first
attempts to locate and correct the errors" #f the num'er of errors (or the length of an error 'urst) is
within the designed error-correcting capa'ility of the code, the errors are corrected, and the decoded
message is passed to the user or sa%ed in a 'uffer until it is ready to 'e deli%ered"
#f an uncorrecta'le error pattern is detected, the recei%er re,ects the recei%ed %ector and requests a
retransmission" $hen the retransmitted %ector is recei%ed the recei%er again attempts to correct the
errors (if any)" #f the decoding is not successful, the recei%er again re,ects the recei%ed %ector and as(s
for another retransmission" *his error-correction and retransmission process continues until the %ector
is successfully recei%ed or decoded" For e&ample, one may use the (1B.<, K.<) hC4 code in a hy'rid
A! system"
*his code has a minimum distance of .10 it can 'e used for correcting fi%e or fewer errors and
simultaneously detecting any com'ination of 1H or fewer errors (and many other error patterns)" #f an
error pattern with H or fewer errors occurs, it will 'e detected and corrected" #f an error pattern with
more than H 'ut less than 1A errors occurs, it will 'e detected" #n this e%ent the recei%er will request a
retransmission of the erroneous %ector"
*he hy'rid A! scheme descri'ed is referred to as the type-# hy'rid A! scheme" 8ecause a code
used in this scheme must 'e a'le to correct a certain collection of error patterns and simultaneously
detect other error patterns, more parity-chec( digits are needed, which increases the o%erhead for each
transmission and retransmission" As a result, when the channel error rate is low, the type-# hy'rid A!
has a lower throughput than its corresponding A! scheme0 howe%er, when the channel error rate
increases, the throughput of the A! scheme drops rapidly,
F#21E .."1J: *hroughput performance of the type-# selecti%e-repeat A!"
and the hy'rid A! scheme pro%ides higher throughput, as shown in Figure .."1J" *he type-# hy'rid
A! scheme is capa'le of maintaining significant high throughput o%er a wide range of channel error
rates if the designed error-correcting capa'ility of the code is sufficiently large"
=et >, 'e the pro'a'ility that a recei%ed %ector will 'e decoded successfully" *his pro'a'ility depends
on the designed error-correcting capa'ility of the code 'eing used" eplacing > with >r in (.."J),
(.."H), (.."A), and (.."11), we o'tain the throughput efficiencies for the type-# hy'rid selecti%e-repeat
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10
A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer, the type-# hy'rid go-'ac(-- A!, the type-# hy'rid stop-and-wait
A!, and the type-# hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e -, respecti%ely"
*he second type (or type ##) of hy'rid A! scheme is 'ased on the concept that the parity-chec( digits
for error correction are sent to the recei%er only when they are needed D<B, <J-<A, <KF" *wo linear
codes are used in this type of scheme: one is a high-rate (n, () code Co designed for error detection
only the other is an in%erti'le half-rate (.
k
, () code C
1
designed for simultaneous error correction and
error detection"
A code is said to 'e in%erti'le if when only the parity-chec( digits of a code-word are (nown, the
corresponding information digits can 'e uniquely determined 'y an in%ersion process" #n the ne&t
section we present a class of in%erti'le half-rate linear codes, and we show that the in%ersion can 'e
accomplished 'y a linear sequential circuit"
$hen a message u of ( information digits is ready for transmission, it is encoded into a code-word % :
(f (u), u) of n digits 'ased on the error-detecting code Co, where f (11) denotes the n - ( parity-chec(
digits" *he code-word % : (f (u), u) is then transmitted" At the same time the transmitter computes the (
parity-chec( digits, denoted 'y q(u), 'ased on the message u and the half-rate in%erti'le code C
1
"
Clearly, the .
k
-tuple (q (u), u) is a code-word in C
1
" *he k-'it parity 'loc( q(u) is not transmitted 'ut
stored in the retransmission 'uffer of the transmitter for later use"
=et : (f (a), H:1) denote the recei%ed %ector corresponding to % : (f (u), H)" $hen is recei%ed the
recei%er computes the syndrome of > 'ased on Co" #f the syndrome is )ero, nu is assumed to 'e error-
free and is accepted 'y the recei%er" #f the syndrome is not )ero, errors are detected in >" *he erroneous
message an is then sa%ed in the recei%er 'uffer, and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" 7n recei%ing this
-A/ the transmitter encodes the k-'it parity 'loc( quip into a code-word, ni : (f Dq (u)F, q (u)) of n
'its 'ased on Co, where fDcy 74F denotes the a - ( parity-chec( digits for q (u)"
*his %ector : (fDq (u)F, q(u)) is then transmitted (here the retransmission is a parity %ector) =et :
(EDq$F, cS, (u)) denote the recei%ed %ector corresponding to aT : (f Dq(u)F, (au))" $hen ;@T is recei%ed
the syndrome of > is computed 'ased on Co" #f the syndrome is )ero, ii(e) is assumed to 'e error-free,
and the message a is reco%ered from J 'y in%ersion"
#f the syndrome is not )ero, i) (a) and the erroneous message an (stored in the recei%er 'uffer) together
are used for error correction 'ased on the half-rate code C
1
" #f the errors in ((o), H) form a correcta'le
error pattern, they are corrected" *he decoded message a is then accepted 'y the recei%er" #f the errors
in (J(u), H) form a detecta'le 'ut not a correcta'le error pattern, H is discarded and the erroneous parity
'loc( J(au) is stored in the recei%er 'uffer0 also, a -A/ is sent to the transmitter"
7n recei%ing the second -A/ for the code-word a : (f (u), an), the transmitter resends a : (f (u), a)"
$hen > : (f (11), H) is recei%ed the syndrome ofd is again computed 'ased on Co" #f the syndrome is
)ero, H is assumed to 'e error-free and is accepted 'y the recei%er0 the erroneous parity 'loc( J- (u) is
then discarded" #f the syndrome is not )ero, an and the erroneous parity 'loc( J (au) (stored in the
recei%er 'uffer) together are used for error correction 'ased on Ct"
#f the errors in (J(a), H) are corrected, the decoded message a is then accepted 'y the recei%er and an
AC/ is sent to the transmitter0 howe%er, if the errors in (i") (H), are detecta'le 'ut not correcta'le, J (u)
is discarded, is stored in the recei%er 'uffer, and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" *he ne&t
retransmission is the parity %ector %T Dci -7F, (an))" *herefore, the retransmissions are alternating
repetitions of the parity code-word : (f Dq(u)F, q(a)) and the information code-word a : (f (a), a)" *he
recei%er stores the recei%ed message a and the recei%ed parity 'loc( J (aa) alternately" *he
retransmissions continue until an is finally reco%ered"
*he most important feature of the type ##-hy'rid A B is the parity retransmission for error correction
'ased on a half-rate in%erti'le code C
1
" *his parity-retransmission strategy can 'e incorporated with
any of the three 'asic types of
A!" #t is particularly effecti%e when it is used in con,unction with the selecti%e-repeat A!" 8ecause
of the in%erti'le property of C
1
, the message H can 'e reconstructed uniquely from the parity 'loc(
q(an) 'y in%ersion" 4ence, the parity 'loc( (ail) contains the same amount of information as the
message" As a result, the o%erhead per transmission or retransmission is simply the num'er of parity-
232481003.doc.doc Utorak, 1. sijeanj 2013
11
chec( digits, a - (, needed for error detection 'ased on the (a, () code Co, which is required 'y any
A! scheme"
*herefore, when the channel is quiet or the channel error rate is low, the type-## hy'rid A! has the
same throughput efficiency as its corresponding A! scheme" $hen the channel error rate is high, the
error correction pro%ided 'y the half-rate code C
1
maintains the throughput high" #n 3ection .."H we
present a type-4 hy'rid A! that incorporates the parity-retransmission strategy with the selecti%e-
repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer" $e will show that for
a 83C, the throughput efficiency of the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer can 'e
achie%ed 'y a half-rate in%erti'le code C# with a %ery small designed error-correcting capa'ility, say t
: < to H" $ith a larger t, the type-## hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer is far
superior to the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer"
*he decoding comple&ity for a type-## hy'rid A! is only slightly greater than that of a corresponding
type-# hy'rid A! with the same designed error-correcting capa'ility" *he e&tra circuits needed for a
type-#* hy'rid A! scheme are an in%ersion circuit 'ased on C
1
, which is simply a linear sequential
circuit and an error-detection circuit 'ased on Co"
*he disad%antage of the type-# hy'rid A! is that the o%erhead due to the e&tra parity-chec( digits for
error correction must 'e included in each transmission or retransmission regardless of the channel error
rate" $hen the channel is quiet, this inclusion represents a waste0 howe%er, the type-## hy'rid A!
remo%es this disad%antage, 'ecause is an adapti%e scheme" *his scheme is particularly attracti%e for
high-speed data communication systems for which round-trip delay is large and error rate is non-
stationary, such as satellite communication systems" #t is also attracti%e for wireless communications"
Qarious hy'rid A! schemes and their analyses can 'e found in D.<, .I-AIF"
22.5. 22., A -lass o' *al'!Rate .nerti+le -odes
#n a type-## hy'rid A! system, Ci is chosen as a half-rate in%erti'le code" *he in%erti'le property
facilitates the data reco%ery process" 5uring a retransmission, if the parity 'loc( q (u) is successfully
recei%ed (no errors are detected), the message #n can 'e reconstructed from q (u) 'y a simple in%ersion
process rather than 'y a more complicated decoding process" *he in%ersion process also reduces the
frequency of retransmission"
For e&ample, if the recei%ed message En contains more than t errors, and the recei%ed parity 'loc( q
(ta) is error-free, the decoding process 'ased on (J (u), En) will not 'e a'le to reco%er the message #=
4ence, another retransmission will 'e required0 howe%er, ta(ing the in%erse of the error-free parity
'loc( (u) allows us to 'e a'le to reco%er n and thus a%oid another retransmission"
-e&t, we present a class of half-rate in%erti'le 'loc( codes and show that in%ersion can 'e
accomplished 'y a linear sequential circuit"
=et C 'e an (n, (9) cyclic code with n - ( C (" =et g(L) 'e the generator polynomial of C with the form
=et
'e a code polynomial" #n systematic form, the ( leading high-order coefficients QU-(, 1U-(?1, O, QU-i
are identical to ( information digits0 the 1; - ( low-order coefficients %o, %i, O, %U-( RiR are parity-
chec( digits" Consider the set of those code-words in C whose .
k
- n leading high-order components
Q.(UR(), Q.(URB?1, O, %URi are )eros" *here are .E-( such code-words in C" #f the .
k
- n high-order
)ero components are remo%ed from these code-words we o'tain a set of .E-( %ectors of length .(n - ()"
*hese %ectors form a half-rate (.n - .
k
, n - () shortened cyclic code Ci
(see 3ection H"1B)" *his shortened cyclic code has at least the same error-correcting capa'ility as C"
$e showed in 3ection H"1B that C
1
can 'e encoded and decoded 'y the same circuits (or with a slight
modification) as employed 'y C"
-e&t, we show that the shortened cyclic code C= has the in%erti'le property" =et
'e the message to 'e encoded" 5i%iding LE-( u(L) 'y the generator polynomial u(X), we ha%e
232481003.doc.doc Utorak, 1. sijeanj 2013
12
where a(L) and '(L) are the quotient and the remainder, respecti%ely" *he code-word for an(L) is then
and '(L) is the parity-chec( portion" *he following theorem pro%es the in%erti'le property of C
1
"
*4E7E+ .."1 -o two code-words in a half-rate shortened cyclic code C
1
ha%e the same parity-
chec( digits"
>roof =et gni (L) and 111.(L) 'e two distinct messages" 5i%iding LE-(si (L) and LE-( aii.(L) 'y the
generator polynomial g(L), respecti%ely, we o'tain
*hen, the code-words for a t (L) and 111.(L) are
respecti%ely" 3uppose that
Adding (.."1H) and (.."1A), we o'tain
8ecause g(L) and LlE are relati%ely prime, -al (L) ? u.(L) must 'e di%isi'le 'y g(L): howe%er, this is
impossi'le, since *il t (L) ? la.(L) ) B and its degree is less than a - ( 'ut the degree of g(L) is - ("
*herefore, #'i (L) r 1 .(L)"
8ecause the remainder >o(L) resulting from di%iding LE-(ari(L) 'y g(L) is unique, *heorem .."1
implies that there is one-to-one correspondence 'etween a message sr(L) and its parity chec( '(L)"
*herefore, (nowing '(L), we can uniquely determine u(L)"
-e&t, we show how to reco%er the message an(L) from the parity H(L)" First, we multiply 'oth sides of
(.."1J) 'y L( :
earranging (.."1;), we o'tain
8ecause g(L) is a factor of LE ? 1, we can rewrite (.1"1I) as
where h(L) : (LE ? 1)@g(L)" From (.1"1K) we see that the message u(L) is simply the remainder
resulting from di%iding '(L)L( 'y the generator polynomial g(L)" *his operation can 'e performed 'y
using a di%ision circuit with feed'ac( connection 'ased on g(L)" *he process of finding the message
u(L) from its parity-chec( digits '(L) is called an in%ersion process"
A faster circuit for in%erting '(L) can 'e implemented as follows" 5i%iding L( 'y g(L), we ha%e
where the remainder
+ultiplying 'oth sides of (..".B) 'y '(L) and using the equality of (.."1K), we o'tain
*he preceding e&pression suggests that we can o'tain the message u(L) 'y multiplying the parity '(L)
'y p(X) and di%iding the product '(L)p(X) 'y g(L)" $e can do this with the circuit shown in Figure
.."1H"
F#21E .."1H: #n%ersion circuit"
For e&ample, consider the (1B.<, H.<) 8CE code" *his code has a minimum distance of at least 111"
$e can use this code to simultaneously correct all com'inations of H or fewer errors and detect all
com'inations of 1BH or fewer errors" #n this case the pro'a'ility of an undetected error will 'e
e&tremely small" 3hortening this code 'y .< digits, we o'tain a (1BBB, HBB) in%erti'le code"
22.6. 22./ 0#"e!.. *#+rid Selectie!Re"eat ARQ $ith %inite Receier B&''er
>arity retransmission for error correction can easily 'e incorporated with the selecti%e-repeat AC)
with finite recei%er 'uffer descri'ed in 3ection .."." Again we consider only the case for which the
si)e of the recei%er 'uffer is - (the num'er of %ectors transmitted in one round-trip delay time)" *he
range of sequence num'ers is still <-"
=et a 'e a k-'it message to 'e transmitted" *here are three code-words associated with this message:
1" *he code-word % : (f (u), pm) 'ased on an (n, () error-detecting code Co"
." *he code-word ry : (q (all), u) 'ased on a half-rate in%erti'le (.
k
, () code C
1
"
1 *he code-word : (f Dq (au)F, (n11)) 'ased on the k-'it parity 'loc( q(u) and the code Co"
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For con%enience, we call e : +u), e) the information code-word of u, and ("f Dq (>7F, q (all)) the parity
code-word of u"8"" $e will use : (rt (u), H) and : (f DcF (e)F, (u)) to denote the recei%ed %ectors
corresponding to % and %T, respecti%ely" #n transmission or retransmission the information code-word %
and the parity code-word eT of the message as ha%e the same sequence num'er"
$hen an information code-word e is ready for transmission, it is num'ered and stored in the input
queue of the transmitter" After its transmission, % and its corresponding parity code-word %T are sa%ed
in the retransmission 'uffer until % is positi%ely ac(nowledged" $hen an AC/ is recei%ed after a
round-trip delay, 'oth % and %T are released" $hen a -A/, (or no ac(nowledgement) is recei%ed after
a round-trip delay, %999 is sent to the recei%er for error correction (if necessary)"
After another round-trip delay, if an AC/ is recei%ed, 'oth % and %T are released0 otherwise, % is
retransmitted" *he transmitter resends % and %T alternately until % is positi%ely ac(nowledged, as
shown in Figure .."1A"
22..1. 22..1 TRANSMISSION AND RETRANSMISSSION PROCEDURE
$hen the transmitter is sending a code-word, information, or parity it also computes the forward inde&
f* of the code-word in the retransmission 'uffer that is to 'ecome a time-out %ector" 8ased on this
forward inde& f*, the transmitter decides whether the ne&t information code-word in the input queue is
to 'e transmitted or retransmission is to 'e initiated" *he decision rule is as follows:
1" #f the current time-out code-word is positi%ely ac(nowledged and C - (or if there is no current time-
out code-word), the first information code-word in the input queue is to 'e transmitted"
." #f the current time-out code-word, say %1, is either negati%ely ac(nowledged or unac(nowledged
and fr C -, a retransmission for ei is initiated" *he
F#21E .."1A: *ype ## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e N : ;"
retransmission for %i is the parity code-word %99 if %i was pre%iously transmitted, and is a repetition of
%"0 if % was pre%iously transmitted" #f the current -A/9ed (or unAC/9ed) time-out code-word is the
earliest code-word in the retransmission 'uffer that has not 'een positi%ely ac(nowledged (f* : B), all
the information code-words in the retransmission 'uffer with forward indices - are mo%ed 'ac( to the
input queue for retransmission at a later time (these code-words are re,ected 'y the recei%er owing to
the recei%er 'uffer o%erflow)"
the first information code-word in the input queue is the ne&t to 'e transmitted"
*he transmission and retransmission operations of the type-4 hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with
recei%er 'uffer of si)e - are detailed 'y the flowchart in Figure .."1;"
22..2. 22..2 RECEIVER!S OPERATION IN THE NORMALL STATE
#n the normal state the recei%er recei%es information code-words, and the recei%er 'uffer is empty"
$hen an information code-word is recei%ed the recei%er computes its syndrome 'ased on Co and its
forward inde& f with respect to the last accepted and deli%ered information code-word" #f the
syndrome is )ero and f : 1, the recei%ed information code-word is accepted and deli%ered to the user"
#f f M -, the recei%ed %ector is regarded as an information code-word that was pre%iously accepted
and deli%ered0 it is then ignored and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter"
#f either the recei%ed information code-word is detected in error, or 1 C f C - (i"e", its sequence
num'er is out of order)U the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state" *he recei%er9s operation in the normal
state is detailed 'y the flowchart in Figure .."1I"
22..3. 22..3 RECEIVER!S OPERATION IN THE BLOCK STATE
#f the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state owing to the detection of errors in a recei%ed information code-
word y : f (o), with f : 1, the erroneous message is then stored at the first location of the recei%er
'uffer and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" *he recei%er then chec(s the su'sequent recei%ed
information code-words and stores them in the recei%er 'uffer at the proper locations according to their
sequence num'ers until the 'uffer is full0 also, an appropriate ac(nowledgment is sent to the
transmitter for each recei%ed %ector"
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14
#f the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state with f M 1, then f 6 1 information code-words 'etween the
last deli%ered information code-word and the current recei%ed information code-word are lost" *he
recei%er then reser%es the first f 6 1 locations of the recei%er 'uffer for the lost %ectors and sa%es the
current recei%ed %ector (only the message part) at the (f)th location of the 'uffer" *he su'sequent
recei%ed information code-words are stored in the remaining locations of the recei%er 'uffer"
$hen the first retransmitted parity code-word, say ;;,E@S : (f Dq(ur,)F, iyani)), is recei%ed it is used to
reco%er the earliest erroneously recei%ed message (or the earliest lost message) an l" #f the syndrome of
Q: is )ero, uni is reco%ered 'y ta(ing the in%ersion of i.- (tui ,)" #f the syndrome of % is not )ero, i-)"
(ui) and En j (stored in the 'uffer) together are used for error correction 'ased on the half-rate-error-
correcting code Ci" #f the
F#21E .."1;: *ransmission and retransmission procedure of the type-## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid with
recei%er 'uffer of si)e -"
errors are correcta'le, u, is reco%ered" $hen u @is reco%ered, the recei%er releases u, and the
su'sequent error-free (or )ero-syndrome) messages in consecuti%e order, say u ,, u1?1, O, ui?= with B
C = C -" 8ecause the retransmission is selecti%e, and since uti?i to u ,?= are successfully reco%ered,
the %ectors following ii"T@are new information code-words i,?-, ?-?1, E %,-B1?=-1N $hen these new
information
F#21E .."1I: -ormal-state operation of the recei%er"
code-words arri%e their syndromes are chec(ed and are temporarily stored in the recei%er 'uffer until
they are ready to 'e released to the user or to 'e corrected" #f (a i) fails to reco%er the recei%er discards
i j in the recei%er 'uffer0 also, a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" 8ecause error-free messages cannot 'e
released, there are no places in the recei%er 'uffer to store the new recei%ed information code-words <,
,?- to iii?-?=-1" #n this e%ent, the 'uffer o%erflows, and these new information code-words are
re,ected"
7n recei%ing the second -A/ for Q@ : (11.), the transmitter resends %0 to the recei%er" 7n recei%ing i
: -- the recei%er again attempts to reco%er u ," #f the syndrome of a i is )ero, EllF is assumed to 'e
error-free and is released" #f the syndrome of %i is not )ero, aa j and (-1- (all ,) (stored in the recei%er
'uffer) together are used for error correction 'ased on C
1
"
#f the recei%er again fails to reco%er Eli, then (-1BB is discarded and El0 is stored in the recei%er 'uffer"
Qector %i (and any other erroneously recei%ed information code-words) continue to 'e retransmitted
until tut@is successfully reco%ered" *he retransmissions are alternate repetitions of the parity %ector %90
and the information %ector %,, and the recei%er stores H"1 and ,) alternately"
#n the 'loc(ed state, when an information code-word is recei%ed its forward inde& #f is computed" #f if
C -, the %ector is stored in the recei%er 'uffer" #f no errors are detected, an AC/ is set to the
transmitter0 otherwise, a -A/ is sent to the
transmitter" #f @f M -, the recei%er computes its 'ac(ward inde& @'" #f l' C .-, the current recei%ed
%ector is regarded as an information code-word that was pre%iously accepted and deli%ered" #t is then
ignored, and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter" #f i' M .-, the recei%ed %ector is a new information
code-word0 howe%er, the 'uffer is full and o%erflows" #n this e%ent the recei%ed %ector is re,ected and a
-A/ is sent to the transmitter"
$hen a retransmitted -A/9ed %ector arri%es, the recei%er chec(s whether this recei%ed %ector and its
corresponding %ector stored in the recei%er 'uffer form a message and parity pair" #f they do form such
a pair, the recei%er then attempts to reco%er the original message either 'y in%ersion or 'y decoding
process" #f the newly recei%ed %ector and its corresponding %ector in the 'uffer do not form a message
and parity pair, the recei%er chec(s whether 'oth are information %ectors or parity %ectors"
#f they are 'oth information %ectors, the recei%er stores the one that is error-free0 if 'oth are erroneous,
the recei%er replaces the old one with the newly recei%ed one" #f they are 'oth parity %ectors, the
recei%er replaces the old one in the 'uffer with the newly recei%ed parity %ector (or its in%ersion)" #f
the recei%ed %ector corresponds to a lost %ector, it is stored at a reser%ed location in the recei%er 'uffer"
*he recei%er9s operation in the 'loc(ed state is detailed in the flowchart in Figure .."1K"
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22..4. 22..4 THROUGHPUT EFFICIENCY
*o analy)e the throughput efficiency of the hy'rid A! descri'ed is %ery difficult0 howe%er, if we
assume that the channel is a 83C and the return channel is noiseless, we can o'tain a lower 'ound on
the throughput" Again, let > 'e the pro'a'ility that a code-word, information or parity, will 'e recei%ed
successfully (i"e", the syndrome 'ased on Co is )ero)"
3uppose that C
1
is capa'le of correcting any com'ination of t or fewer errors and simultaneously
detecting any com'ination d(d M t) or fewer errors" =et !i 'e the conditional pro'a'ility that a message
<s i will 'e reco%ered from the first recei%ed parity 'loc( (tii,i) either 'y in%ersion or 'y decoding
'ased on C
1
, gi%en that errors are detected in the recei%ed information code-word : (1(ro ,), ,)"
=et !. 'e the conditional pro'a'ility that Vui, will 'e successfully reco%ered from the second
retransmission of %1 : (," (ani), *o), gi%en that errors are detected in the first recei%ed parity code-
word foA, (yin, and the first recei%ed in formation code-word : (f (ui) ,), and that the first recei%ed
parity 'loc( q (J1 ,) fails to reco%er rtiri 'ut detects the presence of errors in (J li)" *hen, it is possi'le
to show that D<KF
F#21E .."1K: 8loc(ed state of the recei%er, where L, and W1 represent either the information code-
word %1 or the parity code-word
T
j
v
"
where
$e define
*hen, the throughput of the type-## hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e - is lower
'ounded as follows:
F#21E ..".B: *hroughput of %arious A! schemes with - : 1.I and n : H.J: (1) ideal selecti%e-
repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer0 (.) and (<) selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e
- and .-0 (J), (H), and (A) type-## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e - and
error-correction parameters t : <, H, and 1B, respecti%ely"
where
For %arious 11, (, t, and -, the lower 'ound on throughput %ersus 'it-error rate is plotted in Figures
..".B to ..".." $e see that the throughput efficiency of the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite
recei%er 'uffer can 'e achie%ed 'y the type-4 hy'rid A! scheme descri'ed with a relati%ely small
designed error-correcting capa'ility t (t C H)" For t M H, throughput much higher than that of the ideal
selecti%e-repeat A! can 'e o'tained"
22..5. 22..5 RELIABILITY
#f the error-detecting capa'ility d of the half-rate code C
1
is sufficiently large, the type-11 hy'rid A!
scheme pro%ides the same relia'ility as a pure A! scheme"
F#21E ..".1: *hroughput of %arious A! schemes with - : 1B.J and" n : 1B.J: (1) ideal
selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer: (.) and (<) selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er
'uffer of si)e - and .-0 (J), (H), and (A) type-4l selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of
si)e - and error-correction parameters t : <, H, and 1B, respecti%ely"
F#21E .."..: *hroughput of %arious A! schemes with - : H1. and n : .B.J: (1) ideal selecti%e-
repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer0 (.) and (<) selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e
- and .-0 (J), (H), and (A) type-## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e - and
error-correction parameters r : <, H, and 1B, respecti%ely"
=et >, 'e the pro'a'ility that Co will fail to detect the presence of errors" =et
which is the pro'a'ility that the num'er of errors in (J(u), will e&ceed the
designed error-detecting capa'ility d of C
1
" *hen, the pro'a'ility that the recei%er
will commit a decoding error is 'ounded as follows D<KF:
where 1<, - pr" #f we choose, d sufficiently large, we can ma(e a of the same
232481003.doc.doc Utorak, 1. sijeanj 2013
16
order as >e or e%en smaller than >e" As a result, the pro'a'ility of a decoding error,
> (E), is the same order as the error pro'a'ility of a pure A!"
22.7.
22.8.
22.9. 22.1 *#+rid ARQ S#stems Usin2 -onol&tional -odes
3o far we ha%e considered only hy'rid A! systems that employ 'loc( codes for 'oth error detection
and correction" 4y'rid A! systems using con%olutional codes
for error correction can also 'e de%ised" 7ne such system is a type-#t hy'rid A! system proposed in
DJ1F"
Consider a rate-1@. (., 1, Xit) con%olutional code C
1
of memory order #n" =et g(1) (L) and g(.((L) 'e
the two generator polynomials of this code" $hen an information sequence 11"(L) of ( 'its is ready for
transmission it is first encoded into a code-word fm(L) in an (a, () error-detecting code Co" *his code-
word L) is then encoded into two sequences,
and
'ased on the con%olutional code C
1
, each a ? #n 'its long" *he .(n ? @;1)-'it sequence %(L) o'tained
'y interlea%ing %(1) (L) and %(.) (L) is a code sequence in C#" *he sequence %(1) (L) is then
transmitted, and the sequence %(.) (L) is stored in the transmitter 'uffer for possi'le retransmission at
a later time =et 9irE (1((L) denote the recei%ed sequence corresponding to %(1) (L)" $hen Q1) (L) is
recei%ed it is di%ided 'y the generator polynomial g(1) (L)"
=et a(1) (L) and ##-K(1) (L) 'e the quotient and remainder of the di%ision, respecti%ely" #f ili)(1) (L) :
B, 1(1) (L) is then chec(ed 'ased on the error-detecting code Co" #f the syndrome s(1) (L) of)1(1) (L)
is )ero, 1(1) (L) is assumed to 'e error-free and identical to the transmitted code-word u"n(L)" *hen,
the information sequence 11(L) is reco%ered from *7 (L) and accepted 'y the recei%er"
#f H"1)(11(L) B, or B) (L) B B, errors are detected in -;f@(1) (L)" *hen,, 11@(1) (L) is sa%ed in the
recei%er 'uffer for reprocessing at a later time" At the same time, the recei%er requests a retransmission
'y sending a -A/ to the transmitter" 7n recei%ing this -A/, the transmitter sends the sequence %i f
.1 (L)" *his forms the first retransmission for ##(L)"
=et Q.) (L) 'e the recei%ed sequence corresponding to Y,,,(.) (L)" $hen Q.)(L) is recei%ed it is
di%ided 'y the generator polynomial .(..) (E1)" =et u(.) (L) and l'(.) (L) 'e the quotient and
remainder of the di%ision, respecti%ely" #f h(.) (L) : B, the syndrome H(.) (L) of 1(.) (L) is computed
'ased on Co" #f s(.) (L) : B, then 1(.) (L) is assumed to 'e error-free and identical to lit(L)" #n this
case, the recei%er reco%ers 11(L) from 1(.) (L) and discards 1) (L)" #f ro(.) (L) B B, or H(.)(L) B, then
i,E (.) (L) together with y(1) (&) (which is stored in the recei%er 'uffer) are decoded 'ased on the
con%olutional code C
1
using a trellis-'ased decoder, say a Qiter'i decoder"
=et inT(L) 'e the decoded sequence" *hen, anT(L) is chec(ed 'ased on the error-detecting code Co" #f
the syndrome sT(L) of 111T(L) is )ero, the recei%er accepts 1111((L)" #f the syndrome sT (L) is not
)ero, then Q il (L) is discarded, and <,9 (.) (L) is stored in the recei%er 'uffer for reprocessing at a later
time" *he recei%er requests a second retransmission for 11(L)" *he second retransmission is %(1) (L)"
*he retransmissions for 11(L) are alternate repetitions of the sequences %(.) (L) and %(1) (L)"
etransmission and decoding continue until #i(L) is finally reco%ered"
*he throughput efficiency of the descri'ed hy'rid A B system has 'een analy)ed in DJ1F for %arious
recei%er 'uffer si)es"
A type-## hy'rid A! system using a single rate-1@. code for parity retransmission and error
correction is simple and easy to implement0 howe%er, its throughput is reduced 'y HBZ whene%er the
first retransmission is requested" *his large percentage drop of throughput can 'e reduced 'y using a
family of rate-compati'le punctured con%olutional (C>C) codes DJJ *his family of C>C codes is
232481003.doc.doc Utorak, 1. sijeanj 2013
17
o'tained 'y puncturing a single rate-1@n (n, 1, in) con%olutional code C with rates ranging from *A* ?
1) to 1@n, where * is the punctured period"
All these punctured codes can 'e decoded with the decoder for the mother code C" A type-## hy'rid
A! system using a family of C>C codes has 'een proposed 'y 4agenauer DJAF" *he principle of
this system is to transmit additional code 'its corresponding to the ne&t-lower-rate C>C code in the
family to enhance the error-correcting capa'ility of the code at the recei%ing end" *hese additional
code 'its are actually certain code 'its of the mother code that were punctured in the earlier
transmission or retransmissions" $hen these additional code 'its are recei%ed they, together with the
un-decoded code 'its stored in the recei%er 'uffer, form a lower-rate C>C code and are then decoded"
After decoding, error chec(ing is performed 'ased on an error-detecting 'loc( code Co" #f no error is
detected, the decoded sequence is assumed to 'e error-free0 otherwise, a retransmission is requested"
etransmission continues until the mother code is reached, completing a full retransmission cycle" #f
the decoding is still not successful at the end of a full retransmission cycle, then the ne&t
retransmission cycle for the same information sequence 'egins, starting with the highest-rate C>C
code0 or the decoded sequence is simply accepted at the end of decoding the mother code C" *his, of
course, degrades the relia'ility"
7ther hy'rid A! systems using con%olutional codes can 'e found in D.<, <A, <I, J., J;, and JKF"
22.10. 22.8 A -oncatenated -oded (od&lation *#+rid ARQ S#stem
*he concatenated coded modulation error control scheme presented in 3ection 1K"J can 'e
incorporated in an A R! system to achie%e 'oth high relia'ility and high throughput efficiency" 3uch a
hy'rid A! system DH1F is presented in this section" *his system demonstrates the integration of
concatenated coding, coded modulation, and A!" *he FEC su'system is achie%ed 'y concatenating
an interlea%ed eed-3olomon outer code and a 'andwidth-efficient 8C+ inner code" >arity
retransmission is used to maintain throughput efficiency when the communication channel is noisy"
22.1".1. 22.#.1 CODES USED IN THE SYSTEM
*hree codes are used in the system" *he inner code C
1
for the concatenated coded modulation FEC
su'system is a 'andwidth-efficient 8C+ code of length nl and dimension (i with sym'ols from a
signal set 3, say, an I->3#3 signal set" *he outer code C[ is a shortened (nl, 1(;) 3 code o%er GF(.
m
)
with generator polynomial g.(L)" *his outer code has a minimum distance of d. : n. - (. ? 1 and is
used to correct 1. or fewer sym'ol errors and simultaneously detect p. (p. M 1.) or fewer sym'ol
errors, where t. ? p. ? 1 C d;" *he dimension (1 of the 8C+ inner code C
1
and the length 11. of the
3 outer code C. are chosen to satisfy the following
conditions:
with A M 1 and q M ."
*he third code, C
1
, is designed for parity retransmission" #t is a rate-1@. (.(B. - ([), 1;. - (.) shortened
3 code o'tained from the outer 3 code C. 'y deleting the first .@. - B. information sym'ols from
each code-word in C." 8oth C. and Cr are generated 'y I.(L) and can 'e encoded and decoded 'y the
same circuits" C," is an in%erti'le code" =et a 'e an information sequence of n. - (. sym'ols" =et 1(a)
denoted the sequence of n. - (. parity sym'ols formed 'ased on a and C
1
"
*hen, (a, i"(a)) is a code-word in C
1
, and there is a one-to-one correspondence 'etween an and ,-
(an)" /nowing ,- (a), we can reco%er a 'y an in%ersion operation" #n fact, the in%erti'le property
implies that (,"(a), a) is also a code-word in Cr Dsee >ro'lem .."KF"
=et %(L) : %o %i"" %U,Ri LE.-1 'e a code-word in C." 8ecause B. : K (n. - (.), we can di%ide %(L) into
q equal su'sections, % (L), %[(L)," wq (L), with each consisting of n. - (. sym'ols, such that
where
For 1 C i C q" let ,"D%i(L)F 'e the parity polynomial o'tained 'y encoding the ith section Q0 (L) 'ased
on Cr" ,"D%i (L)F is simply the remainder o'tained from di%iding LE.-(. %i (L) 'y I.(L)" *herefore,
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is a code-word in Cr" $e form the following polynomial:
*hen, D%(L)F is also a code-word in C. Dsee >ro'lem .."1BF" *herefore, %(L) and D%(L)F form a
code-word pair in C., and one can 'e o'tained from the other 'y a unique in%ersion operation" $e call
D%(L)F the parity code-word (or polynomial) of %(L)" $e will use this property in the hy'rid A 9 !
system to 'e descri'ed"
22.1".2. 22.#.2 THE CONCATENATED CODED MODULATION FEC SUBSYSTEM AND
RETRANSMISSION
*he FEC su'system is a concatenation of the 3 outer code C. and the 8C+ inner
code C
1
" *he outer code is interlea%ed 'y degree A, as shown in Figure ..".<, where
A outer code-words, h1, '.,, 111H, are arranged as a A & n. array o%er GF(.E;)" $e
represent each sym'ol in 2 F(.E1) with a 'inary nt-tuple in column form" *hen,
the A & n. array o%er GF(.#E) 'ecomes a Am & 1;. 'inary array, with each column
consisting of (1 : 0n 'inary digits" $e encode each column of this 'inary array
into a code sequence of n l signals 'ased on the it C+ inner code Ci" *he result
F#21E ..".<: A data array"
is an n1 & n. signal array o%er the signal set 3, denoted 'y @D1)1, '. 'A F *his
array, called a data array, is transmitted column 'y column" At the recei%ing end,
the recei%ed signal sequence is rearranged into an array @D'i, '., 'd" First, each
column of iD'i, '.,, '&F is decoded 'ased on C
1
using a soft-decision decoding
algorithm" After n. inner decoding, we o'tain an array of Lin & n. decoded 'its"
Each column of this decoded array is regarded as a column of L sym'ols from
GF(.E@)" *hen, each row of this array is decoded into a code-word in the 3 outer
code C." #f the decoding of each row is successful, the decoded information sym'ols
are deli%ered to the user"
#f any row of a recei%ed data array iD'1, ';,, '&F is not decoded successfully,
the data array o'tained from iD'i, '.,, 'd after the inner code decoding is sa%ed
in a 'uffer and a retransmission is requested" *he retransmission is an array of
parity sym'ols, denoted 'y >(('i), ('.), ON ('&)), that is formed 'ased on the
original set of code-words, '1, '., '&, and the half-rate in%erti'le code Cr" First,
each code-word 11<, is di%ided into q sections ',,i, ',,.,, 'i, q" *he parity word
is formed 'ased on ',, 1, ',,.,, 'i,q and code C, An array is constructed
with ('1), ('.),, ('&) as rows" Each column of this array is encoded into
a code sequence of n r signals in C
1
" *he result is an n j & 11. signal array
F9 ((')),, (l')")) o%er the signal set 3, which is transmitted column
'y column"
=et @H((h ,), (#5)), (l'&)) denote the recei%ed parity signal array" > is
decoded ,ust li(e a data array #" #f the decoding of > is successful, in%ersion is
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19
performed 'ased on 7'i), ('.),, (Fa&) to o'tain, which are then
deli%ered to the user or sa%ed in the recei%er 'uffer until they are ready for deli%ery"
#f the C. decoder fails to decode each row of >((l' ,), ('.), (ro&)) successfully,
then the erroneous parity words (ro,), (l' &) and the erroneous data
words l' ,, D1@.,, th)), stored in the recei%er 'uffer together are used for error
correction 'ased on the half-rate code Cr" For 1 C i C L and 1 C C c,, the pair
,, r D'i, ,F) is formed and decoded 'ased on CU" =et '01" 'e the decoded estimate
of After L q such decoding, the recei%er contains the following estimated
data array:
*hen, the recei%er chec(s whether each i/, for 1 C i C L, is a code-word in C." -ote
that this time C. is used only for error detection" #f all #'*, '9E- are code-words
in C., then decoding is successful" *he decoded words are either deli%ered to the
user or sa%ed for later deli%ery"
#f any 11*,09 is not a code-word in C., the recei%er discards the stored erroneous
data array # and sa%es the erroneous parity array > for later use At the same
time, the recei%er requests a second retransmission" *he second retransmission is
the data array @'.,, ro)&) itself" *he decoding for the second retransmission
is the same as the first retransmission" etransmissions and decoding continue until
the data array is successfully reco%ered" etransmissions are alternate repetitions of
the parity array > and the data array #, as shown in Figure ..".J"
etransmissions can 'e carried out in any of the three modes: the stop-and-wait, the go-back-N, and
the selective-repeat" #f selecti%e-repeat A! with finite 'uffer is used, the retransmission protocol
descri'ed in the pre%ious section can 'e used"
A special case for this hy'rid A! error control scheme is that ni : hi :
#n this case no inner code is used the outer code C; is used for 'oth error correction
and detection" *he half-rate in%erti'le code C, is used for error correction only"
22.1".3. 22.#.3 A SPECIFIC SYSTEM
-e&t, a specific concatenated coded modulation hy'rid A! system proposed
in DH1F is used for illustration" 3et m : I and L : ." For this system, the outer
code C. is chosen as the shortened (..J, 1K.) 3 code o%er GF(.I) o'tained 'y
deleting <1 information sym'ols from the -A3A standard (.HH, ..<) 3 code o%er
GF(.I)" *his code has <. parity-chec( sym'ols and is capa'le of correcting up to
1A sym'ol errors" *he inner code C
1
for the concatenation is chosen as the I->3/
8C+ code of length I, dimension 1A gi%en in E&ample 1K"1" 1sing this inner code,
F#21E ..".J: Alternating data-parity retransmission strategy"
1A information 'its are coded into a sequence of eight I->3/ signals (n 1 : I)" *his
code has a spectral efficiency of . 'its@signal (or effecti%e rate : 1) and a minimum
squared Euclidean distance of J" #t has a J-state I-section trellis and can 'e decoded
with the soft-decision Qiter'i decoding algorithm" #n concatenation the outer code
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is interlea%ed 'y a degree of L : . 'efore inner code encoding" *he o%erall rate of
F#21E ..".H: 1pper 'ound on the pro'a'ility of a decoding error"
F#21E ..".A: =ower 'ound on the throughput efficiency"
the concatenated code is : i & : 1 & 1K.@..J : B"IH; (or spectral efficiency
of 1";1J 'its@signal)"
*he half-rate in%erti'le code C,- for parity retransmission is the shortened (AJ,
<.) 3 code o%er GF(.I) o'tained from shortening the outer code C." C,- is capa'le
of correcting up to 1A sym'ol errors o%er a span of AJ sym'ols and hence is %ery
powerful" *herefore, e%en in a %ery noisy situation, a transmitted data array should
'e reco%ered with at most one retransmission"
*he relia'ility and throughput efficiency of this system ha%e 'een analy)ed
in DH1F and are shown in Figures ..".H and ..".A, respecti%ely" *he system performs
e&tremely well for 3- E, @N
B
greater than ; d8 (or, equi%alently, channel 'it-error
pro'a'ility p C 1B-.)" For 3- E
s
@N
B
: I d8, error-free communication
is practically achie%ed and the system throughput efficiency is equal to the system
rate, B"IH;"
7ther hy'rid A! schemes using coded modulation for error control can 'e
found in DH1, H<, and AJ-AAF"
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