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q" qth retransmission #f all the nqR1 copies in the (q 6 1)th retransmission of a code-word are
negati%ely ac(nowledged, the code-word is repeated nq times"
After q retransmissions, if a code-word is still negati%ely ac(nowledged, the 'uffer o%erflows at the
recei%er" *he transmitter continues to retransmit the code-word" #n each retransmission the code-word
is repeated nq times" *he transmitter sends new code-words whene%er it does not ha%e repetitions to
send" *his process continues until the code-word is positi%ely ac(nowledged" For q : 1 and B1 : 1, the
3 ? 3* A! 'ecomes the con%entional selecti%e-repeat A!"
*he throughput performance of $eldon9s 3 ? 3* A! depends on the choices of the repetition
parameters B1, n.,, *hese parameters can 'e chosen to optimi)e the throughput performance for a
gi%en recei%er 'uffer si)e" *his A ? 3* A! pro%ides some impro%ement in throughput efficiency
o%er the selecti%e-repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer presented in 3ection .."10 howe%er, it is
harder to implement"
22.4. 22.4 *#+rid ARQ Schemes
Comparing the FEC and A! error-control schemes, we see that A! is simple and pro%ides high
system relia'ility0 howe%er, A! systems ha%e a se%ere draw'ac(- their throughputs fall rapidly with
increasing channel error rate" 3ystems using FEC maintain constant throughput (equal to the code rate
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9
: (@n) regardless of the channel error rate0 howe%er, FEC systems ha%e two draw'ac(s: First, when
a recei%ed %ector is detected in error it must 'e decoded and the decoded message must 'e deli%ered to
the user regardless of whether it is correct or incorrect"
8ecause the pro'a'ility of a decoding error is much greater than the pro'a'ility of an undetected error,
it is hard to achie%e high system relia'ility with FEC" 3econd, to o'tain high system relia'ility, a long
powerful code must 'e used and a large collection of error patterns must 'e corrected" *his ma(es
decoding hard to implement and e&pensi%e" For these reasons A! is often preferred o%er FEC for
error control in data communication systems, such as pac(et-switching data networ(s and computer
communication networ(s0 howe%er, in communication (or data storage) systems where return channels
are not a%aila'le or retransmission is not possi'le for some reason, FEC is the only choice"
*he draw'ac(s in 'oth A! and FEC can 'e o%ercome if two error control schemes are properly
com'ined" 3uch a com'ination of the two 'asic control schemes is referred to as a hy'rid A! D., .IF"
A hy'rid system consists of an FEC su'system contained in an A! system" *he function of the FEC
su'system is to reduce the frequency of retransmission 'y correcting the error patterns that occur most
frequently" *his increases the system throughout"
$hen a less frequent error pattern occurs and is detected, the recei%er requests a retransmission rather
than passing the unrelia'ly decoded message to the user" *his increases the system relia'ility" As a
result, a proper com'ination of FEC and A! pro%ides higher relia'ility than an FEC system alone
and a higher throughput than the system with A! only" Furthermore, since the decoder is designed to
correct a small collection of error patterns, it can 'e simple" *he FEC scheme can 'e incorporated with
any of the three 'asic A! schemes"
A straightforward hy'rid A! scheme is to use a code, say, an (n, () linear code that is designed to
simultaneously correct and detect errors" $hen a recei%ed %ector is detected in error the recei%er first
attempts to locate and correct the errors" #f the num'er of errors (or the length of an error 'urst) is
within the designed error-correcting capa'ility of the code, the errors are corrected, and the decoded
message is passed to the user or sa%ed in a 'uffer until it is ready to 'e deli%ered"
#f an uncorrecta'le error pattern is detected, the recei%er re,ects the recei%ed %ector and requests a
retransmission" $hen the retransmitted %ector is recei%ed the recei%er again attempts to correct the
errors (if any)" #f the decoding is not successful, the recei%er again re,ects the recei%ed %ector and as(s
for another retransmission" *his error-correction and retransmission process continues until the %ector
is successfully recei%ed or decoded" For e&le, one may use the (1B.<, K.<) hC4 code in a hy'rid
A! system"
*his code has a minimum distance of .10 it can 'e used for correcting fi%e or fewer errors and
simultaneously detecting any com'ination of 1H or fewer errors (and many other error patterns)" #f an
error pattern with H or fewer errors occurs, it will 'e detected and corrected" #f an error pattern with
more than H 'ut less than 1A errors occurs, it will 'e detected" #n this e%ent the recei%er will request a
retransmission of the erroneous %ector"
*he hy'rid A! scheme descri'ed is referred to as the type-# hy'rid A! scheme" 8ecause a code
used in this scheme must 'e a'le to correct a certain collection of error patterns and simultaneously
detect other error patterns, more parity-chec( digits are needed, which increases the o%erhead for each
transmission and retransmission" As a result, when the channel error rate is low, the type-# hy'rid A!
has a lower throughput than its corresponding A! scheme0 howe%er, when the channel error rate
increases, the throughput of the A! scheme drops rapidly,
F#21E .."1J: *hroughput performance of the type-# selecti%e-repeat A!"
and the hy'rid A! scheme pro%ides higher throughput, as shown in Figure .."1J" *he type-# hy'rid
A! scheme is capa'le of maintaining significant high throughput o%er a wide range of channel error
rates if the designed error-correcting capa'ility of the code is sufficiently large"
=et >, 'e the pro'a'ility that a recei%ed %ector will 'e decoded successfully" *his pro'a'ility depends
on the designed error-correcting capa'ility of the code 'eing used" eplacing > with >r in (.."J),
(.."H), (.."A), and (.."11), we o'tain the throughput efficiencies for the type-# hy'rid selecti%e-repeat
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A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer, the type-# hy'rid go-'ac(-- A!, the type-# hy'rid stop-and-wait
A!, and the type-# hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e -, respecti%ely"
*he second type (or type ##) of hy'rid A! scheme is 'ased on the concept that the parity-chec( digits
for error correction are sent to the recei%er only when they are needed D<B, <J-<A, <KF" *wo linear
codes are used in this type of scheme: one is a high-rate (n, () code Co designed for error detection
only the other is an in%erti'le half-rate (.
k
, () code C
1
designed for simultaneous error correction and
error detection"
A code is said to 'e in%erti'le if when only the parity-chec( digits of a code-word are (nown, the
corresponding information digits can 'e uniquely determined 'y an in%ersion process" #n the ne&t
section we present a class of in%erti'le half-rate linear codes, and we show that the in%ersion can 'e
accomplished 'y a linear sequential circuit"
$hen a message u of ( information digits is ready for transmission, it is encoded into a code-word % :
(f (u), u) of n digits 'ased on the error-detecting code Co, where f (11) denotes the n - ( parity-chec(
digits" *he code-word % : (f (u), u) is then transmitted" At the same time the transmitter computes the (
parity-chec( digits, denoted 'y q(u), 'ased on the message u and the half-rate in%erti'le code C
1
"
Clearly, the .
k
-tuple (q (u), u) is a code-word in C
1
" *he k-'it parity 'loc( q(u) is not transmitted 'ut
stored in the retransmission 'uffer of the transmitter for later use"
=et : (f (a), H:1) denote the recei%ed %ector corresponding to % : (f (u), H)" $hen is recei%ed the
recei%er computes the syndrome of > 'ased on Co" #f the syndrome is )ero, nu is assumed to 'e error-
free and is accepted 'y the recei%er" #f the syndrome is not )ero, errors are detected in >" *he erroneous
message an is then sa%ed in the recei%er 'uffer, and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" 7n recei%ing this
-A/ the transmitter encodes the k-'it parity 'loc( quip into a code-word, ni : (f Dq (u)F, q (u)) of n
'its 'ased on Co, where fDcy 74F denotes the a - ( parity-chec( digits for q (u)"
*his %ector : (fDq (u)F, q(u)) is then transmitted (here the retransmission is a parity %ector) =et :
(EDq$F, cS, (u)) denote the recei%ed %ector corresponding to aT : (f Dq(u)F, (au))" $hen ;@T is recei%ed
the syndrome of > is computed 'ased on Co" #f the syndrome is )ero, ii(e) is assumed to 'e error-free,
and the message a is reco%ered from J 'y in%ersion"
#f the syndrome is not )ero, i) (a) and the erroneous message an (stored in the recei%er 'uffer) together
are used for error correction 'ased on the half-rate code C
1
" #f the errors in ((o), H) form a correcta'le
error pattern, they are corrected" *he decoded message a is then accepted 'y the recei%er" #f the errors
in (J(u), H) form a detecta'le 'ut not a correcta'le error pattern, H is discarded and the erroneous parity
'loc( J(au) is stored in the recei%er 'uffer0 also, a -A/ is sent to the transmitter"
7n recei%ing the second -A/ for the code-word a : (f (u), an), the transmitter resends a : (f (u), a)"
$hen > : (f (11), H) is recei%ed the syndrome ofd is again computed 'ased on Co" #f the syndrome is
)ero, H is assumed to 'e error-free and is accepted 'y the recei%er0 the erroneous parity 'loc( J- (u) is
then discarded" #f the syndrome is not )ero, an and the erroneous parity 'loc( J (au) (stored in the
recei%er 'uffer) together are used for error correction 'ased on Ct"
#f the errors in (J(a), H) are corrected, the decoded message a is then accepted 'y the recei%er and an
AC/ is sent to the transmitter0 howe%er, if the errors in (i") (H), are detecta'le 'ut not correcta'le, J (u)
is discarded, is stored in the recei%er 'uffer, and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" *he ne&t
retransmission is the parity %ector %T Dci -7F, (an))" *herefore, the retransmissions are alternating
repetitions of the parity code-word : (f Dq(u)F, q(a)) and the information code-word a : (f (a), a)" *he
recei%er stores the recei%ed message a and the recei%ed parity 'loc( J (aa) alternately" *he
retransmissions continue until an is finally reco%ered"
*he most important feature of the type ##-hy'rid A B is the parity retransmission for error correction
'ased on a half-rate in%erti'le code C
1
" *his parity-retransmission strategy can 'e incorporated with
any of the three 'asic types of
A!" #t is particularly effecti%e when it is used in con,unction with the selecti%e-repeat A!" 8ecause
of the in%erti'le property of C
1
, the message H can 'e reconstructed uniquely from the parity 'loc(
q(an) 'y in%ersion" 4ence, the parity 'loc( (ail) contains the same amount of information as the
message" As a result, the o%erhead per transmission or retransmission is simply the num'er of parity-
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chec( digits, a - (, needed for error detection 'ased on the (a, () code Co, which is required 'y any
A! scheme"
*herefore, when the channel is quiet or the channel error rate is low, the type-## hy'rid A! has the
same throughput efficiency as its corresponding A! scheme" $hen the channel error rate is high, the
error correction pro%ided 'y the half-rate code C
1
maintains the throughput high" #n 3ection .."H we
present a type-4 hy'rid A! that incorporates the parity-retransmission strategy with the selecti%e-
repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer" $e will show that for
a 83C, the throughput efficiency of the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer can 'e
achie%ed 'y a half-rate in%erti'le code C# with a %ery small designed error-correcting capa'ility, say t
: < to H" $ith a larger t, the type-## hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with finite recei%er 'uffer is far
superior to the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer"
*he decoding comple&ity for a type-## hy'rid A! is only slightly greater than that of a corresponding
type-# hy'rid A! with the same designed error-correcting capa'ility" *he e&tra circuits needed for a
type-#* hy'rid A! scheme are an in%ersion circuit 'ased on C
1
, which is simply a linear sequential
circuit and an error-detection circuit 'ased on Co"
*he disad%antage of the type-# hy'rid A! is that the o%erhead due to the e&tra parity-chec( digits for
error correction must 'e included in each transmission or retransmission regardless of the channel error
rate" $hen the channel is quiet, this inclusion represents a waste0 howe%er, the type-## hy'rid A!
remo%es this disad%antage, 'ecause is an adapti%e scheme" *his scheme is particularly attracti%e for
high-speed data communication systems for which round-trip delay is large and error rate is non-
stationary, such as satellite communication systems" #t is also attracti%e for wireless communications"
Qarious hy'rid A! schemes and their analyses can 'e found in D.<, .I-AIF"
22.5. 22., A -lass o' *al'!Rate .nerti+le -odes
#n a type-## hy'rid A! system, Ci is chosen as a half-rate in%erti'le code" *he in%erti'le property
facilitates the data reco%ery process" 5uring a retransmission, if the parity 'loc( q (u) is successfully
recei%ed (no errors are detected), the message #n can 'e reconstructed from q (u) 'y a simple in%ersion
process rather than 'y a more complicated decoding process" *he in%ersion process also reduces the
frequency of retransmission"
For e&le, if the recei%ed message En contains more than t errors, and the recei%ed parity 'loc( q
(ta) is error-free, the decoding process 'ased on (J (u), En) will not 'e a'le to reco%er the message #=
4ence, another retransmission will 'e required0 howe%er, ta(ing the in%erse of the error-free parity
'loc( (u) allows us to 'e a'le to reco%er n and thus a%oid another retransmission"
-e&t, we present a class of half-rate in%erti'le 'loc( codes and show that in%ersion can 'e
accomplished 'y a linear sequential circuit"
=et C 'e an (n, (9) cyclic code with n - ( C (" =et g(L) 'e the generator polynomial of C with the form
=et
'e a code polynomial" #n systematic form, the ( leading high-order coefficients QU-(, 1U-(?1, O, QU-i
are identical to ( information digits0 the 1; - ( low-order coefficients %o, %i, O, %U-( RiR are parity-
chec( digits" Consider the set of those code-words in C whose .
k
- n leading high-order components
Q.(UR(), Q.(URB?1, O, %URi are )eros" *here are .E-( such code-words in C" #f the .
k
- n high-order
)ero components are remo%ed from these code-words we o'tain a set of .E-( %ectors of length .(n - ()"
*hese %ectors form a half-rate (.n - .
k
, n - () shortened cyclic code Ci
(see 3ection H"1B)" *his shortened cyclic code has at least the same error-correcting capa'ility as C"
$e showed in 3ection H"1B that C
1
can 'e encoded and decoded 'y the same circuits (or with a slight
modification) as employed 'y C"
-e&t, we show that the shortened cyclic code C= has the in%erti'le property" =et
'e the message to 'e encoded" 5i%iding LE-( u(L) 'y the generator polynomial u(X), we ha%e
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where a(L) and '(L) are the quotient and the remainder, respecti%ely" *he code-word for an(L) is then
and '(L) is the parity-chec( portion" *he following theorem pro%es the in%erti'le property of C
1
"
*4E7E+ .."1 -o two code-words in a half-rate shortened cyclic code C
1
ha%e the same parity-
chec( digits"
>roof =et gni (L) and 111.(L) 'e two distinct messages" 5i%iding LE-(si (L) and LE-( aii.(L) 'y the
generator polynomial g(L), respecti%ely, we o'tain
*hen, the code-words for a t (L) and 111.(L) are
respecti%ely" 3uppose that
Adding (.."1H) and (.."1A), we o'tain
8ecause g(L) and LlE are relati%ely prime, -al (L) ? u.(L) must 'e di%isi'le 'y g(L): howe%er, this is
impossi'le, since *il t (L) ? la.(L) ) B and its degree is less than a - ( 'ut the degree of g(L) is - ("
*herefore, #'i (L) r 1 .(L)"
8ecause the remainder >o(L) resulting from di%iding LE-(ari(L) 'y g(L) is unique, *heorem .."1
implies that there is one-to-one correspondence 'etween a message sr(L) and its parity chec( '(L)"
*herefore, (nowing '(L), we can uniquely determine u(L)"
-e&t, we show how to reco%er the message an(L) from the parity H(L)" First, we multiply 'oth sides of
(.."1J) 'y L( :
earranging (.."1;), we o'tain
8ecause g(L) is a factor of LE ? 1, we can rewrite (.1"1I) as
where h(L) : (LE ? 1)@g(L)" From (.1"1K) we see that the message u(L) is simply the remainder
resulting from di%iding '(L)L( 'y the generator polynomial g(L)" *his operation can 'e performed 'y
using a di%ision circuit with feed'ac( connection 'ased on g(L)" *he process of finding the message
u(L) from its parity-chec( digits '(L) is called an in%ersion process"
A faster circuit for in%erting '(L) can 'e implemented as follows" 5i%iding L( 'y g(L), we ha%e
where the remainder
+ultiplying 'oth sides of (..".B) 'y '(L) and using the equality of (.."1K), we o'tain
*he preceding e&pression suggests that we can o'tain the message u(L) 'y multiplying the parity '(L)
'y p(X) and di%iding the product '(L)p(X) 'y g(L)" $e can do this with the circuit shown in Figure
.."1H"
F#21E .."1H: #n%ersion circuit"
For e&le, consider the (1B.<, H.<) 8CE code" *his code has a minimum distance of at least 111"
$e can use this code to simultaneously correct all com'inations of H or fewer errors and detect all
com'inations of 1BH or fewer errors" #n this case the pro'a'ility of an undetected error will 'e
e&tremely small" 3hortening this code 'y .< digits, we o'tain a (1BBB, HBB) in%erti'le code"
22.6. 22./ 0#"e!.. *#+rid Selectie!Re"eat ARQ $ith %inite Receier B&''er
>arity retransmission for error correction can easily 'e incorporated with the selecti%e-repeat AC)
with finite recei%er 'uffer descri'ed in 3ection .."." Again we consider only the case for which the
si)e of the recei%er 'uffer is - (the num'er of %ectors transmitted in one round-trip delay time)" *he
range of sequence num'ers is still <-"
=et a 'e a k-'it message to 'e transmitted" *here are three code-words associated with this message:
1" *he code-word % : (f (u), pm) 'ased on an (n, () error-detecting code Co"
." *he code-word ry : (q (all), u) 'ased on a half-rate in%erti'le (.
k
, () code C
1
"
1 *he code-word : (f Dq (au)F, (n11)) 'ased on the k-'it parity 'loc( q(u) and the code Co"
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For con%enience, we call e : +u), e) the information code-word of u, and ("f Dq (>7F, q (all)) the parity
code-word of u"8"" $e will use : (rt (u), H) and : (f DcF (e)F, (u)) to denote the recei%ed %ectors
corresponding to % and %T, respecti%ely" #n transmission or retransmission the information code-word %
and the parity code-word eT of the message as ha%e the same sequence num'er"
$hen an information code-word e is ready for transmission, it is num'ered and stored in the input
queue of the transmitter" After its transmission, % and its corresponding parity code-word %T are sa%ed
in the retransmission 'uffer until % is positi%ely ac(nowledged" $hen an AC/ is recei%ed after a
round-trip delay, 'oth % and %T are released" $hen a -A/, (or no ac(nowledgement) is recei%ed after
a round-trip delay, %999 is sent to the recei%er for error correction (if necessary)"
After another round-trip delay, if an AC/ is recei%ed, 'oth % and %T are released0 otherwise, % is
retransmitted" *he transmitter resends % and %T alternately until % is positi%ely ac(nowledged, as
shown in Figure .."1A"
22..1. 22..1 TRANSMISSION AND RETRANSMISSSION PROCEDURE
$hen the transmitter is sending a code-word, information, or parity it also computes the forward inde&
f* of the code-word in the retransmission 'uffer that is to 'ecome a time-out %ector" 8ased on this
forward inde& f*, the transmitter decides whether the ne&t information code-word in the input queue is
to 'e transmitted or retransmission is to 'e initiated" *he decision rule is as follows:
1" #f the current time-out code-word is positi%ely ac(nowledged and C - (or if there is no current time-
out code-word), the first information code-word in the input queue is to 'e transmitted"
." #f the current time-out code-word, say %1, is either negati%ely ac(nowledged or unac(nowledged
and fr C -, a retransmission for ei is initiated" *he
F#21E .."1A: *ype ## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e N : ;"
retransmission for %i is the parity code-word %99 if %i was pre%iously transmitted, and is a repetition of
%"0 if % was pre%iously transmitted" #f the current -A/9ed (or unAC/9ed) time-out code-word is the
earliest code-word in the retransmission 'uffer that has not 'een positi%ely ac(nowledged (f* : B), all
the information code-words in the retransmission 'uffer with forward indices - are mo%ed 'ac( to the
input queue for retransmission at a later time (these code-words are re,ected 'y the recei%er owing to
the recei%er 'uffer o%erflow)"
the first information code-word in the input queue is the ne&t to 'e transmitted"
*he transmission and retransmission operations of the type-4 hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with
recei%er 'uffer of si)e - are detailed 'y the flowchart in Figure .."1;"
22..2. 22..2 RECEIVER!S OPERATION IN THE NORMALL STATE
#n the normal state the recei%er recei%es information code-words, and the recei%er 'uffer is empty"
$hen an information code-word is recei%ed the recei%er computes its syndrome 'ased on Co and its
forward inde& f with respect to the last accepted and deli%ered information code-word" #f the
syndrome is )ero and f : 1, the recei%ed information code-word is accepted and deli%ered to the user"
#f f M -, the recei%ed %ector is regarded as an information code-word that was pre%iously accepted
and deli%ered0 it is then ignored and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter"
#f either the recei%ed information code-word is detected in error, or 1 C f C - (i"e", its sequence
num'er is out of order)U the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state" *he recei%er9s operation in the normal
state is detailed 'y the flowchart in Figure .."1I"
22..3. 22..3 RECEIVER!S OPERATION IN THE BLOCK STATE
#f the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state owing to the detection of errors in a recei%ed information code-
word y : f (o), with f : 1, the erroneous message is then stored at the first location of the recei%er
'uffer and a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" *he recei%er then chec(s the su'sequent recei%ed
information code-words and stores them in the recei%er 'uffer at the proper locations according to their
sequence num'ers until the 'uffer is full0 also, an appropriate ac(nowledgment is sent to the
transmitter for each recei%ed %ector"
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#f the recei%er enters the 'loc(ed state with f M 1, then f 6 1 information code-words 'etween the
last deli%ered information code-word and the current recei%ed information code-word are lost" *he
recei%er then reser%es the first f 6 1 locations of the recei%er 'uffer for the lost %ectors and sa%es the
current recei%ed %ector (only the message part) at the (f)th location of the 'uffer" *he su'sequent
recei%ed information code-words are stored in the remaining locations of the recei%er 'uffer"
$hen the first retransmitted parity code-word, say ;;,E@S : (f Dq(ur,)F, iyani)), is recei%ed it is used to
reco%er the earliest erroneously recei%ed message (or the earliest lost message) an l" #f the syndrome of
Q: is )ero, uni is reco%ered 'y ta(ing the in%ersion of i.- (tui ,)" #f the syndrome of % is not )ero, i-)"
(ui) and En j (stored in the 'uffer) together are used for error correction 'ased on the half-rate-error-
correcting code Ci" #f the
F#21E .."1;: *ransmission and retransmission procedure of the type-## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid with
recei%er 'uffer of si)e -"
errors are correcta'le, u, is reco%ered" $hen u @is reco%ered, the recei%er releases u, and the
su'sequent error-free (or )ero-syndrome) messages in consecuti%e order, say u ,, u1?1, O, ui?= with B
C = C -" 8ecause the retransmission is selecti%e, and since uti?i to u ,?= are successfully reco%ered,
the %ectors following ii"T@are new information code-words i,?-, ?-?1, E %,-B1?=-1N $hen these new
information
F#21E .."1I: -ormal-state operation of the recei%er"
code-words arri%e their syndromes are chec(ed and are temporarily stored in the recei%er 'uffer until
they are ready to 'e released to the user or to 'e corrected" #f (a i) fails to reco%er the recei%er discards
i j in the recei%er 'uffer0 also, a -A/ is sent to the transmitter" 8ecause error-free messages cannot 'e
released, there are no places in the recei%er 'uffer to store the new recei%ed information code-words <,
,?- to iii?-?=-1" #n this e%ent, the 'uffer o%erflows, and these new information code-words are
re,ected"
7n recei%ing the second -A/ for Q@ : (11.), the transmitter resends %0 to the recei%er" 7n recei%ing i
: -- the recei%er again attempts to reco%er u ," #f the syndrome of a i is )ero, EllF is assumed to 'e
error-free and is released" #f the syndrome of %i is not )ero, aa j and (-1- (all ,) (stored in the recei%er
'uffer) together are used for error correction 'ased on C
1
"
#f the recei%er again fails to reco%er Eli, then (-1BB is discarded and El0 is stored in the recei%er 'uffer"
Qector %i (and any other erroneously recei%ed information code-words) continue to 'e retransmitted
until tut@is successfully reco%ered" *he retransmissions are alternate repetitions of the parity %ector %90
and the information %ector %,, and the recei%er stores H"1 and ,) alternately"
#n the 'loc(ed state, when an information code-word is recei%ed its forward inde& #f is computed" #f if
C -, the %ector is stored in the recei%er 'uffer" #f no errors are detected, an AC/ is set to the
transmitter0 otherwise, a -A/ is sent to the
transmitter" #f @f M -, the recei%er computes its 'ac(ward inde& @'" #f l' C .-, the current recei%ed
%ector is regarded as an information code-word that was pre%iously accepted and deli%ered" #t is then
ignored, and an AC/ is sent to the transmitter" #f i' M .-, the recei%ed %ector is a new information
code-word0 howe%er, the 'uffer is full and o%erflows" #n this e%ent the recei%ed %ector is re,ected and a
-A/ is sent to the transmitter"
$hen a retransmitted -A/9ed %ector arri%es, the recei%er chec(s whether this recei%ed %ector and its
corresponding %ector stored in the recei%er 'uffer form a message and parity pair" #f they do form such
a pair, the recei%er then attempts to reco%er the original message either 'y in%ersion or 'y decoding
process" #f the newly recei%ed %ector and its corresponding %ector in the 'uffer do not form a message
and parity pair, the recei%er chec(s whether 'oth are information %ectors or parity %ectors"
#f they are 'oth information %ectors, the recei%er stores the one that is error-free0 if 'oth are erroneous,
the recei%er replaces the old one with the newly recei%ed one" #f they are 'oth parity %ectors, the
recei%er replaces the old one in the 'uffer with the newly recei%ed parity %ector (or its in%ersion)" #f
the recei%ed %ector corresponds to a lost %ector, it is stored at a reser%ed location in the recei%er 'uffer"
*he recei%er9s operation in the 'loc(ed state is detailed in the flowchart in Figure .."1K"
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22..4. 22..4 THROUGHPUT EFFICIENCY
*o analy)e the throughput efficiency of the hy'rid A! descri'ed is %ery difficult0 howe%er, if we
assume that the channel is a 83C and the return channel is noiseless, we can o'tain a lower 'ound on
the throughput" Again, let > 'e the pro'a'ility that a code-word, information or parity, will 'e recei%ed
successfully (i"e", the syndrome 'ased on Co is )ero)"
3uppose that C
1
is capa'le of correcting any com'ination of t or fewer errors and simultaneously
detecting any com'ination d(d M t) or fewer errors" =et !i 'e the conditional pro'a'ility that a message
<s i will 'e reco%ered from the first recei%ed parity 'loc( (tii,i) either 'y in%ersion or 'y decoding
'ased on C
1
, gi%en that errors are detected in the recei%ed information code-word : (1(ro ,), ,)"
=et !. 'e the conditional pro'a'ility that Vui, will 'e successfully reco%ered from the second
retransmission of %1 : (," (ani), *o), gi%en that errors are detected in the first recei%ed parity code-
word foA, (yin, and the first recei%ed in formation code-word : (f (ui) ,), and that the first recei%ed
parity 'loc( q (J1 ,) fails to reco%er rtiri 'ut detects the presence of errors in (J li)" *hen, it is possi'le
to show that D<KF
F#21E .."1K: 8loc(ed state of the recei%er, where L, and W1 represent either the information code-
word %1 or the parity code-word
T
j
v
"
where
$e define
*hen, the throughput of the type-## hy'rid selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e - is lower
'ounded as follows:
F#21E ..".B: *hroughput of %arious A! schemes with - : 1.I and n : H.J: (1) ideal selecti%e-
repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer0 (.) and (<) selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e
- and .-0 (J), (H), and (A) type-## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e - and
error-correction parameters t : <, H, and 1B, respecti%ely"
where
For %arious 11, (, t, and -, the lower 'ound on throughput %ersus 'it-error rate is plotted in Figures
..".B to ..".." $e see that the throughput efficiency of the ideal selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite
recei%er 'uffer can 'e achie%ed 'y the type-4 hy'rid A! scheme descri'ed with a relati%ely small
designed error-correcting capa'ility t (t C H)" For t M H, throughput much higher than that of the ideal
selecti%e-repeat A! can 'e o'tained"
22..5. 22..5 RELIABILITY
#f the error-detecting capa'ility d of the half-rate code C
1
is sufficiently large, the type-11 hy'rid A!
scheme pro%ides the same relia'ility as a pure A! scheme"
F#21E ..".1: *hroughput of %arious A! schemes with - : 1B.J and" n : 1B.J: (1) ideal
selecti%e-repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer: (.) and (<) selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er
'uffer of si)e - and .-0 (J), (H), and (A) type-4l selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of
si)e - and error-correction parameters t : <, H, and 1B, respecti%ely"
F#21E .."..: *hroughput of %arious A! schemes with - : H1. and n : .B.J: (1) ideal selecti%e-
repeat A! with infinite recei%er 'uffer0 (.) and (<) selecti%e-repeat A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e
- and .-0 (J), (H), and (A) type-## selecti%e-repeat hy'rid A! with recei%er 'uffer of si)e - and
error-correction parameters r : <, H, and 1B, respecti%ely"
=et >, 'e the pro'a'ility that Co will fail to detect the presence of errors" =et
which is the pro'a'ility that the num'er of errors in (J(u), will e&ceed the
designed error-detecting capa'ility d of C
1
" *hen, the pro'a'ility that the recei%er
will commit a decoding error is 'ounded as follows D<KF:
where 1<, - pr" #f we choose, d sufficiently large, we can ma(e a of the same
232481003.doc.doc Utorak, 1. sijeanj 2013
16
order as >e or e%en smaller than >e" As a result, the pro'a'ility of a decoding error,
> (E), is the same order as the error pro'a'ility of a pure A!"
22.7.
22.8.
22.9. 22.1 *#+rid ARQ S#stems Usin2 -onol&tional -odes
3o far we ha%e considered only hy'rid A! systems that employ 'loc( codes for 'oth error detection
and correction" 4y'rid A! systems using con%olutional codes
for error correction can also 'e de%ised" 7ne such system is a type-#t hy'rid A! system proposed in
DJ1F"
Consider a rate-1@. (., 1, Xit) con%olutional code C
1
of memory order #n" =et g(1) (L) and g(.((L) 'e
the two generator polynomials of this code" $hen an information sequence 11"(L) of ( 'its is ready for
transmission it is first encoded into a code-word fm(L) in an (a, () error-detecting code Co" *his code-
word L) is then encoded into two sequences,
and
'ased on the con%olutional code C
1
, each a ? #n 'its long" *he .(n ? @;1)-'it sequence %(L) o'tained
'y interlea%ing %(1) (L) and %(.) (L) is a code sequence in C#" *he sequence %(1) (L) is then
transmitted, and the sequence %(.) (L) is stored in the transmitter 'uffer for possi'le retransmission at
a later time =et 9irE (1((L) denote the recei%ed sequence corresponding to %(1) (L)" $hen Q1) (L) is
recei%ed it is di%ided 'y the generator polynomial g(1) (L)"
=et a(1) (L) and ##-K(1) (L) 'e the quotient and remainder of the di%ision, respecti%ely" #f ili)(1) (L) :
B, 1(1) (L) is then chec(ed 'ased on the error-detecting code Co" #f the syndrome s(1) (L) of)1(1) (L)
is )ero, 1(1) (L) is assumed to 'e error-free and identical to the transmitted code-word u"n(L)" *hen,
the information sequence 11(L) is reco%ered from *7 (L) and accepted 'y the recei%er"
#f H"1)(11(L) B, or B) (L) B B, errors are detected in -;f@(1) (L)" *hen,, 11@(1) (L) is sa%ed in the
recei%er 'uffer for reprocessing at a later time" At the same time, the recei%er requests a retransmission
'y sending a -A/ to the transmitter" 7n recei%ing this -A/, the transmitter sends the sequence %i f
.1 (L)" *his forms the first retransmission for ##(L)"
=et Q.) (L) 'e the recei%ed sequence corresponding to Y,,,(.) (L)" $hen Q.)(L) is recei%ed it is
di%ided 'y the generator polynomial .(..) (E1)" =et u(.) (L) and l'(.) (L) 'e the quotient and
remainder of the di%ision, respecti%ely" #f h(.) (L) : B, the syndrome H(.) (L) of 1(.) (L) is computed
'ased on Co" #f s(.) (L) : B, then 1(.) (L) is assumed to 'e error-free and identical to lit(L)" #n this
case, the recei%er reco%ers 11(L) from 1(.) (L) and discards 1) (L)" #f ro(.) (L) B B, or H(.)(L) B, then
i,E (.) (L) together with y(1) (&) (which is stored in the recei%er 'uffer) are decoded 'ased on the
con%olutional code C
1
using a trellis-'ased decoder, say a Qiter'i decoder"
=et inT(L) 'e the decoded sequence" *hen, anT(L) is chec(ed 'ased on the error-detecting code Co" #f
the syndrome sT(L) of 111T(L) is )ero, the recei%er accepts 1111((L)" #f the syndrome sT (L) is not
)ero, then Q il (L) is discarded, and <,9 (.) (L) is stored in the recei%er 'uffer for reprocessing at a later
time" *he recei%er requests a second retransmission for 11(L)" *he second retransmission is %(1) (L)"
*he retransmissions for 11(L) are alternate repetitions of the sequences %(.) (L) and %(1) (L)"
etransmission and decoding continue until #i(L) is finally reco%ered"
*he throughput efficiency of the descri'ed hy'rid A B system has 'een analy)ed in DJ1F for %arious
recei%er 'uffer si)es"
A type-## hy'rid A! system using a single rate-1@. code for parity retransmission and error
correction is simple and easy to implement0 howe%er, its throughput is reduced 'y HBZ whene%er the
first retransmission is requested" *his large percentage drop of throughput can 'e reduced 'y using a
family of rate-compati'le punctured con%olutional (C>C) codes DJJ *his family of C>C codes is
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17
o'tained 'y puncturing a single rate-1@n (n, 1, in) con%olutional code C with rates ranging from *A* ?
1) to 1@n, where * is the punctured period"
All these punctured codes can 'e decoded with the decoder for the mother code C" A type-## hy'rid
A! system using a family of C>C codes has 'een proposed 'y 4agenauer DJAF" *he principle of
this system is to transmit additional code 'its corresponding to the ne&t-lower-rate C>C code in the
family to enhance the error-correcting capa'ility of the code at the recei%ing end" *hese additional
code 'its are actually certain code 'its of the mother code that were punctured in the earlier
transmission or retransmissions" $hen these additional code 'its are recei%ed they, together with the
un-decoded code 'its stored in the recei%er 'uffer, form a lower-rate C>C code and are then decoded"
After decoding, error chec(ing is performed 'ased on an error-detecting 'loc( code Co" #f no error is
detected, the decoded sequence is assumed to 'e error-free0 otherwise, a retransmission is requested"
etransmission continues until the mother code is reached, completing a full retransmission cycle" #f
the decoding is still not successful at the end of a full retransmission cycle, then the ne&t
retransmission cycle for the same information sequence 'egins, starting with the highest-rate C>C
code0 or the decoded sequence is simply accepted at the end of decoding the mother code C" *his, of
course, degrades the relia'ility"
7ther hy'rid A! systems using con%olutional codes can 'e found in D.<, <A, <I, J., J;, and JKF"
22.10. 22.8 A -oncatenated -oded (od&lation *#+rid ARQ S#stem
*he concatenated coded modulation error control scheme presented in 3ection 1K"J can 'e
incorporated in an A R! system to achie%e 'oth high relia'ility and high throughput efficiency" 3uch a
hy'rid A! system DH1F is presented in this section" *his system demonstrates the integration of
concatenated coding, coded modulation, and A!" *he FEC su'system is achie%ed 'y concatenating
an interlea%ed eed-3olomon outer code and a 'andwidth-efficient 8C+ inner code" >arity
retransmission is used to maintain throughput efficiency when the communication channel is noisy"
22.1".1. 22.#.1 CODES USED IN THE SYSTEM
*hree codes are used in the system" *he inner code C
1
for the concatenated coded modulation FEC
su'system is a 'andwidth-efficient 8C+ code of length nl and dimension (i with sym'ols from a
signal set 3, say, an I->3#3 signal set" *he outer code C[ is a shortened (nl, 1(;) 3 code o%er GF(.
m
)
with generator polynomial g.(L)" *his outer code has a minimum distance of d. : n. - (. ? 1 and is
used to correct 1. or fewer sym'ol errors and simultaneously detect p. (p. M 1.) or fewer sym'ol
errors, where t. ? p. ? 1 C d;" *he dimension (1 of the 8C+ inner code C
1
and the length 11. of the
3 outer code C. are chosen to satisfy the following
conditions:
with A M 1 and q M ."
*he third code, C
1
, is designed for parity retransmission" #t is a rate-1@. (.(B. - ([), 1;. - (.) shortened
3 code o'tained from the outer 3 code C. 'y deleting the first .@. - B. information sym'ols from
each code-word in C." 8oth C. and Cr are generated 'y I.(L) and can 'e encoded and decoded 'y the
same circuits" C," is an in%erti'le code" =et a 'e an information sequence of n. - (. sym'ols" =et 1(a)
denoted the sequence of n. - (. parity sym'ols formed 'ased on a and C
1
"
*hen, (a, i"(a)) is a code-word in C
1
, and there is a one-to-one correspondence 'etween an and ,-
(an)" /nowing ,- (a), we can reco%er a 'y an in%ersion operation" #n fact, the in%erti'le property
implies that (,"(a), a) is also a code-word in Cr Dsee >ro'lem .."KF"
=et %(L) : %o %i"" %U,Ri LE.-1 'e a code-word in C." 8ecause B. : K (n. - (.), we can di%ide %(L) into
q equal su'sections, % (L), %[(L)," wq (L), with each consisting of n. - (. sym'ols, such that
where
For 1 C i C q" let ,"D%i(L)F 'e the parity polynomial o'tained 'y encoding the ith section Q0 (L) 'ased
on Cr" ,"D%i (L)F is simply the remainder o'tained from di%iding LE.-(. %i (L) 'y I.(L)" *herefore,
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18
is a code-word in Cr" $e form the following polynomial:
*hen, D%(L)F is also a code-word in C. Dsee >ro'lem .."1BF" *herefore, %(L) and D%(L)F form a
code-word pair in C., and one can 'e o'tained from the other 'y a unique in%ersion operation" $e call
D%(L)F the parity code-word (or polynomial) of %(L)" $e will use this property in the hy'rid A 9 !
system to 'e descri'ed"
22.1".2. 22.#.2 THE CONCATENATED CODED MODULATION FEC SUBSYSTEM AND
RETRANSMISSION
*he FEC su'system is a concatenation of the 3 outer code C. and the 8C+ inner
code C
1
" *he outer code is interlea%ed 'y degree A, as shown in Figure ..".<, where
A outer code-words, h1, '.,, 111H, are arranged as a A & n. array o%er GF(.E;)" $e
represent each sym'ol in 2 F(.E1) with a 'inary nt-tuple in column form" *hen,
the A & n. array o%er GF(.#E) 'ecomes a Am & 1;. 'inary array, with each column
consisting of (1 : 0n 'inary digits" $e encode each column of this 'inary array
into a code sequence of n l signals 'ased on the it C+ inner code Ci" *he result
F#21E ..".<: A data array"
is an n1 & n. signal array o%er the signal set 3, denoted 'y @D1)1, '. 'A F *his
array, called a data array, is transmitted column 'y column" At the recei%ing end,
the recei%ed signal sequence is rearranged into an array @D'i, '., 'd" First, each
column of iD'i, '.,, '&F is decoded 'ased on C
1
using a soft-decision decoding
algorithm" After n. inner decoding, we o'tain an array of Lin & n. decoded 'its"
Each column of this decoded array is regarded as a column of L sym'ols from
GF(.E@)" *hen, each row of this array is decoded into a code-word in the 3 outer
code C." #f the decoding of each row is successful, the decoded information sym'ols
are deli%ered to the user"
#f any row of a recei%ed data array iD'1, ';,, '&F is not decoded successfully,
the data array o'tained from iD'i, '.,, 'd after the inner code decoding is sa%ed
in a 'uffer and a retransmission is requested" *he retransmission is an array of
parity sym'ols, denoted 'y >(('i), ('.), ON ('&)), that is formed 'ased on the
original set of code-words, '1, '., '&, and the half-rate in%erti'le code Cr" First,
each code-word 11<, is di%ided into q sections ',,i, ',,.,, 'i, q" *he parity word
is formed 'ased on ',, 1, ',,.,, 'i,q and code C, An array is constructed
with ('1), ('.),, ('&) as rows" Each column of this array is encoded into
a code sequence of n r signals in C
1
" *he result is an n j & 11. signal array
F9 ((')),, (l')")) o%er the signal set 3, which is transmitted column
'y column"
=et @H((h ,), (#5)), (l'&)) denote the recei%ed parity signal array" > is
decoded ,ust li(e a data array #" #f the decoding of > is successful, in%ersion is
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19
performed 'ased on 7'i), ('.),, (Fa&) to o'tain, which are then
deli%ered to the user or sa%ed in the recei%er 'uffer until they are ready for deli%ery"
#f the C. decoder fails to decode each row of >((l' ,), ('.), (ro&)) successfully,
then the erroneous parity words (ro,), (l' &) and the erroneous data
words l' ,, D1@.,, th)), stored in the recei%er 'uffer together are used for error
correction 'ased on the half-rate code Cr" For 1 C i C L and 1 C C c,, the pair
,, r D'i, ,F) is formed and decoded 'ased on CU" =et '01" 'e the decoded estimate
of After L q such decoding, the recei%er contains the following estimated
data array:
*hen, the recei%er chec(s whether each i/, for 1 C i C L, is a code-word in C." -ote
that this time C. is used only for error detection" #f all #'*, '9E- are code-words
in C., then decoding is successful" *he decoded words are either deli%ered to the
user or sa%ed for later deli%ery"
#f any 11*,09 is not a code-word in C., the recei%er discards the stored erroneous
data array # and sa%es the erroneous parity array > for later use At the same
time, the recei%er requests a second retransmission" *he second retransmission is
the data array @'.,, ro)&) itself" *he decoding for the second retransmission
is the same as the first retransmission" etransmissions and decoding continue until
the data array is successfully reco%ered" etransmissions are alternate repetitions of
the parity array > and the data array #, as shown in Figure ..".J"
etransmissions can 'e carried out in any of the three modes: the stop-and-wait, the go-back-N, and
the selective-repeat" #f selecti%e-repeat A! with finite 'uffer is used, the retransmission protocol
descri'ed in the pre%ious section can 'e used"
A special case for this hy'rid A! error control scheme is that ni : hi :
#n this case no inner code is used the outer code C; is used for 'oth error correction
and detection" *he half-rate in%erti'le code C, is used for error correction only"
22.1".3. 22.#.3 A SPECIFIC SYSTEM
-e&t, a specific concatenated coded modulation hy'rid A! system proposed
in DH1F is used for illustration" 3et m : I and L : ." For this system, the outer
code C. is chosen as the shortened (..J, 1K.) 3 code o%er GF(.I) o'tained 'y
deleting <1 information sym'ols from the -A3A standard (.HH, ..<) 3 code o%er
GF(.I)" *his code has <. parity-chec( sym'ols and is capa'le of correcting up to
1A sym'ol errors" *he inner code C
1
for the concatenation is chosen as the I->3/
8C+ code of length I, dimension 1A gi%en in E&le 1K"1" 1sing this inner code,
F#21E ..".J: Alternating data-parity retransmission strategy"
1A information 'its are coded into a sequence of eight I->3/ signals (n 1 : I)" *his
code has a spectral efficiency of . 'its@signal (or effecti%e rate : 1) and a minimum
squared Euclidean distance of J" #t has a J-state I-section trellis and can 'e decoded
with the soft-decision Qiter'i decoding algorithm" #n concatenation the outer code
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20
is interlea%ed 'y a degree of L : . 'efore inner code encoding" *he o%erall rate of
F#21E ..".H: 1pper 'ound on the pro'a'ility of a decoding error"
F#21E ..".A: =ower 'ound on the throughput efficiency"
the concatenated code is : i & : 1 & 1K.@..J : B"IH; (or spectral efficiency
of 1";1J 'its@signal)"
*he half-rate in%erti'le code C,- for parity retransmission is the shortened (AJ,
<.) 3 code o%er GF(.I) o'tained from shortening the outer code C." C,- is capa'le
of correcting up to 1A sym'ol errors o%er a span of AJ sym'ols and hence is %ery
powerful" *herefore, e%en in a %ery noisy situation, a transmitted data array should
'e reco%ered with at most one retransmission"
*he relia'ility and throughput efficiency of this system ha%e 'een analy)ed
in DH1F and are shown in Figures ..".H and ..".A, respecti%ely" *he system performs
e&tremely well for 3- E, @N
B
greater than ; d8 (or, equi%alently, channel 'it-error
pro'a'ility p C 1B-.)" For 3- E
s
@N
B
: I d8, error-free communication
is practically achie%ed and the system throughput efficiency is equal to the system
rate, B"IH;"
7ther hy'rid A! schemes using coded modulation for error control can 'e
found in DH1, H<, and AJ-AAF"
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