Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
ne hundred years of research efforts have failed to produce biological indicators specific to a diagnosis of
schizophrenia. Studies on schizophrenia morbidity, therefore,
continue to rely on descriptive case definitions, and the quality of their results depends on the diagnostic definitions used.
comparable findings. The standards include a precise, operational case definition, the collection of comprehensive data
on all cases from a sufficiently large, statistically welldocumented population, symptom assessment by transculturally standardized instruments, and computerized diagnosis
independent of the interviewer. The World Health Organization (WHO) Determinants of Outcome study (2) was the
first to satisfy nearly all of these requirements at each study
site in the determination of the incidence of schizophrenia (12
centres, 10 countries). Recently, Thornicroft and Johnson (3)
have added a further methodological standard that calls for
the assessment of met and unmet needs for care in psychiatric
surveys.
Ecological Epidemiology
With their ecological Chicago study, Faris and Dunham
(4) began an important chapter in the epidemiology of schizophrenia. The authors found the highest first-admission rates
139
140
Vol 42, No 2
March 1997
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
141
Country
Period
Babigian (98)
USA
1 year
4.1
UK
1 year
7.5
No
UK
Point
10.9
Yes
Botswana
1 year
5.3
No
Canada
Lifetime
0.3
USA
USA
Puerto Rico
6 months
6 months
6 months
6.0 to 11.0
3.0 to 6.0
15.0
No
No
No
China
Germany
1 year
Point
1.9 to 4.7
3.9
Yes
No
Croatia
UK
3 months
1 year
1.5 to 5.1
6.8
No
No
Age correction
Yes
No
Sweden
1 year
6.0
No
Netherlands
Point
7.3
Yes
Taiwan
Lifetime
3.1
No
Korea
Finland
Lifetime
Point
3.1 to 5.4
1.3
No
No
China
Point
4.2
Yes
UK
Point
13.0
No
Tonga
USA
India
1 year
6 months
Point
0.9 to 1.3
6.0 to 11.0
2.2
No
No
Yes
China
Point
1.8
Ghana
Point
1.1
No
Bulgaria
Point
2.8
Yes
Temkov (124)
Yes
Vasquez-Barquero (125)
Spain
Point
5.6
No
Walsh (126)
Ireland
Point
9.8
No
4.0
No
USA
Point
Sweden
Italy
Lifetime
1 year
0.7 to 5.0
1.3
No
No
Abridged version of a compilation by Warner and de Girolamo (36), supplemented by own review of literature.
142
Vol 42, No 2
March 1997
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
143
Diagnosis
Age correction
Babigian (98)
USA
Clinical diagnosis
0.94
No
UK
ICD
0.19
No
Canada
Clinical diagnosis
0.10
Yes
Der (76)
Dilling and others (131)
UK
Germany
Clinical diagnosis
Clinical diagnosis
0.09 to 0.16
No
Yes
Scotland
Croatia
ICD
ICD
0.12 to 0.20
0.27
Yes
No
Netherlands
ICD
0.11
No
Authors
0.48
Germany
ICD
0.16
No
Sweden
0.24
Yes
Denmark
India
USA
USSR
Japan
UK
Ireland
USSR
Australia
0.07 to 0.18
0.09 to 0.35
0.09 to 0.16
0.12 to 0.28
0.10 to 0.21
0.14 to 0.24
0.09 to 0.22
0.08 to 0.23
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Munk-Jrgensen (42)
Ninuallain (136)
Denmark
Ireland
Clinical diagnosis
Clinical diagnosis / ICD / PSE-CATEGO
0.07 to 0.11
0.18
0.37
No
No
Eaton (137)
India
0.58
No
Shen (121,122)
China
Clinical diagnosis
0.11
Yes
USA
DSM
1.0 to 7.1
No
Abridged version of a compilation by Warner and de Girolamo (36), supplemented by own review of literature.
144
Vol 42, No 2
Sample
All 41 paranoid states
> 60 years admitted in 1957,
including 9 late-onset and 7
early-onset schizophrenia
(cut-off 60 years)
99 admissions > 60 years
diagnosed with late
paraphrenia
Type of study/assessment
Case notes, partly personal
examination
Case study
20 late-onset schizophrenia
(> 45 years) versus 7
paraphrenia versus 13
late-onset paranoia (first
and readmissions)
Clinical assessment
25 late-onset schizophrenia
versus 39 early-onset
schizophrenia versus 35
normals
Symptomatology in
late-onset schizophrenia
No specific schizophrenia
syndrome
Sensory impairment,
schizoid premorbid
personality, female gender,
living alone
Female gender
Female gender
The main risk factors for paranoid disorders in old age are
cognitive and sensory impairment (44,53), whereas in
early-onset schizophrenia, signs of delayed development,
including cognitive impairment, predominate. It is therefore
reasonable to assume that in early-onset and very late-onset
schizophrenia, respectively, disordered or delayed brain development and degenerative processes of the brain, in both
instances ranging from mild to moderate in severity, are the
key risk factors. The reaction pattern of schizophrenia or
paranoid psychosis as a common final pathway shows clearcut psychopathological similarities but also some age-related
differences in both periods of life (54).
Studies focusing on the differentiation of delusional syndromes in later life are reviewed in Table 3. Final conclusions
are difficult to draw because of methodological limitations:
all of these studies employed small convenience or treatment
samples (44,47). Often first-episode cases as well as readmissions were included or no information was given on this issue.
In none of the recent studies attempting to distinguish
between primary paranoid disorder and schizophrenia in old
March 1997
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
145
Figure 3. Mean age values at 5 definitions of onset until first admission. First-episode sample of schizophrenia, broad definition (N = 232).
Angermeyer and Khn (55) found that women at first admission and frequently also at onset, which has been defined and
ascertained in different ways, were older than men. Figure 3,
taken from the ABC schizophrenia study and based on a
representative sample of 232 first-episode cases, shows a
significant age difference of about 3 to 4 years for all definitions of onset. The pooled data of the WHO Determinants of
Outcome study revealed a mean age difference of 3.4 years
(56).
A comparison of the distribution patterns of onset for men
and women on the basis of ABC study data showed that onset
for males started to increase somewhat earlier and more
steeply and, after a pronounced peak in the age group 15 to
146
12 to 20
36 to 59
11.2
10.3
10.1
ANOVA
P < 0.7
BSO
8.7
7.8
7.4
P < 0.4
SNR
9.6
6.7
6.6
P < 0.003
NSN
16.3
15.5
13.3
P < 0.08
Total score
45.9
40.4
37.7
P < 0.03
their lifetime risk more rapidly than women do, but from age
30 to 35 on, the rates for women approximate and finally meet
those for men.
Temporal Trends
Considering the even distribution of morbidity across
countries and cultures (see Figure 1), great variation over
historical time is unlikely. This is a difficult assumption to
verify, however, because it requires the registration and diagnosis on a fairly identical basis of all cases from a large,
statistically well-prepared population over a long period controlling for demographic changes.
The belief that schizophrenia did not exist before the 18th
century (71) is extremely unlikely to be true, and so is the
conviction that its incidence has increased with the bourgeoning population in the 19th and 20th centuries (7174). Decreases of 40% to 50% in the first-admission rates for
schizophrenia from the mid-1960s to about the mid-1980s
were recently reported by Munk-Jrgensen (42) from Denmark, Eagles and Whalley (75) from Scotland, and Der (76)
from England and Wales. Ders interpretation of the findings
as true morbidity trends triggered a critical debate in The
Lancet and the European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical
Neuroscience. The main point raised was that the number of
available hospital beds and first admissions for a few other
diagnoses, such as affective psychoses and neurotic disorder,
also fell by approximately the same amount in these countries
over the same period (77,79). Strmgren (78) and Kendell and
others (80) also pointed out that the diagnosis of schizophrenia had become more restrictive during this period.
Warner and de Girolamo (36), referring to repeated, crosssectional investigations with the same methodology at some
study sites over the period in question, found stable,
age-corrected rates. Only 3 longitudinal studies fulfilled the
requirements mentioned for the investigation of long-term
morbidity trends in schizophrenia (17,81,82). They were
conducted on case-register data for Norway, Iceland, and the
state of Victoria, Australia. The longest period was covered
in the Australian study, in which a retrospective application
of operationalized diagnoses to random samples of case records was used. All of these studies found fairly stable rates,
indicating that temporal changes in schizophrenia morbidity
currently or in the recent past must be considered unlikely.
Vol 42, No 2
Clinical Epidemiology
Clinical epidemiology aims at generally valid conclusions
from clinical samples. The precondition is that study samples
are representative of the disorder in question or at least of a
defined subtype. The diagnostic definition should not include
any course criteria, such as the 6-month criterion in DSM-III
and DSM-IV, which is bound to lead to a biased selection in
the sample and thus to distorted results. Some epidemiological aspects of a disorder with an irregular, episodic course
also require comparisons at an identical stage of illness to
avoid confounds from different duration of illness (83). This
requirement has been fulfilled only recently in primarily
first-episode studies (43,84).
Symptomatology of the First Episode across the Life Cycle
Early-onset schizophrenia (under age 21) and very earlyonset schizophrenia (under age 14) are characterized by disorganization and a high frequency of poorly differentiated
and nonspecific symptoms, severe conduct disorders, and
functional impairment: the more prominent these symptoms,
the younger the patients are at onset (85,86). The sex distribution of early-onset schizophrenia shows a slight predominance of males in most studies, but the opposite has been
demonstrated in other studies. The studies, mostly based on
first-contact samples at child psychiatric institutions, however, usually do not include admissions after age 18. For this
reason, some young male cases of schizophrenia may be
missed because their asocial behaviour brings them into contact with social and youth guidance services as well as juvenile courts before reference to mental health services (87).
Testing the conclusion drawn from several studiesthat
early-onset schizophrenias are more severe than late-onset
schizophreniasinvestigators from the ABC schizophrenia
study, on the basis of PSE and CATEGO syndrome scores
(37), found that the PSE total scores were significantly lower
for late-onset patients, men and women taken together. As
shown in Table 4, the result was accounted for to a lesser
extent by the specific symptom scores DAH (delusional and
hallucinatory syndromes) and BSO (behaviour and speech),
and primarily by the 2 nonspecific scores SNR (specific
neurotic syndromes) and NSN (nonspecific neurotic syndromes). The implication of this finding is that the greater
severity of early-onset schizophrenia is primarily attributable
to a higher frequency of symptoms not specific to psychosis.
A comparison of the symptom scores in early- and lateonset schizophrenia (< 21 years versus 40 years) by sex
yielded different age trends for men and women. On 4 out of
8 symptom dimensions, late-onset men scored significantly
lower than early-onset men. For late-onset women, not a
single indicator was significantly more favourable and one,
the SANS global score, was more unfavourable in late-onset
women (Table 5).
This means that the milder symptomatology in late-onset
schizophrenia as a whole was accounted for by men alone,
while the total scores for late-onset women did not decrease,
and the SANS score, measuring negative symptoms, even
March 1997
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
147
Table 5. Sex differences in symptom scores at time of first psychotic episodeearly versus late onseta
Men
Symptomatology
DAH
Women
Late (n = 9)
12.1
Wilcoxon
0.02a
5.7
8.6
0.29
7.3
SNR
10.7
0.11
NSN
18.9
0.03b
Total score
50.3
0.02b
31.8
SANS
9.3
0.29
PIRS
10.7
0.26
3.0
0.06c
1.8
BSO
DAS-M
Early (n = 28)
Early (n = 21)
Late (n = 24)
10.0
Wilcoxon
0.95
8.9
0.44
7.9
7.3
8.2
0.42
7.1
11.4
13.0
0.58
13.8
40.0
0.80
39.2
6.6
6.7
0.08c
9.5
8.4
9.8
0.73
10.5
1.9
0.61
1.8
10.5
148
Vol 42, No 2
Table 6. Gender differences in symptomatology at first admission and during early course
(ABC Schizophrenia First-Episode Sample, N = 232)
Symptom
Males (%)
Females (%)
P(2)a
5.8
14.9
0.029
38.1
81.9
76.4
68.3
84.7
58.1
36.5
48.0
18.0
54.1
50.7
31.3
62.7
39.5
19.5
31.3
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.005
0.005
0.012
79.6
92.7
0.003
39.8
31.5
74.1
21.0
16.9
55.6
0.002
0.009
0.003
The table gives results only for those items (out of the total of 303 items of PSE, PIRS, SANS, DAS, and IRAOS) in which (for alpha-correction) a significant gender difference
was validated with at least a statistical trend (P < 0.10) in both randomly split subsamples.
Eugen Bleuler (96) regarded them as secondary symptomsbut not in the negative symptoms, illustrate the extent
to which personality development, together with genetic and
probably also environmentally determined brain processes,
influences the clinical expression and probably also the
course of the disorder. This issue was recently raised by
Galdos and van Os (97) with reference to the fact that fully
elaborated positive symptoms, such as paranoid and
systematic delusions, require a certain degree of cognitive
maturity and education, for example, knowledge of the systems included as explanatory principles in the delusions. The
interaction of disease and development is likely to become
one of the key topics for future schizophrenia research and to
help build a bridge between genetic, epidemiological, and
personality research.
Discussion
The epidemiology of schizophrenia is still faced with a
series of unsolved methodological problems, making conclusive interpretations and meaningful comparisons difficult.
Among these problems are the definition of the diagnosis by
conventional criteria, the variability of illness courses despite
the similarity of psychopathological symptoms, and the heterogeneity of the study populations. The difficulties resulting
from nonrepresentative study populations or from a failure to
check the findings against alternative interpretations are
reflected in the controversy produced by the reports of decreasing first-admission rates for schizophrenia from the mid1960s to the 1980s in some regions. Equally controversial
issues are the similarity or difference of age at onset in men
and women, the association between social class and the
March 1997
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
7.
9.
Overall, the onset of schizophrenia is determined by various factorsgenetic and general biological (for example,
estrogen)and these same factors, interacting with age- and
sex-specific behaviour and level of development at onset,
influence the clinical expression and social course.
8.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Clinical Implications
Incidence rates of schizophrenia appear stable across countries,
25.
Given a narrow definition of schizophrenia, the annual incidence rates vary around 1 in 10 000.
26.
27.
Limitations
29.
30.
standards in methodology.
31.
32.
33.
References
34.
35.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
149
150
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
Vol 42, No 2
March 1997
Epidemiology of Schizophrenia
108. Folnegovic Z, Folnegovic-Smalc V. Schizophrenia in Croatia: interregional differences in prevalence and a comment on constant incidence. J Epidemiol Community Health 1992;46:24855.
109. Freeman HL, Alpert M. Prevalence of schizophrenia in an urban population. Br J
Psychiatry 1986;149:60311.
110. Halldin T. Prevalence of mental disorder in an urban population in central Sweden.
Acta Psychiatr Scand 1984;69:50318.
111. Hodiamont P, Peer N, Sybern N. Epidemiological aspects of psychiatric disorder
in a Dutch health area. Psychol Med 1987;17:495505.
112. Hwu HG, Yeh E-K, Chang L-Y. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan
defined by the Chinese diagnostic interview schedule. Acta Psychiatr Scand
1989;79:13647.
113. Lee CK, Kwak YS, Yamamoto J, Rhee H, Kim YS, Han JH, and others. Psychiatric
epidemiology in Korea, part I: gender and age differences in Seoul. J Nerv Ment
Dis 1990;178:2426.
114. Lehtinen V, Joukamaa M, Lahtela K, Raitasalo R, Jyrkinen E, Maatela J, and
others. Prevalence of mental disorders among adults in Finland: basis results from
the Mini Finland Health Survey. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;81:41825.
115. Lehtinen V. The prevalence of PSE-CATEGO disorders in a Finnish adult
population cohort. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1990;25:18792.
116. Lin KM. Overview of mental disorders in Chinese cultures: review of
epidemiological and clinical studies. In: Kleinman A, Lin TY, editors. Normal
and abnormal behaviour in Chinese cultures. Dordrecht: Reidel; 1981. p 23772.
117. Mavreas VG, Bebbington P. Psychiatric morbidity in Londons Greek-Cypriot
immigrant community. Social Psychiatry 1987;22:1509.
118. Murphy HB, Taumoepeau BM. Traditionalism and mental health in the South
Pacific: a re-examination of an old hypothesis. Psychol Med 1980;10:47182.
119. Myers JK, Weissman MM, Tischler GL, Holzer CE, Leaf P, Orvaschel H, and
others. Six month prevalence of psychiatric disorders in three sites. Arch Gen
Psychiatry 1984;41:95967.
120. Nandi DN, Mukherjee S, Boral GC, Banerjee G, Ghosh A, Sarkas S, and others.
Socio-economic status and mental morbidity in central tribes and castes in India:
a cross-cultural study. Br J Psychiatry 1980;136:7385.
121. Shen Y. Investigations of mental disorders in Beijing suburban district. Chinese
Medical Journal 1981;94:1536.
122. Shen Y. A survey of mental disorders in a suburb of Beijing. International Journal
of Mental Health 1988;16:7580.
123. Sikanerty T, Eaton WW. Prevalence of schizophrenia in the Labadi district of
Ghana. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1984;69:15661.
124. Temkov I. Use of reported prevalence data in cross-national comparisons of
psychiatric morbidity. Social Psychiatry 1980;3:1117.
125. Vasquez-Barquero JL. A community mental health survey in Cantabria: a general
description of morbidity. Psychol Med 1987;17:22741.
151
126. Walsh D. The treated prevalence of mental illness in the Republic of Ireland: the
three county case register study. Psychol Med 1980;10:46570.
127. Weissman MM, Myers JK. Psychiatric disorders in a U.S. community: the
application of research diagnostic criteria to a resurveyed community sample. Acta
Psychiatr Scand 1980;62:99111.
128. Widerlv B, Borg P, Cullberg J, Stefansson CG, Lindqvist G. Epidemiology of
long-term functional psychosis in three different areas in Stockholm County. Acta
Psychiatr Scand 1989;80:406.
129. Zimmerman-Tansella C. Bringing into action the psychiatric reform in SouthVerona: a five year experience. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1985;71:7186.
130. Bates CE, van Dam CH. Low incidence of schizophrenia in British Columbia
coastal Indians. J Epidemiol Community Health 1984;38:12730.
131. Dilling H, Weyerer S, Fichter M. The Upper Bavarian studies. Acta Psychiatr
Scand 1989;348:11340.
132. Folnegovic Z, Folnegovic-Smalc V, Kulcar Z. The incidence of schizophrenia in
Croatia. Br J Psychiatry 1990;156:3635.
133. Giel R, Sauer HC, Slooff CJ, Wiersma D. Epidemiological observations on
schizophrenia and disability in the Netherlands. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie
1980;11-12:71022.
134. Hagnell O, Essen-Mller E, Lanke J. The incidence of mental illness over a quarter
of a century: the Lundby longitudinal study of mental illness in a total population
based on 42,000 observation years. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International;
1990.
135. Krasik ED, Semin IR. Epidemiological aspects of first admissions of schizophrenic patients. Zhurnal Nevropatologij Psikijatrii 1980;80:13549.
136. Ninuallain M, OHare A, Walsh D. Incidence of schizophrenia in Ireland. Psychol
Med 1987;17:9438.
137. Eaton WW. Update on the epidemiology of schizophrenia. Epidemiol Rev
1991;13:3208.
138. Tien AY, Eaton WW. Psychopathologic precursors and sociodemographic risk
factors for the schizophrenia syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:3746.
139. Kay DWK, Roth M. Environmental and hereditary factors in the schizophrenia of
old age (late paraphrenia) and their bearing on the general problem of causation
in schizophrenia. Journal of Mental Science 1961;107:64986.
140. Harris MJ, Cullum CM, Jeste DV. Clinical presentation of late-onset schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 1988;49:35660.
141. Yassa R, Suranyi-Cadotte B. Clinical characteristics of late-onset schizophrenia
and delusional disorder. Schizohpr Bull 1993;19:7017.
142. Jeste DV, Harris MJ, Krull A, Kuck J, McAdams LA, Heaton RK. Clinical and
neuropsychological characteristics of patients with late-onset schizophrenia. Am
J Psychiatry 1995;152:72230.
Rsum
Objectif : Caractriser lpidmiologie de la schizophrnie.
Mthode : Analyse documentaire narrative.
Rsultats : Chaque anne, un adulte sur 10 000 (g entre 12 et 60 ans) est atteint de schizophrnie. Lorsquon utilise
une dfinition restrictive et prcise du diagnostic, des mthodes dvaluation normalises et des populations larges et
reprsentatives, on constate que les taux dincidence semblent tre demeurs stables, dun pays et dune culture lautre
ainsi quau fil des ans, et ce depuis au moins 50 ans. Les malades schizophrnes ne viennent pas au monde socialement
dfavoriss, ni dfavoriss quant leur milieu. La rpartition ingale des taux de prvalence est le rsultat de la slection
sociale : lapparition prcoce de la maladie mne une stagnation sociale alors quune apparition tardive entrane une
diminution du statut social. La principale zone dge, pour ce qui est des risques de schizophrnie, se situe entre 20 et
35 ans. On ne sait pas encore si les psychoses dallure schizophrnique dbut tardif (comme les paraphrnies tardives),
qui se dclarent aprs lge de 60 ans, devraient tre classes comme des schizophrnies, que ce soit au plan
psychopathologique ou tiologique.
Dans 75 % des cas, la premire hospitalisation est prcde dune phase prodromique dune dure moyenne de 5 ans
et dune prphase psychotique dun an. Chez les femmes, la maladie se manifeste gnralement 3 ou 4 ans plus tard que
chez les hommes et une deuxime priode dapparition leve concide peu prs avec la mnopause. Les schizophrnies
dbut tardif sont donc plus frquentes et plus graves chez les femmes que chez les hommes. Les diffrences entre les
sexes quant lge dapparition de la maladie sont moindres lorsque le fardeau gntique est lev et elles sont plus
grandes lorsque le fardeau gntique est faible. Le mode dapparition et les principaux symptmes de la maladie sont
similaires chez les deux sexes. Les diffrences les plus marques entre les sexes se situent au niveau du comportement
socialement ngatif d la maladie, qui est observ chez les jeunes hommes.
Conclusions : Parmi les facteurs qui dterminent lvolution sociale et lissue figurent le niveau de dveloppement social
au moment de lapparition de la maladie, le trouble lui-mme (par exemple le fardeau gntique, la gravit des
symptmes et les dficits fonctionnels), les facteurs biologiques gnraux (par exemple, loestrogne) et les comportements pathologiques spcifiques au sexe et lge.