1.

Describe ways in which reptiles are more functionally or structurally

suited for terrestriality
Functionally or Structurally of Terrestriality reptile is usually has body
shape that are elongated. The body is covered by a bulge epidermal scales
with the addition of a layer of bony plates dermal. Animal ektothermal,
has some habits to maintain body temperature. They usually has two
nostrils on the snout. Large lateral eyes, having upper and lower eyelids.
Niktitans translucent membrane. Closed ear hole by folds of skin. This is
the describe in each organ and the structurally function :

Skin and integument system : Reptile skin contains keratin, a water-
resistant substance that maintains hydration. Reptiles also have scales
to keep in moisture and help avoid skin damage, though the scales are
sometimes too small to be visible.
Cranium and the nervous system : The nervous system is equipped
with an optical lobes on the dorsal part of the brain, 12 pairs of cranial
nerves at the nerve terminal addition.
Panizzae foramen and circulatory system : Closed circulatory and
double system . Heart with 3 rooms (2 atria, 1 ventrikel), specifically in
order Crocodilia 4 space and there panizzae foramen. Has one pair of
aortic arch.
Kidney and Excretion system : Tool in the form of a pair of renal
excretion metanephros, results is acid excretion of uric especially
residual nitrogen . The kidney living on land means limited access to
drinking water, so reptiles kidneys have adapted. They conserve water
by producing less urine in more concentrated forms.
Genitalia organ and he Reproduction is separate genitals with internal
fertilization. Laying soft-shelled eggs is safe in water, but land-
dwelling creatures require a different reproductive strategy. The eggs
are covered by a hard shell or limestone, extra embryonic membranes
(amnion, chorion and allantois), there is no larval stage that lives in
water
Lung and the respiration system : The reptile breathe with lungs, no
gills, presence of arch branchi on embryonic phase. They has adapting
lungs in place of gills was a significant step in reptiles migration to
land. While amphibians all have gills at some stage in their
development, either temporarily during the larval stage or permanently
through adulthood, reptiles are born with fully developed lungs. While
Limbs in pairs, usually with five fingers and adapted for climbing
running or swimming, except in snakes and some lizards.
Basking: For cold-blooded creatures on land, survival requires more
than just physical changes. Since a reptiles temperature depends on its
surroundings, it basks on rocks to warm its blood for hunting. Without
a place to bask, reptiles cant get enough blood flow, as anyone who
keeps reptiles as pets can verify. Reptiles kept in captivity must have
access to warming lights and heat-absorbent surfaces to substitute for a
natural basking environment.
Legs: teresterial reptile needed to become land-dwelling creatures. This
was once a topic for debate due to the legless nature of snakes. Though
scientists knew that snakes once had legs, they could not determine
whether they lost their limbs before or after migrating to land.
Scientists at Penn State resolved this issue in 2004 by comparing DNA
between snakes and their closest genetic relatives. They determined
that snakes lost their legs after they left the water, possibly to enable
their burrowing habits, but that snakes, like all reptiles, initially
required legs to relocate to land habitats.



2. Know the differences between anapsid, diapsid & synapsid skulls. List at
least two Reptile that are grouped under each taxon!
anapsid
The anapsid type has characteristic lack openings or fenestrae in the
temporal region of the skulls. Probably the most primitive form skull. It
lacks any holes (temporal fenestrae) primitive reptile having no opening in
the temporal region of the skull and is thought to be the type of skull
present in all early reptiles. For example is the turtles and many extinct
reptile groups.
diapsid
The diapsid type has characteristic having two openings in the temporal
region of the skull. The characterized by the presence of two temporal
fenestrae, called the lower and the upper temporal fenestrae. This is the
skull type seen in a majority of reptiles (both modern and fossil). For
example : dinosaurs => birds and crocodiles
synapsid
The synapsid type has characteristic possess a single lateral opening in the
temporal region of the skull. This form has one temporal fenestra in a low
position on the skull. It is seen in the 'mammal-like' reptiles and in
mammals. Synapsids evolved a temporal fenestra behind each eye orbit on
the lateral surface of the skull. It may have evolved to provide new
attachment sites for jaw muscles. While the Synapsids and none other
were the ancestors of the Mammals. For example is snakes, lizards,
crocodiles, dinosaurs and birds.
3. How did the poisons snake differ from nonpoisons ?
1. Look at the head. Most venomous snakes usually have triangular shaped
heads.
2. Observe the colors. Some venomous snakes such as the coral snake
have bright colors.
3. Look into their eyes. Some venomous snakes have vertical eye slits,
versus round pupils usually seen in non-venomous snakes.
4. Look for a pit between the snake's eyes and nostrils. A poisonous snake
normally has a heat-sensitive pit there to locate warm-blooded prey. Non-
poisonous snakes lack such pits.
5. See if there is a rattle. A snake with a rattle on its tail must be a
rattlesnake, which is poisonous
6. Notice the underside scales on the tip of the tail. Most venomous snakes
have one row of scales there while non-poisonous snakes usually have two
rows.
7. Check the bottom of the tail if you can. The bottom of the tail (behind
the anus) of venomous snakes looks the same as the rest of the belly. If the
snake has a cross pattern (like a diamond shape) it is non-venomous.
However, this may not be easy to find out, unless the snake is dead.
8. Watch water snakes swim. Only venomous water snakes swim with
their entire bodies visible on the water.
9. Examine the bite marks in case of a snake attack. Two close-set
puncture marks would indicate that the snake has fangs and is venomous.
By contrast, a ragged bite mark means the snake lacks fangs, which only
poisonous snakes have.

4. Describe why Archaeopteryrix litographica is primitive aves?
Archaeopteryx is the earliest, most primitive bird known. The skeletal
anatomy of Archaeopteryx is very similar to that of contemporaneous
coelurosaurian dinosaurs. Every skeletal feature of Archaeopteryx closely
relates to contemporaneous coelurosaurian dinosaurs, with the only
exception of fused clavicles and unique ischial morphology.
a) Feathers. Feathers are generally a defining structure when looking at
modern birds, Archaeopteryx appears to have possessed well developed
flight feathers, which are asymmetrical and contain a large amount of
curvature as well as three distinct vanes. In some aspects however, the
feathers of Archaeopteryx appear to be slightly more primitive than extant
bird capable of flight with slightly less apparent asymmetry. Feathers are
the diagnostic feature of modern birds. This is one of the main criterion for
classifying Archae as a bird, as no other modern animal has feathers. The
possession of feathers is a characteristic of birds, so strike one up for the
birds.
b) Opposable hallux (big toe). This also is a character of birds and not of
dinosaurs. The hallux, or first toe, in Archaeopteryx appears to be flexible,
a trait not seen in remains of dinosaurs.
c) Furcula (wishbone) formed of two clavicles fused together in the
midline. Thus furculas do not appear to be diagnostic to birds and certain
members of the suggested closest group to the birds now appear to possess
furculas so it is a neutral character.
d) Pubis elongate and directed backward. This is a feature of birds, but it is
also a feature of some theropod dinosaurs so is not diagnostic of birds -
another neutral character. However, the pubic shafts of Archaeopteryx and
dromaeosaurs
e) Goup of theropod dinosaurs which are thought to be closely linked to
birds) share a plate-like, slightly angled transverse cross-section which not
found in any other archosaurs.
The Archaeopteryx lived around 151 million to 149 million years
ago during the Tithonian stage in the late Jurassic Period in what is
now southern Germany.









5. Make diagram mammal based on theria and give example its animal















Mamalia
Prototheria Theria
Metatheria

Eutheria Monotremata
Ex : Cyclopes
didactylus

Ex :
Tamandua
mexicana
Ex :
Dromiciops
qliroides
Ex : Isoodon
auratus
Ex :
Ornithorhynch
us anaticus