Ten Myths About Islam

5th Edition
By Timothy W. Dunkin
2001-2010 All !i"hts !ese#$ed
All %&#i'tu#e (uotations a#e )#om the Autho#i*ed +e#sion also kno,n as the -in" .ames +e#sion o) the /oly Bible
0uotations )#om the 0u#1an a#e )#om the t#anslation o) 1234 by Abdullah 5usu) Ali unless othe#,ise noted
6#e)a&e
A ,ise man named 7#an&is Ba&on on&e said that kno,led"e is 'o,e#. 8e#tainly this
is t#ue ,hen dealin" ,ith )o#ei"n and o)ten hostile ideolo"ies that &on)#ont ou#
Weste#n &i$ili*ation and ,ay o) li)e. 9ne o) these ideolo"ies is Islam. Ame#i&ans
and Weste#ne#s in "ene#al ,hethe# 8h#istian o# not a#e all too o)ten still
dan"e#ously ill-in)o#med about Islam. Many 'eo'le in the West hea# and belie$e
the '#o'a"anda '#omoted by $a#ious Muslim "#ou's but )ail to sea#&h out the )a&ts
about the histo#y theolo"y and 'sy&holo"y o) the Islami& 'henomenon.
While kno,led"e may be 'o,e# i"no#an&e &an #ende# a 'e#son a nation o# an
enti#e &i$ili*ation absolutely 'o,e#less. It is the intention o) this book to dis'el
i"no#an&e about Islam and to e:'ose it to the li"ht o) o'en and honest
in$esti"ation. /o, mu&h does you# a$e#a"e Weste#ne# you# a$e#a"e Ame#i&an
you# a$e#a"e &hu#&h"oe# o# you# a$e#a"e se&ula#ist kno, about Islam; /o, &an
,e so#t th#ou"h the $a#yin" ima"es and &laims made by and about Islam; What is
t#uth and ,hat is )alsehood as )a# as ,hat ,e a#e bein" told about the #eli"ion o)
Islam; A#e ,e bein" lied to and i) so then ho, &an ,e dete&t these )alsehoods
and a$oid them;
I submit this ,o#k as an e))o#t at enli"htenin" all ,ho a#e )a&ed ,ith the &hallen"e
o) Islam &on&e#nin" its im'li&ations )o# Ame#i&a and the West. I ha$e attem'ted to
dis&#edit many o) the &ommon myths that a#e tau"ht about Islam and to e:'ose
them to the blindin" li"ht o) )a&t #eason and ultimately t#uth. My ob<e&ti$e in
some o) the &ha'te#s o) this book is to distill the dis&o$e#ies and ideas o) mode#n
s&hola#ly in$esti"ation into the natu#e o#i"ins and histo#y o) Islam into a )o#m
a&&essible to the a$e#a"e #eade# ,ho does not ha$e the time o# 'e#ha's the
inte#est to be&ome )amilia# ,ith the some,hat insula# body o) a&ademi&
lite#atu#e a$ailable on the sub<e&t. By b#in"in" to the #eade#1s attention ,hat I
$ie, to be the im'o#tant hi"hli"hts o) ,hat s&hola#ly in$esti"ation has said about
the sub<e&t I ho'e to in)o#m my #eade#s about these im'o#tant 'oints and
ho'e)ully e:&ite thei# inte#ests in 'u#suin" )u#the# study. As su&h I ,ould &onside#
mysel) to be )illin" the #ole o) a =t#ansmitte#= #athe# than an =o#i"inato#= o)
kno,led"e. In othe# &ha'te#s es'e&ially those dealin" ,ith the so&iolo"i&al im'a&t
o) Islam my desi#e is to systemati&ally '#esent the e$iden&es vis--vis the &laims
o) Muslim a'olo"ists and demonst#ate to the #eade# ,he#e the ,ei"ht o) )a&ts
and )#om these t#uth #esides.
I make no a'olo"ies )o# '#esentin" this ,o#k )#om a s&hola#ly 8h#istian 'e#s'e&ti$e.
The#e a#e 'o#tions o) this book that ,ill be o) inte#est to all #e"a#dless o) &#eed.
The#e a#e othe# 'a#ts that ,ill be o) mo#e s'e&i)i& &on&e#n to my )ello, 8h#istians
thou"h e$en these may &ontain in)o#mation that non-8h#istians ,ill )ind
inst#u&ti$e. >ltimately I ho'e that the enti#e ,o#k ,ill be o) use to any ,ho a#e
o'en-minded enou"h to #e&ei$e it and e$aluate it )ai#ly.
At this 'oint I ,ould also like to )o#e,a#n the #eade# that I ha$e '#e'a#ed this
,o#k ,ithout any mali&e to,a#ds Muslims. This may &ome as a disa''ointment to
some and as a sho&k to othe#s but it is ne$e#theless t#ue. This book is )o# the
'u#'ose o) a''#oa&hin" the (uestion o) Islam )#om the stand'oint o) histo#i&al
e$idential and theolo"i&al in(ui#y. As su&h its moti$e is not emotional. It is not
about 'aintin" all Muslims as e$il o# $iolent o# dan"e#ous as some #e&ent ,o#ks
ha$e t#ied to do. It is the system of Islam itself not indi$idual Muslims that &omes
unde# &#iti(ue in this ,o#k. In some small ,ay I am ho'in" to mo$e ou#
&i$ili*ational dis&ou#se about Islam a,ay )#om the #ealm o) emotional #es'onse to
,o#ld e$ents ,hi&h ha$e ha''ened in &om'a#ati$ely #e&ent de&ades and a''#oa&h
Islam )#om a 'e#s'e&ti$e that s'ans the &entu#ies. We must a''#oa&h the Islami&
,o#ld$ie, not in #ea&tion but ,ith initiati$e and '#oa&ti$ity. As an Ame#i&an and
a Weste#ne# ,ho belie$es that ou# &i$ili*ation based as it is u'on the .udaeo-
8h#istian ,o#ld$ie, the #ule o) la, and the Ba&onian a''#oa&h to ob<e&ti$e
kno,led"e and '#o"#ess is su'e#io# to those &i$ili*ations ,hi&h a#e not ?and ,ho
ob$iously #e<e&ts 'ostmode#n multi&ultu#al #elati$ism in toto@ I make no a'olo"ies
)o# the a#"uments that I 'ut )o#,a#d in this book.
6lease note that the#e ,ill be $a#iant s'ellin"s o) A#abi& ,o#ds a''ea#in" in this
,o#k. I ha$e attem'ted to standa#di*e my o,n o#tho"#a'hy but ha$e #etained the
t#anslite#ations that a''ea# in (uotations made )#om othe# ,o#ks.
Deo Vindice!
Table of Contents
The Qur'an
8ha'te# 1 - The 0u#1an is 6#ese#$ed and >n&han"ed !e$elation )#om
Allah
8ha'te# 2 - The 0u#1an is Allah1s 6e#)e&t and 8om'lete Wo#d
Theology
8ha'te# 3 - Allah is the %ame as the Aod o) the Bible
8ha'te# B - Muslims !e$e#en&e .esus 8h#ist
Mohammed
8ha'te# 5 - Mohammed ,as a 6#o'het o) Allah
8ha'te# C - Mohammed ,as the 7ul)illment o) Bibli&al 6#o'he&ies
Social Impact
8ha'te# D - Islam is a 6ea&e)ul !eli"ion
8ha'te# 4 - Islam is a Tole#ant !eli"ion
8ha'te# 2 - Women a#e !es'e&ted and E(ual in Islam
Eternal Efficacy
8ha'te# 10 - Islam is a !eli"ion Whi&h 8an 9))e# Ete#nal %al$ation
Alossa#y o) A#abi& and Islami& Te#ms
Myth E1
The 0u#Fan is 6#ese#$ed
and >n&han"ed !e$elation
)#om Allah
GVerum nil securius est malo poeta.H ?GBut t#uly the#e is no one mo#e &on)ident
than a bad 'oet.H@
- Ma#tial Epigrams
The Tan"ible E$iden&es
E$ol$in" into %&#i'tu#e
Manu)a&tu#in" the 0u#1an
Aa#bled in T#ansmission
/ome"#o,n Ins'i#ation
Most 'eo'le a#e '#obably )amilia# ,ith the 'la&e "i$en to the 0u#1an in Islam that
it is the =holy book= o) the Muslim #eli"ion. This is an a&&u#ate assessment )o#
Muslims "#ant a $e#y hi"h 'la&e o) hono# to the 0u#Ian in thei# minds hea#ts and
li$es. As ,e ,ould e:'e&t Muslims hold to a $e#y e:alted $ie, o) the 0u#Ian.
7o#emost amon" Muslim belie)s about the 0u#1an is that it ,as "i$en to Mohammed
by di#e&t #e$elation )#om Allah. The t#aditional Muslim histo#ies a))i#m this by
statin" that the an"el Aab#iel t#ansmitted the 0u#1an ,o#d )o# ,o#d to Mohammed
)#om Allah and that Mohammed then #e&ited these ,o#ds to his 8om'anions ,ho
memo#i*ed and sometimes t#ans&#ibed these qira ?#e&itations@ that )o#m the
0u#1an
1
. 7u#the# this #e$elation )#om Allah has #emained the same ,o#d )o#
,o#d ne$e# &han"in" th#ou"h all the inte#$enin" &entu#ies o) &o'yin" and
t#ansmission. A ty'i&al '#esentation o) the o#thodo: Muslim 'osition &an be )ound
in the statement belo, )#om the 6akistani #e$i$alist and #eli"ious autho#ity %yed
Maududi
GThe o#i"inal te:ts o) most o) the )o#me# di$ine Books ,e#e lost alto"ethe# and
only thei# t#anslations e:ist today. The 0u#Ian on the othe# hand e:ists e:a&tly as
it had been #e$ealed to the 6#o'hetJ not a ,o#d - nay not a dot o) it - has been
&han"ed. It is a$ailable in its o#i"inal te:t and the Wo#d o) Aod has been '#ese#$ed
)o# all times to &ome.H
2
And )u#the#
G%o ,ell has it Kthe 0u#1anL been '#ese#$ed both in memo#y and in ,#itin" that
the A#abi& te:t ,e ha$e today is identi&al to the te:t as it ,as #e$ealed to the
6#o'het. Mot e$en a sin"le lette# has yielded to &o##u'tion du#in" the 'assa"e o)
the &entu#ies. And so it ,ill #emain )o#e$e# by the &onsent o) Allah.=
3
5et e$en ,ithin the "ene#al Muslim t#adition all is not ,ell )o# these so#ts o)
asse#tions. 8e#tain t#aditions su""est ,ith se$e#al o) the ahadith as thei#
autho#ity that a)te# Mohammed1s death the )ea# that 'o#tions o) these tea&hin"s
o) Allah ,ould be lost due to battle and the deaths o) MohammedIs &om'anions
moti$ated ea#ly Muslim #ule#s to be"in the &om'ilation o) the #e$elations that
Mohammed &laimed to ha$e #e&ei$ed. The end #esult o) this &om'ilation be"an by
Mohammed1s su&&esso# Abu Bak# and )inished by 8ali'h >thman ?t#aditionally CBB-
C5C AD@ is said to be the 0u#1an in its '#esent )o#m 'e#)e&t &o'ies o) ,hi&h ,e#e
sent out to e$e#y '#o$in&e o) the ne, Muslim Em'i#e
B
?thou"h ,hat usually
#emains unmentioned is that the t#aditions also #e'o#t that >thman &a##ied out the
dest#u&tion by )i#e o) all $a#iant #eadin"s and te:ts that did not &on)o#m to his
&om'ilation.@
The Tangible Eidences
Te:tual and a#&haeolo"i&al e$iden&es do not su''o#t the t#aditional $ie,s about
the )o#mation and '#ese#$ation o) the (u#ani& te:t. All o) the an&ient
manus&#i'tual e$iden&e that has been )ound 'ost-dates >thman by at least a
&entu#y and di))e#s )#om the '#esent Gstanda#dH $e#sion o) the A#abi& 0u#Ian at a
numbe# o) 'oints. This di$e#"en&e is t#ue e$en )o# those manus&#i'ts and othe#
e$iden&es that a#e dated &lose# to the time o) >thmanIs li)e.
%ome Muslim s&hola#s &laim to ha$e un&o$e#ed Dth &entu#y &o'ies o) the o#i"inal
(u#ani& manus&#i't sent th#ou"hout the ne,ly )o#med A#ab Em'i#e by >thman.
The te:ts that )o#m the basis )o# this &laim a#e the To'ka'i M%% in Istanbul and
the %ama#kand M%% in Tashkent. Des'ite the asse#tions manus&#i't e:'e#ts ha$e
#uled out the 'ossibility that these a#e )i#st-"ene#ation &o'ies o) >thmanFs te:t
and instead date these manus&#i'ts )#om the late 4th &entu#y at the ea#liest. The
#eason )o# doin" so is be&ause these t,o manus&#i'ts ,e#e &o'ied in ,hat is kno,n
as the Kufic s&#i't a style ,hi&h o#i"inated in the I#a(i &ity o) -u)ah and ,as
la#"ely used )#om the late 4th to the 11th &entu#ies only "#adually )indin"
,ides'#ead use in the #est o) the Muslim ,o#ld until it ,as #e'la&ed by a di))e#ent
style o) s&#i't &alled the Maskh s&#i't
5
.
In addition to the ana&h#onisti& -u)i& s&#i't that ,as used othe# e$iden&e )#om
the e:amination o) the %ama#kand &ode: su""ests a late# date. This manus&#i't
bea#s a#tisti& o#namentation bet,een many o) the suwar as ,ell as medallions
&ontainin" ku)i&-style nume#als that "au"e '#o"#ess th#ou"h ea&h indi$idual surah
all o) ,hi&h su""ests an 4th o# 2th &entu#y a"e )o# the manus&#i't. Islami&
&alli"#a'hy e:'e#t %a)adi says
GIt is si"ni)i&ant that until the be"innin" o) the 2th &entu#y -u)i& 0u#1ans #e&ei$ed
little illumination but on&e this initial #elu&tan&e ,as o$e#&ome $a#ious
o#namental de$i&es ,e#e e$ol$ed many o) ,hi&h se#$ed ne&essa#y )un&tions.
Motable amon" these ,e#e the Unwan ?title 'a"es@ Surah ?&ha'te#@ headin"s
$e#se di$isions $e#se &ounts se&tion indi&ato#s and &olo'hons.H
C
The %ama#kand manus&#i'ts sho, e:a&tly these ty'es o) ado#nment ,hi&h tells us
that they ,e#e &o'ied mu&h late# than the time o) >thman. The same so#t o)
o#namentation a''ea#s in the To'ka'i &ode: as ,ell like,ise indi&atin" its late#
date.
Additional e$iden&e &alls into (uestion the &laim that the %ama#kand &ode: is one
o) the o#i"inal &o'ies sent out by >thman to the $a#ious Muslim &ente#s in the mid-
Dth &entu#y. This manus&#i't is $e#y e&le&ti& ,ith the te:t )#om 'a"e to 'a"e
alte#natin" bet,een &a#e)ul &o'yin" and hasty untidy t#ansmission. %ome 'a"es
&ontain b#oad and )lo,in" te:t ,hile on othe#s the te:t is &#am'ed and
&om'#essed. This e$iden&e seems to dis&ount the notion that a sin"le s&#ibe &o'ied
the enti#e manus&#i't and e$en &alls into (uestion ,hethe# the ,hole manus&#i't
,ould ha$e been &o'ied at one time.
7u#the# and most im'o#tantly the#e a#e se$e#al di))e#en&es in #eadin" that e:ist
bet,een the %ama#kand &ode: and the Gstanda#dH (u#ani& te:t as it e:ists today.
A '#ominent e:am'le is )ound in Surah 3DN103. In the %ama#kand manus&#i't the
#ele$ant 'o#tion o) this ayah #eads wa ma aslamaa ,hi&h t#anslated means Gand
they did not submitH ?i.e. be&ome Muslims@. 5et the '#esent A#abi& Gstanda#dH
0u#Ian #eads !alammaa aslamaa ,hi&h ,hen t#anslated means G,hen they
submittedH
D
. Thus the &han"e o) one ,o#d alte#s the meanin" o) the 'assa"e to
one that is e:a&tly the o''ositeO Mume#ous additional di))e#en&es bet,een the
%ama#kand &ode: and the '#esent A#abi& $e#sion had been noted by the %he#i) and
Elhenna,y ,ho sho, that the (u#ani& te:t has unde#"one a numbe# o)
alte#ations. They amount to the same so#t o) &han"es in &onsonantal #eadin"s ?the
%ama#kand is ,ithout $o,el 'ointin"s@ and e$en the &han"in" o) ,hole ,o#ds in
Suwar 2N15 2N5D 2N24B 5N22 CN11 DN2D DNC2 14N43 12ND2 20N3 20ND2 20N104
3CN20-21 34N2C as ,ell as othe# ayat
4
. This sho,s us that des'ite the &laims
made by many Muslim s&hola#s and theolo"ians ?those (uoted abo$e )o# instan&e@
that no &han"es ,e#e e$e# int#odu&ed into the (u#ani& manus&#i't histo#y and that
the A#abi& 0u#1an has al,ays #emained the same the#e ,e#e indeed alte#ations in
(u#ani& manus&#i'ts du#in" the ea#ly yea#s o) Islam and that the o#i"inal A#abi&
#eadin"s ha$e not been '#ese#$ed inta&t in ea&h dau"hte# manus&#i't.
%ome Muslim a'olo"ists ha$e a#"ued that these di))e#en&es a#e only a matte# o) a
di))e#ent diale&t o) A#abi& bein" used in this te:t. This a#"ument must be
&onside#ed unsound i) the a'olo"ists ,ish to kee' thei# 'osition on the 0u#Ian and
its histo#y inte#nally &onsistent ,ith the &laims )o# ,hi&h they a#e attem'tin" to
a#"ue in su''o#t. I) the a'olo"ists a#e &o##e&t and the %ama#kand manus&#i't
#eally is a Dth &entu#y )i#st-"ene#ation dau"hte# manus&#i't o) the o#i"inally
&om'iled >thman te:t then it should be in the same A#abi& diale&t as the o#i"inal
#e$elation ?,hi&h is '#esumably 'e# the a'olo"eti& &laims the 8lassi&al A#abi&
used in the 0u#1an today@. E$en i) the di))e#en&es a#e due to the use o) di$e#"in"
diale&ts in A#abi& this does not alte# the )a&t that the ,o#ds themsel$es
#e"a#dless o) the diale&t still mean di))e#ent thin"s. As a %emiti& lan"ua"e A#abi&
diale&ts di$e#"e &om'a#ati$ely little )#om one anothe# and the &onsonantal bases
o) ,o#ds in that idiom ,ill not $a#y as "#eatly bet,een diale&ts as the a'olo"ists
,ould need )o# thei# a#"ument to ha$e any $alidity. The di))e#en&es seen bet,een
the %ama#kand te:t and the &odi)ied A#abi& 0u#Ian o) today as mentioned abo$e
a#e &han"es in &onsonants. This means that !ords and concepts ha$e &han"ed
sin&e %emiti& lan"ua"es like A#abi& #ely u'on t#i&onsonantal #oots ,hi&h ha$e a
basi& meanin" and ,hi&h a#e modi)ied by $o,el 'ointin"s '#e)i:es su))i:es and
so )o#th to '#o$ide the $a#iety o) "ende# numbe# $e#b tense et&. ne&essa#y to
make a lan"ua"e intelli"ible. 7o# e:am'le in A#abi& the #oot mh has the basi&
idea o) =to"ethe#ness &ommunity= ,hile the #oot md means ='e#iod o) time=.
Makin" su&h a &onsonantal &han"e in a manus&#i't ,ould ob$iously alte# the
unde#standin" o) the ,o#d bein" t#ans&#ibed and ,ould &han"e the 'e#&ei$ed
meanin" o) the enti#e ayah in ,hi&h it a''ea#s. The di))e#in" ,o#ds )ound bet,een
the t,o te:t-ty'es ha$e di))e#ent meanin"s that &annot be a&&ounted )o# by me#e
a''eal to dis'a#ity o) diale&t. 5ou &an say Gele$ato#H in Ame#i&an En"lish and
GbootH ?automobile t#unk@ in B#itish En"lish and the di))e#en&e in diale&t does not
a&&ount )o# the di))e#en&e in meanin" bet,een those t,o ,o#ds.
7u#the# "i$en the em'hasis on 8lassi&al A#abi& as the GonlyH lan"ua"e in ,hi&h the
0u#Ian &an t#uly be said to be GAllahIs Wo#dH ?mo#e ,ill be said about this late#@
it seems hi"hly unlikely that ea#ly Muslims ha$in" )#eshly &om'iled and &odi)ied
the #e$elation o) thei# holy book ,ould then set about to make &o'ies o) it in
anothe# diale&t and send these out to all the 'la&es ,he#e they had &on(ue#ed
and settled )o# use as the o))i&ial &odi&es o) thei# holy te:t. Thus ,e &an see that
the Muslim a'olo"eti& a#"uments that 'oint to the ='e#)e&t and un&o##u'ted=
natu#e o) ea&h indi$idual manus&#i't o) the 0u#1an as a '#oo) o) the )inality and
t#uth o) Islam sin&e Allah has =ob$iously= '#ote&ted it th#ou"hout its histo#y #est
on shaky "#ound.
It is notable that as yet no su&h in-de'th study has been allo,ed on the To'ka'i
&ode: ,hi&h has been ke't unde# ,#a's e:&e't )o# b#ie) "lim'ses. E$en
'hoto"#a'hi& #e&o#d o) this &ode: is )o#bidden ,hi&h has made ob<e&ti$e analysis
o) the te:t o) this do&ument im'ossible.
A $e#y an&ient manus&#i't 'e#ha's sli"htly olde# than the '#e$iously mentioned
&odi&es ,as housed in the B#itish Museum in Pondon. This te:t ,as ,#itten in the
"a#il style o) s&#i't used indi"enously in the /i<a* #e"ion o) A#abia ,hi&h
in&ludes Me&&a and Medina. This manus&#i't ho,e$e# has been dated by D#.
Ma#tin Pin"s ?himsel) a '#a&ti&in" Muslim@ to a#ound the end o) the 4th &entu#y
and is said to be one o) the t,o oldest kno,n (u#ani& te:ts
2
. In )a&t only the
%anaIa manus&#i'ts a &a&he o) an&ient (u#ani& lea$es )ound in a sealed #oom o) an
anti(uated 5emen mos(ue seem to date ea#lie# than the )i#st (ua#te# o) the 4th
&entu#y
10
. These lea$es and )#a"ments a#e dated to,a#ds the end o) the Dth
&entu#y but also &ontain se$e#al #eadin"s that di))e# )#om the standa#di*ed te:t
used today as ,as #e'o#ted in $he %tlantic &nline
11
. The e$iden&es )#om these
te:ts a#e im'o#tant )o# t,o #easons. 7i#st they )alsi)y the Muslim &laims to ha$in"
)ound the Go#i"inalH &o'ies made o) >thmanIs #e&ension and thus &annot be used
as a '#oo) )o# the ea#ly uni)o#mity o) the (u#ani& te:t. %e&ond the #eadily
a''a#ent di$e#"en&es )#om the '#esent standa#d te:t sho, that su&h uni)o#mity did
not e$en e:ist in the ea#ly 0u#Ian in the )i#st 'la&e.
9the# tan"ible e$iden&e )o# the 0u#IanIs mutability e:ists. 8ook dis&usses the
e:isten&e o) (u#ani& (uotations on ea#ly Muslim &oins that di))e# )#om the '#esent
0u#Ian
=E(ually ,hen the )i#st -o#ani& (uotations a''ea# on &oins and ins&#i'tions
to,a#ds the end o) the se$enth &entu#y they sho, di$e#"en&es )#om the &anoni&al
te:t. These a''ea# t#i$ial )#om the 'oint o) $ie, o) &ontent but the )a&t that they
a''ea# in su&h )o#mal &onte:ts as these "oes badly ,ith the notion that the te:t
had al#eady been )#o*en.=
12
Essentially he is sayin" that the a''ea#an&e o) di$e#"ent #eadin"s on ,hat a#e
#eally official" state#sponsored documents indi&ates that the (u#ani& te:t ,as
still in a state o) )lu: e$en ,ell into the >mayyad dynasty ?CC1-D50 AD@. This la&k
o) uni)o#mity like,ise im'lies to s&hola#s that the 0u#Ian ,as not in$ested ,ith
the same ai# o) autho#ity that Muslims in ou# day "i$e to it. As ,e ,ill see the#e is
not any #eally solid e$iden&e that the 0u#1an e:isted in its )inal edited )o#m )o#
o$e# a &entu#y o# mo#e a)te# the #ise o) the A#ab Em'i#e. It &an 'e#ha's be #i"htly
su""ested that #athe# than the 0u#1an bein" the be"innin" o) Islam ?as Muslims
&laim@ Islam ,as the )inishe# o) the 0u#1an.
=And yet %&ha&ht1s studies o) the ea#ly de$elo'ment o) le"al do&t#ine ,ithin the
&ommunity demonst#ate that ,ith $e#y )e, e:&e'tions Muslim <u#is'#uden&e ,as
not de#i$ed )#om the &ontents o) the 0u#1an. It may be added that those )e,
e:&e'tions a#e themsel$es ha#dly e$iden&e )o# the e:isten&e o) the &anon and
)u#the# obse#$ed that e$en ,he#e do&t#ine ,as alle"ed to d#a, u'on s&#i'tu#e
su&h is not ne&essa#ily e$iden&e o) the s&#i'tu#al sou#&e. De#i$ation o) la, )#om
s&#i'tu#e ?halakhi& e:e"esis@ ,as a 'henomenon o) the thi#dQninth &entu#y and
,hile the ob$ious in)e#en&e is admittedly an argumentum e silentio the
&h#onolo"y o) the sou#&e mate#ial demands that it be mentioned. A simila# kind o)
ne"ati$e e$iden&e is absen&e o) any #e)e#en&e to the 0u#1an in the 7i(h Akba#.=
13
The fiqh al-a'(ar is one o) the ea#liest e:tant ,o#ks o) Muslim <u#is'#uden&e
'#odu&ed by the <u#ist Abu /ani)a ?C22-DCD AD@. We &an see that )#om the
e$iden&e o) this 4th &entu#y le"al &#eed ,ith its la&k o) #e)e#en&e to the 0u#1an
the 0u#1an '#obably had minimal to no im'a&t on ea#ly Muslim so&iety. Indeed i)
the 0u#1an had e:isted in its '#esent )o#m and ,as imbued ,ith the "#a$itas o)
autho#ity as the 'e#)e&t #e$elation o) Aod1s la, it seems $e#y st#an"e that it
,ould not ha$e been mentioned in a )oundational le"al standa#d )o# the Muslim
&ommunity. 9nly o$e# time did it de$elo' su))i&ient status to be&ome a sou#&e o)
la, and '#a&ti&e.
%&ha&ht )u#the# states in this $ein
=...the )i#st &onside#able body o) le"al t#aditions )#om the 6#o'het o#i"inated
to,a#ds the middle o) the se&ond KIslami&L &entu#y in o''osition to sli"htly ea#lie#
t#aditions )#om 8om'anions and othe# autho#ities and to the =li$in" t#adition= o)
the an&ient s&hools o) la,....the e$iden&e o) le"al t#aditions &a##ies us ba&k to
about the yea# 100 A./. onlyJ at that time Islami& le"al thou"ht sta#ted )#om late
>maiyad administ#ati$e and 'o'ula# '#a&ti&e.=
1B
/e &ontinues
=Muhammedan la, did not de#i$e di#e&tly )#om the -o#an but de$elo'ed as ,e sa,
out o) 'o'ula# and administ#ati$e '#a&ti&e unde# the >maiyads and this '#a&ti&e
o)ten di$e#"ed )#om the intentions and e$en the e:'li&it ,o#din" o) the
-o#an....a'a#t )#om the most elementa#y #ules no#ms de#i$ed )#om the -o#an
,e#e int#odu&ed into Muhammedan la, almost in$a#iably at a se&onda#y sta"e.
This a''lies not only to those b#an&hes o) la, that a#e not &o$e#ed in detail by the
-o#ani& le"islation - i) ,e may use this te#m o) the essentially ethi&al and only
in&identally le"al body o) ma:ims &ontained in the -o#an - but to )amily la, the
la, o) inhe#itan&e and e$en &ult and #itual.=
15
/inds and 8#one also note that the ea#ly &ali'hs ,e#e mo#e o# less )#ee to make
and unmake the Sunnat doin" so unde# thei# o,n autho#ity as =Aod1s
#e'#esentati$e= not be&ause o) any t#aditions stemmin" )#om the 0u#1an o# )#om
the e:am'le set by Mohammed o# his &om'anions
1C
. 9nly late# as they ha$e
a#"ued did the #eli"ious elite o) the se&ond o# thi#d Islami& &entu#ies lend a di$ine
autho#ity to this body o) Sunnat. Indeed in anothe# ,o#k 8#one 'oints out that
)a# )#om bein" handed do,n by Allah in the 0u#1an the Islami& sharia is me#ely a
#esha'ed $e#sion o) the '#o$in&ial la, that e:isted in the Mea# East )#om
/ellenisti& times #i"ht do,n to the By*antine 'e#iod '#e&edin" the A#ab Em'i#e
1D
.
In e))e&t Islami& la, ,as built on the subst#ate o) the la,s that had been )ound in
the Middle East )o# a millennium. This la, ,as ad<usted a&&o#din" to the &ustom
and '#e)e#en&e o) the ea#ly &ali'hs and )inally set it in stone at the behest o) the
Muslim ulama ?theolo"ians@ as the $e#itable edi&ts o) Allah not to be (uestioned
only to be obeyed.
Eoling into Scripture
Thus the 0u#1an a''ea#s to ha$e had only a ma#"inal e))e&t on the body o) Islami&
la, that ,as bein" built in the )i#st &entu#ies o) the A#ab Em'i#e. 9) mu&h "#eate#
im'a&t ,e#e the 'o'ula# '#a&ti&es o) the 'eo'le themsel$es and the e:'edients o)
"o$e#nin" needed to mana"e the ne, o#de#. These hel'ed to mold the le"al
system o) Islam in '#e'a#ation )o# the e$entual (u#ani& o$e#lay that ,as to be
su'e#im'osed onto the ea#lie# )oundation. In othe# ,o#ds the 0u#1an ,as
de$elo'ed and in$ested ,ith its autho#ity as =s&#i'tu#e= th#ou"h a '#o&ess o)
e$olution in Muslim &ultu#e instead o) the t#aditional $ie, that the 0u#1an laid the
)oundation )o# Muslim so&iety in the ummah. It ,as not until nea# the end o) the
4th &entu#y that the 0u#Ian be"an to be t#uly &onside#ed to ha$e the autho#ity to
,hi&h late# Islam ,ould "i$e it.
It is a''a#ent that until the )i#st hal) o) the 4th &entu#y AD those non-Muslims ,ho
inte#a&ted ,ith them seem not to ha$e had any unde#standin" o) an established
&anoni&al =holy book= amon" the A#abs. Min"ana obse#$ed
=....the 8h#istian histo#ians o) the ,hole o) the se$enth &entu#y had no idea that
the =/a"a#ian= &on(ue#o#s had any sa&#ed bookJ simila# is the &ase amon"
histo#ians and theolo"ians o) the be"innin" o) the ei"hth &entu#y.=
14
8o##elatin" ,ith this a#e the e$iden&es )#om non-Muslim sou#&es that ,e#e
&ontem'o#a#y to the #ise o) Islam )#om ,hi&h ,e &an su#mise that the 0u#1an at
least to the e:tent and in the )o#mat ,hi&h it '#esently has ,as not kno,n to
those ,ho inte#a&ted ,ith the ea#ly Muslims. 7o# instan&e in a debate bet,een an
A#ab noble and a 8h#istian monk )#om a to,n &alled Beth /ale dated to sometime
a)te# D10 AD ,e see an inte#estin" bit o) in)o#mation. In #e'ly to a (uestion about
&ommandments "i$en to 8h#istians by 8h#ist the monk obse#$es to the A#ab that
=not all you# la,s and &ommandments a#e in the 0u#1an ,hi&h Muhammad tau"ht
you= and then '#o&eeds to list othe# sou#&es )o# the la,s o) the A#abs - surat
al(aqrah ?no, Surah 2 in the 0u#1an as it '#esently stands@ the gygy ?the
euaggelion the Aos'els@ and the twrh ?the To#ah@
12
. This e$iden&e su""ests that
at this time Surah al-(aqarah ,as not 'a#t o) the 0u#1an but ,as a $ie,ed as a
se'a#ate ,o#k on 'a# ,ith the 0u#1an the Aos'els and the To#ah. 8#one and
8ook note that this dialo" is the )i#st #e)e#en&e to a book &alled the =0u#1an= but
that this e$iden&e does not ne&essa#ily a#"ue )o# the 0u#1an as it '#esently is sin&e
the monk1s dialo" indi&ates a &ontent and e:tent )o# this =0u#1an= that is di))e#ent
)#om the '#esent one
20
.
%imila#ly late# &ontem'o#a#y sou#&es sho, kno,led"e o) the e:isten&e o) only a
'a#t o) the 0u#1an. .ohn o) Damas&us ,as a %y#ia& 8h#istian '#iest ,ho li$ed in the
4th &entu#y du#in" and a)te# the A#ab takeo$e# o) %y#ia. In his ,o#k )e *aeresi(us
?&. D50 AD@ .ohn #e$eals that he had an intimate )amilia#ity ,ith many A#ab
t#aditions. Amon" these t#aditions a#e &e#tain books that he att#ibutes to =this
Mohammed=. 7#om .ohn1s a'olo"eti& de)enses it has be&ome a''a#ent to s&hola#s
that he ,as only )amilia# ,ith Suwar 2-5 o) ,hat is '#esently the 0u#1an 'lus a
)e, othe# Islami& o#al t#aditions
21
some o) ,hi&h e$entually )ound thei# ,ay into
the 0u#1an su&h as a $a#iant sto#y simila# to Surah 33N3D an allusion to the th#ee
#i$e#s )lo,in" ,ith ,ate# milk and ,ine ?Surah BDN15@ and a sto#y simila# to that
o) %alih1s &amel ?Suwar DNDD 21N11-1B@
22
. In addition .ohn deals at len"th ,ith
anothe# book ,hi&h he des&#ibes by its title as the =book on the 8amel o) Aod=
,hi&h does not a''ea# in the '#esent 0u#1an but ,hi&h he yet #e)e#s to as one o)
the books o) the =Ishmaelites=. /e lists this book in 'a#allel ,ith =the book o) the
Table= ?Surah 5@ =the book o) the /ei)e#= ?Surah 2@ and the =book o) the Woman=
?Surah B@ dealin" ,ith them in the same ,ay to #e)ute the he#esy tau"ht ,ithin
them
23
. This su""ests that Gthe Book o) the 8amel o) AodH ,as $ie,ed by the
=Ishmaelites= ,ith ,hom he ,as dealin" as e(ually autho#itati$e as the othe# books
that do no, a''ea# in the 0u#1an. The 0u#1an also makes 'assin" #e)e#en&es to this
Book o) the 8amel o) Aod ?see Suwar DND3DDJ 21N13-1B@ but this book )ailed to
make it into the )inal &om'ilation o) the A#ab holy ,#itin"s.
Anothe# ,itness to the status o) the A#ab #eli"ious te:ts in the 4th &entu#y ,ould
be the Em'e#o# Peo III o) By*antium ?#. D1D-DB1 AD@. Peo ,as in a 'osition to be
)amilia# ,ith the #eli"ious status o) the %y#ia-6alestine a#ea as he ,as #aised on
the )#ontie# o) %y#ia and ,as e$en #e'uted to be bilin"ual in A#eek and A#abi&.
Thus he ,ould almost su#ely ha$e be&ome a&(uainted eithe# o#ally o# )#om a holy
book ,ith the #eli"ious tea&hin"s o) the A#abs ,ho ,e#e 'la&in" in&#easin"
'#essu#e onto ,hat ,as le)t o) the By*antine Em'i#e in Asia Mino#. In a
&o##es'onden&e that he ,#ote to the 8ali'h >ma# II ?#. D1D-D20 AD@ he issued a
de)ense o) 8h#istianity a"ainst the do&t#ines o) the 'a#ti&ula# A#ab monotheism
that ,as de$elo'in". In this a'olo"eti& he does not mention the 0u#1an as a
s'e&i)i& &o#'us o) mate#ial ?indeed in the olde# te:t o) his lette# an A#menian
te:t datin" )#om some,he#e in the late 2th &entu#y
2B
the 0u#1an is not e$en
(uoted@
25
. In his lette# Peo #e)e#s '#ima#ily to Suwar 2-5 ,hile makin" a hand)ul
o) s&atte#ed #e)e#en&es that &an be inte#'#eted as 'ointin" to othe# suwar o) ,hat
is no, the 0u#1an. 9$e#all ho,e$e# the im'#ession is that Peo kne, o) ,#itten
&om'ilations o) Suwar 2-5 but ,as #elyin" u'on o#al t#adition andQo# othe# mo#e
uno))i&ial ,#itin"s ,hi&h had eithe# not yet been assembled into a )o#m o)
#eli"ious &om'ilation by the A#abs o# else had only $e#y #e&ently been assembled
and ,as still in a state o) )lu: as )a# as thei# )o#m and o#de# ,e#e &on&e#ned
2C
.
Anothe# inte#estin" 'ie&e o) e$iden&e )#om Peo1s lette# to >ma# is the asse#tion
,hi&h Peo makes that the te:ts o) the A#ab holy books ,e#e #eda&ted #e'la&ed o#
othe#,ise alte#ed by al-/a<<a< an >mayyad administ#ato# ,ho died in D1B AD
sayin" that al-/a<<a< =....had men "athe# u' you# an&ient books ,hi&h he #e'la&ed
by othe#s &om'osed by himsel) a&&o#din" to his taste....=
2D
. .e))#ey dis&usses this
a&&usation as it a''ea#s in Peo1s lette# and as it #ea''ea#s in late# 8h#istian
,#itin"s a"ainst Islam notin" that this a#"ument &annot me#ely be &halked u' to
#eli"ious 'olemi&ism
=....,e kno, )#om Ibn 1Asaki# that one o) al-/a<<a<1s &laims to )ame ,as his bein"
inst#umental in "i$in" the 0u#1an to the 'eo'le and )#om Ibn Du(ma( ,e kno, o)
the &ommotion in E"y't ,hen a 8ode: )#om those ,hi&h al-/a<<a< had had
o))i&ially ,#itten out to be sent to the &hie) &ities o) the Muslim Em'i#e #ea&hed
that &ount#y. As the#e ,e#e sto#ies about al-/a<<a< bein" &onne&ted ,ith the
ea#liest attem'ts at 'uttin" dia&#iti&al ma#ks in the 0u#1ani& te:t to make its
#eadin"s mo#e &e#tain ?Ibn -hallikan I 143 (uotin" Abu Ahmad al-1Aska#i@ and also
,ith the ea#liest attem'ts at di$idin" the te:t into se&tions ?Ibn Abi Da,ud Kita(
al-"asahif@ it mi"ht be su""ested that this #e&ension o) his ,as me#ely an
im'#o$ed edition o) the >thmani& te:t ,hi&h he had had sent out as the edition to
be o))i&ially used. %u&h a su""estion ,ould also suit the sto#y in the as yet
un'#inted "ush'il o) Ibn 0utaiba that he o#de#ed the dest#u&tion o) all the
8odi&es #e'#esentin" a te:t ea#lie# than that &anoni*ed by >thman and ,ith his
,ell-kno,n enmity to,a#ds the )amous te:t o) Ibn Masud ?Ibn Asaki# I+ C2J Ibn al-
Athi# +hronicon I+ BC3@. In Ibn Abi Da,ud ?''. B2 11D@ ho,e$e# ,e ha$e a list
o) ele$en 'assa"es on the autho#ity o) no less a 'e#son than Abu /atim as-
%i<istani ,he#e ou# '#esent te:t is said to be that o) al-/a<<a< a##i$ed at by
tam'e#in" ,ith the ea#lie# te:t. It ,ould thus seem that some #e$ision o) the te:t
as ,ell as &la#i)i&ation by di$ision and 'ointin" ,as unde#taken by al-/a<<a< and
that this ,as kno,n to the 8h#istians o) that day and natu#ally e:a""e#ated by
them )o# 'olemi&al 'u#'oses. As this ,o#k ,ould seem to ha$e been done by al-
/a<<a< du#in" his 'e#iod o) o))i&e unde# the 8ali'h 1Abd al-Malik b. Ma#,an ,ho
died in 4C A./.Q D05 8.E. the#e is no di))i&ulty in su''osin" that Peo may ha$e
hea#d o) it du#in" his o))i&ial li)e in %y#ia.=
24
We should note he#e that some o) .e))#ey1s A#abi& sou#&es a&tually su""est that al-
/a<<a< ,ent beyond me#ely addin" dia&#iti&al ma#ks and the like to the (u#ani&
te:t - they asse#t that al-/a<<a< a&tually &han"ed the te:t itsel) and that some
#eadin"s ,hi&h a''ea# in the present A#abi& 0u#1an a#e the #esult o) al-/a<<a<1s
&#eati$ity. This is inte#estin" in li"ht o) the te:tual histo#y ,hi&h has been
demonst#ated abo$e )o# the 0u#1an th#ou"h the manus&#i'ts and ,hi&h ,ill be
seen belo, in )u#the# detail. In&luded in this histo#y a#e t#aditions ,hi&h a&tually
a))i#m #eadin"s no, a''ea#in" in the 0u#1an as not bein" the o#i"inals.
8#one and 8ook summa#i*e the e$ident situation )ound by e:amination o) the
&ontem'o#a#y e$iden&es
=9n the 8h#istian side the monk o) Bet /ale distin"uishes 'ointedly bet,een the
-o#an and the %u#at al-ba(a#a as sou#&es o) la, ,hile Pe$ond has the em'e#o# Peo
des&#ibe ho, /a<<a< dest#oyed the old /a"a#ene 1,#itin"s1. %e&ondly the#e is the
inte#nal e$iden&e o) the lite#a#y &ha#a&te# o) the -o#an. The book is st#ikin"ly
la&kin" in o$e#all st#u&tu#e )#e(uently obs&u#e and in&onse(uential in both
lan"ua"e and &ontent 'e#)un&to#y in its linkin" o) dis'a#ate mate#ials and "i$en
to #e'etition o) ,hole 'assa"es in $a#iant $e#sions. 9n this basis it &an 'lausibly be
a#"ued that the book is the '#odu&t o) the belated and im'e#)e&t editin" o)
mate#ials )#om a 'lu#ality o) t#aditions.=
22
%&hola#s ha$e also obse#$ed the "#eat amount o) in)luen&e that .udaeo-8h#istianity
had u'on the initial de$elo'ment o) Islam .udaeo-8h#istianity bein" he#e de)ined
as those se&ts ,ho ,e#e '#esent in 6alestine %y#ia and I#a( and ,ho a&&e'ted
8h#ist as a Messiani& )i"u#e but ,ho #e<e&ted /is deity ?e.". the Ma*o#eans
Ebionites et&.@. Indeed many belie)s o) these "#ou's &oin&ide ,ith those late#
held by Islam in&ludin" a belie) that .esus 8h#ist ,as not a membe# o) the
Aodhead but ,as instead a subo#dinated '#o'het o) Aod and the em'hasis u'on
Ab#aham as the )i#st =man o) kno,led"e= ,ho had the kno,led"e o) Aod &on)e##ed
u'on him by an an"el
30
. 9the# as'e&ts o) the theolo"y o) these .udaeo-8h#istian
"#ou's ,e#e late# ado'ted by the A#abs into thei# de$elo'in" monotheism a)te#
thei# milita#y e:'ansion into these #e"ions. These in&lude the denial o) the
&#u&i)i:ion the obli"ation to obse#$e the sabbath and othe# elements o) the Mosai&
la, and the qi(lah ?di#e&tion o) '#aye#@ to,a#ds .e#usalem ,hi&h ,as the initial
di#e&tion #e&o#ded in Islami& t#adition be)o#e it ,as &han"ed to Me&&a. The A#abs
o) &ou#se ,ould ha$e been e:'osed to the #eli"ious belie)s o) these "#ou's as
,ell as those o) the .e,s and the $a#ious 8h#istian se&ts due to the '#esen&e o)
some o) these "#ou's in A#abia as ,ell as th#ou"h t#ade #elations. A)te# the A#abs
e:'anded thei# &on(uests into 6e#siaQMeso'otamia and the easte#n end o) the
By*antine Em'i#e it ,ould not be su#'#isin" that these do&t#ines ,e#e a&&e'ted
into the la#"e# ae"is o) the de$elo'in" state monotheism es'e&ially as the A#abs
sou"ht to distin"uish themsel$es )#om both the .e,s and the 8h#istians o) the
By*antine Em'i#e.
All o) this hel's to e:'lain the "#eat amount o) (u#ani& bo##o,in" )#om 8h#istian
.e,ish and es'e&ially .udaeo-8h#istian sou#&es. It is likely that the A#abs
de$elo'ed the belie) system o) Islam only a)te# lea$in" the A#abian dese#t and
&omin" into &onta&t ,ith these .udaeo-8h#istian "#ou's ?'#ima#ily@ and othe#
belie) systems outside o) A#abia. A st#ikin" e$iden&e o) the in)luen&e o) .udaeo-
8h#istianity on the ea#ly de$elo'ment o) Islam is )ound in an ea#ly %y#ian $a#iant o)
the shahada ?the Muslim G,itnessH o# '#o)ession o) thei# &o#e belie) in Allah and
Mohammed as his '#o'het@ that in&luded a belie) in .esus in its statement. Bashea#
summa#i*es the si"ni)i&an&e o) this e$iden&e
GEssentially the s&heme o) IslamIs sel) 'e#&e'tion vis-,-vis the issue o) belie) in
.esus outlined abo$e &on$eys a sense o) de'enden&e u'on and &ontinuity o) a
&e#tain .udaeo-8h#istian le"a&y that #an mu&h dee'e# than the "ene#al notion o)
a&&e'tin" .esus only as one o) se$e#al othe# '#e-Islami& '#o'hets and saintly
)i"u#es. A &lose e:amination o) the mate#ial on 0u#Ian 3N55 and BN152 &lea#ly
sho,s the e:isten&e o) a se&ond &entu#y &u##ent ,hi&h '#esented the #oots o)
Islam as "oin" ba&k to a &e#tain .udaeo-8h#istian "#ou' ,hose basi& )eatu#e ,as
the belie) in .esus. Thou"h bein" the ,o#d ?o# ,ill@ o) Aod 'e#soni)ied and in s'ite
o) bein" #aised u' to him on&e his mission ,as &om'lete .esus himsel) ,as only
human and so to s'eak ea#thly. This belie) ,e a#e told ,as su''#essed by
mainst#eam 8h#istianity and .udaism until it ,as #e"ene#ated by Islam.H
31
As su&h Bashea# bases the o#i"in o) Islami& thou"ht about .esus as it ,ould late#
a''ea# in the 0u#Ian u'on the )oundation o) ea#lie# .udaeo-8h#istian "#ou's ,ho
#e<e&ted the deity o) .esus 8h#ist ,hile yet a&&o#din" /im a hi"h 'osition in thei#
systems o) thou"ht as a '#o'het and &onduit o) AodIs #e$elation and ,ill.
Wansb#ou"h also 'oints out that the inte#nal allusions in the 0u#1an itsel) seem to
indi&ate that it a#ose a"ainst the ba&kd#o' o) se&ta#ian st#i)e ,ith othe# #eli"ious
"#ou's )ound in %y#ia-6alestine and I#a( ?and thus ,as not a '#odu&t o) &ent#al
A#abian #e$elation@
=0u#ani& allusion '#esu''oses )amilia#ity ,ith the na##ati$e mate#ial o) .udaeo-
8h#istian s&#i'tu#e
32
,hi&h ,as not so mu&h #e)o#mulated as me#ely #e)e##ed
to....But taken to"ethe# the (uantity o) #e)e#en&e the me&hani&ally #e'etitious
em'loyment o) #heto#i&al &on$ention and the st#idently 'olemi&al style all
su""est a st#on"ly se&ta#ian atmos'he#e in ,hi&h the &o#'us o) )amilia# s&#i'tu#e
,as bein" '#essed into the se#$i&e o) as yet un)amilia# do&t#ine.=
33
Thus these .udaeo-8h#istian s&#i'tu#es ,e#e #elied u'on to )o#mulate and $alidate
the ne, A#ab monotheism and the e$olution o) the 0u#Ian as a body o) s&#i'tu#e
,as in)luen&ed by the t#aditions and tea&hin"s o) the .udaeo-8h#istian ,o#ld that
e:isted outside o) A#abia. These t#aditions and kno,led"e ente#ed into the
&ons&iousness o) the A#abs1 ne, #eli"ion )#om the &on(ue#ed 8h#istian lands ?alon"
,ith the la#"e .e,ish 'o'ulations@ taken in 5emen %y#ia 6alestine and E"y't.
Pike,ise the t#a&e o) Ro#oast#ian tales in the 0u#Ian most likely ente#ed the
Islami& #ealm a)te# the sub<u"ation o) the #e$i$ed 6e#sian Em'i#e unde# 5a*de"i#d
III the last %assanid %hah. 8omin" into &onta&t ,ith the hi"he# &i$ili*ations o)
8onstantino'le and 8tesi'hon ea&h ,ith thei# o,n established monotheisti&
#eli"ion it is not su#'#isin" that the A#abs ,ould desi#e to in$est thei# ne, #eli"ion
,ith the same so#t o) t#aditions. As Wansb#ou"h 'ointed out the 0u#1an ,as likely
)o#med be&ause o) a desi#e to '#o$ide Mohammed said to be a '#o'het o) the
Mosai& model ,ith his $e#y o,n /oly W#it. .ust as Moses #e&ei$ed the Wo#d )#om
Aod so must Mohammed to le"itimi*e the A#ab &laims about his '#o'hethood. In
)a&t it has been 'ointed out that Muslim 'hilolo"ists ha$e systemati&ally t#ied to
mani'ulate the e$iden&e )#om A#abian 'oet#y so as to "i$e a '#e-Islami&
a''ea#an&e )o# su&h 'oet#y ?'atte#ned alon" the lines o) the 0u#1an@ )o# the
'u#'ose o) "i$in" the 0u#Ian a mo#e A#abian )la$o# and thus su''o#tin" the &laim
that the 0u#1an ,as "i$en to an A#abian '#o'het in 'u#e A#abi& )#om Aod
3B
.
In )a&t the $e#y im'o#tan&e o) Mohammed as the t#ue mo$in" )o#&e behind the
o#i"inal A#ab #eli"ion is (uestionable. %&hola#ly in$esti"ation has sho,n that '#etty
mu&h all o) the bio"#a'hi&al in)o#mation about Mohammed '#esented by ea#ly
Islami& t#adition is o) (uestionable t#ust,o#thiness. As 8ook states
=The othe# $ie, is that )alse as&#i'tion ,as #i)e amon" the ei"hth-&entu#y s&hola#s
and that in any &ase Ibn Isha( and his &ontem'o#a#ies ,e#e d#a,in" on o#al
t#adition. Meithe# o) these '#o'ositions is as a#bit#a#y as it sounds. We ha$e #eason
to belie$e that nume#ous t#aditions on (uestions o) do"ma and la, ,e#e '#o$ided
,ith s'u#ious &hains o) autho#ities by those ,ho 'ut them into &i#&ulationJ and at
the same time ,e ha$e mu&h e$iden&e o) &ont#o$e#sy in the ei"hth &entu#y as to
,hethe# it ,as 'e#missible to #edu&e o#al t#adition to ,#itin". The im'li&ations o)
this $ie, )o# the #eliability o) ou# sou#&es a#e &lea#ly #athe# ne"ati$e. I) ,e &annot
t#ust the &hains o) autho#ities ,e &an no lon"e# &laim to kno, that ,e ha$e
be)o#e us the se'a#ately t#ansmitted a&&ounts o) inde'endent ,itnessesJ and i)
kno,led"e o) the li)e o) Muhammed ,as t#ansmitted o#ally )o# a &entu#y be)o#e it
,as #edu&ed to ,#itin" then the &han&es a#e that the mate#ial ,ill ha$e
unde#"one &onside#able alte#ation in the '#o&ess.=
35
T,o eminent s&hola#s o) Islam Mi&hael 8ook and 6at#i&ia 8#one on $e#y $alid
lo"i&al and e$idential "#ounds #e<e&t the ,hole Islami& histo#y o) Mohammed
,hi&h ,as su''osedly '#esented =in the &lea# li"ht o) histo#y=
=They #e"a#d the ,hole established $e#sion o) Islami& histo#y do,n to at least the
time o) Abd al-Malik ?C45-D05@ as a late# )ab#i&ation and #e&onst#u&t the A#ab
8on(uests and the )o#mation o) the 8ali'hate as a mo$ement o) 'eninsula# A#abs
,ho had been ins'i#ed by .e,ish messianism to t#y to #e&laim the 6#omised Pand.
In this inte#'#etation Islam eme#"ed as an autonomous #eli"ion and &ultu#e only
,ithin the '#o&ess o) a lon" st#u""le )o# identity amon" the dis'a#ate 'eo'les
yoked to"ethe# by the 8on(uestsN .a&obite %y#ians Mesto#ian A#amaeans in I#a(
8o'ts .e,s and ?)inally@ 'eninsula# A#abs.=
3C
Thus the#e is a st#on" and "#o,in" s&hola#ly &ontention a"ainst the t#aditional
?and un&#iti&ally a&&e'ted@ $ie, o) Mohammed and $e#y ea#ly Islami& histo#y
in&ludin" the o#i"ins o) the 0u#1an. 8on&e#nin" Mohammed s'e&i)i&ally this ,ill be
#e$isited in &ha'te# 5.
Manufacturing the Qur'an
Mo$in" on to a late# a"e the ea#liest tan"ible a''ea#an&e o) the &om'lete 0u#1an
in its '#esent )o#m dates )#om the 10th &entu#y ,hen the te:t as it no, stands
,as &om'iled )#om se$en di))e#ent $e#sions o) the (u#ani& te:t to )o#m an
amal"amated mutually a&&e'table te:t made easie# to unde#stand by the addition
o) $o,el and dia&#iti&al ma#ks to the A#abi& s&#i't ?,he#e they had '#e$iously been
la&kin"
3D
and hen&e made the te:ts ha#de# to #ead@.
Many Muslim a'olo"ists &laim ho,e$e# that Mohammed had al#eady &om'iled a
&om'lete (u#ani& manus&#i't be)o#e his death in C32 AD and that )ollo,in"
manus&#i'ts ?as ,as seen abo$e@ a"#eed ,ith this )i#st te:t 'e#)e&tly. The &laim is
made that the#e ,e#e no &on)li&tin" manus&#i'ts '#odu&ed. These asse#tions a#e
&ont#adi&ted both by e$iden&e )#om s&hola#ly study and by $a#iant Muslim
asse#tions mentioned abo$e and a#ti&ulated mo#e )ully belo, ,hi&h &laim that
Mohammed1s )ollo,e#s &om'iled the (u#ani& tea&hin"s a)te# his death.
=9ne thin" only is &e#tain and is o'enly #e&o"ni*ed by t#adition namely that the#e
,as not in e:isten&e any &olle&tion o) #e$elations in )inal )o#m be&ause as lon" as
he ,as ali$e ne, #e$elations ,e#e bein" added to the ea#lie# ones.=
34
%&hola#s unde#stand that at Mohammed1s death the#e ,as no sin"ula# &ode: )o#
the 0u#1an
32
. Indeed as has been noted abo$e the#e '#obably ,as not e$en a
&ode: o) the 0u#1an until at o# a)te# the middle 'a#t o) the 4th &entu#y ?the lea$es
mentioned ea#lie# a#e sin"le 'a"es not &om'#isin" a ,hole &olle&tion o) ,#itin"s@.
Ai$en the late a''ea#an&e o) &om'lete (u#ani& te:ts this a''ea#s to bea# ,itness
to the t#uth. /o,e$e# as ,as seen abo$e many Muslim s&hola#s make the &laim
that the 0u#1an has e:isted e:a&tly as it ,as handed do,n to Mohammed e$en to
this day.
5et s&hola#shi' )inds that the#e ,as no sin"le &o'y o) the 0u#1an e$en in e:isten&e
until lon" a)te# the time o) Mohammed1s death a&&o#din" to the t#aditional histo#y.
The#e may ha$e been 'o#tions o) the 0u#1an that had been ,#itten do,n at $a#ious
'oints e$en in the $e#y ea#ly yea#s o) Islam ?most likely the Suwar 2-5 obse#$ed by
.ohn and Peo as ,ell as a )e, othe#s@. /o,e$e# not all Muslim t#aditions tea&h
that the 0u#1an ,as &om'leted in &ode: )o#m at the time o) Mohammed1s death.
Indeed one o) the mo#e '#ominent t#aditions #e&o#ds the &om'ilation o) the
0u#1an ?assumed o) &ou#se to be the !hole 0u#1an@ )#om $a#ious sou#&es u'on
,hi&h the #e&itations has been ins&#ibed in&ludin" bones and 'alm )#onds.
A&&o#din" to the Muslim t#aditions themsel$es these ,e#e the 'a#ts that alon"
,ith the 'o#tions o) the 0u#1an '#esent in the memo#ies o) $a#ious &om'anions o)
Mohammed Raid ibn Thabit ?a &om'anion o) Mohammed ,ho '#odu&ed a
&om'ilation o) the 0u#1an@ sou"ht out to make his &om'ilation o) the 0u#1an &ode:
)o# Abu Bak# the )i#st 8ali'h and su&&esso# o) Mohammed.
As ,as mentioned be)o#e many Muslims ,ill &laim that the 0u#1an ,as handed
do,n in its '#esent and &om'lete )o#m to Mohammed and has #emained un&han"ed
sin&e. /o,e$e# i) su&h ,e#e the &ase the#e ,ould ha$e been no need )o# the
&olle&tion o) the te:ts and #e&itations that Raid 'e#)o#med )o# Abu Bak# as
indi&ated in the most ,ell-kno,n o) the hadith t#aditions ?a &olle&tion and
&ollation ,hi&h othe# &lose &om'anions o) Mohammed had also been doin"
inde'endently@. Why send out a man to make the &om'ilation i) you al#eady ha$e
the &om'lete and 'e#)e&t te:t be)o#e you; I) nothin" else this a))i#ms the notion
a#ti&ulated by 8ook abo$e that the body o) ea#ly Muslim t#aditions usually set
do,n in ,#itin" o$e# a &entu#y and a hal) a)te# the e$ents that they 'u#'o#t to
&h#oni&le a#e $e#y unt#ust,o#thy as sou#&es )o# d#a,in" u' an histo#i&al
#e&onst#u&tion o) the ea#ly Muslim e#a. It sho,s that these t#aditions &an 'o#t#ay
e$ents o# sto#ylines that may be &om'letely at odds ,ith othe# sou#&es ,ithin the
body o) histo#io"#a'hi& mate#ial. These t#aditional sou#&es '#odu&ed as they ,e#e
,ithin the )#ame,o#k o) inte#ne&ine )i"htin" amon"st di))e#ent )a&tions ho'in" to
"ain as&endan&y in the A#ab Em'i#e a#e natu#ally 'olemi&al and ,#itten ,ith the
aim o) bolste#in" the 'ositions and le"itima&y o) the )a&tions. /en&e the#e &an be
se$e#al di))e#ent $e#sions o) the same sto#y o# set o) e$ents ea&h one 'la&in" a
di))e#ent "ene#al o# othe# im'o#tant 'e#son ,ith ,hom the )a&tion ,ishes to
identi)y at the site o) an im'o#tant e$ent
B0
.
Pet us no, look at the most "ene#ally a&&e'ted t#adition about the &om'ilation o)
the 0u#Fan ,hi&h I ,ill #elate in its details. Mote that e$en this t#adition seems to
&ontain &ont#adi&to#y tea&hin"s as ,ell as some &on&e'tual )la,s. The dis&ussion
that )ollo,s ,ill be )#amed so as to add#ess this t#adition as Muslim s&hola#s
unde#stood it e$en thou"h I do not &onside# the t#aditional a&&ount o) the
&om'ilation o) the 0u#Ian to be histo#i&ally a&&u#ate o# #eliable. I ,ill deal ,ith it
he#e so as to hi"hli"ht the &on&e'tual )la,s and '#oblems ,ith the t#aditional
a&&ount.
Muslims ,ill o)ten &laim that the memo#ies o) se$e#al hund#eds o) the &lose
&om'anions o) Mohammed ,e#e all su'e#natu#ally enhan&ed so as to allo, them
all to memo#i*e the (u#ani& #e&itations so that the 0u#1an ,as '#ese#$ed 'e#)e&tly
in thei# ,itness as ,ell. But a"ain this be"s the (uestion o) ,hy Raid ,ould ha$e
to #an"e )a# and ,ide to sea#&h out e$e#y last ayat i) they ,e#e #eadily a$ailable in
the memo#ies o) any one o) hund#eds o) &om'anions ,ho ,e#e #eadily on hand;
The )a&t that these men did M9T ha$e the 0u#1an memo#i*ed and that the
#e&itations ,e#e s&atte#ed all o$e# the 'la&e seems e$ident )#om the hadith
lite#atu#e itsel).
Ma##ated Raid bin ThabitN
%o I sta#ted &om'ilin" the 0u#an by &olle&tin" it )#om the lea)less stalks o) the
date-'alm t#ee and )#om the 'ie&es o) leathe# and hides and )#om the stones and
)#om the &hests o) men ?,ho had memo#i*ed the 0u#an@. I )ound the last $e#ses o)
%i#at-at-TaubaN ?=+e#ily the#e has &ome unto you an A'ostle ?Muhammad@ )#om
amon"st you#sel$es--1 ?2.124-122@@ )#om -hu*aima o# Abi -hu*aima and I added to
it the #est o) the %u#a.
B1
Pet us take note o) t,o thin"s that this t#adition saysN That Raid had to s&#oun"e
u' 'o#tions o) the 0u#1an )#om all o$e# the 'la&e ?'alm lea$es stones et&.@ as ,ell
as )#om the memo#ies o) men. Also it says that Raid )ound a $e#se o) the 0u#1an
that ,as kno,n by only 9ME &om'anion. Thus the idea that hund#eds o)
&om'anions kne, the 0u#1an 'e#)e&tly by hea#t is not su''o#ted e$en by this
t#adition. In addition to these t,o ayat ?2N124-122@ othe# t#aditions #e&o#d yet
anothe# $e#se ,hi&h ,as )ound ,ith only one 8om'anion
Ma##ated -ha#i<a bin RaidN Raid bin Thabit said =When the 0u#an ,as &om'iled
)#om $a#ious ,#itten manus&#i'ts one o) the +e#ses o) %u#at Al-Ah*ab ,as missin"
,hi&h I used to hea# Allah1s A'ostle #e&itin". I &ould not )ind it e:&e't ,ith
-hu*aima bin Thabit Al-Ansa#i ,hose ,itness Allah1s A'ostle #e"a#ded as e(ual to
the ,itness o) t,o men. And the +e#se ,asN-- =Amon" the belie$e#s a#e men ,ho
ha$e been t#ue to ,hat they &o$enanted ,ith Allah.= ?33.23@
B2
The t#uth is that Raid '#obably did not "et the enti#ety o) the o#i"inal (u#ani&
#e&itations into his &om'ilation. /adithi& t#adition demonst#ates this by in)o#min"
us that many o) the #e&ite#s ,e#e killed at the battle o) 5amama ?a battle ,a"ed
to #e-subdue se$e#al A#ab t#ibes ,ho #e$olted )#om Islam )ollo,in" Mohammed1s
death@ and that many 'o#tions o) the 0u#1an ,e#e i##et#ie$ably lost.
=Many ?o) the 'assa"es@ o) the 0u#1an that ,e#e sent do,n ,e#e kno,n by those
,ho died on the day o) 5amama....but they ,e#e not kno,n ?by those ,ho@
su#$i$ed them no# ,e#e they ,#itten do,n no# had Abu Bak# >ma# o# >thman
?by that time@ &olle&ted the 0u#1an no# ,e#e they )ound ,ith e$en one ?'e#son@
a)te# them.=
B3
Abi Da,ud else,he#e e:'#esses the same &on&e#n
=1>ma# b. al--hattab en(ui#ed about a $e#se o) the Book o) Aod. 9n bein" in)o#med
that it had been in the 'ossession o) so-and-so ,ho had been killed in the 5emama
,a#s 1>ma# e:&laimed the )o#mula e:'#essin" loss 1We a#e Aod1s and unto /im is
ou# #etu#n.1 1>ma# "a$e the &ommand and the 0u#1an ,as &olle&ted. /e ,as the
)i#st to &olle&t the 0u#1an.=
BB
/en&e 'ossibly la#"e 'o#tions o) the o#i"inal #e$elation att#ibuted to Mohammed
sim'ly &eased to e:ist ?'e#ha's the Book o) the 8amel o) Aod ,ould be in&luded in
this &ate"o#y;@ It ,as in )a&t the kno,led"e o) this that '#om'ted Abu Bak# ?o#
>thman o# Ali o# 1>ma# de'endin" on the t#adition@ to initiate Raid1s mission to
&om'ile the 0u#1an.
In addition to losin" 'a#ts o) the 0u#1an due to battle losses the t#aditions #e'o#t
that both Mohammed and his 8om'anions ,ould sim'ly )o#"et $a#ious o) the
#e$ealed #e&itations. Mohammed ,ould )o#"et #e&itations )#om the 0u#1an
=Allah1s A'ostle hea#d a man #e&itin" the 0u#1an at ni"ht and said =May Allah
besto, /is Me#&y on him as he has #eminded me o) su&h-and-su&h +e#ses o) su&h-
and-su&h %u#as !hich I !as caused to forget.=
B5
%imila# la'ses o) memo#y a#e #e&o#ded )o# 8om'anions as ,ell su&h as the &ase o)
Abu Musa al-Ash1a#i ,ho &on)essed to )o#"ettin" '#a&ti&ally an enti#e surah o)
#e&itations.
=Abu /a#b b. Abu al-As,ad #e'o#ted on the autho#ity o) his )athe# that Abu Musa
al-Ash1a#i sent )o# the #e&ite#s o) Bas#a. They &ame to him and they ,e#e th#ee
hund#ed in numbe#. They #e&ited the 0u#1an and he saidN 5ou a#e the best amon"
the inhabitants o) Bas#a )o# you a#e the #e&ite#s amon" them. %o &ontinue to
#e&ite it. ?But bea# in mind@ that you# #e&itin" )o# a lon" time may not ha#den you#
hea#ts as ,e#e ha#dened the hea#ts o) those be)o#e you. We used to #e&ite a su#ah
,hi&h #esembled in len"th and se$e#ity to ?%u#ah@ Ba#a1at. I hae" ho!eer"
forgotten it !ith the e$ception of this !hich I remember out of it%& If there
!ere t!o alleys full of riches" for the son of 'dam" he !ould long for a third
alley" and nothing !ould fill the stomach of the son of 'dam but dust.= And ,e
used to #e&ite a su#ah ,hi&h #esembled one o) the su#ahs o) Musabbihat and I
hae forgotten it" but remember (this much) out of it%& *h people !ho beliee"
!hy do you say that !hich you do not practise= ?l:i 2.@ and &that is recorded in
your nec+s as a !itness (against you) and you !ould be as+ed about it on the
Day of ,esurrection= ?:$ii. 13@.
BC
Indeed the t#aditions su""est that it is Allah himsel) ,ho made Mohammed and his
8om'anions )o#"et 'o#tions o) the 0u#1anO
=1Abdullah #e'o#ted Allah1s Messen"e# ?may 'ea&e be u'on him@ as sayin"N What a
,#et&hed 'e#son is he amon"st them ,ho saysN I ha$e )o#"otten su&h and su&h a
$e#se. ?/e should instead o) usin" this e:'#ession say@N I ha$e been made to )o#"et
it. T#y to #emembe# the 0u#1an )o# it is mo#e a't to es&a'e )#om men1s minds than
a hobbled &amel.=
BD
Mone o) this bodes ,ell )o# "i$in" an assu#an&e o) the inte"#ity o) the (u#ani&
#e$elations. That the state o) the (u#ani& &om'ilation ,as a shambles is seen )#om
t#aditional statements as ,ell. As-%uyuti #e&o#ds a t#adition in ,hi&h Muslims a#e
'ositi$ely dis&ou#a"ed )#om &laimin" that they ha$e the enti#e 0u#1an
=1Abdullah b. 1>ma# #e'o#ted said 1Pet none o) you say =I ha$e "ot the ,hole
-o#an.= /o, does he kno, ,hat all o) it is; Mu&h o) the -o#an has "one. Pet him
say instead =I ha$e "ot ,hat has su#$i$ed.=1=
B4
E$entually Raid "ot as mu&h o) the 0u#1an as he &ould )ind &om'iled to"ethe#.
9n&e this ha''ened as Ail&h#ist #e'o#ts the &om'ilation ,as &on&ealed #e&ei$in"
no 'ubli&ity )o# se$e#al yea#s
B2
. Then a &#isis a#ose. Mineteen yea#s a)te#
Mohammed1s death a Muslim "ene#al /udhay)ah &am'ai"nin" in no#the#n %y#ia
#e'o#ted ba&k to 8ali'h >thman that the t#oo's in his a#my some )#om %y#ia and
some )#om I#a( ,e#e usin" di))e#ent #eadin"s o) the 0u#1an. The #eason )o# this
,as be&ause t,o othe# &om'anions o) Mohammed Abdullah ibn Mas1ud and >bayy
ibn -a1b had ea&h '#e'a#ed thei# o,n &om'ilations o) the 0u#1an inde'endently o)
ea&h othe# and o) Raid. They ,e#e also &lose &om'anions o) Mohammed ,ho kne,
mu&h o) the 0u#1an and had )ound mu&h o) the #est. The '#oblem ,as that ea&h
,as '#o'a"atin" a di))e#ent te:t )#om the othe#.
8ali'h >thman1s solution to this '#oblem ,as to b#in" the Raid &ode: out o) hidin"
establish IT as the =standa#d= (u#ani& te:t )o# all Muslims and he then t#ied to
bu#n all othe# &odi&es that di))e#ed )#om the Raid te:t. /e also had the Raid te:t
standa#di*ed to &on)o#m to 0u#aishi A#abi& ?s'oken a#ound Me&&a and the diale&t
Mohammed is said to ha$e used@. Raid himsel) ,as )#om Medina and his diale&t
,as sli"htly di))e#ent )#om that o) the 0u#aish.
Ma##ated AnasN >thman &alled Raid bin Thabit Abdullah bin A*-Rubai# %aid bin
Al-1As and 1Abdu#!ahman bin Al-/a#ith bin /isham and then they ,#ote the
manus&#i'ts o) the /oly 0u#1an in the )o#m o) book in se$e#al &o'ies. 1>thman said
to the th#ee 0u#aishi 'e#sons. = I) you di))e# ,ith Raid bin Thabit on any 'oint o)
the 0u#an then ,#ite it in the lan"ua"e o) 0u#aish as the 0u#an ,as #e$ealed in
thei# lan"ua"e.= %o they a&ted a&&o#din"ly.
50
Thus these th#ee 0u#aishis ,ent o$e# Raid1s te:t and alte#ed it at any 'oint at
,hi&h it ,as not &on)o#mable to the 0u#aishi diale&t. 7u#the# Muslim
histo#io"#a'hy #e'o#ts
=Abu Am# states that he #e&ei$ed the )ollo,in" #elation )#om -atada as-%adusiN
=When the )i#st &o'y o) the -o#an ,as ,#itten out and '#esented to ?the khali)@
9thman Ibn A))an he saidN FThe#e a#e )aults o) lan"ua"e in it and let the A#abs o)
the dese#t #e&ti)y them ,ith thei# ton"ues.1=
51
It a''ea#s then that >thman ,as still not satis)ied ,ith the 'u#ity o) the lan"ua"e
and #elied u'on the Bedouin to #esol$e some o) the issues ?the Bedouin ,e#e
t#aditionally said to be a#bite#s on (uestions o) A#abi& "#amma# both be)o#e and
a)te# the ad$ent o) Islam due to the '#esti"e o) the Bedouin s'ee&h and its 'la&e
as the 'u#e lan"ua"e o) 'oet#y@
52
. In #elatin" the abo$e t#adition )#om Muslim
sou#&es the "ene#al sense o) un#eliability )o# these t#aditions must a"ain be
em'hasi*ed. /o,e$e# in a "a#bled )o#m and )ashion the t#aditions may #elate
le"itimate details about the &olle&tion o) the 0u#1an. While it may not ha$e
ha''ened in the manne# des&#ibed by the histo#io"#a'he#s the details o) the
&ollation and &o##e&tion o) the 0u#1an may ,ell #e)le&t analo"ous e$ents o&&u##in"
du#in" the solidi)i&ation o) the A#ab Em'i#e and the de$elo'ment o) the A#ab
monotheism es'e&ially )#om the tumultuous yea#s o) the ea#ly &i$il ,a#s. Indeed
the ke#nel o) t#uth most likely is the#e su##ounded by the shu&k o) late# lite#a#y
e:a""e#ation and o#namentation.
Many Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill a#"ue that the di))e#en&es mentioned abo$e bet,een
the $a#ious &om'ilations ,e#e due to '#onun&iation di))e#en&es and that no
di))e#en&e in the a&tual te:t e:isted. 9ne Muslim a'olo"ist ,ith ,hom I ha$e had
mu&h dis&ussion said it this ,ay =Althou"h mino# in natu#e yet the di))e#en&es in
the '#onun&iation ,e#e seen ,ith &on&e#n by the &autious 8ali'h ,ho )ea#ed they
&ould de$elo' into di))e#ent $e#sions ,ith the 'ossibility o) di))e#ent meanin"s. It
,as #e(ui#ed that <ust like a standa#d te:t a standa#d '#onun&iation should also
be de&ided.=
The '#oblem ,ith this a#"ument is that di))e#en&es in '#onun&iation bet,een
$a#ious &om'ilations ,ould not A66EA! in the te:t as the use o) 'ointin" to ma#k
$o,els ,as not yet in use )o# the (u#ani& te:t. This is be&ause A#abi& is a
lan"ua"e like all %emiti& lan"ua"es based on &onsonantal ,o#d #oots ,ith the
,eak $o,els su''lied eithe# by ta&it kno,led"e and &onte:t o# ?as in late# times@
by dia&#iti&al ma#ks &alled ='ointin"= that indi&ate ,hi&h $o,el is used in ea&h
syllable. The same basi& &onsonantal #oot &an be used but ha$e di))e#ent 'ointin"
ma#ks to indi&ate di))e#ent $e#b tenses numbe# "ende# et&. /en&e it ,ould be
'ossible to ha$e di))e#ent '#onun&iations yes based u'on #e"ional a&&ents and
diale&ts. B>T these di))e#en&es in '#onun&iation ,ould not a''ea# in the $a#ious
te:ts. The te:ts &ould all say the same thin" as )a# as the a&tual &onsonants that
,e#e ,#itten do,n and still be '#onoun&ed di))e#ently. The )a&t that the#e ,e#e
si"ni)i&ant enou"h di))e#en&es in the te:ts themsel$es ?,hi&h ,ould be
IMDE6EMDEMT o) '#onun&iation@ to &ause >thman to seek to eliminate all
&om'etito#s to the Raid te:t immediately tells us that these #eadin"s the a&tual
W9!D% #e'#esented si"ni)i&ant di))e#en&es bet,een the ,o#ds o) the te:ts
themsel$es.
And di))e#en&es the#e ,e#e bet,een the te:ts. 7o# instan&e the hadithi& t#adition
#e&o#ds the )ollo,in"N
Ma##ated Ib#ahimN =The &om'anions o) 1Abdullah ?bin Mas1ud@ &ame to Abi Da#da1
?and be)o#e they a##i$ed at his home@ he looked )o# them and )ound them. Then
he asked themN =Who amon" you &an #e&ite ?0u#1an@ as 1Abdullah #e&ites it;= They
#e'lied =All o) us.= /e asked =Who amon" you kno,s it by hea#t;= They 'ointed at
1Al(ama. Then he asked Al(ama. =/o, did you hea# 1Abdullah bin Mas1ud #e&itin"
%u#at Al-Pail ?The Mi"ht@;= Al(ama #e&itedN
1By the male and the )emale.1
Abu Ad-Da#da said =I testi)y that I hea#d me 6#o'het #e&itin" it like,ise but these
'eo'le ,ant me to #e&ite itN--
1And by /im Who &#eated male and )emale.1 But by Allah I ,ill not )ollo, them.=
53
Thus ,e see that the te:t o) Surah 22N3 tau"ht and #e&ited by Abdullah Ibn Mas1ud
di))e#ed )#om that used by &e#tain othe# Muslims not <ust in '#onun&iation but in
the ,o#ds themsel$es in a ,ay ,hi&h &han"es the meanin" o) the $e#se ?in this
&ase eliminatin" a #e)e#en&e to Allah@. Mote also the #eadin" ,hi&h is &laimed to
ha$e been s'oken by Mohammed himsel) is not the one '#esently )ound in the
0u#1an.
Ail&h#ist and othe#s #e'o#t like,ise that mu&h &ont#o$e#sy ,as "ene#ated th#ou"h
the yea#s by #e'o#ts that ibn Mas1ud le)t out Suwar numbe#s 1 113 and 11B )#om
his &om'ilation.
7ou# notable di))e#en&es bet,een the Raid te:t and the ibn Mas1ud te:t a#e
detailed by Ail&h#ist
5B
N
Surah 2N2D5 - Raid te:t - %llathiina yaa'uluunar-ri(aa laa yaquumuun - =those that
de$ou# usu#y ,ill not stand=
Mas1ud te:t - %llathiina yaa'uluunar-ri(aa laa yaquumuun yawmal qiyaamati -
=those that de$ou# usu#y ,ill not stand IM T/E !E%>!!E8TI9M DA5.=
Surah 5N42 ?listed as 5N21 by Ail&h#ist@ - Raid te:t - !asiyaamu thalaathati
ayyaamin - =)ast )o# th#ee days=
Mas1ud te:t - !asiyaamu thalaathati ayyaamin mutataa(iaatin - =)ast )o# th#ee
%>88E%%I+E days=
Surah CN153 - Raid te:t - -a anna haathaa siraatii - =+e#ily this is my 'ath=
Mas1ud te:t - -a haathaa siraatu ra((a'um - =This is the 'ath 97 59>! P9!D=
In&identally the te:t o) >bayy ibn -a1b also has this #eadin" e:&e't that the ,o#d
ra((a'um is #e'la&ed ,ith ra((i'a.
Surah 33NC - Raid te:t - -a a.waa/uhuu ummahaatuhuu - =and his ,i$es a#e thei#
mothe#s=
Mas1ud te:t - -a a.waa/uhuu ummahaatuhuu wa huwa a(uu laahum - =and his
,i$es a#e thei# mothe#s AMD /E I% T/EI! 7AT/E!.=
The Ibn -a1b te:t has these same ,o#ds but #e$e#ses the statements about
Mohammed1s ,i$es bein" mothe#s and he bein" a )athe# to the Muslim &ommunity
'la&in" the statement about Mohammed )i#st.
The t#aditions '#o$ide a numbe# o) e:am'les o) othe# alte#ations andQo# $e#sions
in the A#abi& te:tual histo#y o) the 0u#1an besides those o) men like Mas1ud and Ibn
-a1b. 7o# instan&e
=Ma##ated Anas bin MalikN
?The t#ibes o)@ !il Dhak,an 1>saiya and Bani Pihyan asked Allah1s A'ostle to
'#o$ide them ,ith some men to su''o#t them a"ainst thei# enemy. /e the#e)o#e
'#o$ided them ,ith se$enty men )#om the Ansa# ,hom ,e used to &all Al-0u##a1 in
thei# li)etime. They used to &olle&t ,ood by daytime and '#ay at ni"ht. When they
,e#e at the ,ell o) Ma1una the in)idels killed them by bet#ayin" them. When this
ne,s #ea&hed the 6#o'het he said Al-0unut )o# one month In the mo#nin" '#aye#
in$okin" e$il u'on some o) the 1A#ab t#ibes u'on !il Dhak,an 1>saiya and Bani
Pibyan. -e used to read a erse of the Qur'an reealed in their connection" but
later the erse !as cancelled. It ,asN =&on$ey to ou# 'eo'le on ou# behal) the
in)o#mation that ,e ha$e met ou# Po#d and /e is 'leased ,ith us and has made
us 'leased.= ?Anas bin Malik addedN@ Allah1s 6#o'het said 0unut )o# one month in
the mo#nin" '#aye# in$okin" e$il u'on some o) the 1A#ab t#ibes ?namely@ !il
Dhak,an >saiya and Bani Pibyan. ?Anas addedN@ Those se$enty Ansa#i men ,e#e
killed at the ,ell o) Mauna.=
55
6e# this t#adition a 'a#t o) the 0u#1an ,as =&an&elled= thou"h the usual '#o&ess o)
ab#o"ation ?mansu'h@ does not see to be in $ie, he#e. 9the# e:am'les o) the
libe#ty ,hi&h the ea#ly Muslims a''a#ently took ,ith the (u#ani& te:t is seen in the
t#adition #elatin" Aisha1s &ommand to he# )#eedman to &han"e a #eadin" in a &o'y
o) the 0u#1an ,hi&h he ,as t#ans&#ibin".
=5ahya #elated to me )#om Malik )#om Rayd ibn Aslam )#om al-0a(a ibn /akim that
Abu 5unus the ma,la o) A1isha umm al-muminin KMothe# o) the Belie$e#sL said
11A1isha o#de#ed me to ,#ite out a 0u#1an )o# he#. %he said 1When you #ea&h this
ayat K2N234@ let me kno, =Aua#d the '#aye#s &a#e)ully and the middle '#aye# and
stand obedient to Allah.Khafi. ala s-salawati wa-s-salati l-wusta wa qumu li-l-lahi
qanitinL= 1 When I #ea&hed it I told he# and she di&tated to me 1Aua#d the '#aye#s
&a#e)ully and the middle '#aye# and the asr prayer and stand obedient to Allah.
Khafi. ala s-salawati wa-s-salati l-wusta wa-s-salati l-'asri wa qumu li-l-lahi
qanitinL1 A1isha said 1I hea#d it )#om the Messen"e# o) Allah may Allah bless him
and "#ant him 'ea&e.1=
5C
Thou"h the &han"e itsel) is mino# this a"ain '#o$ides '#oo) )#om the Muslim
t#aditions themsel$es as to the )luidity o) the (u#ani& te:t be)o#e it ,as )i:ed. As
,ith the e:am'le )#om Surah al-Pail ?22N3@ the #eadin" ,hi&h is said to ha$e been
hea#d )#om Mohammed himsel) is not the #eadin" )ound in the '#esent 0u#1an.
7u#the# ,e see the disa''ea#an&e o) the =stonin" $e#se= )#om the 0u#1an
do&umented in the t#aditions
=1>ma# said =I am a)#aid that a)te# a lon" time has 'assed 'eo'le may say =We do
not )ind the +e#ses o) the !a<am ?stonin" to death@ in the /oly Book= and
&onse(uently they may "o ast#ay by lea$in" an obli"ation that Allah has #e$ealed.
PoO I &on)i#m that the 'enalty o) !a<am be in)li&ted on him ,ho &ommits ille"al
se:ual inte#&ou#se i) he is al#eady ma##ied and the &#ime is '#o$ed by ,itnesses o#
'#e"nan&y o# &on)ession.= %u)yan added =I ha$e memo#i*ed this na##ation in this
,ay.= 1>ma# added =%u#ely Allah1s A'ostle &a##ied out the 'enalty o) !a<am and so
did ,e a)te# him.=
5D
A"ain a na##ation obtained )#om Mohammed has disa''ea#ed )#om the '#esent
$e#sion o) the 0u#1an.
/en&e the#e WE!E $e#y de)inite di))e#en&es bet,een these ea#ly $e#sions o) the
0u#1an ,hi&h &annot be e:'lained a,ay by a''eals to '#onun&iation. These that I
ha$e mentioned a#e only )ou# o) the di))e#en&es bet,een ea#ly &om'ilations o) the
0u#1an. A#thu# .e))e#y1s book "aterials for the *istory of the $e0t of the 1uran
&ontains o$e# 350 'a"es o) details &on&e#nin" $a#iant #eadin"s bet,een ea#ly
(u#ani& &om'ilations o) the time. 7u#the# the eminent s&hola# o) Islam W.
Mont"ome#y Watt makes this #ema#k
=Mo &o'ies e:ist o) any o) the ea#ly &odi&es but the list o) $a#iant #eadin"s )#om
the t,o <ust mentioned is e:tensi$e KEd. note - obtained )#om the $a#ious ,o#ks o)
ea#ly Muslim histo#io"#a'he#s ,ho (uote these $a#iantsL #unnin" to a thousand o#
mo#e items in both &ases.=
54
Thus the#e a''ea# to ha$e been MAM5 $a#iations in ea#ly (u#ani& te:ts des'ite
the &laims o) 'e#)e&tion and in$a#ian&e that a#e made )o# the 0u#1an.
We must unde#stand the 'la&e and si"ni)i&an&e o) all that has been said abo$e.
8h#istianity on&e it #ea&hed a 'osition to be able to in$esti"ate this ty'e o) )ield
,ith e$iden&e and s&ienti)i& methodolo"y has been able to in$esti"ate the te:tual
histo#y o) the Bible in a systemati& ,ay. This has enabled 8h#istians to as&e#tain
,hat ,e#e the #eadin"s o) the o#i"inal bibli&al auto"#a'hs e$en thou"h said
auto"#a'hs no lon"e# e:ist today. This has also allo,ed 8h#istianity to dete&t and
eliminate s'u#ious alte#ations o# omissions made )#om indi$idual manus&#i'ts thus
maintainin" a 'u#e te:t ,hile yet a&kno,led"in" the ob$ious '#esen&e o) dis'a#ate
#eadin"s bet,een indi$idual manus&#i'ts. Thus th#ou"h #e&ou#se to the
e:amination o) the sum total o) the manus&#i't e$iden&e alon" ,ith &on&u##ent
e$iden&e )#om othe# an&ient $e#sions and the (uotations o) 'at#isti& ,#ite#s )#om
the ea#ly yea#s o) the )aith 8h#istians &an be &e#tain that the ,o#ds o) Aod ha$e
been '#ese#$ed )o# them th#ou"hout the a"es and a#e a$ailable to them today
e$en ,ithout ha$in" the o#i"inal auto"#a'hs.
The same assu#an&e &annot be had by the Muslim ,ho has been ba##i&aded into
a&&e'tin" as the Go#thodo:H 'osition the $ie, that the 0u#Ian has ne$e# on&e
&han"ed sin&e its o#i"inal in&e'tion and that the 0u#Ian does not e$en /A+E a
te:tual histo#y. Whethe# a Muslim belie$es that the 0u#Ian ,as handed do,n
inta&t and ,hole to Mohammed and has not &han"ed sin&e o# that the 0u#Ian ,as
'#ese#$ed in the &om'ilation o) Raid and >thman and has not &han"ed sin&e he o#
she is still 'la&ed into the same lo"i&ally and )a&tually untenable 'osition. Whe#eas
8h#istianity has been #ealisti& about the matte# has a&&e'ted that indi$idual
manus&#i'ts &an and ,ill be&ome alte#ed o$e# time ?,hethe# a&&idental o#
'u#'ose)ul makes no di))e#en&e@ and has de$elo'ed a )ai#ly sim'le yet s&ienti)i&
method )o# dis&e#nin" the t#ue )#om the )alse
52
Islam does not ha$e this #e&ou#se.
Be&ause o) the #e&o#d o) >thmanIs dest#u&tion and su''#ession o) alte#nate
(u#ani& $e#sions the Muslim has no means by ,hi&h to t#uly and s&ienti)i&ally
dete#mine ,hethe# the #eadin"s in his '#esent 0u#Ian a#e !EAPP5 the o#i"inal
#eadin"s. All that &an be t#uth)ully said ?i) one a&&e'ts the histo#y '#esented in the
t#aditions@ is that the '#esent #eadin"s ,e#e those o) >thmanIs 'u#'o#ted $e#sion.
5et be&ause o) the dest#u&tion o) so mu&h authenti& sou#&e mate#ial the#e is no
,ay to <ud"e to ,hat e:tent nume#i&ally and "eo"#a'hi&ally the $a#iant 0u#Ians
o) ibn -a1b ibn MasIud and othe# &om'ile#s ,e#e )ound. The Muslim &annot in any
#ational ,ay state that &e#tain #eadin"s )ound )o# instan&e in the MasIud $e#sion
,e#e de)initely not the t#ue #e$elation #e&ei$ed by Mohammed. As noted abo$e
the MasIud #eadin" o) Al-Pail 22N3 as #e&o#ded in the hadithi& #e&o#d is said to be
that ,hi&h ,as obtained )#om Mohammed himsel). 5ET this #eadin" does not
a''ea# in the '#esent 0u#Ian ,hi&h su""ests that an authenti& '#onoun&ement o)
the '#o'het o) Islam ,as lost in >thmanIs *eal to establish a uni)o#m standa#d.
/o, &an the Muslim E+E! kno, ?aside )#om blind )aith@ that the &u##ent #eadin" o)
22N3 is the #i"ht one; Islam ,ith its untenable a''#oa&h to the te:tual issue
&ou'led ,ith the a#ti)i&ial standa#di*ation o) a '#e-a''#o$ed te:t has t#a''ed
itsel) into a seemin"ly ines&a'able &onund#um.
/arbled in Transmission
Thus )#om ,hat ,e ha$e seen abo$e the te:t o) the 0u#1an &annot #ationally be
&onside#ed to ha$e a##i$ed in its '#esent )o#m ,ithout any &han"es )#om ,hen
Mohammed &laimed to ha$e #e&ei$ed it )#om Allah. 6o#tions o) the 0u#1an ,e#e lost
)o#e$e# at 5amama ?a&&o#din" to Muslim t#adition itsel)@ the#e ,e#e $a#iant
#eadin"s all o$e# the Muslim ,o#ld until >thman #eined them in and established the
RaidQAbu Bak# te:t ?a)te# 0u#aishi #e$ision@ as the =standa#d= te:t )o# all Muslims.
In su&h a situation it is ine$itable that &on)usion must #ei"n. E$en no, many
%hi1ite Muslims ,ill maintain that 8ali'h >thman had u' to a (ua#te# o) the o#i"inal
0u#1an #emo$ed )o# 'oliti&al #easonsN the ayat s'oke o) Ali ,ith ,hom >thman had
a 'e#sonal "#ud"e.
But then ,hat o) the othe# ma<o# &laim made by many Muslims &on&e#nin" the
0u#1an ,hi&h #elates to its '#esent 'e#)e&tion and di$ine autho#shi'; The same
Muslim a'olo"ist ,ho I (uoted ea#lie# had this to say =That 0u#1an is autho#itati$e
in Islam ,hi&h you1ll )ind in you# nea#est booksto#e. The '#esen&e o) a %IMAPE te:t
o) the 0u#1an in the ,hole Muslim ,o#ld is the '#oo) o) this.= This &laim is the
standa#d $ie, o) o#thodo: Islam. But is this t#ue; Is the#e a sin"le te:t o) the
0u#1an in A#abi& used today the ,o#ld o$e#;
The ans,e# is o) &ou#se no. The A#abi& 0u#1ans ha$e &ome to the '#esent day
th#ou"h a se#ies o) ,hat a#e &alled =t#ansmissions=. Essentially the#e ,e#e in the
2nd-3#d &entu#ies A/ ?#ou"hly the 4th-2th &entu#ies@ se$en men ,ho ,e#e
&onside#ed autho#itati$e =#eade#s= o) the 0u#1an and thei# #e&itations ,e#e ,#itten
do,n ?t#ansmitted@ by othe# s&hola#s and these #eadin"s ha$e &ome do,n to us
today as the $a#ious t#ansmissions. 6#o'e#ly s'eakin" the t,o main t#ansmissions
used today a#e those t#ansmitted by /a)s ?d. 405@ and Wa#sh ?d. 412@ thou"h t,o
othe#s ?ad-Du#i d. 4C0 and 0alun d. 435 he bein" a se&onda#y t#ansmitte# o)
Wa#sh@ a#e also in '#int. The /a)s is the most &ommonly used t#ansmission thou"h
the Wa#sh is ?o# at least used to be until #e&ently@ the most &ommon in Mo#th
A)#i&a.
7o# the Muslim asse#tion to be t#ue it ,ould ha$e to be sho,n that the#e a#e M9
di))e#en&es bet,een these $a#ious t#ansmissions. It ,ould ha$e to be t#ue that
e$en thou"h the#e ,e#e se$en di))e#ent #e&ite#s and se$e#al di))e#ent t#ansmitte#s
they all #e&ited and ,#ote the same te:t ,ith no $a#ian&e and this ,ould t#ansmit
to us today. /en&e the /a)s and Wa#sh ou"ht to be identi&al.
5et they a#e not. %amuel A#een in his ,o#k $he )ifferent %ra(ic Versions of the
1uran
C0
makes a note o) many o) the di))e#en&es in #eadin" bet,een these t,o
'a#ti&ula# t#ansmissions some o) ,hi&h I ,ill "i$e belo,. 6lease note the
di))e#en&e in ayat #e)e#en&es a#e due to the di))e#en&e in the numbe#in" systems
bet,een the t,o 0u#1ans but they #e)e# to the ,o#ds in (uestion )#om the same
'assa"esN
Surah 3N133 ?/a)s@ - wasaariuu
Surah 3N133 ?Wa#sh@ - saariuu
Surah 2N1B0 ?/a)s@ - taquluna
Surah 2N132 ?Wa#sh@ - yaquluna
Surah 3N41 ?/a)s@ - ataytu'um
Surah 3N40 ?Wa#sh@ - atayna'um
Surah 2N252 ?/a)s@ - nunshi.uhaa
Surah 2N254 ?Wa#sh@ - nunshiruhaa
Surah 2N10 ?/a)s@ - ya'dhi(uuna
Surah 2N2 ?Wa#sh@ - yu'adhdhi(uuna
Surah 2N14B ?/a)s@ - taaamu mis'iinin
Surah 2N143 ?Wa#sh@ - taaami masa'iina
These a#e not me#ely di))e#en&es in '#onun&iation but instead di))e#en&es
bet,een t#ansmissions both in dia&#iti&al ma#ks ?)o# $o,els@ and also &onsonantal
sounds
C1
. %o no the Muslim &laim that the#e is a sin"le (u#ani& te:t used the
,o#ld o$e# is not substantiated by )a&t. In sho#t i) the (uestion is askedN Is the
0u#1an un&han"ed and uni)o#m ,e ,ould ha$e to ans,e# ,ith a ne"ati$e in both
&ases.
0ome /ro!n Inspiration
As ,as mentioned ea#lie# a)te# the establishment o) the Raid te:t as the standa#d
&anon a&#oss Islam 8ali'h >thman attem'ted to &a##y out the &om'lete
dest#u&tion o) all $a#iant #eadin"s by )i#e. Why did 8ali'h >thman )eel the need to
&a##y out the dest#u&tion o) manus&#i'ts that &on)li&ted ,ith his &om'ilation; Was
>thman a)#aid that ea#lie# &o'ies o) the 0u#1an &ont#adi&ted his and ,ould #e$eal
his o,n te:t to be de)i&ient in autho#ity be&ause o) the addition and subt#a&tion o)
mate#ial;
Addition and subt#a&tion to the (u#ani& te:t the#e seems to ha$e been too.
Auillaume #e'o#ts that many o) the o#i"inal $e#ses o) the 0u#1an ,e#e lost eithe#
to delibe#ate #emo$al o# to a&&idents. 9ne surah o#i"inally had 200 $e#ses in the
time o) Ayesha ?one o) Mohammed1s ,i$es@ but by the time o) >thman1s #e&ension
it had only D3 $e#ses )o# a total o) 12D $e#ses subt#a&ted
C2
. In )a&t in the
s&hola#ly #ealm that $e#ses ha$e been #emo$ed )#om the 0u#1an th#ou"hout its
histo#y is almost uni$e#sally a&&e'ted. Many o) the (u#ani& #ende#in"s that >thman
dest#oyed &ontained $e#ses that >thman did not a''#o$e o) '#obably indi&atin" an
o$e#all tenden&y to,a#ds ea#ly addition to and subt#a&tion )#om ,hat ,as
su''osed to be the )inal &om'lete ,o#d o) Allah ?,hi&h ,ould be in line ,ith ,hat
,as sho,n ea#lie# about the autho#ity o) the ea#ly 8ali'hs to alte# le"al t#adition
to suit thei# o,n 'u#'oses@.
7u#the# the#e is e$iden&e )#om the t#aditions that indi&ates to us that Mohammed
himsel) made o# at least allo,ed di#e&t alte#ation o) the #e$elation that
su''osedly &ame )#om Allah. The dissident I#anian s&hola# Ali Dashti #elated one
su&h t#adition about one o) Mohammed1s s&#ibes in Medina a man by the name o)
Abdollah Abi %ah#. This a&&ount #elates that Abi %ah# had
=....,ith the 6#o'het1s &onsent &han"ed the &losin" ,o#ds o) $e#ses. 7o# e:am'le
,hen the 6#o'het had said 1And Aod is mi"hty and ,ise1 ?a.i. ha'im@ 1Abdollah b.
Abi %a#h su""ested ,#itin" do,n 1kno,in" and ,ise1 ?alim ha'im@ and the 6#o'het
ans,e#ed that the#e ,as no ob<e&tion. /a$in" obse#$ed a su&&ession o) &han"es o)
this ty'e 1Abdollah #enoun&ed Islam on the "#ound that #e$elations i) )#om Aod
&ould not be &han"ed at the '#om'tin" o) a s&#ibe....=
C3
It is not su#'#isin" to )ind out that the t#adition #e&o#ds that Abi %ah# ,as one o)
the )i#st men ,hom Mohammed &ondemned to die a)te# Me&&a ,as &on(ue#ed
?thou"h he 'a#doned him be&ause o) the inte#&ession o) Abi %ah#Is un&le >thman
and u'on Abi %ah#Fs #e$e#sion ba&k to Islam@.
The#e is e$iden&e that su""ests that the /i<a* the #e"ion in the A#abian 'eninsula
that in&ludes Me&&a ,as not e$en the site o) o#i"in )o# the ne, A#ab monotheisti&
#eli"ion that de$elo'ed into Islam. Me$o and -o#en note that the ea#liest
a''ea#an&e o) &lassi&al A#abi& ?the A#abi& in ,hi&h the 0u#1an ,as su''osed to
ha$e been handed do,n - the 'u#e lan"ua"e o) Allah@ in the /i<a* dates to a#ound
the B0s A/ ?SCC0s AD@ )ound nea# Ta1i)
CB
. They )u#the# a#"ue on the basis o)
a#&haeolo"i&al )indin"s in the /i<a* and su##oundin" #e"ions ,hi&h sho, no
e$iden&e )o# the many 'a"an 2ahiliyya &ults att#ibuted to the a#ea by Muslim
t#adition in the Cth and Dth &entu#ies that the 'oint o) o#i"in )o# the A#ab
monotheism ,as not in the /i<a* but else,he#e
C5
. The &on&lusion they d#a, )#om
thei# in$esti"ations is that the 'oint o) o#i"in )o# this ne, #eli"ion ,as in the
&on(ue#ed lands o) %y#ia-6alestine ,he#e the most inte#a&tion bet,een the A#ab
in$ade#s and the 8h#istianQ.e,ishQ.udaeo-8h#istian sub<e&ts ,ould take 'la&e.
Pate# the A#abs sou"ht to establish a mo#e inde'endent identity )o# thei# ne,
monotheism thus &#eatin" a bio"#a'hy )o# Islam based in the /i<a* the ideali*ed
A#ab hea#tland. The in)o#mation )#om the Muslim t#aditional histo#io"#a'hy
&on&e#nin" the '#e-Islami& 'a"an system in Me&&a and the /i<a* mi"ht ,ell ha$e
been =im'o#ted= )#om the 'a"an A#abs li$in" in the )#ontie# #e"ions o) %y#ia and
6alestine and t#ans'osed ba&k,a#ds as a '#o"#ammati& e:am'le o) the 'a"an
systems that Islam ,as meant to #oot out <ust as ,as done in the ideal histo#y o)
Me&&a.
The 'ositi$e a#"ument )#om the a''ea#an&e o) 8lassi&al A#abi& in the a#ea nea#ly
)ou# de&ades A7TE! the 0u#1an ,as su''osedly handed do,n and Islam sta#ted is
$e#y &on$in&in". It su""ests that this (u#ani& lan"ua"e ,as b#ou"ht into the #e"ion
)#om the no#the#n a#eas in %y#ia and I#a( #e"ions &on(ue#ed and o&&u'ied by the
A#abs and ,hi&h had the ne&essa#y )e#ment o) #eli"ious inte#a&tion to &ause the
A#abs to desi#e a de)inin" monotheism o) thei# o,n. This 'e#ha's &om'lements the
al#eady '#esent t#end to,a#ds monotheism ,hi&h ,as "#o,in" st#on"e# in A#abia
at this time and ,hi&h ,ould ha$e )lo,ed out o) the 'eninsula ,ith the mi"#atin"
t#ibes. Thus the many hi"h "ods o) the $a#ious A#ab t#ibes ,ould ea&h be )olded
into the su'#eme "od o) the ne, monotheism sub<u"ated and assimilated into the
de$elo'in" state #eli"ion. The ea#ly holy books o) the A#abs to ,hi&h .ohn o)
Damas&us and Peo III allude may ha$e o#i"inated in the a#ea o) %y#ia-6alestine and
the diale&t be"an to be #e&o"ni*ed mo#e ,idely as the A#abi& o) the holy books o)
the state #eli"ion. /o,e$e# &aution must be em'loyed )o# ,e must a"ain
#e&o"ni*e that the Islami& t#aditions o)ten a#e mutually &ont#adi&to#y and it is a
di))i&ult task to 'ie&e any &ohe#ent &hain o# &h#onolo"y o) e$ents )#om them. It is
best to d#a, "ene#al in)e#en&es o) the so#t o) e$ents that took 'la&e and let
a#&haeolo"y and e'i"#a'hy )ill in the details. As )o# the 'a#ti&ula#s o) the
de$elo'ment o) Islam in the %y#o-6alestinian en$i#onment mo#e ,ill be said o) this
in the dis&ussion about Mohammed in 8ha'te# 5.
The ea#ly e$olution o) Muslim do&t#ine and '#a&ti&e su""ests that '#esent (u#ani&
and hadithi& statements ,e#e not al,ays $ie,ed as ins'i#ed o# #e&ei$ed )#om
Allah. Additionally they do not all seem to ha$e e:isted in >thman1s &om'ilation.
Instead this 'henomenon su""ests the &onstant addition to and takin" a,ay )#om
the Muslim holy books and the end #esult is likely that se$e#al di))e#ent autho#s
o$e# at least t,o &entu#ies ,e#e #es'onsible )o# the '#odu&tion o) the 0u#1an. This
is enti#ely ,ithin the #ealm o) 'ossibility "i$en that the )i#st $e#i)iable )ull te:ts o)
the 0u#1an &on)o#mable to the #eadin" o) one o) today1s t#ansmissions dates at its
ea#liest ba&k to the 10th &entu#y ,hile ea#lie# a$ailable manus&#i'ts ?su&h as the
5emeni@ &ontain $a#iant #eadin"s and omissions. In sho#t the 0u#1an a''ea#s to be
a ,o#k ,hi&h ,as autho#ed and edited by the A#abs in %y#ia andQo# I#a( ,hi&h had
se$e#al $a#iant #eadin"s that ,e#e dest#oyed and ,hi&h took se$e#al &entu#ies to
a''ea# in the )inal )o#m a$ailable today.
End Motes
?1@ - %.M. 7ishe# $he "iddle East3 % *istory '. 52
?2@ - %.A.A. Maudadi $owards Understanding Islam '. 102
?3@ - $he *oly 1uran4 English $ranslation of the "eanings and +ommentary -in"
7ahd /oly 0u#1an 6#intin" 8om'le: '. $
?B@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. C Bk. C1 Mo. 510
?5@ - .. Ail&h#ist 2am# %l-1ur#an3 $he +odification of the 1ur#an $e0t '. 1BB
?C@ - 5./. %a)adi Islamic +alligraphy ''. 10-11J see also M. Pin"s and 5./. %a)adi
$he 1ur#an '. 1D
?D@ - =B#othe# Ma#k= % 6erfect 1ur#an '. CD
?4@ - 9.E. %he#i) and M.A. Elhenna,y =6#ese#$in" and 6#ote&tin" the 0u#Ian=
'ublished at htt'NQQ,,,.submission.o#"Q(u#anQ'#ote&t.html
?2@ - M. Pin"s and 5./. %a)adi o'. &it. ''. 1D 20
?10@ - A. %&himmel +alligraphy and Islamic +ulture '. B
?11@ - T. Peste# =What is the -o#an;= The Atlanti& Monthly 9nline .anua#y 1222
?12@ - M. 8ook "uhammad '. DB
?13@ - .. Wansb#ou"h 1uranic Studies3 Sources and "ethods of Scriptural
Interpretation '. BB
?1B@ - .. %&ha&ht $he &rigins of "uhammedan 2urisprudence ''. B-5
?15@ - Ibid. ''. 22B-225
?1C@ - 6. 8#one and M. /inds 7ods +aliph3 8eligious %uthority in the !irst
+enturies of Islam '. 52
?1D@ - 6. 8#one 8oman4 6rovincial4 and Islamic 9aw3 $he &rigins of the Islamic
6atronate '. 22
?14@ - A. Min"ana =The T#ansmission o) the -o#an= $he "oslem -orld +ol. D
?121D@ ''. 223-232 B02-B1B
?12@ - !. /oyland Seeing Islam as &thers Saw It3 % Survey and Evaluation of
+hristian4 2ewish4 and :oroastrian -ritings on Early Islam '. BD1
?20@ - %ee 6. 8#one and M. 8ook *agarism '. 14
?21@ - %ee e.". .. Meyendo#)) =By*antine +ie,s o) Islam= )um(arton &a's 6apers
+ol. 14 ?12CB@ '. 114
?22@ - /oyland o'. &it. '. B4C
?23@ - %ee Saint 2ohn of )amascus3 -ritings t#ans. 7./. 8hase ''. 15D-152
?2B@ - 6e# A. .e))#y =Ahe$ond1s Te:t o) the 8o##es'onden&e bet,een 1>ma# II and
Peo III.= *arvard $heological 8eview +ol. 3D ?12BB@ es'. ''. 2D5-2DCJ see
/oyland o'. &it. ''. B20-B2B )o# his dis&ussion su''o#tin" a late 1th &entu#y
o#i"in )o# the te:t.
?25@ - 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en +rossroads to Islam '. 232
?2C@ - Ibid. ''. 2B0-2B1
?2D@ - %ee .e))#ey o'. &it. '. 224
?24@ - Ibid n. B4
?22@ - 8#one and 8ook o'. &it. ''. 1D-14
?30@ - Me$o and -o#en o'. &it. '. 123
?31@ - %. Bashea# G.esus in an Ea#ly Muslim %hahada and !elated IssuesN A Me,
6e#s'e&ti$eH Studies in Early Islamic $radition 8h. 15 ''. 1D-14J '#esented as a
'a'e# at the )ou#th *adith 8ollo(uium held in Amste#dam Au"ust 1221
?32@ - Wansb#ou"h he#e uses the te#m in the sense o) .udaism and 8h#istianity
?33@ - Wansb#ou"h o'. &it. '. 20
?3B@ - Ibid. '. 2D
?35@ - 8ook o'. &it. '. C5
?3C@ - !.%. /um'h#eys Islamic *istory3 % !ramewor' for Inquiry ''. 4B-45
?3D@ - 7ishe# lo&. &it.
?34@ - 7. Buhl Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam eds. /.A.!. Aibb and ../. -#ame#s
'. 2DD
?32@ - E.". 8. 7a#ah Islam3 5eliefs and &(servances '. 25
?B0@ - %ee Me$o and -o#en o'. &it. ''. 4D-1C4 )o# some e:am'les o) this
'henomenon as ,ell as a "ene#al #e&onst#u&tion o) the e$ents o) the A#ab
takeo$e# o) %y#ia-6alestine as de#i$ed )#om &ontem'o#a#y lite#a#y sou#&es and
a#&haeolo"i&al dis&o$e#ies
?B1@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 2 Bk. 42 Mo. 301J also +ol. C Bk. C1 Mo. 511
?B2@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 52 Mo. C2J also +ol. 5 Bk. 52 Mo. 3D2 and +ol.
C Bk. C0 Mo. 30D
?B3@ - Ibn Abi Da,ud Kita( al-"asahif '. 23
?BB@ - Ibn Abi Da,ud Kita( al-"asahif '. 10
?B5@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. C Bk. C1 Mo. 554
?BC@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 5 Mo. 224C
?BD@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. B Mo. 1D2BJ see also Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. C Bk. C1 Mo.
552
?B4@ - As-%uyuti Itqan fi ulum al-1uran 6t. 2 '. 25 &ited in .. Bu#ton $he
+ollection of the 1uran '. 11D
?B2@ - Ail&h#ist o'. &it. '. B1
?50@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 5C Mo. D02J also +ol. C Bk. C1 Mo. 50D
?51@ - Ibn -hallikan -afayat al-%yan t#ans. B.M. de %lane +ol. 2 '. B01
?52@ - %ee A.E. $on A#unebaum =The Matu#e o) A#ab >nity Be)o#e Islam= %ra(ica
+ol. 10 ?12C3@ Mo. 1 '. 1B
?53@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. C Bk. C0 Mo. BC4
?5B@ - Ail&h#ist o'.&it. ''. C2-D1
?55@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 5 Bk. 52 Mo. B1C
?5C@ - "uwatta o) Malik Bk. 4 %e&t. 4 Mo. 2CJ the hadith )ollo,in" immediately
a)te# ?Mo. 2D@ #elates the same sto#y e:&e't that it is Am# ibn !a)i makin" this
same &han"e )o# /a)sah anothe# ,i)e o) Mohammed
?5D@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 4 Bk. 42 Mo. 41CJ see also Sahih "uslim Bk. 1D Mos.
B12B and B202J "uwatta o) Malik Bk. B1 %e&t. 1 Mo. 2
?54@ - W.M. Watt and !. Bell Introduction to the 1uran '. B5
?52@ - E$en i) this method has been abused by those seekin" to '#omote the
s'u#ious Ale:and#ian manus&#i'ts o$e# and abo$e the $ast ma<o#ity o)
By*antineQT#aditional Te:t manus&#i'ts.
?C0@ - This #esou#&e &an be )ound online at htt'NQQ,,,.ans,e#in"-
islam.o#"QA#eenQse$en.htm
?C1@ - 7o# a mo#e in-de'th in$esti"ation into the histo#y and si"ni)i&an&e o)
$a#iations both te:tual and t#ansmissional see Ibn Wa##a(1s essays Whi&h -o#an;
and Whi&h -o#an; ?6a#t II@
?C2@ - A. Auillaume Islam '. 121
?C3@ - Ali Dashti $wenty-$hree ;ears3 % Study of the 6rophetic +areer of
"ohammed '. 24
?CB@ - Me$o and -o#en o'. &it. '. 1DB
?C5@ - Ibid. ''. 1D3-1DB
Myth E2
The 0u#1an is Allah1s 6e#)e&t
and 8om'lete Wo#d
GWhen F9me# smote Fis bloominI ly#e
/eId Fea#d men sin" by land and seaJ
AnI ,hat Fe thou"ht Fe mi"ht #e(ui#e
FE ,ent anI took - the same as meOH
- !udya#d -i'lin" 5arrac'-8oom 5allads
What Does the 0u#1an %ay About the Bible;
Aod1s E$ident 6#ese#$ation o) the Bible
+a#ious Ty'es o) 6#e-Islami& %ou#&e Mate#ials >sed in the 0u#1an
The 0u#1an is in 6u#e A#abi&;
Mistakes In&onsisten&ies and Im'e#)e&tions in the 0u#1an
As one ,ould e:'e&t Islam tea&hes that the 0u#1an is 'e#)e&t the &om'lete
#e$elation o) Allah to mankind. The 0u#1an is held to be )la,less &om'letely
unassailable in ,hat it says both in )a&t and do&t#ine. Be&ause o) this 'e#&ei$ed
&om'leteness and 'e#)e&tion Islam is $ie,ed to be the ultimate #eli"ion the )inal
#eli"ious #e$elation )#om Allah to man su'e#sedin" all '#e$ious belie) systems.
With the &om'letion o) the 0u#1an Muslims belie$e the need )o# #e$elation ended
and Allah1s messa"e to man ,as &on&luded.
=The "uidan&e he has sho,n unto mankind is &om'lete and )la,less and is
ensh#ined in the /oly 0u#1an....%e&ondly Aod has &om'leted /is #e$ealed "uidan&e
th#ou"h 6#o'het Muhammed ?'ea&e be u'on him@ and Islam is the &om'lete
#eli"ion )o# mankind. Aod has said that 1Today I ha$e 'e#)e&ted you# 7aith -
#eli"ion - )o# you and ha$e &om'leted my bounty u'on you1 and a tho#ou"h study
o) Islam as a ,ay o) li)e '#o$es the t#uth o) these 0u#ani& ,o#ds.=
1
8on&u##ently Muslims belie$e that the Aos'els and the To#ah a#e also #e$elations
to man )#om Allah but that these #e$elations ,e#e &o##u'ted &han"ed by .e,s
and 8h#istians ,ho t#ied to hide the o#i"inal and t#ue meanin"s o) those te:ts.
They belie$e that the Bible and To#ah &ontain Aod1s Wo#d but a#e tho#ou"hly
mi:ed ,ith the ,o#ds and thou"hts o) men and a#e thus &o##u'ted and su'e#seded
by the 0u#Fan.
-hat Does the Qur'an Say 'bout the 2ible3
/o,e$e# Islam has al,ays taken a some,hat double-minded 'osition on the Bible.
While tea&hin" that the Bible is )la,ed in&om'lete and unt#ust,o#thy Islam at
the same time tea&hes that the Bible is to be )ollo,ed by Muslims as a means o)
)indin" the t#uth. =And i) thou ?Muhammad@ a#t in doubt &on&e#nin" that ,hi&h We
#e$eal unto thee then (uestion those ,ho #ead the %&#i'tu#e ?that ,as@ be)o#e
thee. +e#ily the T#uth )#om thy Po#d hath &ome unto thee. %o be not thou o) the
,a$e#e#s.= ?6i&kthal t#anslation Surah 10N2B@ Thus ,e see su''osed di$ine
#e$elation )#om Allah di#e&tin" Mohammed and his )ollo,e#s to seek t#uth as a )inal
autho#ity )#om the Bible )#om .e,s and 8h#istians ,ho =#ead the %&#i'tu#e be)o#e
thee= as a means o) &lea#in" u' misunde#standin"s and doubts about (u#ani&
#e$elation. It is )#om this that the st#an"e 'a#ado: a#ises ,he#eby Muslims must
tea&h that the Bible is &o##u'ted by man yet at the same time a&&e't ,hat it
tea&hes ?mo#e o# less@ as bein" )#om Aod.
7u#the# a (uestion ,hi&h then a#ises is thisN I) Allah is di#e&tin" Mohammed ?and
the#e)o#e Muslims in "ene#al@ to seek "uidan&e )#om the Bible then did the ea#ly
Muslims really &onside# the Bible to be &o##u'ted in and o) itsel); As ,ill be seen
belo, the '#oo) te:ts )#om the 0u#1an that Muslims use to maintain the tea&hin"
o) bibli&al &o##u'tion a#e less de&isi$e on this 'oint than Muslims belie$e. 7u#the#
i) they ,ish to '#ess the issue then a '#oblem #emains )o# Muslims. When do they
su''ose the Bible to ha$e been &o##u'ted; Was it BE79!E Allah told Mohammed to
seek out "uidan&e )#om the bibli&al %&#i'tu#es th#ou"h 8h#istians and .e,s in
,hi&h &ase Allah told Mohammed to seek s'i#itual ,isdom )#om &o##u't sou#&es; 9#
,as it A7TE! Allah told Mohammed to seek Bibli&al "uidan&e )#om ea#lie# 'eo'les
o) the Book a )a&t that is #e)uted by the e$iden&e )#om bibli&al manus&#i'ts in
se$e#al lan"ua"es that a#e dated )#om both be)o#e and a)te# the #ise o) Islam that
sho, te:tual &ontinuity th#ou"hout this 'e#iod ?indi&atin" that the te:t ,as
)undamentally the same th#ou"hout@;
The &o##u'tion lies not ,ith the Bible but #athe# ,ith the 0u#1an - the &#eation o)
A#abs in need o) a #eli"ious te:t to substantiate thei# de$elo'in" monotheisti&
#eli"ion. Many sto#ied in the 0u#1an ,e#e di#e&tly ?thou"h im'e#)e&tly@ t#ans)e##ed
)#om the Bible &ontainin" sto#ies about 'e#sonalities )#om the Bible but o)ten the
sto#ies a#e in&o##e&t. The 0u#1an states that /aman ,as a se#$ant o) 6ha#aoh that
Moses ,as ado'ted by 6ha#aoh1s ,i)e #athe# than his dau"hte# that the "#eat
7lood o) Moah o&&u##ed du#in" the time o) Moses and that .ose'h ,as bou"ht as a
sla$e by an E"y'tian named A*i* ?instead o) 6oti'ha#@ to name a )e,. The
e$iden&e seems to 'oint to a #udimenta#y a&(uaintan&e ,ith the bibli&al %&#i'tu#es
du#in" the ea#ly yea#s o) the A#ab Em'i#e ,ith a &on&omitant misunde#standin" o)
mu&h o) ,hat they hea#d and sa, in them. The A#abs me#ely &obbled to"ethe#
thei# $a#ious im'#essions o) ,hat they had hea#d )#om $a#ious #eli"ious sou#&es
and made them a 'a#t o) the 0u#1an.
7u#the# it ou"ht to be noted that 'assa"es in the 0u#1an ,hi&h Muslims 'oint to as
='#oo)= o) the &o##u'tion o) ea#lie# te:ts do not ne&essa#ily tea&h the &o##u'tion o)
the te:ts themsel$es. T,o '#ima#y (u#ani& 'assa"es used by Muslims to &laim
Bibli&al &o##u'tion a#e theseN
=And the#e a#e amon" them illite#ates ,ho kno, not the Book but ?see the#ein
thei# o,n@ desi#es and they do nothin" but &on<e&tu#e. Then ,oe to those ,ho
,#ite the Book ,ith thei# o,n hands and then sayN =This is )#om Allah= to t#a))i&
,ith it )o# mise#able '#i&eO- Woe to them )o# ,hat thei# hands do ,#ite and )o#
the "ain they make the#eby.= ?Surah 2ND4-D2@
=8an ye ?9 ye men o) 7aith@ ente#tain the ho'e that they ,ill belie$e in you;-
%eein" that a 'a#ty o) them heard the Wo#d o) Allah and 'e#$e#ted it kno,in"ly
a)te# they unde#stood it.= ?Surah 2ND5@
Meithe# o) these 'assa"es indi&ate te:tual &o##u'tion. The )i#st 'assa"e #e)e#s to
illite#ates ?de)ined by the &onte:t as those i"no#ant o) the (u#ani& #e$elation
,hi&h e:'lains ho, an =illite#ate= &ould ,#ite a book@ ,ho a&t u'on thei# o,n
a&&o#d to create thei# o,n s&#i'tu#es and then t#y to 'ass them o)) as sa&#ed
,#itin"s. This does not #e)e# to the &o##u'tion o) the ,o#ds o) Aod but #athe# to
the '#odu&tion o) &om'etito#s to the ,o#ds o) Aod )alse tea&hin"s and ne, books.
The se&ond 'assa"e #e)e#s to 'eo'le ,ho hea#d '#ea&hin" and kno,in"ly
'e#$e#ted ,hat they had hea#d tea&hin" that it means somethin" else. As
6a##inde# has noted ea#ly Muslim &laims o) &o##u'tion ?tahrif@ "ene#ally #e)e# to
misinte#'#etin" s&#i'tu#e and 'assin" o)) somethin" ,hi&h is not s&#i'tu#e as i) it
,e#e so but say nothin" about the te:t o) the '#e$ious s&#i'tu#es bein" &o##u'ted
2
. /e )u#the# states in #e)e#en&e to Muslim &ommenta#y on the Bible
=Anothe# ,#ite# saysN 1In the -o#an tahrif means eithe# )alse inte#'#etation o) the
'assa"e bea#in" u'on Mohammed o# non-en)o#&ement o) the e:'li&it la,s o) the
6entateu&h. As )o# the te:t o) the Bible it had not been alte#ed....Mo #i$al te:t is
assumed.=
3
As ,e see t#aditional Muslim &laims about =&o##u'tion= in the Bible #e$ol$e a#ound
su""ested )alse inte#'#etations not a&tual alte#ation o) the te:t itsel). Mo#e ,ill
be said about this sub<e&t in 8ha'te# C ,ith 'a#ti&ula# #e"a#d to the issue o) the
&ha#"e made by Muslims that .e,s and 8h#istians G&on&ealedG '#o'heti&
#e)e#en&es to Mohammed a''ea#in" in thei# s&#i'tu#es.
/od's Eident 4reseration of the 2ible
While the )alsity o) Muslim &laims )o# the #e$elation o) the 0u#1an and its
subse(uent la&k o) &han"e ha$e been '#e$iously e:'osed the Muslim &ha#"es
&on&e#nin" the &o##u'tion o) the Bible ou"ht to be add#essed b#ie)ly. Islam has yet
to '#odu&e any te:tual e$iden&e to demonst#ate the &o##u'tion o) the Bibli&al
te:ts as a ,hole. 9)ten Muslims ,ill t#y to 'oint to di))e#en&es in #eadin"s
bet,een indiidual manuscripts and use this to su''o#t thei# asse#tion. /o,e$e#
the s&ien&e o) te:tual &#iti&ism as a''lied to the task o) systemati&ally e:aminin"
the manus&#i't e$iden&e '#o$ides 8h#istian s&hola#s ,ith the ability to distin"uish
bet,een t#ue and s'u#ious #eadin"s in indi$idual manus&#i'ts. The body o)
e$iden&e )#om A#eek manus&#i'ts the manus&#i'ts o) othe# an&ient $e#sions ?9ld
Patin %y#ia& 8o'ti& Patin +ul"ate et&.@ and the (uotations o) ea#ly 8h#istian
,#ite#s allo,s us to dete#mine the &ontent o) the o#i"inal auto"#a'hi& te:ts ,ith as
yet unassailed &e#tainty. It should be noted ?as sho,n ea#lie#@ that Islam &annot
t#uth)ully make the same &laim and in )a&t is unable lo"isti&ally to e$en make the
attem't be&ause o) the a#ti)i&ial standa#di*ation o) the A#abi& (u#ani& te:t by the
ea#ly &ali'hs and the subse(uent dest#u&tion o) nea#ly all &ont#a#y (u#ani&
manus&#i'tual e$iden&e. Thus the Muslim asse#tion #ests enti#ely on blind )aith in
,hat amounts to a t#adition handed do,n th#ou"h Islam )o# #ou"hly 1300 yea#s.
7a&ts sho, ho,e$e# that the te:ts used to '#odu&e the -in" .ames Bible in
En"lish and its analo"s in othe# lan"ua"es a#e the '#ese#$ed un&o##u'ted ,o#ds
o) Aod.
Pet us b#ie)ly t#a&e the histo#y o) the '#ese#$ation o) the %&#i'tu#es. Be"innin"
,ith the 9ld Testament ,e see that it ,as ,#itten o#i"inally in /eb#e, ?e:&e't
)o# &e#tain 'o#tions o) Daniel and E*#a ,hi&h ,e#e in A#amai&@. The#e)o#e ,e
must look at the histo#y o) the /eb#e, te:ts ,hen add#essin" any su""ested
&o##u'tion o) these 9ld Testament s&#i'tu#es. The %&#i'tu#es #eite#ate to us time
and time a"ain the '#omise that Aod has made &on&e#nin" the '#ese#$ation o) /is
Wo#ds. 7o# e:am'le
GThe ,o#ds o) the P9!D a#e 'u#e ,o#dsN as sil$e# t#ied in a )u#na&e o) ea#th
'u#i)ied se$en times. Thou shalt kee' them 9 P9!D thou shalt '#ese#$e them
)#om this "ene#ation )o# e$e#.H ?6salm 12NC-D@
B
And
GThe "#ass ,ithe#ed the )lo,e# )adethN but the ,o#d o) ou# Aod shall stand )o#
e$e#.H ?Isaiah B0N4@
It is 'e#)e&tly lo"i&al to su""est that Aod ,ho "a$e /is Wo#ds to man ,ould then
'#ese#$e those Wo#ds. Indeed ,hat lo"i&al 'u#'ose is the#e )o# the inspiration o)
%&#i'tu#e i) the#e is no subse(uent preservation; The Po#d .esus 8h#ist /imsel)
demonst#ated a &om'lete t#ust that the Wo#d o) Aod ,as a$ailable in /is day
e$en &entu#ies a)te# the o#i"inal auto"#a'hs had been 'enned and lost. Whethe#
/e ,as (uotin" s&#i'tu#e to #e)ute %atanIs tem'tations o# #eadin" )#om a s&#oll o)
Isaiah to announ&e the )i#st ad$ent o) /is messiani& minist#y .esus ne$e# indi&ated
any belie) that the &o'ies o) the Wo#d ,hi&h /e #ead o# #emembe#ed ,e#e
anythin" less than the Wo#ds o) Aod - not G#e&onst#u&tedH not 25T #e&o$e#ed but
the Wo#ds o) Aod '#ese#$ed in /is day. These Wo#ds ,e#e in the /eb#e, as ,ell
)o# /e used the /eb#e, Bible not the A#eek %e'tua"int t#anslation. In Puke 11N51
.esus s'eakin" o) the blood o) AodIs ma#ty#s shed th#ou"h the enti#e 9ld
Testament 'e#iod said this
G7#om the blood o) Abel unto the blood o) Ra&ha#ias ,hi&h 'e#ished bet,een the
alta# and the tem'leN $e#ily I say unto you It shall be #e(ui#ed o) this "ene#ation.H
What .esus did he#e ,as to en&a'sulate the enti#e histo#y o) the 'e#se&ution o)
those ,ho t#ust in the Po#d by those ,ho do not - be"innin" ,ith Abel in Aenesis
BN4 and endin" ,ith Re&ha#iah in II 8h#oni&les 2BN21. This is o) inte#est to ou#
'#esent dis&ussion be&ause this G)i#st and lastH #e)e# to 'assa"es in the )i#st and
last books o) the 9ld Testament - as they a''ea# in the t#aditional o#de#in" o) the
/eb#e, s&#i'tu#es amon" the .e,s an o#de# that di))e#s )#om the a##an"ement o)
the 9ld Testament books in the %e'tua"int. E$idently ,hen .esus thou"ht about
the 9ld Testament %&#i'tu#es /e had the /eb#e, not the A#eek %e'tua"int in
mind
5
. Aod '#omised to '#ese#$e /is Wo#ds )o# us and Aod in human )lesh "a$e
e$e#y indi&ation o) )ully t#ustin" in /is o,n '#omise. %o ho, does this a''ly to ou#
'#esent dis&ussion &on&e#nin" Bibli&al '#ese#$ation $e#sus &o##u'tion; What
e$iden&es and in ,hat ,ay do ,e see that the %&#i'tu#es ,e#e '#ese#$ed &ont#a
the Muslim alle"ations;
!omans 3N1-2 tells us =What ad$anta"e then hath the .e,; o# ,hat '#o)it is the#e
o) &i#&um&ision; Mu&h e$e#y ,ayN &hie)ly be&ause that unto them ,e#e &ommitted
the o#a&les o) Aod.= This 'assa"e &lea#ly illust#ates to us that it ,as the .e,s ,ho
had been "i$en the #es'onsibility and '#i$ile"e o) 'assin" on and '#ote&tin" Aod1s
Wo#d. This they did too th#ou"h thei# Maso#eti& s&hool. 7#om 500-1500 AD the#e
e:isted th#ou"hout the .e,ish Dias'o#a a s&hool o) dedi&ated &o'yists kno,n as
the Maso#etes. The /eb#e, Maso#etes )ollo,ed tho#ou"hly '#es&#ibed and $e#y
#i"o#ous methods )o# t#ans&#ibin" &o'ies o) the /eb#e, s&#i'tu#es
C
. Amon" othe#
thin"s they had to ha$e an authenti& &o'y o) the te:ts be)o#e them ,hen &o'yin".
They &ould not &o'y anythin" )#om memo#y but had to ha$e a (ona fide &o'y in
)#ont o) them soundin" out ea&h ,o#d be)o#e &o'yin" it. The &o'yist had to ha$e
the ,o#d on his li's not <ust in his mind. !ules "o$e#ned e$e#ythin" in$ol$ed ,ith
the &o'yin" e$en the &olo# o) the ink used the numbe# o) lines 'e# &olumn o)
te:t the '#e'a#ation o) the 'a#&hment skins used et&. %t#i&t standa#ds ,e#e
)ollo,ed that "o$e#ned the style o) lette# )o#mation s'a&e bet,een lette#s the
handlin" o) the 'en used to &o'y. 8a#e ,as taken not <ust to t#ans)e# ,o#ds but to
standa#di*e them so #i"o#ously that the &o'y ,as as nea#ly a 'e#)e&t #e'li&a o) the
o#i"inal as ,as humanly 'ossible. The (uality o) &o'yin" )#om this method ,ould
a''#oa&h that obtained ,ith a mode#n &o'yin" ma&hine. 7u#the# i) one mistake
,as )ound on a sheet o) 'a#&hment the sheet ,as laid to #est and the ,o#k
sta#ted o$e#. I) th#ee mistakes ,e#e )ound on any one 'a"e the entire manuscript
,as th#o,n out and &o'yin" ane,. Thus i) a Maso#ete ,ho ,as &o'yin" the enti#e
te:t o) the /eb#e, Bible sta#ted in Aenesis and "ot all the ,ay to the end o) II
8h#oni&les and made th#ee mistakes on a 'a"e the entire do&ument ,as th#o,n
out alon" ,ith ,eeks o) ,o#k and sta#ted o$e#.
This is ,ell and "ood )o# sho,in" that the /eb#e, s&#i'tu#es ,e#e '#ese#$ed as
they ,e#e t#ans&#ibed )#om a)te# 500 AD. But ,hat about be)o#e this time; As ,as
alluded ea#lie# the e$iden&e )#om .esusI use o) the %&#i'tu#es seems to sho, that
/e ,as usin" /eb#e, te:ts that ,e#e Maso#eti& in ty'e at least )o# the 'o#tions o)
%&#i'tu#e ,hi&h /e ,as &itin" o# #eadin". This &ontention is ,ell su''o#ted by
e$iden&es that "o ba&k to and indeed '#edate the Po#dIs ea#thly minist#y. 7o#
many de&ades bibli&al s&hola#s &alled into (uestion the anti(uity and authenti&ity
o) the Maso#eti& /eb#e, Bible. As noted abo$e the Maso#eti& s&hools only be"an
to o'e#ate in the Cth &entu#y AD. But it ,as said the#e is no e$iden&e )o# the
Maso#eti& /eb#e, )#om be)o#e this time and be&ause the %e'tua"int - a A#eek
t#anslation o) the /eb#e, %&#i'tu#es usually &onside#ed to date )#om a#ound 250
B8 - ,as olde# this te:t-ty'e ,as &onside#ed to be mo#e Gauthenti&H o# G&lose# to
the o#i"inalH. This all &han"ed be"innin" in 12BD ,ith the dis&o$e#y o) the Dead
%ea %&#olls in a se#ies o) &a$es nea# 0um#an nea# the Dead %ea in Is#ael.
The Dead %ea %&#olls '#o)oundly &han"ed the ,ay s&hola#s looked at the te:tual
issue. This is be&ause the la#"e ma<o#ity o) the hund#eds o) /eb#e, manus&#i'ts
)ound at 0um#an a#e Maso#eti&-style te:ts. Amon" the bibli&al manus&#i'ts )#om
0um#an C0T a#e 6#oto-Maso#eti& te:ts 20T 0um#an style manus&#i'ts 10T
nonali"ned te:ts 5T 6#oto-%ama#itan te:ts and 5T %e'tua"intal-ty'e te:ts.
7u#the#mo#e the 0um#an-style manus&#i'ts ha$e thei# basis in the '#oto-Maso#eti&
te:ts as do the '#oto-%ama#itan te:ts. The Maso#eti&-ty'e te:ts ,e#e dominant in
the time o) the /asmonean 'e#iod ?about 1C0 B8@
D
. /en&e a#ound 45T o) the
bibli&al te:ts in /eb#e, that ,e#e )ound at 0um#an a#e Maso#eti& in ty'e ?the
te#m G'#oto-Maso#eti&H is used by many s&hola#s to denote the )a&t that these a#e
Maso#eti& te:ts that e:isted lon" be)o#e the Maso#eti& ,as Gsu''osedH to ha$e
e:isted@. This 'ushed ba&k the e$iden&e )o# the Maso#eti& te:t to a &ou'le o)
&entu#ies be)o#e .esus. The#e ,as e$en )ound at 0um#an an e:em'la#y Isaiah s&#oll
o) the Maso#eti& ty'e datin" to 150-100 B8 ,hi&h &om'a#ed (uite &losely to the
Maso#eti& Isaiah unde#lyin" that book in ou# En"lish Bible today. This manus&#i't
'#o$ed to be '#a&ti&ally identi&al ,ith the late# Maso#eti& te:t in mo#e than 25T o)
its te:t. The #emainin" 5T the $a#iant #eadin"s ,as made u' o) ob$ious s&#ibal
sli's o) the 'en and s'ellin" di))e#en&es that do not a))e&t the tea&hin" &ontained
the#ein
4
. Aeisle# and Mi: obse#$e that o) the 1CC ,o#ds in the /eb#e, o) Isaiah 53
only 1D letters in the Dead %ea %&#oll Isaiah e:em'la# 10Is
b
di))e# )#om the
Maso#eti& te:t o) today - 10 lette#s &onstitute s'ellin" $a#iations B lette#s
demonst#ated stylisti& &han"es and 3 lette#s #e'#esented the addition o) the ,o#d
)o# Gli"htH in $e#se 11
2
. Amon" these sli"ht $a#ian&es the#e is no e))e&t on the
do&t#ines &ontained the#ein.
%till as seen abo$e the#e ,e#e othe# ty'es o) te:ts as ,ell - a small numbe# o)
/eb#e, te:ts that a"#ee ,ith the %e'tua"int and then a some,hat la#"e# "#ab-ba"
o) e&le&ti& te:ts that do not lend themsel$es to &ate"o#i*ation. 8#oss hy'othesi*ed
that the#e ,e#e th#ee G)amiliesH o) te:ts at 0um#an. /e su""ests a Maso#eti&
)amily a G6alestinianH )amily ?,hi&h de$elo'ed into the %ama#itan $e#sion o) the
/eb#e, s&#i'tu#es that ,e sa, abo$e had its basis in the '#oto-Maso#eti& te:t-
ty'e@ and an GE"y'tianH )amily ,hi&h be&ame the basis )o# the %e'tua"intal ty'e
o) /eb#e, te:ts and ,hi&h ,as used by the .e,s in Ale:and#ia
10
. The e:isten&e o)
these othe# te:t-ty'es has led s&hola#s to belie$e that the Maso#eti& ,as only one
ty'e amon" many o) the /eb#e, Bible and that the te:t o) the Bible ,as ha#dly
settled du#in" the time in ,hi&h the Dead %ea %&#olls ,e#e bein" &om'iled and
sto#ed a,ay in the &a$es at 0um#an. By notin" that the '#obable o#i"in o) the
'#oto-%ama#itan and 0um#an-style te:ts ,as in the '#oto-Maso#eti& )amily
%&hi))man la#"ely dis'ensed ,ith the =th#ee )amilies= theo#y thou"h the '#esen&e
o) the othe# mino#ity te:t-ty'es has ke't ali$e the basi& thesis o) an unsettled
te:t.
The#e is absolutely no #eason to belie$e this unde#standin" o) the e$iden&es
ho,e$e#. The#e is no need to belie$e that the Maso#eti& ,as <ust Gone amon"
manyH until it ,as standa#di*ed ?and '#esumably Ga&&#editedH@ by Maso#etes
sta#tin" a#ound 500 AD. The &i#&umstan&es su##oundin" the e$iden&es obtained
)#om 0um#an need not be inte#'#eted so as to a##i$e at the 'a#ti&ula# &on&lusions
that many te:tual s&hola#s ha$e. 9ne unde#standin" o) the Dead %ea %&#olls that is
)indin" in&#easin" &u##en&y in #e&ent yea#s is the $ie, that at least some o) the
&a$es at 0um#an ,e#e not used to sto#e $aluable and t#easu#ed te:ts but instead
,e#e used as a ty'e o) geni.ah. A geni.ah is a .e,ish #e'osito#y )o# manus&#i'ts
that &an no lon"e# be used o# ne$e# ,e#e used be&ause they a#e passul - un)it )o#
#itual use in the syna"o"ue. These ty'es o) te:ts ,ould be set aside as shemos
sto#ed a,ay in some 'la&e ,he#e they ,ould not be used but yet ,ould not be
dest#oyed be&ause they &ontained the name o) the Po#d on them. With #e"a#ds to
the %e'tua"intal ty'e manus&#i'ts in 'a#ti&ula# ,e see that the la#"e ma<o#ity o)
te:ts bea#in" %e'tua"intal-ty'e #eadin"s ,e#e sto#ed in one 'a#ti&ula# &a$e - 8a$e
B. >sin" data )#om !. A#ant .ones
11
a &om'ilation o) the dis&o$e#y lo&ations o)
manus&#i'ts )#om the Dead %ea %&#olls &ontainin" te:tual $a#ian&es bet,een the
Maso#eti& and the %e'tua"intal #eadin"s in the 6entateu&h sho,s that 3B out o) B5
manus&#i'ts ,ith 12C out o) 221 total $a#iant #eadin"s ,e#e )ound in 8a$e B -
a&&ountin" )o# D5.CT o) the te:ts and 44.DT o) the $a#ian&es. The #emainin" te:ts
,e#e s&atte#ed bet,een C othe# &a$es at the 0um#an &om'le:. .onesI sele&tion o)
$a#iant #eadin"s in the #est o) the /eb#e, Bible sho,s that )#om the sele&ted
te:ts 33 out o) B2 %e'tua"intal #eadin"s o# D4.CT ,e#e )#om manus&#i'ts )ound
in 8a$e B. Be&ause o) the o$e#,helmin" sele&tion o) 8a$e B )o# this 'a#ti&ula# te:t
ty'e as ,ell as the )a&t that the manus&#i'ts in 8a$e B ,e#e not sto#ed in <a#s as
,e#e the manus&#i'ts in the othe# &a$es 8a$e B has a de)inite a''ea#an&e o)
bein" a geni.ah a 'la&e ,he#e old dama"ed o# te:tually &o##u't manus&#i'ts
,e#e laid to #est a)te# bein" #emo$ed )#om &i#&ulation.
Indeed the enti#ety o) the 0um#an &a$e &om'le: mi"ht be a geni.ah as ,as
o#i"inally 'ostulated by the late E.P. %ukenik. !e&ent s&hola#shi' su##oundin" the
study o) the %&#olls has mo$ed in&#easin"ly to,a#ds the $ie, that the 0um#an
&ommunity ,as not ne&essa#y made u' o) Essenes and that the #e'osito#y o)
manus&#i'ts may not e$en be asso&iated di#e&tly ,ith the &ommunity at 0um#an
,hoe$e# they ,e#e. Aolb has theo#i*ed that the 0um#an &a$es &om'le: ,as
instead a de'osito#y o) te:ts se#$in" as a so#t o) Gsa)e houseH )o# the 'e#sonal
lib#a#ies o) .e,s ,ho es&a'ed )#om .e#usalem be)o#e the !oman dest#u&tion o)
that &ity in D0 AD. /e 'oints to the )a&t that the manus&#i'ts &ontained at 0um#an
,e#e &o'ied by ,ell o$e# 500 di))e#ent hands
12
)a# mo#e &o'yists than ,ould ha$e
been needed o# used in a small &ommunity su&h as the Essene &om'le: e$en o$e#
the &ou#se o) a )e, &entu#ies
13
. This multitude o) &o'yists su""ests that the
manus&#i'ts ,e#e sim'ly '#odu&ed inde'endently o) ea&h othe# by s&#ibes all o$e#
Is#ael #athe# than by those o) one &losed &ommunity. This theo#y has e$iden&e to
&ommend it but it seems unne&essa#y to theo#i*e that these s&#i'ts ,e#e sto#ed
by .e,s es&a'in" the !omans sin&e i) one is )leein" )o# oneIs li)e ,hy take the
time to t#a$el to a #emote lo&ation in the dese#t to sto#e a,ay 'o#table s&#olls
,hen you &ould sim'ly take them ,ith you ,hile "ettin" out o) the &ount#y;
!athe# I su""est that the e$iden&es o) the 'letho#a o) s&#ibes as ,ell as the
'e&ulia#ity o) sto#in" these s&#olls a,ay in #emote &a$es su""ests that the
&om'le: ,as a geni.ah. APP the s&#olls the#e ,e#e essentially Gth#o,a,aysH e$en
su&h nearly 'e#)e&t s'e&imens as the Isaiah e:em'la# and ,e#e laid to #est
#es'e&t)ully o$e# the de&ades and &entu#ies. This su""ests then that )a# )#om
bein" a $aluable #e'osito#y o) kno,led"e about the Gde$elo'ment o) the /eb#e,
BibleH the Dead %ea %&#olls sho, ,hat ,as M9T used. The '#e'onde#an&e o)
Maso#eti& manus&#i'ts demonst#ates that the Maso#eti& ,as the /eb#e, Bible in
use du#in" this time 'e#iod but the )a&t that the Maso#eti& te:ts in the Dead %ea
%&#olls ha$e e$en mino# te:tual $a#ian&es ,ith the GestablishedH Maso#eti& te:ts
&ould indi&ate that e$en at this ea#ly date the#e ,as a 'u#'ose)ul sele&tion
a"ainst these &o##u'ted manus&#i'ts. 6e#ha's the#e ,e#e G'#oto-Maso#etesH ,ho
,e#e &o'yin" the /eb#e, s&#i'tu#es and ,hose &o'yist e##o#s ,ould be t#eated
mu&h the same ,ay as those o) the late# Maso#etes ,e#e - by t#ashin" the
manus&#i't and sta#tin" o$e#. In the $e#y least ,e see that the#e is the de)inite
'ossibility that non-Maso#eti& and Maso#eti& te:ts ,ith &o'yist e##o#s ,e#e Glaid to
#estH in the 0um#an &a$es e$en i) a s'e&i)i&ally Maso#eti& '#o&ess o) &o'yin" ,as
not in o'e#ation. This then ,ould su""est that the Maso#eti& te:t same as todayIs
,as the G"old standa#dH e$en ba&k in that day the #ule by ,hi&h all manus&#i'ts
,e#e <ud"ed.
E))o#ts at a&&u#ate and #eliable t#ansmission 'e#'etuated by the Maso#etes and
likely o#i"inatin" lon" be)o#e 500 AD '#ote&ted Aod1s Wo#d in /eb#e, )#om any
so#t o) &o##u'tion. Islam &annot e$en be"in to make the same so#t o) &laim )o# the
A#abi& te:ts o) the 0u#1an ,hi&h the e$iden&es sho, had al#eady been &o##u'ted
alte#ed and then a#ti)i&ially standa#di*ed by the ea#ly &ali'hs. The #esult o) the
Maso#etes1 ,o#k ,as ,hat ,as used to t#anslate the 9ld Testament in the -in"
.ames. The -in" .ames t#anslato#s used the 5en +hayyim Maso#eti& te:t '#odu&ed
by !abbi Ab#aham ben 8hayyim iben Adoni<ah and 'ublished by Daniel Bombe#" in
152B
1B
. Thus the -in" .ames 9ld Testament &omes )#om a te:t that &an be
&onside#ed &om'letely t#ust,o#thy and a '#ese#$ed #e'li&a o) the o#i"inals.
Pike,ise the A#eek Me, Testament unde#lyin" the -in" .ames #emained
un&o##u'ted. The#e a#e &u##ently in the 'ossession o) s&hola#s o$e# 5300 &o'ies
eithe# 'a#tial o# )ull o) the A#eek Me, Testament in $a#ious )o#ms su&h as
un&ials le&tiona#ies 'a'y#us )#a"ments and &u#si$e te:ts. 9) these more than
5677 most "ene#ally a"#ee ,ith the T#aditional Te:t ?also &alled the G%y#ianH o#
GBy*antineH@ the te:t ty'e unde#lyin" the A#eek te:t )#om ,hi&h the -in" .ames
Me, Testament ,as t#anslated
15
. /en&e mo#e than 24T o) all e:istin" A#eek Me,
Testament te:ts a#e in "ene#al a"#eement ,ith one anothe# and ,ith the Te:tus
!e&e'tus ,hi&h Be*a edited in 1524. What this means is that the ast bul+ o)
A#eek manus&#i'ts )o# the Me, Testament ,e#e t#ansmitted a&&u#ately do,n
th#ou"hout the enti#e 8hu#&h A"e #i"ht u' to the time ,hen Be*a &ollated his
&om'lete A#eek te:t. 7u#the# e$iden&e )o# the a&&u#a&y o) thei# t#ansmission is the
)a&t that a#ound 2C30 out o) B343 ?C0T@ o) the Me, Testament (uotations )#om
ea#ly &hu#&h )athe#s ,ho died be)o#e B00 AD ,e#e in the )o#m o) distin&ti$e
By*antine #eadin"s ?i.e. the ,#ite# &hose the By*antine #eadin" ,hen the
By*antine and Ale:and#ian te:ts di))e#ed on a $e#se@
1C
. As -enyon 'ointed out in
his su#$ey o) Mille# and Bu#"onFs analysis this '#e)e#en&e )o# the T#aditional Te:t
in&#eases to a#ound CBT ?151 o) 235@ i) the ,#ite#s )#om the )i#st th#ee &entu#ies
a#e &onside#ed and this )u#the# #ises to DCT ?530 o) D00@ ,hen a list o) thi#ty
hi"hly im'o#tant 'assa"es a#e &onside#ed )#om this "#ou' o) 'at#isti&s &hosen )o#
thei# )#e(uen&y o) (uotation and theolo"i&al im'o#tan&e
1D
.
The tiny #emainin" numbe# o) A#eek te:ts ?less than 2T o# bet,een 50-100
manus&#i'ts de'endin" on ho, one &lassi)ies indi$idual manus&#i'ts@ all bea#
e$iden&e o) ha$in" been little used by the &hu#&hes o) Aod. The t,o '#ima#y
manus&#i'ts o) this &lass 8ode: Ale'h ?aka G%inaiti&usH@ and 8ode: B ?aka
G+ati&anusG@ both ha$e ea#ma#ks o) Anosti& &o##u'tion
14
. 7u#the# not only do
they di))e# )#om the $ast body o) manus&#i't and 'at#isti& e$iden&e a"ainst them
they also a#e so e&le&ti& that they &ont#adi&t ea&h othe# in #eadin" nea#ly as mu&h
as they a"#ee. 6i&ke#in" notes
=The $a#iation bet,een t,o 1By*antine1 M%% ,ill be )ound to di))e# both in numbe#
and se$e#ity )#om that bet,een t,o 1Weste#n1 M%% o# t,o 1Ale:and#ian1 M%% -- the
numbe# and natu#e o) the disa"#eements bet,een t,o 1By*antine1 M%% th#ou"hout
the Aos'els ,ill seem t#i$ial &om'a#ed to the numbe# ?o$e# 3000@ and natu#e
?many se#ious@ o) the disa"#eements bet,een Ale'h and B the &hie) 1Ale:and#ian1
M%% in the same s'a&e.=
12
Me$e#theless they a#e touted by most te:tual &#iti&s as bein" the most t#ust,o#thy
manus&#i'ts. This is be&ause o) thei# "#eate# a"e. Both date )#om the middle to
latte# 'a#t o) the Bth &entu#y e:&eedin" the a"e o) the oldest e:tant T#aditional
manus&#i't by at least th#ee &entu#ies. /o,e$e# one )a&t that needs to ke't in
mind is thisN When a te:t ,#itten on $ellum is used &onstantly it ,ea#s out and
needs to be #e&o'ied. 8on$e#sely ,hen a te:t is ne$e# used it #emains in a mu&h
bette# &ondition. 7u#the# the#e is mu&h e$iden&e to su""est that ,hen the ,o#n
out $ellum manus&#i'ts #ea&hed the 'oint ,he#e they &ould not be used they ,e#e
G'ut to #estH th#ou"h hono#able dest#u&tion. This "ene#al 'oint ,as )i#st su""ested
o$e# a &entu#y a"o by Bu#"on but ,as inde'endently a#ti&ulated by Pake et al.
nea#ly 50 yea#s late#
20
. These t,o 'oints &ombined ,ould e:'lain the la&k o) $e#y
an&ient By*antine manus&#i'ts and &on&u##ently '#o$ide a #easonable e:'lanation
)o# the &ontinued e:isten&e o) %inaiti&us and +ati&anus. Ai$en that the %inaiti&us
and +ati&anus te:ts a#e the oldest the ob$ious 'oint is then that they ,e#e ne$e#
used and thus ne$e# had to be #e&o'ied. This doubly su''o#ts the notion that the
T#aditional te:ts ha$e been '#ese#$ed un&o##u'ted in that it tells us the ea#ly
&hu#&hes and men o) Aod th#ou"h the a"es #e&o"ni*ed them and not the small
mino#ity o) &o##u'ted te:ts as bein" the authenti& #eadin"s ?in othe# ,o#ds an
in&i'ient )o#m o) te:tual &#iti&ism a''ea#s to ha$e been at ,o#k@. It also tells us
that )e, si"ni)i&ant mistakes ,e#e made th#ou"hout the &ou#se o) t#ans&#ibin" and
#e-t#ans&#ibin" the T#aditional te:ts o$e# the &entu#ies )o# them to all a"#ee as
substantially ,ith ea&h othe# as they do a&#oss the thousands o) manus&#i'ts
s'#ead a&#oss the old !oman ,o#ld and Medie$al Eu#o'e. E$en =inde)ensible=
#eadin"s in the T#aditional te:t-based $e0tus 8eceptus need not be &onside#ed
=inauthenti&= su&h as the .ohannine 8omma in I .ohn 5ND-4 ,hi&h su#$i$ed the
attem't by an&ient A#ian he#eti&s to 'u#"e it )#om the %&#i'tu#es
21
. A 'oint that
must be made is that the small numbe# o) &o##u'ted te:ts a#e those )#om ,hi&h
the 1mode#n1 $e#sions o) the Bible like the MI+ MA%B !+ Be#keley E%+ et&. a#e
t#anslated. The te:tual su''o#t )o# these mode#n $e#sions is $e#y small and
&e#tainly does not out,ei"h the $ast te:tual su''o#t ,hi&h the -in" .ames en<oys.
These mode#n $e#sions &a##y th#ou"h many o) the Gtheolo"i&al di))i&ultiesH that
thei# 'a#ent manus&#i'ts &ontained su&h as #emo$in" o# do,n'layin" im'o#tant
do&t#ines like the e))i&a&y o) 8h#ist1s blood /is $i#"in bi#th /is #esu##e&tion et&.
8h#istians inte#ested in ha$in" and studyin" the t#ue Wo#d o) Aod ,ould do ,ell
stay a,ay )#om the Gmode#nH $e#sions and sti&k ,ith the -in" .ames +e#sion.
Aod has a"ain '#ese#$ed /is Wo#d by #etainin" )o# us a te:t in A#eek the
T#aditional te:t ,hi&h e$entually &ulminated in the &ollation o) the Te:tus
!e&e'tus ,hi&h has been &o'ied and &a##ied th#ou"h )o# &entu#ies ,ithout e##o#.
8ombined ,ith the '#ote&tion /e a))o#ded to the /eb#e, Maso#eti& te:ts ,e see
that Aod has '#ese#$ed and '#ote&ted /is Wo#d th#ou"h the a"es. This is not
su#'#isin" thou"h as Aod has '#omised to us to '#ese#$e /is Wo#d. =The "#ass
,ithe#eth the )lo,e# )adethN but the !ord of our /od shall stand foreer.=
?Isaiah B0N4@. T#uly /e has done this ,ith /is Wo#d the Bible and t#uly the same
&annot be said )o# the 0u#1anO
Various Types of 4re#Islamic Source Materials 8sed in the Qur'an
Mo, let us tu#n to an e:amination o) the ='e#)e&t and hea$enly= 0u#1an. Islam1s
&laim that the #e$elation o) the 0u#1an ,as handed do,n )#om Allah to Mohammed
in &om'lete and )inal )o#m does not seem to be 'ossible "i$en the la#"e amount o)
=bo##o,in"= ,hi&h is e$ident in the 0u#1an. Many o) the sto#ies and tea&hin"s o) the
0u#1an o#i"inally ,e#e tau"ht in a $a#iety o) '#e-Islami& ,#itin"s and amon" $a#ious
'#e-Islami& "#ou's. To be"in the#e seems to ha$e been a la#"e amount o) '#e-
Islami& A#abian mytholo"y and le"end that )ound its ,ay into the 0u#1an. This is
not su#'#isin" as the 0u#1an ,as o) &ou#se de$elo'ed by A#abs ,ho li$ed in an
e$ol$in" '#e-Islami& A#abian so&iety. This unde#standin" has been sustained by
many s&hola#s ,ho ha$e studied Islam and mu&h o) ,hat ,as in&luded in the
0u#1an &ame )#om a'o&#y'hal o#Qand )an&i)ul sou#&esN
- The sto#y o) the she-&amel ,hi&h lea't out o) a #o&k and be&ame a '#o'het ,as
kno,n in A#abia lon" be)o#e Muhammad ?Suwar DND3-DDJ 5BN2D-22J 21N13-1B@.
- The sto#y o) an enti#e $illa"e o) 'eo'le ,ho ,e#e tu#ned into a'es be&ause they
b#oke the sabbath by )ishin" ,as a 'o'ula# le"end in Muhammad1s day ?Suwar 2NC5J
DN1C3-1CC@.
- The sto#y o) Moses and the "ushin" t,el$e s'#in"s is )ound in Surah 2NC0)) and
&omes )#om '#e-Islami& A#abian le"ends.
- In ,hat is &alled the =!i' +an Winkle= sto#y se$en men and thei# animals sle't in
a &a$e )o# 302 yea#s and then ,oke u' 'e#)e&tly )ine ?Surah 14N2-2C@O This ,as also
a 'o'ula# sto#y in A#abia at and be)o#e Mohammed1s time. This le"end ,as also
)ound in A#eek and 8h#istian )olks )ables )#om that time and be)o#e.
- The )able o) the 'ie&es o) )ou# dead &ut-u' bi#ds "ettin" u' and )lyin" ,as ,ell
kno,n in Muhammad1s time ?Surah 2N2C0@.
- The sto#y about the bi#th o) Ma#y in Surah 3N35-3D a''ea#s to be loosely based o))
o) an a'o&#y'hal 2nd &entu#y ,o#k $he 6rotevangelion of 2ames the 9esser.
Additionally the#e a''ea# to be se$e#al .e,ish sou#&es that ,e#e used ,hen
de$elo'in" the (u#ani& #e$elation
22
N
- The Second $argum of the 5oo' of Esther su''lied the non-bibli&al details o) the
0ueen o) %heba1s $isit to -in" %olomon ?Surah 2DN1D-BB@.
- The $estament of %(raham '#o$ided the tea&hin"s o) the 0u#1an )ound in Surah
B2N1D and Surah 101NC-2 ,hi&h #elate that on the <ud"ment day a s&ale o)
balan&e ,ill be used to ,ei"h "ood and bad deeds and to make the dete#mination
o) ,hethe# 'eo'le ,ill be sent to hea$en o# hell. This .e,ish ,o#k is also
a''a#ently (uoted in Surah 4DN12.
- The sto#y o) mu#de#ous 8ain and the #a$en ?Surah 5N30-31@ is )ound in se$e#al
.e,ish ,#itin"s su&h as the 6irqe of 8a((i Elea.er and the $argum of 2erusalem
both o) ,hi&h '#e-date the 0u#1an.
- The tale o) Ab#aham bein" deli$e#ed )#om Mim#od1s )i#e ?Suwar 21N51-D1J 3DN2D-
24@ o#i"inated in the "idrash 8a((ah on 7enesis.
- The Talmud '#o$ided the 0u#1an ,ith the sto#y o) Moses1 #esu##e&tion ?Surah 2N55-
5D@
- The sto#y o) the "olden &al) ,hi&h ,as made by Is#ael in the ,ilde#ness in ,hi&h
the ima"e a&tually lea's out o) the )i#e and moos ?Surah 20N40-24@ &omes )#om
the 6irqe of 8a((i Elea.er.
- Pastly the se$en hea$ens and hells des&#ibed at $a#ious 'oints in the 0u#1an &an
also be )ound in the :ohar and the *agigah and the hells a#e )u#the# des&#ibed in
the "idrash on the 6salms.
/e#eti&al 8h#istian sou#&es also '#o$ided a sou#&e o) ins'i#ation to Mohammed. The
)in"e#'#ints o) Anosti& and he#eti&al se&ts &an be seen at se$e#al 'oints in the
tea&hin"s o) Mohammed. 7o# e:am'le the (u#ani& de)inition o) the T#inity
&onsistin" o) Aod .esus and Ma#y ?Surah 5N11C@ ,as a do&t#ine held by a small
A#abian 'seudo-8h#istian "#ou' kno,n as the 8olly#idians ,ith ,hom the ea#ly
Muslims a''a#ently had some &onta&t. That he#eti&al 8h#istian "#ou's e:e#ted a
st#on" in)luen&e on the de$elo'in" A#ab theolo"y and belie)s has been
demonst#ated #e'eatedly by s&hola#s o) Islam
23
. T,o e:am'les o) )an&i)ul sto#ies
that ,e#e tau"ht by he#eti&al "#ou's and that )ound thei# ,ay into the 0u#1an a#e
the sto#y o) .esus1 s'eakin" )#om the &#adle as an in)ant ?Surah 12N22-30@ and the
sto#y o) .esus moldin" a bi#d )#om &lay and then b#eathin" li)e into it ?Suwar 3NB2
5N110@. These ,e#e sto#ies 'assed do,n )#om $a#ious Anosti& sou#&es.
!elated to ,hat ,as said abo$e ,e must also note that many 'a"an #ituals and
a&ti$ities ,e#e int#odu&ed into the de$elo'in" A#ab #eli"ion the la#"e sha#e o)
these ha$in" thei# #oots in the 'a"an '#e-Islami& days o) an&ient A#abia. This
in&luded su&h ,ell-kno,n Muslim ,o#shi' a&ti$ities as ,o#shi''in" at sa&#ed stones
?the Ka(ah )o# Islam@ '#ayin" )i$e times a day to,a#ds a sa&#ed "eo"#a'hi&al
lo&ation ?Me&&a )o# Islam@ and )astin" )o# 'a#t o) a day )o# an enti#e month
?!amadan )o# Islam@. As an e:am'le o) this Wensi&k obse#$es that the Ka(ah is
not uni(ue to Me&&a but instead the#e is e$iden&e )o# $a#ious holy '#e&in&ts -
-a1bahs - some o) ,hi&h housed sa&#ed stones '#io# to the #ise o) Islam
2B
<ust as
the Ka(ah in Me&&a houses the sa&#ed meteo#ite $ene#ated by Muslims.
Pess &e#tain but also sus'e&ted is that the Muslim &ult '#a&ti&e o) th#o,in"
stones at %atan )inds its o#i"ins in a '#e-Islami& 'a"an #itual in ,hi&h stones ,e#e
th#o,n to symboli&ally d#i$e a,ay <inn and othe# e$il s'i#its. Muslim t#adition itsel)
indi&ates to us that Mohammed &ould &ommuni&ate ,ith s'i#its and <inn on one
o&&asion it is #e&o#ded that a t#ee s'oke to Mohammed and in)o#med him about
the a&ti$ities o) a "#ou' o) <inn su""estin" a shamanisti& ability to &ommuni&ate
,ith the s'i#its that a#e o)ten belie$ed by '#imiti$e 'eo'les to #eside in t#ees
#i$e#s and othe# natu#al )eatu#es
25
. Mohammed himsel) ,as e$en said to ha$e
been at $a#ious times be,it&hed by ma"i& s'ells
2C
. E$en the t#aditional a&&ount o)
the be"innin" o) Mohammed1s #e&e'tion o) the (u#ani& #e$elations seems to bet#ay
a demoni& o#i"in as he is said to ha$e been ='#essed= by the an"el that &ame to
him to the 'oint ,he#e he &ould ba#ely stand it
2D
. This des&#i'tion is $e#y simila# to
that #e'o#ted by many 'eo'le ,ho &laim to be the ta#"ets o) 'a#ano#mal a&ti$ity
o# alien abdu&tions and ,ho ,ill o)ten say that they ,e#e 'hysi&ally ='#essed=
,hile lyin" in bed o# othe#,ise #ende#ed unable to mo$e
24
. These e$iden&es
'#o$ide additional su''o#t to the &ontention that mu&h o) Islam is #e'a&ka"ed '#e-
Islami& A#abian 'a"anism.
The Qur'an is in 4ure 'rabic3
Any book makin" the &laim to be Aod1s Wo#d ou"ht the#e)o#e to be )#ee )#om
demonst#able e##o#. The Bible has ,ithstood e$e#y test o) lite#a#y lo"i&al
histo#i&al a#&haeolo"i&al and s&ienti)i& t#uth and a&&u#a&y b#ou"ht a"ainst it by
ske'ti&s and unbelie$e#s. 8an the same be said )o# the 0u#1an;
The ans,e# as &an be sho,n is no. Muslims &laim that the 0u#1an is '#ese#$ed and
ins'i#ed and 'oint to Surah 45N21-22 as '#oo) =May this is a Alo#ious 0u#Un
?Ins&#ibed@ in a Tablet 6#ese#$edO= It is &laimed )o# the 0u#1an as an im'#e"nable
do"ma that it is ,#itten in 'e#)e&t A#abi& said to be =Allah1s lan"ua"e= '#o$idin" a
basis )o# its absen&e o) e##o#. This &laim is made in Surah 13N3D
=Thus ha$e We #e$ealed it to be a <ud"ment o) autho#ity in A#abi&. We#t thou to
)ollo, thei# ?$ain@ desi#es a)te# the kno,led"e ,hi&h hath #ea&hed thee then
,ouldst thou )ind neithe# '#ote&to# no# de)ende# a"ainst Allah.=
This &laim is )u#the# #e)ined
=We kno, indeed that they say =It is a man that tea&hes him.= The ton"ue o) him
they ,i&kedly 'oint to is notably )o#ei"n ,hile this is A#abi& 'u#e and &lea#.=
?Surah 1CN103@
Surah 12N2 and Surah B1NB1BB a#e also o)ten used to su''o#t this do"ma ,ith the
lo"i& bein" that i) Allah does somethin" it must be 'e#)e&t so his #e$elation o) the
0u#1an in A#abi& means that the te:t in A#abi& must be 'e#)e&t. T#aditional Muslim
s&hola#shi' has sin&e a))i#med this do"ma. 9ne su&h e:am'le d#a,n )#om the
,#itin"s o) the &lassi&al Islami& s&hola# as-%uyuti is &ited by Bu#ton
=The 8om'anions the $e#y models o) &o##e&t A#abi& usa"e ,ould not ha$e made
e##o#s in o#dina#y s'ee&h let alone in the #e&itation o) the /oly 0u#1an ,hi&h they
had #e&ei$ed o#ally )#om the $e#y li's o) the 6#o'het as it ,as #e$ealed and ,hi&h
they '#om'tly a&&u#ately and e:'e#tly &ommitted to memo#y. 8an one su''ose
them to ha$e &olle&ti$ely &ommitted e##o#s not me#ely in #e&itin" but also in
,#itin" the te:ts; And to ha$e )ailed to d#a, 'eo'le1s attention to su&h e##o#s and
o#de# the immediate abandonment o) ,hate$e# ,as in&o##e&t; 8an one ima"ine
1>thman1s a&tually )o#biddin" that the e##o#s be 'ut #i"ht; 8an one &on&ei$e that
the nation-,ide ?tawatur@ t#ansmission o) the te:ts ,ould not only )ail to e:'ose
but ,ould e$en 'e#'etuate e##o#s "ene#ation a)te# "ene#ation; !eason #eli"ion
and no#mal human beha$io# &ombine to militate a"ainst su&h #e'o#ts. The )i#st
im'ulse is to #e<e&t them as unsound. /ad the#e been anythin" in the #e'o#ts the
8om'anions ,ould ha$e &o##e&ted the te:ts ,ithout )u#the# ado. They ,ould not
ha$e dele"ated the &o##e&tion o) e##o#s to )olk ,hose A#abi& &ould not mat&h thei#
o,n. In any &ase 1>thman had o#de#ed not one but se$e#al &o'ies. It is hi"hly
im'#obable that all the &o'ies ,ould be a))li&ted ,ith '#e&isely the same e##o#s
yet no-one has e$e# #e'o#ted that only some o) the &o'ies ,e#e seen to be )aulty.
A'a#t )#om the minutiae o) &onsonant- o# $o,el-#esolution ?,hi&h has nothin" to
do ,ith e##o#s in lan"ua"e@ all the &o'ies ,e#e identi&al.=
22
/o,e$e# analysis o) the (u#ani& A#abi& and asso&iated e$iden&es sho,s this not to
be t#ue. Bu#ton 'oints out
30
that the t#aditions themsel$es #e'o#ted lin"uisti&
'#oblems ,ith the A#abi& in the 0u#1an. These ,e#e #e&o"ni*ed by many o) the
&ommentato#s and ,e#e dealt ,ith by sub<e&tin" the 'assa"es in (uestion to
tawil #einte#'#etation. Bu#ton then '#o&eeds in his a#ti&le to demonst#ate in
"#indin" detail (uite a numbe# o) instan&es ,he#e the (u#ani& A#abi& is in&o##e&t
a&&o#din" to ,idely kno,n #ules o) A#abi& "#amma#. Pike,ise the &#iti&al ?and
most ,ould say a'ostate@ I#anian s&hola# Ali Dashti made this &omment &on&e#nin"
the (u#ani& te:t
=The 0o#1an &ontains senten&es ,hi&h a#e in&om'lete and not )ully intelli"ible
,ithout the aid o) &ommenta#iesJ )o#ei"n ,o#ds un)amilia# A#abi& ,o#ds and
,o#ds used ,ith othe# than the no#mal meanin"J ad<e&ti$es and $e#bs in)le&ted
,ithout obse#$an&e o) the &on&o#ds o) numbe# and numbe#J illo"i&ally and
un"#ammati&ally a''lied '#onouns ,hi&h sometimes ha$e no #e)e#entJ and
'#edi&ates ,hi&h in #hymed 'assa"es a#e o)ten #emote )#om the sub<e&ts
31
.....To
sum u' mo#e than one hund#ed 0o#1ani& abe##ations )#om the no#mal #ules and
st#u&tu#e o) A#abi& ha$e been noted
32
.=
The 0u#1an has many "#ammati&al e##o#s in the A#abi& a 'a#tial listin" bein" e##o#s
in Suwar 2N1DD 3N52 BN1C2 5NC2 DN1C0 and C3N10. An e:'osition o) some o) the
e##o#s in the A#abi& has been '#o$ided by D#. Anis %ho##osh a 6alestinian 8h#istian
and nati$e A#abi& s'eake#
33
. These e##o#s demonst#ate the )allibility o) the A#abi&
te:t o) the 0u#1an. In a )u#the# e:'osition on the sub<e&t !a)i(ul-/a(( and Me,ton
ha$e '#o$ided detailed demonst#ations o) ho, the 0u#1an uses "#ammati&ally
unsound A#abi& on many o&&asions ?Suwar 2N1DD 3N52 BN1C2 5NC2 DN5C DN1C0
21N3 22N12 B1N11 B2N2 C3N10 and 21N5@ and '#o$ide the &o##e&t #eadin"s
a&&o#din" to standa#d #ules o) &lassi&al A#abi& "#amma#
3B
. Bellamy notes t,el$e
instan&es in the 0u#1an ,he#e the lan"ua"e o) the te:t a''ea#s to be in&o##e&t
,he#e ,o#ds make no sense in the &onte:t in ,hi&h they a''ea#. I) these ,o#ds
a#e emended as Bellamy su""ests they make sense. /e also demonst#ates
s&ienti)i&ally ,hy his emendations make sense 'e# "#ammati&al and te:tual-&#iti&al
#easonin"s
35
.
A &ou'le o) e:am'les )#om BellamyIs su""estions ,ill su))i&e. In 21N24 an ayah
about )alse tea&he#s and thei# idols bein" V)uelV )o# the )i#es o) hell the te:t uses
the ,o#d has<a( a ,o#d that lite#ally means ='ebbles= and ,hi&h Islami&
&ommentato#s ha$e usually e:'lained a,ay by e:'andin" the meanin" o) the ,o#d
to in&lude the )alse tea&he#s as ='ebbles o) )uel= )o# the )i#es o) .ahannum.
Bellamy '#o'oses to emend has<a( ,ith hat<a( a ,o#d in A#abi& that &ommonly
means =)i#e,ood= and that makes 'e#)e&t sense in the 'assa"e. In 11N4 and 12NB5
the 0u#1an uses ummah and the ,o#d is said to mean =time a ,hile= thou"h this
is not the usual meanin" o) that ,o#d. Bellamy '#o'oses to emend this to amad
?#e'la&in" the h ,ith a d@ a ,o#d ,hi&h means =time a 'e#iod o) time= and ,hi&h
a"ain makes 'e#)e&t sense in &onte:t. Bellamy late# '#o'osed a )u#the# set o) nine
emendations to &o'yist e##o#s in the (u#ani& te:t
3C
. 7o# e:am'le in 11N111 the
0u#1an says wa-inna 'ullan lamma=. The lamma is =meanin"less= and is likely an
e##o# due to &o'yist inse#tion. The 'assa"e makes bette# sense i) it is #emo$ed
enti#ely. Then it be&omes ="ood "#ammati&al A#abi&=. Pike,ise in 2CN1DD-142
the 0u#1an talks about the '#o'het %hu1ayb. This name has no sound etymolo"y in
A#abi& - it a''ea#s to be meanin"less le:i&olo"i&ally. It is a &o##u'tion in the te:t
and i) the name is #e'la&ed by %ha1ya ?A#abi& )o#m o) Isaiah@ the 'assa"e both
makes sense AMD has a sound A#abi& )oundation. Also in $a#ious 'la&es the 0u#1an
mentions the %abians ?al-sa(iuna@ - a "#ou' o) 'eo'le ,hom both Weste#n s&hola#s
and Islami& &ommentato#s a#e at 'ains to identi)y &on&lusi$ely e$en to this day.
Bellamy '#o'oses that the te#m o#i"inated as a &o##u'tion and ,as '#o'a"ated
th#ou"hout the othe# 'la&es it a''ea#s in the te:t. /e '#o'oses to emend
s<(wn=s<(yn to mnwn=mnyn a te#m #e)e##in" to the Mani&haeans. This ,ould
#esol$e the a''a#ent '#oblem ,ith identi)i&ation and &ause the 'assa"e to #e)e#
to a de)inite histo#i&al "#ou' o) 'eo'le. These =%abians= ?#eally Mani&haeans o#
simila# Anosti& "#ou's@ ,e#e a&&e'ted by the ea#ly Muslims as a ='eo'le o) the
book= be&ause they did indeed ha$e thei# o,n #eli"ious books mostly autho#ed by
Mani thei# )ounde#. Also ,o#thy o) notin" is that se$e#al o) BellamyIs e:am'les
sho, the in)luen&e o) .udai& and 8h#istian thou"ht on the te:t.
Additionally the (u#ani& A#abi& &annot be &onside#ed ='u#e= be&ause o) the
in&lusion o) many )o#ei"n ,o#ds into the te:t. These ,o#ds in&lude =6haraoh=
?E"y'tian #e'eated 4B times@ =*aroot4 "aroot4 sirat4 hoor4 tilmeeth4 /inn4 and
firdaus= ?7a#si ,o#ds@ =he(er4 sa'inah4 maoon4 turat4 and /ehannim= ?/eb#e,
,o#ds@ =ta(oot4 taghouth4 .a'at4 and mala'out> ?%y#ia& ,o#ds@ and =in/il=
?A#abi*ation o) eua?n@ggelion A#eek ,o#d )o# G"ood ne,sG #e)e##in" to the
Aos'els@
3D
. In his )oundational study o) %y#ia& in)luen&es on the 0u#Ian Min"ana
noted se$e#al 'oints ,he#e the 0u#Ian had eithe# di#e&tly bo##o,ed ,o#ds )#om
%y#ia& ?a 8h#istian litu#"i&al ton"ue used th#ou"hout %y#ia Meso'otamia and
Mo#the#n A#abia at the time@ o# else ado'ted )o#ei"n meanin"s )o# nati$e ,o#ds
,hi&h ,e#e de#i$ed )#om thei# &o"nate usa"e in %y#ia&
34
. Many o) these ,o#ds that
ente#ed into the 0u#Ian ,e#e d#a,n di#e&tly )#om 8h#istian usa"e in&ludin" te#ms
su&h as G#esu##e&tionH and GMessiahH. Des'ite the a"e o) D#. Min"anaIs #esea#&h it
still #emains )oundational to unde#standin" this 'oint as his e$iden&es and
&on&lusions ha$e been little assailed by the inte#$enin" de&ades o) (u#ani&
#esea#&h.
7u#the# in$esti"ations ha$e #e$ealed mo#e e$iden&e o) #elian&e u'on %y#ia& )o#
many te#ms in the 0u#Ian especially te#ms asso&iated ,ith &ult and theolo"y.
Watt dis&usses the use o) the ,o#d ri/. denotin" AodIs ,#ath and an"e# in the
0u#Fan and demonst#ates it to be the likely &a##yo$e# o) a %y#ia& te#m into the
0u#Ian. Indeed Watt su""ests that the lin"uisti& t#adition o) 8h#istian A#abs
Gin)luen&ed the lan"ua"e o) the 0u#Ian in &e#tain 'oints=
32

GThe &on&lusion no, seems una$oidable that al,ays lea$in" out o) a&&ount 4.11
#i<* no less than #u<* #e'#esents the %y#ia& #u"*a. It has su))e#ed sli"ht
t#ans)o#mation o) meanin" - i) indeed it is a t#ans)o#mation - by &omin" to denote
the out,a#d e:'#ession o) an"e# #athe# than the )eelin" itsel) and by bein" used
on o&&asion inde)initelyJ this is only a $e#y sli"ht &han"e.
B0
An inte#estin" and simila# &ase is that o) the te#m hanif used in the 0u#Ian to
denote one ,ho ,as a monotheist one ,ho ,as tu#ned Gthe #i"ht ,ayH. Bashea#
notes that this te#m also o#i"inated )#om 8h#istian %y#ia& use in)o#min" us that the
te#m hanif and the %y#ia& te#m hanpA a''ea# to ha$e a &lose a))inity. The latte#
te#m ,as used in the .ahilliya 'e#iod to denote those ,ho de$iated )#om
8h#istianity and had the meanin" o) GheathenH e$en ha$in" been a''lied to those
,ho $ene#ated the Ka#(ah '#ayed to,a#d it and 'e#)o#med the ha//. This ,as an
use )o# the te#m ,hi&h a''ea#ed in 8h#istian ,#itin"s e$en a)te# the #ise o) Islam
su&h as .ohn o) Damas&usI 'olemi& a"ainst the GIshmaeliteH #eli"ion and
Ahe$ondIs #e&o#d o) the lette#s bet,een >ma# II and Peo III. It also seems to ha$e
initially had this sense in A#abi& as ,ell. /o,e$e# as the 'il"#ima"e to Me&&a and
othe# belie)s and '#a&ti&es o) the 2ahilliya hanifiyya ,e#e ado'ted into Islam this
meanin" "a$e ,ay to a mu&h mo#e 'ositi$e meanin" o) Gtu#nin" to,a#dsH and Gone
,ho is u'#i"htH
B1
.
The %y#ia& o#i"in o) hanifiyya ,as sho,ed by the A#ab histo#ian al-Mas
&
udi ?d.
3B5Q25C@ ,ho 'ointed it out in his al-$an(ih wa-l-ishraf. The o&&u##en&e o) hanpe
in a %y#ia& te:t by Daniel Bisho' o) Edessa ?CC5-C4B AD@ as someone ,ho Gdoes not
belie$e the Messiah to be AodH and its use by the .a&obite Athanasius o) Balad
?C4B AD@ in the same sense ,e#e noted by 8#one and 8ook
B2
. Thus the te#m
o#i"inally seems to ha$e meant a 'e#son ,ho had #e<e&ted 8h#istianity es'e&ially
one ,ho #emained in$ol$ed in 'a"an ,o#shi'. The te#m as ,e sa, ,as e$en
a''lied to those ,ho en"a"ed in the '#e-Islami& ,o#shi' at the Ka#(ah. As su&h
,o#shi' be&ame in&o#'o#ated into the e$ol$in" and e:'andin" Islami& #eli"ion the
te#m ,as &a##ied o$e# #etainin" 'e#ha's some o) its o#i"inal )o#&e ?,ith #es'e&t to
$ene#atin" the Ka(ah@ but ,as #elie$ed o) its ne"ati$e o$e#tones e$entually
de$elo'in" the 'ositi$e &onnotations o) monotheism and G#i"ht #eli"ionH as )ound
in Islam. /en&e ,hen Muslims ,ould #e)e# to Ab#aham as a hanif the te#m ,as
meant to be &om'limenta#y sin&e he ,as a monotheist ,ho #e<e&ted idols and
,o#shi''ed Allah only.
6e#ha's most t#oublesome )o# the t#aditional Muslim 'osition o) 'e#)e&t (u#ani&
A#abi& is the 'ossibility that the 0u#Ian ?o# at least the ea#lie# 'a#ts o) it@ ,as not
e$en o#i"inally in 'rabic. While the e$iden&e abo$e be"innin" ,ith Min"ana and
&ontinuin" to the '#esent ,ould lo"i&ally seem to su""est that the %y#ia& lan"ua"e
'layed a la#"e #ole in influencing the ea#ly ,#itin" o) the A#ab te:ts that be&ame
the 0u#Ian &u##ent s&hola#ly ,o#k su""ests that %y#ia& may ,ell ha$e (een the
o#i"inal lan"ua"e o) the (u#ani& #e&itations. A #e&ent ,o#k by the 'seudonymous
8h#isto'h Pu:enbe#" )ie Syro-%ramaische 9esart des Koran
B3
'#obes this (uestion.
Pu:enbe#"Is #eanalysis o) many (u#ani& 'assa"es that ha$e histo#i&ally mysti)ied
e$en A#ab Muslim &ommentato#s su""ests that these 'assa"es a#e mo#e &ohe#ent
and bette# unde#stood i) they a#e a''#oa&hed )#om the $anta"e 'oint o) ha$in"
o#i"inally been ,#itten in %y#ia& and then t#anslated into A#abi& ,ith the
&o##es'ondin" '#oblems o) misunde#standin" that &an a#ise )#om su&h t#anslation.
9ne su&h 'ossible alte#nati$e meanin" has to do ,ith the ,ell-kno,n (u#ani&
'#omise o) $i#"ins )o# those ,ho "i$e thei# li$es )o# the '#o'a"ation o) Islam.
Pu:enbe#"Is ,o#k &asts doubt on this '#omise o) G'e#'etual youn" da#k-eyed
$i#"insH su""estin" instead that the o#i"inal 0u#1an do&uments may ha$e been
'#omisin" =#aisins= o) =&#ystal &la#ity=
BB
. This &laim is made be&ause the ,o#d in the
0u#Ian ,hi&h is t#anslated as Gda#k-eyed $i#"insH is huri ,hi&h is &o"nate ,ith the
,o#d hur in %y#ia& a )eminine 'lu#al ad<e&ti$e ,hi&h lite#ally means G,hiteH and
is im'li&itly unde#stood to be #e)e##in" to youn" o# ne, #aisins in %y#ia& te:ts. The
#eadin" o) G#aisinsH also a&tually makes mu&h mo#e &onte:tual sense in those
(u#ani& 'assa"es ,he#e this ,o#d a''ea#s sin&e they deal ,ith the 'leasu#es o)
)ood and d#ink in 6a#adise. It is 'e#ha's )o#tunate that the G'ea#l-like youn" boysH
also '#omised to )aith)ul Muslim ,a##io#s in 6a#adise ?as ,e ,ill see late#@ may also
be based u'on a mist#anslation as the A#abi& ,o#d &ould &ome )#om a %y#ia& te#m
,hi&h #e)e#s to G&hilled d#inksH ?also in line ,ith the G)ood and d#inkH &onte:t o)
these $e#ses@
B5
. These and othe# &onte:tually #ele$ant #e-a''#aisals o) (u#ani&
'assa"es st#en"then the thesis that the 0u#Fan ,as o#i"inally ,#itten in %y#ia&.
In li"ht o) the &laims made by Muslims $e#sus the e$iden&e seen abo$e (uestions
#emain. I) the A#abi& o) the 0u#1an is 'e#)e&t ,hy is the#e so mu&h e$iden&e )o#
"#ammati&al e##o#s and s&#ibal &o##u'tions; I) A#abi& is the lan"ua"e o) Allah and
the#e)o#e 'e#)e&t than ,hy the need )o# the in&lusion o) ,o#ds )#om othe#
lan"ua"es ,hen the#e a#e 'e#)e&tly $iable A#abi& alte#nati$es )o# ea&h ,o#d listed
abo$e that &ould ha$e been used; 7u#the# ho, do ,e e$en kno, that the 0u#Fan
o#i"inally ,as in A#abi&;
Mista+es" Inconsistencies" and Imperfections in the Qur'an
Beyond the '#oblems o) lan"ua"e the 0u#Ian also &ontains many '#oblems o) )a&t.
The 0u#1an in&ludes se$e#al out#i"ht s&ienti)i& e##o#sN
In Surah 23N1B the emb#yo is said to be )o#med by tu#nin" a s'e#m into a
&lot o) blood ,hi&h then &ontinues to "#o, into the emb#yo. This in&o##e&t
$ie, enti#ely i"no#es the e(ually im'o#tant '#esen&e o) the )emale o$um
?e""@ and the '#o&ess o) )e#tili*ation ,hi&h o&&u#s bet,een the e"" and the
s'e#m as ,ell as the sim'le medi&al )a&t that s'e#mato*oa do not =tu#n
into= blood at all. The t#aditions add detail to the (u#ani& tea&hin"
=Ma##ated 1Abdullah bin Mus1udN
=Allah1s A'ostle the t#ue and t#uly ins'i#ed said 1?The matte# o) the
8#eation o)@ a human bein" is 'ut to"ethe# in the ,omb o) the
mothe# in )o#ty days and then he be&omes a &lot o) thi&k blood )o# a
simila# 'e#iod and then a 'ie&e o) )lesh )o# a simila# 'e#iod....1
BC
These emb#yolo"i&al tea&hin"s )#om the 0u#1an and the t#aditional mate#ial
a#e (uite at odds ,ith ,hat mode#n s&ien&e has obse#$ed
BD
. 7u#the# in
Surah 4CNC-D the 0u#Fan also in)o#ms us that semen o#i"inates in a #e"ion o)
the body bet,een the kidneys and the s'ine ,hi&h is ob$iously ,#on" but
,hi&h yet #e)le&ts the ,ides'#ead belie) o) the time that o#i"inated ,ith
the A#eek 'hysi&ian /i''o&#ates in the 5th &entu#y B8 and &ontinued to be
a&&e'ted until the #ise o) mode#n s&ienti)i& medi&al in$esti"ation.
!elatedly ,hile the 0u#1an is silent #e"a#din" the sub<e&t the ahadith "i$e
us some insi"hts into Islami& "eneti&s
=As )o# the #esemblan&e o) the &hild to its 'a#entsN I) a man has
se:ual inte#&ou#se ,ith his ,i)e and "ets dis&ha#"e )i#st the &hild ,ill
#esemble the )athe# and i) the ,oman "ets dis&ha#"e )i#st the &hild
,ill #esemble he#.=
B4
E$en i"no#in" the some,hat odd $ie, o) inte#&ou#se '#esented in this
t#adition this statement ob$iously #uns &ounte# to e$e#ythin" ,e kno,
about the s&ien&e o) "eneti&s and he#edity.
In Surah 14N4C the 0u#1an says that a t#a$ele# sees the sun set in a s'#in" o)
mu#ky ,ate# and in 14N20 this same t#a$ele# )inds the s'e&i)i& 'oint at
,hi&h the sun #ises. We kno, o) &ou#se that the sun does not set into a
mu#ky s'#in" o) ,ate# and )u#the# that the ea#th is not )lat ,hi&h is
'#esu''osed by the )indin" o) s'e&i)i& 'la&es ,he#e it #ises and sets.
While mode#n Muslim a'olo"ists a#"ue that these $e#ses do not tea&h a )lat
ea#th t#aditions and &ommenta#ies on the 0u#1an indi&ate that the lite#al
)lat-ea#th &osmolo"y is the unde#standin" that Muslims had about these
$e#ses. Al-Taba#i one o) the most )amous &ommentato#s on the 0u#1an
stated
=Then he saidN 7o# the sun and the moon /e &#eated easts and ,ests
?'ositions to #ise and set@ on the t,o sides o) the ea#th and the t,o
#ims o) hea$en 140 s'#in"s in the ,est o) bla&k &lay - this is ?meant
by@ Aod1s ,o#dN 1/e )ound it settin" in a muddy s'#in" K14N4CL1
meanin" by 1muddy ?hami1ah@1 bla&k &lay - and 140 s'#in"s in the east
like,ise o) bla&k &lay bubblin" and boilin" like a 'ot ,hen it boils
)u#iously. /e &ontinued. E$e#y day and ni"ht the sun has a ne, 'la&e
,he#e it #ises and a ne, 'la&e ,he#e it sets. The inte#$al bet,een
them )#om be"innin" to end is lon"est )o# the days in summe# and
sho#test )o# ,inte#.=
B2
/en&e al-Taba#i &lea#ly unde#stood the (u#ani& statement in 14N4C lite#ally
to be sayin" that the sun sets in a muddy s'#in" )ound at the ed"e o) the
ea#th. /e else,he#e stated
=Aod &#eated t,o &ities one in the east and the othe# in the
,est....We#e those 'eo'le not so many and so noisy all the
inhabitants o) this ,o#ld ,ould hea# the loud &#ash made by the sun
)allin" ,hen it #ises and ,hen it sets.=
50
The hadithi& t#aditions #e&o#ds a simila# sentiment )#om Mohammed1s
&osmolo"y
=Ma##ated Abu Dha#N
=The 6#o'het asked me at sunset 1Do you kno, ,he#e the sun "oes ?at the
time o) sunset@;1 I #e'lied 1Allah and /is A'ostle kno, bette#.1 /e said 1It
"oes ?i.e. t#a$els@ till it '#ost#ates Itsel) unde#neath the Th#one and takes
the 'e#mission to #ise a"ain and it is 'e#mitted and then ?a time ,ill &ome
,hen@ it ,ill be about to '#ost#ate itsel) but its '#ost#ation ,ill not be
a&&e'ted and it ,ill ask 'e#mission to "o on its &ou#se but it ,ill not be
'e#mitted but it ,ill be o#de#ed to #etu#n ,hen&e it has &ome and so it ,ill
#ise in the ,est. And that is the inte#'#etation o) the %tatement o) AllahN
1And the sun !uns its )i:ed &ou#se 7o# a te#m ?de&#eed@. that is The De&#ee
o) ?Allah@ The E:alted in Mi"ht The All--no,in".1 ?3C.34@=
51

This t#adition #e)e#s to a 'o#tion o) the 0u#1an ,he#e the sun and the moon
a#e sho,n to t#a$el a )i:ed 'ath a#ound the ea#th
=And the sun #uns his &ou#se )o# a 'e#iod dete#mined )o# himN that is
the de&#ee o) ?/im@ the E:alted in Mi"ht the All--no,in". And the
Moon- We ha$e measu#ed )o# he# mansions ?to t#a$e#se@ till she
#etu#ns like the old ?and ,ithe#ed@ lo,e# 'a#t o) a date-stalk. It is not
'e#mitted to the %un to &at&h u' the Moon no# &an the Mi"ht outst#i'
the DayN Ea&h ?<ust@ s,ims alon" in ?its o,n@ o#bit ?a&&o#din" to
Pa,@.= ?Surah 3CN34-B0@
8lea#ly the Muslim unde#standin" o) (u#ani& &osmolo"y ,as that o) a )lat
ea#th a#ound ,hi&h the sun and moon &i#&led.
In Surah 51NB2 the 0u#1an &laims that Allah made e$e#ythin" in 'ai#s.
/o,e$e# ,e kno, that the#e a#e se$e#al s'e&ies o) 'lants animals and
mone#ons that #e'#odu&e ase:ually th#ou"h 'a#theno"enesis and that ha$e
only one "ende# o# #eally no "ende# at all.
Suwar 1CN15 21N31 and 31N10 all &laim that mountains e:ist to '#e$ent
ea#th(uakes somethin" ,hi&h both s&ien&e and sim'le obse#$ation
demonst#ate to be )alse. In &ommentin" on this 'e&ulia# tea&hin" in Surah
1CN15 al-Taba#i stated
=When /e ,anted to &#eate the &#eation /e b#ou"ht )o#th smoke
)#om the ,ate#. The smoke #ose abo$e the ,ate# amd ho$e#ed lo)tily
o$e# it. /e the#e)o#e &alled it 1hea$en1. Then /e d#ied out the ,ate#
and thus made it one ea#th. /e s'lit it and made se$en ea#ths on
%unday and Monday. /e &#eated the ea#th u'on a ?bi"@ )ish ?hut@ that
bein" the )ish ?nun@ mentioned by Aod in the 0u#1anN 1Mun. By the
6en.1 KC4.1L The )ish ,as in the ,ate#. The ,ate# ,as u'on the ba&k
o) a ?small@ #o&k. The #o&k ,as u'on the ba&k o) an an"el. The an"el
,as u'on a ?bi"@ #o&k. The ?bi"@ #o&k - The one mentioned by Pu(man
K31N1CL - ,as in the ,ind neithe# in hea$en no# in ea#th. The )ish
mo$ed and be&ame a"itated. As a #esult the ea#th (uaked
,he#eu'on /e )i#mly an&ho#ed the mountains on it and it ,as stable.
The mountains '#oudly ?to,e#@ o$e# the ea#th. This is stated in Aod1s
,o#d that /e made )o# the ea#th 1)i#mly an&ho#ed ?mountains@ lest it
shake you u'.1 K1CN15L.=
52
While the notion o) the ea#th #estin" u'on a )ish is ob$iously )o#ei"n to the
)indin"s o) mode#n s&ien&e this &osmolo"y is in line ,ith many t#aditional
'a"an &osmolo"ies )#om a#ound the ,o#ld su&h as the an&ient E"y'tian
belie) that the ,o#ld #ested on the ba&k o) a "iant tu#tle the /indu belie)
that it #ested on the ba&k o) an ele'hant ,hi&h in tu#n stood on the ba&k o)
a tu#tle o# the t#aditional .a'anese idea that the ,o#ld #ested u'on the
ba&k o) a "iant &at)ish.
In Surah 25NC1 the 0u#Ian intimates that the moon "i$es its o,n li"ht. In
this $e#se the ,o#d muneer is used to des&#ibe the li"ht o) the moon. The
'h#ase used he#e in the A#abi& is feeha sira/an waqamaran muneeran. It
a''ea#s as the bold 'o#tion o) the $e#se GBlessed is /e Who made
&onstellations in the skies and 'la&ed therein a 9amp and a Moon giing
lightG. In this $e#se the sun is #e)e##ed to as the sira/ a ,o#d meanin" Ga
b#i"ht lam' o# li"htH. /o,e$e# muneer is an ad<e&ti$e ,hi&h des&#ibes the
li"ht '#odu&ed by an ob<e&t and is a''lied to both the sun ?sira/@ and the
moon. 7ou# times in the 0u#Ian the ,o#d muneer is used to des&#ibe the
li"ht o) illumination o# enli"htenment '#o$ided by the 0u#Ian itsel) ?in a
)i"u#ati$e sense o) &ou#se@ in Suwar 3N14BJ 22N4 31N20 and 35N25. Would
Muslims su""est that the 0u#Ian #e)le&ts the enli"htenment )#om anothe# o#
#athe# that it is the source o) enli"htenment; The latte# o) &ou#se. 7u#the#
in Surah 33NBC the enli"htenment ,hi&h Mohammed ,as said to b#in" is
des&#ibed as wasira/an muneeran thus demonst#atin" that muneer is an
ad<e&ti$e des&#ibin" ,hat a sira/ '#odu&es. Thus the muneer o) the moon
)#om the ,ay these ,o#ds a#e used else,he#e in the 0u#Ian as ,ell as the
#eadin" o) this s'e&i)i& ayah is seen to o#i"inate )#om the moon itsel) an
ob$ious s&ienti)i& e##o#.
Al-Taba#i seems to su''o#t this $ie, o) the sun and moon ,hen he ,#ote
=/e saidN When the Messen"e# o) Aod ,as asked about that he
#e'liedN When Aod ,as done ,ith /is &#eation and only Adam
#emained to be &#eated /e &#eated t,o suns )#om the li"ht o) /is
th#one. /is )o#ekno,led"e told /im that /e ,ould lea$e he#e one
sun so /e &#eated is as ?la#"e as@ this ,o#ld is )#om east to ,est. /is
)o#ekno,led"e also told /im that /e ,ould e))a&e it and &han"e it to
a moonJ so the moon is smalle# in si*e than the sun. But both a#e
seen as small be&ause o) the sun1s altitude and #emoteness )#om the
ea#th....The Po#d ,as too &on&e#ned ,ith /is se#$ants and too
me#&i)ul to them ?to do su&h a thin"@. /e thus sent Aab#iel to d#a" his
,in" th#ee times o$e# the )a&e o) the moon ,hi&h at the time ,as a
sun. /e e))a&ed its luminosity and le)t the li"ht in it. This is ?meant
by@ Aod1s Wo#d 1And We ha$e made the ni"ht and the day t,o si"ns.
We ha$e blotted out the si"n o) the ni"ht and We ha$e made the si"n
o) the day somethin" to see by.1 K1DN12L /e &ontinued. The bla&kness
you &an see as lines on the moon is a t#a&e o) the blottin".=
53
This &ommentato#1s unde#standin" o) the 0u#1an ,as that the sun and the
moon ,e#e both &#eated as bodies "i$in" li"ht. The moon ,as =e))a&ed= o#
da#kened but all the same /e =le)t the li"ht in it=. 8lea#ly the idea that
the moon '#odu&es its o,n li"ht is '#esented in the t#aditional Muslim
,#itin"s. While this is tau"ht in the 0u#1an and su''o#ted by t#aditional
&ommenta#y it is &ont#a#y to ,hat ,e a&tually kno, to be the &ase.
While not a''ea#in" in the 0u#1an itsel) t#aditional Islami& tea&hin" )#om the
ahadith and #es'e&ted &ommenta#y '#o$ides a )e, othe# e:am'les o) =,ei#d
s&ien&e= a''ea#in" in the t#aditional Islami& ,o#ld$ie,.
Mohammed a''a#ently had some inte#estin" ideas about the &ause o)
,eathe#. /e is #e'o#ted to ha$e said
=Allah1s A'ostle said 1The ?/ell@ 7i#e &om'lained to its Po#d sayin" 19
my Po#dO My di))e#ent 'a#ts eat u' ea&h othe#.1 %o /e allo,ed it to
take t,o b#eaths one in the ,inte# and the othe# in summe# and
this is the #eason )o# the se$e#e heat and the bitte# &old you )ind ?in
,eathe#@.1=
5B
Me$e# mind all that #ubbish about meteo#olo"y and the e))e&ts o) the tilt in
the ea#th1s a:is &old ,inte#s and hot summe#s a#e &aused by an
anth#o'omo#'hi& hell b#eathin" on us.
The t#aditions also #e&o#d some tea&hin" about the &ause and s'#ead o)
disease.
=I hea#d the 6#o'het sayin" =7e$e# is )#om the heat o) the ?/ell@ 7i#eJ
so &ool it ,ith ,ate#.=
55

=Allah1s A'ostle said 1?The#e is@ no 1Ad,a ?no &onta"ious disease is
&on$eyed ,ithout Allah1s 'e#mission@.=
5C
We no, kno, that )e$e# is a #es'onse by the body to the int#odu&tion o)
in)e&tious 'atho"ens and that the s'#ead o) &onta"ious disease is due to
bein" e:'osed to those 'atho"ens )#om anothe# 'e#son.
Al-Taba#i in his e:'osition o) the (u#ani& $e#sion o) the Adam and E$e
sto#y #elates the )ollo,in" #eason ,hy ,omen menst#uate
=E$e &ut the t#ee and it bled. The )eathe#s K&). DN2CL that &o$e#ed
Adam and E$e d#o''ed o)) 1and they sta#ted to &o$e# themsel$es
,ith lea$es o) 6a#adise stit&hed to"ethe#. Thei# Po#d &alled out to
themN Did I not )o#bid you this t#ee and did I not tell you that %atan
is )o# you a &lea# enemy;1 Why did you eat o) it ,hen I ha$e
)o#bidden it to you....Mo, you E$e as you &aused the t#ee to bleed
you ,ill bleed e$e#y ne, moon....=
5D
!athe# than bein" a natu#al 'a#t o) a ,oman1s #e'#odu&ti$e &y&le
menst#uation is said to be a &u#se 'la&ed u'on ,omen )o# &uttin" a t#ee
,hi&h seems to i"no#e the $e#y ne&essa#y #ole that it 'lays in the 'ositi$e
and Aod-"i$en "i)t o) #e'#odu&tion.
/o,e$e# these and othe# e##o#s ha$e not sto''ed Muslim a'olo"ists )#om t#yin" to
G'#o$eH mi#a&ulously '#o"nosti& s&ienti)i& kno,led"e in the 0u#Ian. Mea#ly all o)
these &laims a#e so tendentious and st#ained in thei# e:e"esis that the a$e#a"e
#eade# &ould easily see th#ou"h the a#"uments. %ome o) the mo#e mode#n &laims
in )a&t #ely on blatant misunde#standin" o) s&ien&e o# misinte#'#etation o)
s&ien&e to make it a''ea# to &o##elate ,ith the 0u#Ian. A &ou'le o) these a#e
'#esented )o# the #eade#Is e:amination belo,N
8e#tain Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill &laim that Surah D2N30 ?based u'on ,hat has
been sho,n to be a mist#anslation o) the ,o#d dahaha@ states that the ea#th
is e""-sha'ed. The &laim 'ut )o#,a#d by the a'olo"ists is that this statement
sho,s that the 0u#Ian "a$e ad$an&ed kno,led"e o) the sli"htly im'e#)e&t
sha'e o) the ea#th1s s'he#e. /o,e$e# the ea#th is an oblate s'he#oid
?ha$in" an e(uato#ial #adius "#eate# than the 'ola# #adius i.e. a Gs(uashedH
s'he#e@. E""s ho,e$e# a#e '#olate s'he#oids ?ha$in" an e(uato#ial #adius
less than the 'ola# #adius i.e. an Gelon"atedH s'he#e@. Thus the ea#thIs
sha'e a&tually de'a#ts )#om the sha'e o) a t#ue s'he#e in the o''osite
di#e&tion )#om ,hat is &laimed by these a'olo"ists.
What is es'e&ially i#oni& about this &laim ho,e$e# is that the 0u#1an itsel)
does not make the &laim that the ea#th is e""-sha'ed. %yat D2N30 #eads
=And the ea#th mo#eo$e# hath /e e:tended ?to a ,ide e:'anse@=. The
a'olo"ists d#a, the =e""-sha'ed a#"ument= )#om the use o) dahaha in the
$e#se but the t#anslato#s o) the 0u#1an do not t#anslate it as su&h and sho,
no e$iden&e o) thinkin" that this is ,hat the 0u#1an is t#yin" to say at this
'oint. The a'olo"ists a#e a''a#ently in$entin" this &laim out o) ,hole &loth.
In Surah 5DN25 many Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill &laim that the #e)e#en&e to
Allah Gsendin" do,n i#onH is a mi#a&ulous )o#ekno,led"e o) mode#n
s&ienti)i& unde#standin" &on&e#nin" the a''ea#an&e o) i#on in the sola#
system. %in&e some o) the latest &osmolo"i&al theo#ies state that i#on
ente#ed the sola# system )#om outside as the sun is not hot enou"h to
'#odu&e i#on in situ the Gsendin" do,nH o) i#on #e)le&ts this. 9) &ou#se
su&h an inte#'#etation ,hi&h '#esu''oses that the e$olutiona#y bases that
unde#lie the &osmolo"i&al theo#ies a#e t#ue )latly &ont#adi&ts the
instantaneous &#eation tau"ht by the 0u#Ian ?Surah 2N11D@ ,he#e Allah says
GBeO And it is.H E$en dis#e"a#din" this the a#"ument is )la,ed i) ,e assume
the &osmolo"i&al theo#ies to be t#ue. These theo#ies state that the sola#
system )o#med )#om the "#a$itationally-indu&ed a""#e"ation o) '#e-e:istin"
elements ?)#om the Bi" Ban" '#e$ious su'e#no$ae take you# 'i&k@ that o$e#
time )o#med the 'lanets moons the sun et&. Mo, i) i#on ,e#e '#esent in
the sola# system at the time o) its theo#eti&al )o#mation then it ,ould ha$e
been in&o#'o#ated into the ea#th at that time. 5et the 'h#ase G,e sent
do,nH ?usin" the A#abi& te#m na.al meanin" Gto b#in" do,n to &ast
do,nH@ '#esu''oses that the ea#th ,as al#eady in e:isten&e at the time o)
the sendin" do,n o) i#on ?else the#e ,ould be nothin" to send it do,n to as
the 'lain unde#standin" o) the A#abi& &lea#ly says@. /en&e the a'olo"istsI
a#"ument is an attem't to in"#atiate Islam to mode#n s&ien&e ,hi&h does
not stand )i#m in the )a&e o) #easoned in$esti"ation.
7u#the# I ha$e a&tually seen some Muslim a'olo"ists "o beyond this and
&laim that it is mi#a&ulous that the surah &ontainin" this $e#se ?entitled %l-
*adid GThe I#onH@ is numbe#ed ?'e# the '#esent a##an"ement o) the suwar@
the same as the atomi& ,ei"ht o) i#on. /o,e$e# sin&e Al-/adid is the 5Dth
su#ah in the &u##ent a##an"ement and the atomi& ,ei"ht o) i#on is 55.4BD
AM> ?atomi& mass units@ ,hi&h ,e &an &ha#itably #ound to 5C the
a#"ument seems to be mooted. E$en in the )a&e o) this some a'olo"ists ,ill
yet a#"ue that i) one does not &ount Al-7atiha ?the o'enin" su#ah o) the
0u#Ian %u#ah 1@ then Al-/adid is numbe# 5C and thus )alls into line ,ith
the atomi& ,ei"ht o) i#on. I )ind this inte#estin" be&ause at no other time
,ould any so#t o) mode#n o#thodo: Muslim su""est i"no#in" o# #emo$in" any
surah o) the 0u#IanO
Inte#estin"ly this &laim that Allah ?o# othe# deity@ sent do,n i#on to
mankind did not o#i"inate in the 0u#1an. Instead this belie) that i#on ,as
sent do,n )#om hea$en has a lon" histo#y amon" many an&ient 'eo'les all
a#ound the Medite##anean and the Mea# East. This belie) as 'ointed out by
Bau$al
54
likely o#i"inated )#om the meteo#iti& o#i"in o) the i#on ,hi&h
'#obably )o#med the )i#st ma<o# sou#&es o) i#on )o# an&ient man. Amon" the
an&ient E"y'tians i#on ,as kno,n by the ,o#d 5/a a ,o#d ,hi&h also had
the meanin" =mate#ial o) ,hi&h hea$en ,as made= indi&atin" a belie) on
the 'a#t o) the E"y'tians o) a di$ine o#i"in )o# i#on
52
. M&8all tells us that the
6h#y"ians o) the Dth &entu#y B8 ,o#shi''ed a &one-sha'ed i#on meteo#ite
C0

and Bau$al also "i$es se$e#al e:am'les o) stones that =)ell to ea#th= that
,e#e $ene#ated by an&ient 'eo'les in&ludin" the bla&k meteo#ite ensh#ined
in the Muslim Ka(ah. /en&e this sto#y in the 0u#1an has &lea# '#e-Islami&
'a"an o#i"ins.
The 0u#1an holds ,ithin its 'a"es a )e, histo#i&al ina&&u#a&ies as ,ellN
In Surah 24N34 6ha#aoh ?the kin" o) E"y't@ o#de#s /aman?;@ to be"in makin"
baked b#i&ks in a kiln out o) &lay )o# the 'u#'ose o) buildin" a =lo)ty to,e#=
so that 6ha#aoh &an =su#$ey the "od o) Moses= and =deem him o) the lia#s= ?in
a sto#y some,hat #eminis&ent o) Mim#od1s #ebellion and the buildin" o) the
to,e# o) Babel in Aenesis 11@. This is said to take 'la&e du#in" the time o)
Moses ?/aman also a''ea#s asso&iated ,ith 6ha#aoh in Suwar 24NC4 and
B0N2B3C@. Aside )#om the )a&t that /aman ,as a 6ersian noble ,ho li$ed a
millennium a)te# Moses the#e a#e othe# e##o#s in this a&&ount. /isto#i&al
e$iden&e demonst#ates that the E"y'tians at the time o) Moses built thei#
buildin"s out o) t,o mate#ialsN &ut stone and sun#dried b#i&ks. Pu&as and
/a##is note that ,ith the ea#ly ad$ent o) stone as a buildin" mate#ial in
E"y't ?the#e is e$iden&e o) stone bein" used all the ,ay ba&k to the :irst
Dynasty@ monumental a#&hite&tu#e su&h as tombs and tem'les be"an to be
built out o) stone instead o) the less du#able sun-d#ied b#i&ks
C1
. They also
'oint out that des'ite some $e#y )e, 'ossible e:&e'tions bu#nt b#i&ks ,e#e
'#a&ti&ally unkno,n in E"y't until the time o) the !omans. 7o# a "#andiose
'ie&e o) monumental a#&hite&tu#e su&h as a =lo)ty to,e#= #ea&hin" u' to
hea$en the E"y'tians ,ould not ha$e used b#i&ks 'e#iod and i) they had
they almost &e#tainly ,ould not ha$e used bu#nt b#i&ks. They ,ould ha$e
used stone ,hi&h lends itsel) mo#e #eadily to the la#"e# si*es needed )o#
su&h buildin"s and ,hi&h is )a# mo#e du#able.
In Surah 20N4D and 20N25 the .e,s a#e said to ha$e made the "olden &al)
idol at the behest o) the %ama#itans a "#ou' o) 'eo'le ,ho did not e:ist
until the 6ost-E:ili& 'e#iod nea#ly ten &entu#ies a)te# the E:odus.
At se$e#al 'oints the 0u#1an also makes mistakes #e"a#din" the belie)s o) non-
Muslims "#ou's ,ith ,hom the ea#ly A#ab Muslims had &onta&t. 9ne e:am'le ,hi&h
,as mentioned abo$e ?and ,ill be e:amined in mu&h "#eate# detail in 8ha'te# B@ is
the e##oneous (u#ani& tea&hin" on the T#inity o# mo#e '#o'e#ly ,hat 8h#istian
belie)s about the T#inity su''osedly a#e. The 0u#1an says that 8h#istians <oin t,o
"ods ,ith Allah and that the T#inity is &om'osed o) Aod .esus and Ma#y. This
&om'osition is not the histo#i& T#inity ,hi&h ,as a&&e'ted by the $ast bulk o)
8h#istendom )o# &entu#ies be)o#e Islam a''ea#ed. Instead this =T#inity= ,hi&h the
0u#Ian #ails a"ainst ,as a he#eti&al &onst#u&tion o) the 8olly#idians ,ho ,e#e
stee'ed in Ma#iolat#y. The histo#i&al t#inita#ian unde#standin" o) the T#inity ?as
,as late# de)ined in the Athanasian 8#eed@ ,as (uite b#oadly established
th#ou"hout 8h#istendom )o# se$e#al &entu#ies be)o#e Mohammed and e$iden&e )o#
the t#inita#ian belie) e:ists )#om the $e#y sta#t o) the &hu#&hes. /o,e$e# Allah
someho, missed the tea&hin" o) the $ast bulk o) the ea#ly &hu#&hes ,hi&h ,as
that the T#inity is Aod bein" one in essen&e ,hile three in 'e#sons and instead
#e$ealed to Mohammed that 8h#istians belie$ed the T#inity to be Aod .esus and
Ma#y. In othe# ,o#ds Allah a''a#ently made a mistake and did not unde#stand
,hat ,as the t#ue tea&hin" o) 8h#istianity and ,hat ,as the )alse tea&hin" o)
he#eti&s.
7u#the# ,e note that in Surah 2N30 the 0u#1an att#ibutes to the .e,s the belie)
that E*#a ?>*ai#@ ,as the son o) Aod. This is not a belie) ,hi&h has been
e:'ounded by .e,ish theolo"ians and tea&he#s ho,e$e# and is thus anothe# e##o#
,hi&h Allah 'u#'o#tedly made &on&e#nin" the belie)s o) a non-Muslim "#ou'.
Also ,e must note the (u#ani& )as&ination ,ith #e)e##in" to .esus as =Isa=. Muslims
maintain based u'on the autho#ity o) the 0u#1an that Isa is the t#ue name )o#
.esus in the A#abi& lan"ua"e. /o,e$e# this is not the &ase. Instead ;asu is the
A#abi& )o#m o) .esus ?the name =.esus= itsel) bein" a /elleni*ation o) the /eb#e,
;eshua@. The A#abi& )o#m o) .esus is &lea#ly sho,n to us to ha$e been ;asu amon"
A#abians ,ho li$ed e$en be)o#e Mohammed1s timeN
=M#. A. Pankaste# /a#din" 8hie) 8u#ato# o) Anti(uities /ashimite -in"dom o)
.o#dan kindly sent me &o'ies o) a little mo#e than )i$e hund#ed Thamudi&
ins&#i'tions....It is the ins&#i'tion K/a#din" Mo. BDCL that inte#ests us he#e. Belo,
the &i#&le the#e a#e )ou# lette#sN a y a sh a
&
and a"ain a y. These lette#s a#e so
'la&ed that they &an be #ead )#om #i"ht to le)t o# )#om le)t to #i"ht y-sh-
&
'#obably
'#onoun&ed 5ashW
&
and this name is the same as 5XshWa
&
the /eb#e, )o#m o) the
name o) 8h#ist. It is kno,n that 5XshWa
&
is the late# '#onun&iation o) 5XhYshWa
&
o#
.oshuaJ it ,as used a)te# the E:ile in o#de# to a$oid the immediate se(uen&e o)
t,o da#k $o,els ?o and u@. 9) &ou#se it is ,ell kno,n that the 8h#istians ,hose
lan"ua"e is A#abi& &ommonly use the )o#m 5asW
&
....=
C2
7u#the# on in this a#ti&le Pittman says that the )o#m =5asu
&
= #e'#esents =the
an&ient A#abi& name o) .esus= and =Ins&#i'tion /a#din" Mo. BDC is the oldest nati$e
do&ument o) 8h#istianity o) Mo#the#n A#abia kno,n so )a#.=
C3

What this means to us is that this )o#m =5asu
&
=
CB
is the name by ,hi&h .esus ,as
kno,n in the most an&ient ins&#i'tions in an A#abi& lan"ua"e o) ,hi&h Thamudi& is
an a#&hai& e:am'le. This &onst#u&tion a''ea#s ama*in"ly simila# to the /eb#e,
=5eshua= o# =5ehoshua= and the A#amai& =5eshua= ?seen in E*#a 5N1 a 'assa"e
,#itten in A#amai& ,hi&h a''ea#s in the En"lish Bible as .eshua and is the same
name ,ith the same meanin" =.eho$ah sa$es=@. /en&e the A#abs initially a''ea#
to ha$e #e)e##ed to .esus ,ith the name 5asu not Isa as Muslims and the 0u#1an
&laim.
Whe#e did the name =Isa= &ome )#om then; Isa is the A#abi& )o#m o) the name
=Esau=. That this is t#ue is e$en admitted by Muslim a'olo"istsN
=The /oly 0u#an #e)e#s to .esus as =Eesa= and this name is used mo#e times than
any othe# title be&ause this ,as his =8h#istian= name. A&tually his '#o'e# name
,as =Eesa= ?A#abi&@ o# =Esau=. ?/eb#e,@J &lassi&al =5eheshua= ,hi&h the 8h#istian
nations o) the West Patini*ed as .esus. Meithe# the =.= no# the se&ond =s= in the
name .esus is to be )ound in the o#i"inal ton"ue - they a#e not )ound in the %emiti&
lan"ua"e.
=The ,o#d is $e#y sim'ly - =E % A >= - a $e#y &ommon .e,ish name used mo#e than
si:ty times in the $e#y )i#st booklet alone o) the Bible in the 'a#t &alled =Aenesis=.
The#e ,as at least one =.esus= sittin" on the =ben&h= at the t#ial o) .esus be)o#e the
%anhed#in. .ose'hus the .e,ish histo#ian mentions some t,enty )i$e .esus1 in his
=Book o) Anti(uities=. The Me, Testament s'eaks o) =Ba#-.esus=- a ma"i&ian and a
so#&e#e# a )alse '#o'het ?A&t 13NC@J and also =.esus-.ustus= - a 8h#istian
missiona#y a &ontem'o#a#y o) 6aul ?8olossians BN11@. These a#e distin&t )#om .esus
the son o) Ma#y. T#ans)o#min" =Esau= to ?.@esu?s@ - .esus - makes it uni(ue. This
uni(ue ?;@ name has "one out o) &u##en&y amon" the .e,s and the 8h#istians )#om
the 2nd &entu#y a)te# 8h#ist. Amon" the .e,s be&ause it &ame to be the '#o'e#
name o) thei# Aod?;@ - thei# Aod in&a#nate. The Muslim ,ill not hesitate to name
his son - =Eesa= - be&ause it is an hono#ed name the name o) a #i"hteous se#$ant o)
the Po#d.=
C5
While Deedat makes some mistakes in his analysis abo$e su&h as &laimin" that
Esau is a =&ommon .e,ish name= ?the si:ty times that the name is used in the 9ld
Testament all #e)e# to one indi$idual the b#othe# o) .a&ob@ the essential 'oint o)
his ,#itin" is e$ident -- Isa is the name )o# Esau. The #est o) his analysis is
ina&&u#ate as he is t#yin" to sho, that the name =Esau= ,as the name ,hi&h .esus
&ame )#om in the Me, Testament. Both the A#eek =.esus= and the /eb#e,QA#amai&
=5eshua= mean =.eho$ah sa$es= ,hile Esau means =hai#y=. /o,e$e# his admission
to the t#uth o) Isa e(ualin" Esau s'eaks $olumes.
What ,as the sou#&e o) Isa bein" a''lied to .esus in the 0u#1an; Mobody kno,s )o#
su#e thou"h the most 'lausible e:'lanation to date is that &e#tain .e,s ,ith
,hom the A#abs had &onta&t in an e))o#t to insult the Po#d .esus told them that
the %on o) Aod ,o#shi''ed by 8h#istians ,as =Isa= the#eby a''lyin" the name o)
.a&ob1s hated b#othe# Esau to the hated 8h#istian %a$io#. This &laim ho,e$e#
#ests on mu&h hea#say and thus should be taken ,ith a "#ain o) salt. 6e#ha's the
A#abs at the time o) the in)ilt#ations into %y#ia-6alestine sim'ly misunde#stood the
hea#in" o# #eadin" o) the name and be"an to #e)e# to .esus as =Isa= out o) sim'le
mistaken unde#standin". What should be &lea# to us thou"h is that the (u#ani&
use o) =Isa= #ests u'on a name )o# 8h#ist ,hi&h ,as M9T /is name e$en in the
A#abi&. Is it #eally likely that an omni'otent omnis&ient deity su&h as Allah is
&laimed to be ,ould make su&h a sim'le e##o# as to misname one o) his '#o'hets;
The 0u#1an also &ontains se$e#al inte#nal sel)-&ont#adi&tions and lo"i&ally
'#oblemati& statements a )e, o) ,hi&h a#e listed belo,N
The hea$ens and the ea#th ,e#e &#eated by Allah in si: days a&&o#din" to
DN5B 10N3 11ND and 25N52J but it took ei"ht days a&&o#din" to %u#ah B1N2-
12.
In 22NBD Allah1s day e(uals 1000 human yea#s but in D0NB a day to Allah is
#e&koned as 50000 human yea#s.
The 'unishment )o# adulte#y is )lo""in" ,ith 100 st#i'es )o# both se:es in
2BN2 $e#sus li)elon" house a##est )o# the ,oman and no 'unishment u'on
#e'entan&e )o# the man in BN15-1C.
2N25C &laims that the#e must be no &om'ulsion in #eli"ion yet 4N34-32
&ommands Muslims to )i"ht until all #eli"ion but Islam is done a,ay ,ith.
%imila#ly B5N1B tells Muslims to )o#"i$e unbelie$e#s ,hile 2N22 &ommands
them to )i"ht unbelie$e#s.
In addition to this sho#t list the#e a#e do*ens o) othe# &ont#adi&tions that 'oint to
the 0u#1an as bein" a )la,ed book. %ee a mo#e &om'lete dis&ussion o) (u#ani&
&ont#adi&tions at Ans,e#in" Islam1s t#eatment o) the sub<e&t
CC
.
In &on&lusion ,e see that the 0u#1an &annot le"itimately &laim di$ine ins'i#ation
andQo# '#ese#$ation. It has many e##o#s in&onsisten&ies and a histo#y o)
&o##u'tions. The 0u#1an is an im'e#)e&t book and &annot be &laimed as the ,o#k
o) a 'e#)e&t and &om'lete Aod. The same &ha#"es &annot be made a"ainst the
Bible ho,e$e# ,hi&h has ,ithstood e$e#y atta&k u'on it made by unbelie$e#s.
End Motes
?1@ - %.A.A. Maudadi $oward Understanding Islam ''. 41-42
?2@ - E.A. 6a##inde# 2esus in the 1ur#an '. 1BD
?3@ - Ibid. &itin" M./. Ananikian $he 8eforms and 8eligious Ideals of Sir Sayyad
%hmad Khan '.D4 a''ea#in" in $he "oslem -orld +ol. 1B ?122B@ ''. C1))
?B@ - %ee T.M. %t#ouse =The 6e#manent 6#ese#$ation o) AodFs Wo#dsN 6salm
12NCD= in $hou Shalt Keep $hem3 % 5i(lical $heology of the 6erfect 6reservation
of Scripture Ed. -. B#andenbu#" ''. 22-33 ,he#e %t#ouse ably demonst#ates
th#ou"h a &a#e)ul e:e"esis o) the /eb#e, 'assa"e that the GthemG in $. D #e)e#s
ba&k to Gthe ,o#ds o) the P9!DG as thei# ante&edent not to Gthe needyG in $. 5
as is o)ten &ontended by those seekin" to deny the &lea# '#omise o) s&#i'tu#al
'#ese#$ation in this 'assa"e.
?5@ - We should also note that ,hate$e# else may be said about the '#o'osed uses
o) the %e'tua"int in Me, Testament (uotations o) the 9ld Testament ,hen the
Po#d dealt ,ith the a&tual ,#itten te:t o) the 9ld Testament eithe# in #e)e##in" to
its o#de# as /e did he#e o# ,hen /e ,as #eadin" )#om it as is the &ase in Puke
BN14-12 /e '#o$ided distin&ti$e Maso#eti& #eadin"s o$e# and a"ainst the PZZ.
?C@ - D.A. Waite )efending the King 2ames 5i(le ''. 2B-25
?D@ - P./. %&hi))man 8eclaiming the )ead Sea Scrolls ''. 1D1-1D2
?4@ - A. A#&he# % Survey of &ld $estament Introduction '. 25
?2@ - M. Aeisle# and W. Mi: 7eneral Introduction to the 5i(le '. 342
?10@ - %ee A. +e#mes $he )ead Sea Scrolls3 1umran in 6erspective '. 20CJ 7.M.
8#oss $he %ncient 9i(rary at 1umran ''. 121-1B2
?11@ - %ee
htt'NQQ,,,."eo&ities.&omQ/ea#tlandQ6inesQD22BQ!i&kQ%e'tua"intQs'a''endi:.ht
m this data ,as "ene#ated usin" the )ootnotes in M.A. Abe"" 6. 7lint and E.
>l#i&h $he )ead Sea Scrolls 5i(le
?12@ - M. Aolb -ho -rote the )ead Sea ScrollsB3 $he Search for the Secret of
1umran '. 332
?13@ - %ee ibid. ''. 2D-24 )o# his dis&ussion o) e$iden&es )#om a simila# &a&he o)
an&ient manus&#i'ts )#om Ele'hantine in E"y't. This &ommunity is estimated to
ha$e been )i)ty times mo#e 'o'ulous than the one at 0um#an yet the te:ts sho,
)a# )e,e# s&#ibes in use estimated at B-5 'e# "ene#ation. In &ont#ast 8a$e 1 alone
&ontained te:ts '#e'a#ed by mo#e than )i)ty di))e#ent s&#ibes.
?1B@ - Waite o'. &it. '. 2D
?15@ - Ibid. '. 5C
?1C@ - ..W. Bu#"on $he $raditional $e0t of the *oly 7ospels Vindicated and
Esta(lished ''. i:-:
?1D@ - 7.A. -enyon *and(oo' to the $e0tual +riticism of the Cew $estament ''.
321-322J -enyon then attem'ts to a#"ue a"ainst these e$iden&es but #elies u'on
the same outdated a#"uments d#a,n )#om the t#aditional /o#tian methodolo"i&al
a''a#atus that 6i&ke#in" has mo#e #e&ently #e)uted.
?14@ - %ee T. /olland +rowned with 7lory3 $he 5i(le from %ncient $e0t to
%uthori.ed Version ''. 21-24 )o# an int#odu&to#y dis&ussion o) the (uestion o)
Anosti& &o##u'tions o) the &#iti&al o# Ale:and#ian te:ts. %ee also
htt'NQQ,,,.studytoans,e#.netQbible$e#sionsQ"nosti&.html
?12@ - W.M. 6i&ke#in" $he Identity of the Cew $estament $e0t '. 5B
?20@ - -. Pake !.6. Blake and %. Me, =The 8aesa#ian Te:t o) the Aos'el o) Ma#k=
*arvard $heological 8eview +ol. 21 ?1224@ '. 3B4-3B2
?21@ - E.". see htt'NQQ,,,.studytoans,e#.netQbible$e#sionsQ1<ohn5nD.html
?22@ - %ee e.". 8. Alass[ $he Cew Encyclopedia of Islam '. 2CBJ .. .omie# $he
5i(le and the 1uran ''. B2-52J E. %ell Studies in Islam ''. 210-21CJ A.
Auillaume Islam '. 13J )o# mu&h mo#e in-de'th dis&ussions o) this see A. Aei"e#
2udaism and Islam and A.I. -atsh 2udaism in Islam3 5i(lical and $almudic
5ac'grounds of the Koran and its +ommentaries t,o &lassi& ,o#ks on the sub<e&t.
?23@ - E.". !. Bell $he &rigin of Islam in Its +hristian Environment '. 110J %ell
o'. &it. ''. 21C-221
?2B@ - A... Wensin&k Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam eds. /.A.!. Aibb and ..A.
-#ame#s '. 12DJ Wensin&k notes the #e'o#t o) E'i'hanius ?&a. 310-B03@ that Dhu 1l-
sha#a ?Dusha#a@ ,as ,o#shi''ed th#ou"h a ?'aa(ou@ lo&ated in 6et#a
=in ,hi&h ,o#d -a1ba is also '#obably &on&ealed= and that it is un&lea# ,hethe# the
te#m #e)e#s to the tem'le itsel) o# to the bla&k stone &ontained the#ein. /e also
notes that &e#tain '#e-Islami& A#abian t#ibes ,o#shi''ed at a sa&#ed '#e&in&t in
%indad &alled )hat al-Kaa(at
?25@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 5 Bk. 54 Mo. 122J see also +ol. 1 Bk. 12 Mo. DB0
,he#e Mohammed is enabled to 'e#&ei$e and unde#stand the &on$e#sation ,hi&h
some de$ils ha$e ,ith ea&h othe#.
?2C@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 53 Mo. B00 and +ol. B Bk. 5B Mo. B20
?2D@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. 1 Mo. 3
?24@ - %ee htt'NQQ,,,.ans,e#-islam.o#"QMuhammad.html )o# a detailed
in$esti"ation o) the simila#ities bet,een Mohammed1s e:'e#ien&es and those o)
shamans in many 'a"an &ultu#es.
?22@ - .. Bu#ton =Pin"uisti& E##o#s in the 0u#1an= 2ournal of Semitic Studies +ol.
33 ?1244@ Autumn '. 142 &itin" .alal al-Din as-%uyuti al-Itqan fi ulum al-1uran
2 'ts in 1 ?8ai#o 135B@ +ol. I ''. 143-14B
?30@ - Ibid.
?31@ - A. Dashti DE ;ears3 % Study of the 6rophetic +areer of "ohammed '. B4
?32@ - Ibid. '. 50
?33@ - A.A. %ho##osh Islam 8evealed3 % +hristian %ra(s View of Islam ''. 122-200
?3B@ - M. !a)i(ul-/a(( and 6. Me,ton =The 0u#IanN A#ammati&al E##o#s= &u##ently
)ound at %nswering Islam
?35@ - %ee ..A. Bellamy =%ome 6#o'osed Emendations to the Te:t o) the -o#an=
2ournal of the %merican &riental Society +ol. 113 ?1223@ Mo. B ''. 5C2-5D3
?3C@ - ..A. Bellamy =Mo#e 6#o'osed Emendations to the Te:t o) the -o#an=
2ournal of the %merican &riental Society +ol. 11C ?122C@ Mo. 2 ''. 12C-20B
?3D@ - %ho##osh o'. &it. '. 122 &itin" 6)ande# "i.an-ul-*aqq3 $he 5alance of
$ruth t#ans. W.%. Tisdall '. 2C3
?34@ - %ee A. Min"ana =%y#ia& In)luen&e on the %tyle o) the -o#an= 5ulletin of the
2ohn 8ylands 9i(rary +ol. 11 ?122D@ ''. DD-24 - A detailin" o) these &an be )ound
in my essay s'e&i)i&ally add#essin" this issue at
htt'NQQ,,,.studytoans,e#.netQislamQ'u#ea#abi&.html
?32@ - W.M. Watt GT,o Inte#estin" 8h#istian-A#abi& >sa"esH Early Islam3
+ollected %rticles '. DB
?B0@ - Ibid. '. D3
?B1@ - %. Bashea# G/ani)iyya and /a<<H Studies in Early Islamic $radition 8h. 1B
''. 12-20
?B2@ - 6. 8#one and M. 8ook *agarism '. 1CB n.35 and ''.1C2-1C3 n.1B
?B3@ - This ,as #e&ently t#anslated into En"lish as $he Syro-%ramaic 8eading of the
Koran3 % +ontri(ution to the )ecoding of the 9anguage of the Koran
?BB@ - %ee 8. Pu:enbe#" $he Syro-%ramaic 8eading of the Koran3 % +ontri(ution
to the )ecoding of the 9anguage of the Koran ''. 253-243 es'. ''. 2C2-2CB
?B5@ - Ibid ''. 24B-221
?BC@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 5B Mo. B30
?BD@ - 7o# a mo#e in-de'th look at the (u#ani& e##o#s in emby#olo"y see
htt'NQQ,,,.ans,e#in"-islam.o#"Q0u#anQ%&ien&eQala(a.html and
htt'NQQ,,,.ans,e#in"-islam.o#"Q0u#anQ%&ien&eQemb#yo.html on the Ans,e#in"
Islam ,ebsite.
?B4@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 55 Mo. 5BC
?B2@ - Al-Taba#i $ari'h al-rusul wal-mulu'3 $he *istory of al-$a(ari t#ans. 7.
!osenthal +ol. 1 '. 23B
?50@ - Ibid. ''. 23D-234
?51@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 5B Mo. B21
?52@ - Al-Taba#i o'. &it. '. 220
?53@ - Ibid. ''. 233-23B
?5B@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 5B Mo. B42
?55@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 5B Mo. B4B
?5C@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. D Bk. D1 Mo. C04
?5D@ - Al-Taba#i o'. &it. '. 2D4
?54@ - !. Bau$al =In$esti"ation on the 9#i"ins o) the Benben %toneN Was It An I#on
Meteo#ite;= )iscussions in Egyptology +ol. 1B ?1242@ ''. 5-1C
?52@ - %ee A.A. Wain,#i"ht =I#on in E"y't= 2ournal of Egyptian %rchaeology +ol.
14 ?1232@ '. 11
?C0@ - A.../. M&8all "eteorites and $heir &rigins '. 1D
?C1@ - A. Pu&as and .. /a##is %ncient Egyptian "aterials and Industries '. 50
?C2@ - E. Pittman =.esus in a 6#e-Islami& A#abi& Ins&#i'tion= $he "uslim -orld
+ol. B0 ?1250@ '. 1C.
?C3@ - Ibid. '. 14.
?CB@ - The
&
used abo$e is a "#a'hi&al #e'#esentation o) the GayinG a $oi&ed
'ha#yn"eal )#i&ati$e )ound in most %emiti& lan"ua"es but ,hi&h is $e#y di))i&ult )o#
Weste#ne#s to imitate as the#e is no #eal analo"ue in most Eu#o'ean lan"ua"es. It
&an be a''#o:imated by elon"atin" an GahhG sound in the ba&k o) the th#oat.
?C5@ - A. Deedat +hrist in Islam 8h. 2 )ound online at
htt'NQQ,,,.<amaat.netQ&isQ8h#istinIslam.html
?CC@ - htt'NQQans,e#in"-islam.o#"Q0u#anQ8ont#aQEinte#nal
Myth E3
Allah is the %ame as the
Aod o) the Bible
G9 s,ea# not by the moon the in&onstant moon
That monthly &han"es in he# &i#&led o#b
Pest that thy lo$e '#o$e like,ise $a#iable.H
- %hakes'ea#e 8omeo and 2uliet
Di))e#in" +ie,s o) the Matu#e o) the Deity
A Aod o) Po$e +e#sus a Aod o) /ate
6uttin" a Di))e#en&e Bet,een the /oly and >nholy
T#a&es o) 6#e-Islami& 6a"anism in Attitude and 6#a&ti&e
Allah as the 6#e-Islami& A#abian /i"h Aod
Ilah and the %ume#ian 9#i"ins o) Allah
Ente# the Moon Aod
Bel Baal and /ubal
Dusha#a - 6#oto-Islami& A#abian /i"h Aod
/adadQ!immon and the Islami& !ahman
What Does It All Mean;
9ne o) the most &ommon asse#tions that ,e hea# ,hen a &om'a#ison bet,een
Islam and the .udaeo-8h#istian t#adition is made is that both &on$entions
essentially ,o#shi' the same Aod. Allah it is said is me#ely anothe# name )o#
.eho$ah the Aod o) the Bible. %u&h statements a#e o)ten made by those ,ho a#e
attem'tin" to b#in" these dis'a#ate #eli"ions to"ethe# in the s'i#it o) e&umenism.
Pike,ise the &laim is also made by Muslims ,ho seek to assua"e 8h#istian and
.e,ish o''osition to Islam o)ten as a '#elude to dawah e:tendin" an =in$itation=
to a&&e't Islam that usually &omes at the end o) Muslim attem'ts at '#oselytism.
The su'e#)i&ial &ha#a&te#isti& o) monotheism is em'hasi*ed ,hile the $ast
di))e#en&es bet,een Aod and Allah a#e i"no#ed. +ast di))e#en&es the#e a#e indeed.
As ,ill be sho,n belo, the &ha#a&te#isti&s o) Allah and the Aod o) the Bible a#e
(uite di))e#ent. 7u#the# the o#i"in o) Allah ,ill be seen )#om WIT/IM the 'a"an
system o) the an&ient Mea# East not as an outside# and o''onent o) that system
,ho ne$e#theless ,as sometimes t#eated syn&#etisti&ally by &om'#omisin"
)ollo,e#s ?as ,as the &ase ,ith .eho$ah in the /eb#e, s&#i'tu#es@ but instead as
one ,ho ,as inte"#ally im'o#tant to 'a"an belie)s du#in" the lon" '#o&ess that
e$entually led to his monothei*ation.
Differing Vie!s of the ;ature of the Deity
The#e a#e many di))e#en&es bet,een the att#ibutes o) Aod and Allah. 7i#st the#e
is the att#ibute o) kno,ability the idea that human bein"s may kno, Aod and
en<oy a 'e#sonal #elationshi' ,ith the 8#eato#. Aod as /e is #e$ealed in the Bible
allo,s /imsel) to be kno,n and )ello,shi''ed ,ith on a 'e#sonal basis by those
,ho ha$e t#usted in /im th#ou"h /is %on .esus 8h#ist. .ohn 1DN3 says =And this is
li)e ete#nal that they mi"ht know thee the only t#ue Aod and .esus 8h#ist
,hom thou hast sent.= The Bible '#esents Aod as a Bein" ,ho intimately #e$eals
/imsel) to man and ,ho en&ou#a"es us to lea#n o) /im and ente# into e$e# &lose#
)ello,shi' ,ith /im. The Bible '#esents a Aod ,ho had a 'e#sonal #elationshi'
,ith Ab#aham su&h that Ab#aham ,as &alled =The )#iend o) Aod.= The Aod o) the
Bible ,ants )o# mankind to &ome to /im be &leansed o) thei# sins and en<oy this
&lose 'e#sonal )ello,shi'. =D#a, ni"h unto Aod and he will draw nigh to you.
8leanse you# hands ye sinne#sJ and 'u#i)y you# hea#ts ye double minded.= ?.ames
BN4@
8ont#ast this ,ith the Islami& des&#i'tion o) Allah as unkno,able. Indeed in Islam
it is &onside#ed blas'hemous to ='#esume= that one &an kno, Allah intimately o#
&laim any so#t o) &lose 'e#sonal )ello,shi' ,ith him. This theolo"i&al $ie,
de$elo'ed ea#ly in Islam and be&ame an im'o#tant )eatu#e o) Islami& theolo"y
bein" es'oused by Muslim thinke#s su&h as al-Aha*ali. %hehadi summa#i*es the
tea&hin"s o) this %u)i theolo"ian on this 'oint
=The end #esult o) the kno,led"e o) the Farifin Ked. note - a te#m denotin" =the
kno,e#s=L is thei# inability to kno, /im and thei# kno,led"e is in t#uth that they
do not kno, /im and that it is absolutely im'ossible )o# them to kno, /im.=
1
This $ie, is also unde#stood amon" mode#n Islami& s&hola#shi' ,he#e the
statement o) al-7a#u(i is #e'#esentati$e
=/e KAodL does not #e$eal /imsel) to anyone in any ,ay. Aod #e$eals only /is ,ill.
!emembe# one o) the '#o'hets asked Aod to #e$eal /imsel) and Aod told him 1Mo
it is not 'ossible )o# Me to #e$eal Mysel) to anyone1....This is Aod1s ,ill and that is
all ,e ha$e and ,e ha$e it in 'e#)e&tion in the 0u#1an. But Islam does not e(uate
the 0u#1an ,ith the natu#e o# essen&e o) Aod. It is the Wo#d o) Aod the
8ommandment o) Aod the Will o) Aod. But Aod does not #e$eal /imsel) to
anyone. 8h#istians talk about the #e$elation o) Aod /imsel) - by Aod o) Aod - but
that is the "#eat di))e#en&e bet,een 8h#istianity and Islam. Aod is t#ans&endent
and on&e you talk about sel)-#e$elation you ha$e hie#o'han&y and immanen&e and
then the t#ans&enden&e o) Aod is &om'#omised. 5ou may not ha$e &om'lete
t#ans&enden&e and sel)-#e$elation at the same time.=
2
Allah is &onside#ed by Muslims to be unkno,able t#ans&endent so e:alted that he
,ould ne$e# lo,e# himsel) to t#eat ,ith man on a 'e#sonal le$el o) )#iendshi' and
)ello,shi'. It is )o# this #eason that Muslims &onside# 8h#istian do&t#ines su&h as
the in&a#nation and the $i&a#ious atonement to be illo"i&al and blas'hemous - )#om
the MuslimIs 'e#s'e&ti$e Allah ,ould never take on the )o#m o# )lesh o) a human
bein" and &e#tainly ,ould ne$e# yield himsel) to die ho,e$e# tem'o#a#ily.
Be&ause the in&a#nation $i&a#ious atonement 'e#sonal sal$ation and othe# #elated
do&t#ines in 8h#istianity &a##y ,ith them the ne&essity o) immediate en&ounte#
,ith Aod by man they a#e &onside#ed una&&e'table in Islam ,hi&h tea&hes that
su&h en&ounte# ,ould ne$e# o&&u# that they ,ould be an insult to Allah. 5ousse)
states this ,ell ,hen he says
=When Muslims #e<e&t the &on&e't o) Aod-be&ome-man they also #e<e&t the
&on&e't o) a #elationshi' bet,een Aod and man ,hi&h is the essen&e o) 8h#istian
)aith. 6ut sim'ly Islam delineates a &on&e't o) Aod that ultimately is
i##e&on&ilable ,ith the 8h#istian Aos'el. Muslims do not belie$e that Aod ,ould
ha$e an inte#est in a 'e#sonal #elationshi' o) lo$e and )#iendshi' ,ith man mu&h
less that he a&tually ,ould ente# into human histo#y )o# the 'u#'ose o)
establishin" o# #athe# #e-establishin" su&h a #elationshi'....A&&o#din" to Muslims
di$inity and humanity a#e totally e:&lusi$e entities. They belie$e Aod #eally &ould
not ha$e ente#ed into human li)e and that the #elationshi' ,ith Aod en<oyed by
8h#istians is im'ossible. 7ello,shi' ,ith Aod ,hi&h is the #eli"ious e:'e#ien&e o)
the 8h#istian is unima"inable to Muslims. They &onside# the 8h#istian asse#tion
that man ,as &#eated in Aod1s o,n ima"e to be blas'hemous.=
3
/o,e$e# this Muslim $ie, o) AllahIs t#ans&enden&e and unkno,ability should be
unde#stood as bein" an ideal only )o# in '#a&ti&e the Muslim t#eatment o) Allah
only im'e#)e&tly att#ibutes t#ans&enden&e to him. As stated abo$e by al-7a#u(i
you may not ha$e &om'lete t#ans&enden&e and sel)-#e$elation at the same time.
5et al-7a#u(iIs statement is itsel) inte#nally &ont#adi&to#y. Muslims seek to
se'a#ate the #e$elation o) AllahIs !ill as )ound in the 0u#Ian )#om the #e$elation
o) Allah himsel). Akhta# attem'ts this se'a#ation as ,ell
GMuslims a#e not entitled to &laim that 1Allah is Po$e1 o# 1Allah is Wisdom.1 9nly
ad<e&ti$al des&#i'tions a#e att#ibuted to the di$ine bein" and these me#ely as they
bea# on the #e$elation o) AodIs ,ill )o# man. The #est #emains myste#ious.H
B
What &an be des&#ibed about Allah is his ,ill not his bein" natu#e o# essen&e.
5et this se'a#ation o) AllahIs ,ill )#om AllahIs natu#e seems (uite a#ti)i&ial. By
the #e$elation o) his ,ill Allah must ne&essa#ily be #e$ealin" somethin" about his
natu#e as ,ell. The ,ill o) a deity o#i"inates )#om the natu#e and essen&e o) that
deity. AllahIs ,ill must be a #e)le&tion o) AllahIs essential natu#e )o# i) Allah
,ants su&h-and-su&h to be done o# not done this desi#e stems )#om an unde#lyin"
#eason #ooted in his natu#e and bein". The Gad<e&ti$al des&#i'tionsH o) ,hi&h
Akhta# s'eaks in de)inin" and des&#ibin" the ,ill o) the di$ine bein" be&ome a
des&#i'tion o) the di$ine bein" himsel). The $e#y a&t o) #e$elation as seen in Islam
th#ou"h the a#ti)i&e o) the 0u#Ian ne"ates the &om'lete t#ans&enden&e o) Allah
)o# it de facto entails self-#e$elation o) some so#t o# anothe#.
As this a''lies to Islam it does indeed be&ome a''a#ent that the ideal o) the
'e#)e&t t#ans&enden&e o) Allah is not attained in Islam no matte# ho, mu&h the
t#aditional Islami& 'a#adi"m may desi#e )o# it to be so. /ie#o'han&y in )a&t does
ente# hea$ily into the Muslim t#adition and indeed )o#ms the enti#e basis o) the
Muslim &laim to )inality. The Islami& tea&hin" on the multitude o) '#e$ious
'#o'hets and the &ulmination $ia the 0u#Ian o) AllahIs #e'eated #e$elation to
man is 'e#)e&tly hie#o'hanti&. It in$ol$es Allah #elayin" his #e$elations to man
th#ou"h a se#ies o) inte#media#ies ?the an"el .ib#il and Mohammed@. This "i$in" o)
#e$elation then demands a &e#tain amount o) immanen&e o) ent#y into the
&#eated ,o#ld and inte#a&tion ,ith it. Indeed the 0u#Ian itsel) (uite o)ten de'i&ts
Allah as a&tin" ,ithin the uni$e#se in <ud"ment '#o$ision and so )o#th.
!e$elation to man by a deity ne&essitates some )o#m o) sel)-#e$elation at least i)
that #e$elation is to be &onside#ed in any ,ay &om'#ehensible by man. The 0u#Ian
&laims )o# itsel) to be both easily unde#stood ?BBN54@ and &lea# in its #i"htness as a
sou#&e o) do&t#ine ?24N3-5@. As su&h the (u#ani& &laims im'a#t a measu#ed amount
o) kno,ability to the ,ill o) Allah and hen&e to the nature o) Allah )#om ,hom
that ,ill o#i"inates and o) ,hom it is a #e)le&tion. /o,e$e# the &on)li&tin" desi#e
o) Muslims that Allah be t#ans&endent and unkno,able too hi"hly e:alted to e$e#
be kno,n and in any ,ay unde#stood by his &#eations '#odu&es a &e#tain double-
mindedness on the 'a#t o) Islami& theolo"y.
As su&h Islami& theolo"y )a&es a &e#tain tension a &on)li&t bet,een the desi#e to
maintain AllahIs &om'lete t#ans&enden&e and unkno,ability on the one hand and
on the othe# the sim'le #eality that i) a deity is to #elay any #e$elation to man o)
any so#t this ,ill ne&essa#ily demand a &e#tain le$el o) immanen&e and inte#a&tion
,ith the &#eated ,o#ld. It is at this 'oint that o#thodo: Islami& theolo"y makes a
Glea' o) )aithH not dissimila# )#om that ,hi&h ,as ad$o&ated by %o#en -ie#ke"aa#d
?in many ,ays the )ounde# o) mode#n e:istential 'hiloso'hy@ ,ho belie$ed that the
#ational and the lo"i&al &ould not su&&ess)ully be synthesi*ed ?in a diale&ti&al
sense@ ,ith )aith and the#e)o#e to ha$e )aith one needed to set aside ,hat #eason
told him and sim'ly Gbelie$eH. Muslims makes this lea' be&ause ha$in" dis'ensed
,ith the notion that Aod is a 'e#sonal Aod ,ho &ondes&ends to deal ,ith man in a
'e#sonal and #eal ,ay they still must a&&e't that the 0u#Ian is an a&t o)
#e$elation ,hi&h ,hethe# they like it o# not is an a&t o) self-#e$elation. /en&e
the unkno,able Allah has yet made kno,n somethin" about himsel) - the
#e&on&iliation o) the &ont#adi&tion is the Glea' o) )aithH that sets aside #eason and
a&&e'ts the Islami& '#o'osition on blind )aith. This &an be seen in al-Aha*aliIs
statement abo$e. The Gkno,e#sH a#e those ,ho kno, they do not kno, anythin"
about Allah. And yet des'ite the attem't to 'lay semanti& "ames to ha$e the
0u#Ian and belie$e it is the #e$elation o) the G,ill o) AllahH is to ha$e a book that
im'li&itly tells you somethin" about AllahIs natu#e and &ha#a&te#. The Gkno,e#H
the "ood Muslim the student o) the Islami& system must sim'ly a&&e't ,ithout
e$en ha$in" the bene)it o) an inte#nally-&onsistent theolo"i&al system. While al-
Aha*ali may ha$e been a %u)i ?,ho is yet &onside#ed la#"ely o#thodo: by %unnis@
and hen&e in&lined to,a#ds the mysti&al side o) matte#s the '#oblem #emains )o#
all se&ts ,ithin the Islami& #ealm.
What must be unde#stood about Islam is <ust ho, mu&h o) an e:istential and Me,
A"e 'hiloso'hi&al system it #eally is. GMe, A"e;H one mi"ht ask GWhat does Islam
ha$e to do ,ith 'o,e# &#ystals and %hi#ley Ma&Paine;H The ans,e# is GMothin"H -
i) ,e only look at e:te#nal t#a''in"s. /o,e$e# ,e &an see in Islam the same
unde#lyin" 'hiloso'hi&al '#o'ositions that 'e#$ade the outlook o) the
E:istentialists Me, A"e mo$ement and Easte#n #eli"ious thou"ht in "ene#al. We
ha$e '#e$iously seen the denial o) 'e#sonality and immanent &on&e#n that is
att#ibuted to Allah and the -ie#ke"aa#dian-style Glea' o) )aithG that is needed to
#e&on&ile the #ational ,ith the non-#ational in the Islami& system. The natu#al out-
)lo,in" o) this denial o) 'e#sonality to Allah is the ne&essa#y denial o) 'e#sonality
to AllahIs sla$es. I) ,e #emo$e )#om the e(uation a 'e#sonal Aod ,ho made man in
/is o,n ima"e ,ho has "i$en to man his 'e#sonal att#ibutes e:'#essly )o# the
'u#'ose o) bein" able to #ationally and #ealisti&ally inte#a&t ,ith the 'e#sonal Aod
then the need )o# 'e#sonality is #emo$ed )#om the &#eated bein". We end u' ,ith
the same la&k o) need )o# and &onse(uent de-em'hasis o) the indi$idual the
uni(ue 'e#sonality the distin&ti$e and i##e'la&eable (ualities o) ea&h 'e#son that
ma#k him o# he# o)) )#om all othe#s. Muslims &annot ha$e a 'e#sonal #elationshi'
,ith Allah be&ause that #e(ui#es t,o 'e#sonal bein"s inte#a&tin" ,ith one
anothe#. Instead Muslims &an only be AllahIs sla$es #edu&ed to me#e &o"s in the
ma&hine o) the Islami& system ,ith the Islami& ummah and the Islami& deen
a&tin" the 'a#t o) the all-en&om'assin" 9ne )ound in Easte#n thou"ht and in the
Me, A"e mo$ement. The indi$idual is subsumed into the Whole.
Anothe# as'e&t o) this e#asu#e o) the 'e#sonal Aod and /is #e'la&ement ,ith an
im'e#sonal deity is the elimination o) any absolute mo#al #i"ht o# ,#on".
E:isten&e be&omes meta'hysi&al #athe# than mo#al. Man is ,hat he is be&ause
that is his essential natu#e that has ne$e# &han"ed #athe# than be&ause he has a
s'e&ial #elationshi' to and ,ith his 8#eato#. This leads both to a )atalisti&
a&&e'tan&e o) li)eIs &i#&umstan&es as ,ell as an attitude o) mo#al #elati$ism. Bad
thin"s ha''en in li)e not as 8h#istianity 'osits be&ause o) the uni$e#sally
dest#u&ti$e '#in&i'le o) sin ,hi&h ,as int#odu&ed into &#eation at the 7all by a
)#ee-,ill a&t o) Adam a '#in&i'le that ,ill also as the Bible tea&hes one day be
e:'un"ed )#om the &#eated ,o#ld. Instead ,hate$e# ha''ens is so be&ause that is
ho, Allah ,ills it. This is not mu&h di))e#ent )#om the /indu '#in&i'le o) the
ka#mi& &y&le in ,hi&h e$e#y e$ent and e$e#y li)e &i#&umstan&e is myste#iously
"o$e#ned by the unde#lyin" a&tion o) the unkno,able uni$e#sal All. In su&h a
system deeds a#e not Gmo#alH based u'on ho, they #elate to some absolute
standa#d o) #i"ht and ,#on" a"ainst ,hi&h su&h a&ts a#e to be measu#ed. Instead
deeds a#e <ud"ed in a situational &onte:t #elated to the +edi& '#in&i'le o) GdutyH
- any 'e#son any animal any 'lant is G<ud"edH on the basis o) ,hethe# it )ul)ills
the #ole assi"ned to it ?)o# this 'a#ti&ula# li)e@ by the ka#mi& &y&le. /en&e i) you
a#e a thie) it is G#i"htH )o# you to steal be&ause that is the duty assi"ned you by
you# lot in li)e and so )o#th. Mo#als and ethi&s be&ome enti#ely situational.
Des'ite the 'o'ula# mis&on&e'tion that Islam is a system o) #i"idly established
#ules and mo#es the #elation o) the Islami& system to mo#al (uestions is a&tually
(uite situational. This &omes 'a#tly as a #esult o) the )a&t that the 0u#Ian by
itsel) is in many &ases inade(uate to add#ess (uestions that &ome u' in li)e. 9ne
e:am'le o) this ,ould be the #elation o) the Ginhe#itan&e la,sH in Suwar BN11-12
and BN1DC. These statutes settin" u' #ules )o# ho, mu&h o) a manIs estate $a#ious
o) his #elations a#e to #e&ei$e u'on his death in many &ases end u' yieldin"
mathemati&ally im'ossible #esults ,hen you be"in to 'lu" in $a#ious 'ossible sets
o) inhe#itin" #elati$es. In some &ases you &an end u' ,ith 2Q4 o# 1DQ1C o) a manIs
estate bein" di$ided outO To "et a#ound this as ,ell as a#ound othe# sund#y
'#oblems ,ith the (u#ani& #e$elation Islami& theolo"y has t#aditionally #elied
u'on the sunnat and the ahadith to G)ill in the "a'sG so to s'eak. /en&e a book
,hi&h is su''osedly di$ine #e$elation )#om Allah only be&omes &om'#ehensible in
&e#tain 'a#ts ,hen it #e&ei$ed the modi)yin" additions o) these othe# sets o)
#eli"ious te:ts - te:ts that all sides a"#ee ,e#e autho#ed by men. As one &an
ima"ine this has '#odu&ed a "ood deal o) &on)usion and &ont#adi&tion o$e# the
&entu#ies ,ith some theolo"ians 'ointin" to the 0u#Ian and sayin" it tea&hes one
thin" and othe#s 'ointin" to the same 'la&e in the book and sayin" it tea&hes
somethin" totally the o''osite - all on the autho#ity o) a hadith o# a sunnah that
has the ba&kin" o) someone o# anothe# behind it )#om ,ay ba&k ,hen. /en&e t,o
Muslims &an look to the same $e#se in the 0u#Ian #ely u'on t,o di))e#ent man-
made autho#ities and a##i$e at o''osite &on&lusions based u'on the #elati$e mo#al
o# ethi&al o# theolo"i&al standa#ds o) thei# autho#ity. The 'oint ho,e$e# is that
they &an do this and neither one is wrong4 since they (oth are (asing their
opinions upon an GacceptedH traditional source. They may disa"#ee ,ith ea&h
othe# e$en to the 'oint o) $iolen&e but neithe# &an e$e# #eally "i$e mo#e than his
o,n o# some othe# manIs o'inion as to ho, o# ,hy the othe# is not #i"ht. 9# they
&an both a&&e't a"ain by a lea' o) )aith that they a#e both #i"ht. Eithe# ,ay thei#
a''#oa&h ,hi&h is en&ou#a"ed by the #ealities o) the Islami& system as they
'e#tain to IslamIs holy te:ts is #elati$isti&.
And it is this #elati$ism that unde#lies the Islami& attitude to,a#ds GsinH. As ,ill be
seen in mo#e de'th belo, IslamIs attitude to,a#ds sin is little di))e#ent )#om that
e:e#&ised by the an&ient %emiti& 'a"anisms that e:isted all a&#oss the an&ient Mea#
East. It su#'#ises many to )ind this out but Islam does not tea&h that man has a sin
natu#e as 8h#istianity does ,hi&h o#i"inally be"an as a #esult o) the )#ee-,ill
&hoi&e to disobey Aod in the Aa#den o) Eden. Islam belie$es that man is basi&ally
"ood but that he e##s be&ause o) ,eakness o# i"no#an&e. /en&e manIs sin is
meta'hysi&al and not mo#al. 8h#istianityIs $ie, o) sin is that o) it bein" a mo#al
'#oblem - man has a sin natu#e but this sin natu#e ente#ed in be&ause o) a &hoi&e
to disobey Aod by $iolatin" a di$inely-'#o$ided absolute mo#al standa#d. IslamIs
$ie, is meta'hysi&al - man sins be&ause that is <ust ,hat sometimes ha''ens that
is ho, he is the#e ,as no 'oint at ,hi&h a mo#al line ,as &#ossed ,hi&h #esulted
in man )allin" )#om "#a&e and be&omin" ?a &han"e-indi&atin" ,o#d@ '#one to sin.
/en&e the#e is no &onse(uent need in the Islami& system )o# man to be #ene,ed
to "#a&e as the#e is in 8h#istianity. In Islam ,hen a man sins it is <ust be&ause
that is ,hat he does and i) he ,ants to a$oid the 'unishment )o# sin he me#ely
'e#)o#ms a #itual o# asks )o# )o#"i$eness - but the#e is no need )o# Aod to e:e#&ise
/imsel) 'e#sonally to b#id"e the "a' bet,een Aod and sinne#. In tu#n ,e )ind that
in Islam the#e is no t#uly absolute &on&#ete mo#al system established. Islami&
mo#ality is a&tually (uite situational. In some &i#&umstan&es ?as ,ill be sho,n
late#@ it is (uite a&&e'table )o# a Muslim to lie to &heat to steal and e$en to
kill i) these ,ill be to the bene)it o) the Islami& system and the ad$an&ement o)
the ummah. These ha$e nothin" to do ,ith the int#i&a&ies o) any unde#lyin"
&om'le: yet absolute mo#al &ode. !athe# they de'end enti#ely on the situation
not unde#'innin" '#in&i'le. E$en ho##ible a&ts endea$o#in" as they do to ad$an&e
the G"#eate# "oodH o) e:'andin" the 'o,e# and &ont#ol o) the Islami& system end
u' bein" situationally G"oodH in mu&h the same sense as the thie)-bo#n-to-be-a-
thie) in the +edi& system. The duty o) Muslims is to see the #ule o) AllahIs deen
established o$e# the ,hole ea#th so to do a&ts that ,ould be $ie,ed as G,#on"H
in a .udaeo-8h#istian &onte:t a#e a&&e'ted as bein" Gne&essa#yH to )ul)ill the
assi"ned #ole o) the Muslim.
As su&h ,hile it ,ould &e#tainly be sim'le-minded to state that Islam is
synonymous ,ith the Me, A"e mo$ement o# ,ith the Easte#n #eli"ions ,e must
&on&ede that ,e &an see ,ithin it many o) the same unde#lyin" '#in&i'les and
systems o) thou"ht - all o) ,hi&h a#e in sha#' &ont#ast ,ith the .udaeo-8h#istian
,o#ld$ie, t#aditionally )ound in the West ,ith its em'hasis on a 'e#sonal Aod and
an un&han"in" absolute mo#al system.
In &ont#ast to ,hat has been said abo$e is the &ha#a&te#isti& o) the bibli&al Aod1s
'e#sonal natu#e. Aod as #e$ealed in the Bible is a 'e#son not a )o#&e. Aod has
emotions a ,ill an intelle&t /e #easons /e &an be ent#eated /e s'eaks and so
on. As su&h Aod deals ,ith mankind on a 'e#sonal basis and this )o#ms the
ba&kbone o) the )ello,shi' des&#ibed abo$e. The Aod o) the Bible has &hosen to
#e$eal /imsel) to mankind and to in$ol$e /imsel) in the a))ai#s o) mankind in su&h
a ,ay thus dealin" 'e#sonally ,ith the &#eations ,hom /e lo$ed enou"h to send
/is %on to die )o#. The 'e#sonality o) Aod and the desi#e )o# )ello,shi' ,ith /is
&#eations ,ho a#e se'a#ated )#om /im by sin thusly &ombined )ind thei#
&ulmination in 8h#ist1s ,o#k on the &#oss. =The#e)o#e bein" <usti)ied by )aith ,e
ha$e 'ea&e ,ith Aod th#ou"h ou# Po#d .esus 8h#ist.= ?!omans 5N1@ Th#ou"h 8h#ist1s
death and #esu##e&tion man is able to t#ust in /is sa&#i)i&e and be sa$ed to a
#elationshi' o) 'ea&e and )ello,shi' ,ith Aod. Aod has ,illed that man should
&ome to 'ea&e ,ith Aod th#ou"h /is %on the Po#d .esus 8h#ist.
The 'e#sonality o) the Aod o) the Bible is demonst#ated in that distin&ti$e do&t#ine
o) 8h#istianity that Muslims des'ise the most - the do&t#ine o) the T#inity. The
do&t#ine o) the T#inity entails a sel)-mani)estation o) Aod to man in a ,ay that &an
be &onside#ed hi"hly inte#a&ti$e. Man &an kno, Aod th#ou"h the $a#ious
mani)estations that Aod has &hosen by /is o,n so$e#ei"n ,ill to em'loy in /is
dealin"s ,ith /is &#eations. /e is the 7athe# the one )#om ,hom all '#o$ision
autho#ity and 'o,e# )lo,. As the %on /e is the a"enti$e Po"os the Wo#d o) Aod
both '#ein&a#nate and made )lesh a&ti$e in b#in"in" tan"ible and kno,able
#e$elation o) Aod to man th#ou"h /is o,n sel) and inte#a&ti$e ,ith /is &#eations
as a means o) #esto#in" human bein"s to a #i"ht #elationshi' ,ith Aod th#ou"h /is
sel)-sa&#i)i&e and subse(uent $i&to#y o$e# death and sin by /is #esu##e&tion. As the
%'i#it /e is the moti$e 'o,e# that o'e#ates to b#in" all the a&ts o) Aod to 'ass
)#om &#eation to #e"ene#ation to the )inal #esto#ation and ,ho also has a $e#y #eal
and 'e#sonal minist#y o) tea&hin" and &on$i&tion in the hea#ts o) AodFs &hild#en.
The inte#a&tion o) Aod ,ith man is intimately bound u' in his inte#a&tion ,ith
/imsel) and the 'ositional di))e#entiation o) the 6e#sons o) the Aodhead se#$es
the )un&tion o) allo,in" a &om'#ehensible sel)-#e$elation to the human bein"s ,ith
,hom Aod desi#es a 'e#sonal #elationshi'.
Wol)ha#t 6annenbe#" '#esents a st#on" &ase )o# the 'u#'ose o) AodIs t#iune
#e$elation o) /imsel) by lookin" at the ete#nity and Gtem'o#al ,holenessH o) Aod
inhe#ent in the T#inita#ian natu#e o) Aod and ho, it #elates to the ete#nal li)e
that Aod "i$es to those ,ho t#ust in /im
GThe di$ine e&onomy that mani)ests the a&ti$ities o) 7athe# %on and %'i#it
in&ludes the tem'o#al distin&tions bet,een &#eation in&a#nation and the )inal
&onsummation o) the ,o#ld. The unity o) immanent and e&onomi& T#inity se&u#es
these distin&tions to be si"ni)i&ant ,ithin the ete#nal li)e o) the immanent T#inity.
8on$e#sely ho,e$e# the same unity o) the di$ine e&onomy and the immanent li)e
o) the T#inity "ua#antees the ,holeness in the =e$ent)ul a&tuality= o) the di$ine
e&onomy. It does not "et se'a#ated in the &ou#se o) time but it o$e#&omes the
se'a#ateness o) ou# tem'o#al e:'e#ien&e and o) ou# )inite li)e in su&h a ,ay as to
let it 'a#ti&i'ate in the ,holeness o) Aod1s ete#nal li)e.H
5
In essen&e 6annenbe#" is sayin" that AodIs T#inita#ian-ness is mani)ested to us
both immanently ?in AodIs dealin"s ,ithin /is &#eation@ and e&onomi&ally ?Aod
dealin"s ,ith /imsel)@. The Ge&onomi& T#inityH o) the 7athe# %on and %'i#itIs
inte##elation )o&usin" on thei# tem'o#al #elationshi's to ea&h othe# ?AodFs
ete#nality outside o) time as ,e kno, it@ ,hi&h ,as e:'ounded u'on ea#lie# in his
essay entails AodIs 'ossession o) ,hole and &om'lete li)e and bein" in an ete#nal
e:t#a-tem'o#al sense. The unity o) this e&onomi& as'e&t o) the T#inity ,ith /is
immanent as'e&t as mani)ested by AodIs T#inita#ian dealin"s ,ith man allo,s
man to be able by #es'ondin" to AodIs "#a&e to 'a#ti&i'ate in that ete#nality and
totality o) li)e. This ne&essa#ily entails a &lose &ommunion ,ith Aod )o# it is only
th#ou"h the a&ti$ity o) all th#ee membe#s o) the Aodhead that "#a&e is e:tended
and ete#nal li)e "i$en to the #e'entant sinne#. 6annenbe#" else,he#e summa#i*es
the ne&essity o) AodIs uni'lu#ality )o# /is natu#e as a 'e#sonal Aod
GThe bibli&al Aod is 'e#sonal in his ele&ti$e ,ill and a&tion and as he is #e$ealed as
7athe# by his %on .esus 8h#ist. And be&ause as 7athe# he is #elated to his %on )o#
all ete#nity he is 'e#sonal in ete#nity in the unity o) 7athe# %on and %'i#it. In
them the uns'eakable di$ine myste#y is ete#nally &on&#ete. The#e)o#e one &annot
ha$e one Aod as 'e#sonal ,ithout the t#inita#ian 'e#sons.H
C
6ea#&ey ite#ates this "ene#al $ie, in a mo#e do,n-to-ea#th )ashion
G%in&e %e'tembe# 11 ,e ha$e hea#d it said a"ain and a"ain that Islam is <ust
anothe# Ab#ahami& )aith--as thou"h it ,e#e not #eally $e#y di))e#ent )#om
8h#istianity. %o it may &ome as a su#'#ise to lea#n that the Aod o) Islam is a&tually
mo#e akin to the non'e#sonal Absolute o) neo-6latonism and /induism than to the
Aod o) the Bible.
G5et it is t#ue and the &ent#al #eason is that Islam #e<e&ts the T#inity. Without
that &on&e't it &annot hold a )ully 'e#sonal &on&e'tion o) Aod. Why not; Be&ause
many att#ibutes o) 'e#sonality &an be e:'#essed only ,ithin a #elationshi'--thin"s
like lo$e &ommuni&ation em'athy and sel)-"i$in".
GT#aditional 8h#istian do&t#ine maintains a 'e#sonal &on&e'tion o) Aod be&ause it
tea&hes that these inte#'e#sonal att#ibutes ,e#e e:'#essed )#om all ete#nity
amon" the th#ee 6e#sons o) the T#inity. A "enuinely 'e#sonal Aod #e(ui#es distin&t
=6e#sons= be&ause that alone makes it 'ossible )o# lo$e and &ommuni&ation to
e:ist ,ithin the Aodhead itsel).H
D
In sho#t the $e#y )a&t o) the T#inita#ian do&t#ine illuminates to us a 'e#sonal Aod.
8h#istIs '#aye# )o# the &hu#&hes in the Aos'el o) .ohn s'eaks o) the )a&t o) AodIs
desi#e )o# man to sha#e in that ete#nal li)e
GThese ,o#ds s'ake .esus and li)ted u' his eyes to hea$en and said 7athe# the
hou# is &omeJ "lo#i)y thy %on that thy %on also may "lo#i)y theeN As thou hast "i$en
him 'o,e# o$e# all )lesh that he should "i$e ete#nal li)e to as many as thou hast
"i$en him. And this is li)e ete#nal that they mi"ht kno, thee the only t#ue Aod
and .esus 8h#ist ,hom thou hast sent.H ?.ohn 1DN1-3@
The %on is "i$en 'o,e# by the 7athe# ?an inte#a&tion bet,een t,o o) the 6e#sons
o) the Aodhead@ to "i$e ete#nal li)e to those ,ho ha$e been "i$en to /im by the
7athe#. 8h#ist is said to ha$e G'o,e# o$e# all )leshH ,hi&h is an im'o#tant
element in /is "i$in" o) ete#nal li)e and alludes to /is &a'a&ity as Aod to #esto#e
&om'lete ,holeness to the sa$ed sinne# ,holeness ,hi&h &ulminates in the
e$entual "lo#i)i&ation and )inali*ation o) the sal$ation o) the belie$e# by 8h#ist
G,ho shall &han"e ou# $ile body that it may be )ashioned like unto his "lo#ious
body a&&o#din" to the ,o#kin" ,he#eby he is able e$en to subdue all thin"s unto
himsel).H ?6hili''ians 3N21@ This is a di#e&t inte#a&tion o) Aod ,ith man that
)inishes the ,o#k o) sal$ation and #esto#ation that be"ins ,hen a sinne# belie$es on
8h#ist and is <usti)ied be)o#e the 7athe# by )aith. The #esult o) this '#o&ess ,hi&h
is nothin" less than the e$e#lastin" 'e#sonal )ello,shi' o) the belie$e# ,ith Aod
is sho,n in 8h#istIs '#aye#
GThat they may all be oneJ as thou 7athe# a#t in me and I in thee that they also
may be one in usN that the ,o#ld may belie$e that thou hast sent me. And the
"lo#y ,hi&h thou "a$est me I ha$e "i$en themJ that they may be one e$en as ,e
a#e oneN I in them and thou in me that they may be made 'e#)e&t in oneJ and
that the ,o#ld may kno, that thou hast sent me and hast lo$ed them as thou
hast lo$ed me.H ?.ohn 1DN21-23@
This oneness is not 'antheisti& o# 'anentheisti&. The Bible &lea#ly sho,s that
belie$e#s ,ill #etain thei# 'e#sonal indi$iduality th#ou"hout the ete#nity to &ome
<ust as the th#ee 6e#sons o) the T#inity #etain thei# distin&t 'e#sonhood. But
belie$e#s in the ete#nity to &ome ,ill be one <ust as the 7athe# and %on a#e one -
the#e ,ill be su&h a unity o) 'u#'ose and hea#t that thei# )ello,shi' ,ill a''#oa&h
the ontolo"i&al unity o) the T#inity the sha#in" o) the same essen&e and bein" o)
Aod by the th#ee mani)estations by ,hi&h /e &hooses to #e$eal /imsel). This unity
is in Aod made 'ossible by the inte#a&tions o) a lo$in" and 'e#sonal Aod ,ho a&ts
by /is o,n inte#nal &ounsel )o# the bene)it o) /is &#eations.
The statement that GAod lo$es usH only be&omes #ele$ant ,hen ,e unde#stand
that Aod is a uni'lu#al Bein" ,hose lo$e to,a#ds us and the lo$e ,e a#e to sho,
to ea&h othe# mi##o#s that ,hi&h e:ists bet,een the 6e#sons o) the Aodhead.
7#an&is %&hae))e# 'ut it this ,ay
GThe $alidity and meanin" o) lo$e #ests u'on the #eality that lo$e e:ists bet,een
the 7athe# and the %on in the T#inity. When I say I lo$e instead o) this bein" a
nonsense ,o#d it has meanin". It is #ooted in ,hat has al,ays been in the
'e#sonal #elationshi' e:istin" in the T#inity be)o#e the uni$e#se ,as &#eated. ManIs
lo$e is not a '#odu&t o) &han&e that has no )ul)illment in ,hat has al,ays been.
Mo, lo$e is a thin" not only o) meanin" but o) beauty and ,onde# to be nou#ished
,ith <oy.H
4
To say then that an absolutely unita#ian "od su&h as Allah t#uly unde#stands and
is &a'able o) lo$e is to s'eak "ibbe#ish.
What should be )u#the# e$ident )#om this ,hole line o) #easonin" is that not only is
the #e$elation o) a deity th#ou"h the "i$in" o) a ,#itten s&#i'tu#e a )o#m o) sel)-
#e$elation but so is the a&t o) &#eation itsel). The Bible indi&ates this in !omans
1N20
G7o# the in$isible thin"s o) him )#om the &#eation o) the ,o#ld a#e &lea#ly seen
bein" unde#stood by the thin"s that a#e made e$en his ete#nal 'o,e# and
Aodhead so that they a#e ,ithout e:&use.H
.ust as the handin" do,n o) %&#i'tu#e &ontains ine:t#i&ably a $ie, o) the natu#e
and bein" o) Aod so does the &#eati$e a&t o) Aod in )ashionin" )o#min" o#de#in"
establishin" the )#uits o) /is ,o#k. When ,e &onside# ou# &ommon e:'e#ien&e o)
the ,o#ld a#ound us ,e see the T#inita#ian natu#e o) Aod #e$ealed to us. We
e:'e#ien&e e:isten&e in th#ee dimensions - hei"ht ,idth and len"th - ,hi&h to
ha$e any #eal meanin" to us must all be '#esent inte#t,ined inse'a#able. We
sim'ly &annot t#uly &om'#ehend an e:isten&e ,ith only one o# t,o o) these
dimensions. E$en a 'ie&e o) 'a'e# d#a,in"s u'on ,hi&h ,e usually think o) as
t,o-dimensional still e:ists in th#ee dimensions )o# e$en a sin"le sheet has some
thi&kness. Pike,ise ou# ,hole &om'#ehension o) time #ests u'on the inte#t,ined
ine:t#i&able inte#'lay o) 'ast '#esent and )utu#e ea&h o) ,hi&h la&ks any so#t o)
&om'#ehensible meanin" ,ithout the othe#s. 9u# ,hole &on&e'tion o) the uni$e#se
#ests u'on the inte#'lay o) s'a&e time and matte#Qene#"y ?,hi&h a#e #eally the
same thin" 'e# EinsteinIs e(uation E\m&
2
@ all o) ,hi&h a#e ne&essa#y )o# us to
ha$e any meanin")ul unde#standin" o) ou# $e#y e:isten&e. We &ommonly
e:'e#ien&e in the 'hysi&al uni$e#se only th#ee 'hases - solids li(uids and "ases
?o) ,hi&h 'lasmas a#e only a s'e&ial )o#m@. All matte# e:ists in one o) these th#ee
states by e$e#yday e:'e#ien&e yet this matte# &an inte#&han"e de'endin" u'on
en$i#onmental &onditions bet,een these states o) bein" yet it #emains the same
substan&e - the atoms in an i#on ba# #emain i#on e$en ,hen it melts and e$en
,hen it $a'o#i*es.
Thus the $e#y &#eated ,o#ld a#ound us testi)ies to the natu#e and essen&e o) its
8#eato# - a ,o#ld in ,hi&h t#inity a)te# inse'a#able t#inity demonst#ates that its
make# is one Aod ,ho yet e:ists as a t#i-unity o) /is o,n mani)estations ,ho all
e:ist as inte"#al &ontem'o#aneous and &om'letely &onti"uous membe#s o) the
Aodhead. .ust as ,e &annot e$en &on&ei$e o) mu&h less #ationally e:'e#ien&e an
e:isten&e o) len"th and ,idth ,ithout hei"ht so also &an it sim'ly not be that Aod
,ould e:ist as t,o o) /is 'e#sons ,ithout the thi#d - itIs not a matte# o) a sum o)
'a#ts but #athe# o) &om'lete e:'#ession o) bein". As di))i&ult as this may be )o# us
to unde#stand the testimony o) AodIs natu#e to us in /is &#eation all a#ound us
a))i#ms the t#uth o) /is T#inita#ian natu#e. And )u#the# it is the T#inita#ian natu#e
o) &#eation that e$en makes this &#eation sensible and &om'#ehensible to us in the
)i#st 'la&e - ,ithout this t#inita#ianness e:isten&e as ,e kno, it ,ould not be
'ossible. It is this t#inita#ianness that enables ou# li)e to e:ist ou# senses and
#eason to )un&tion and ou# 'e#sonalities to inte#'lay ,ith ea&h othe# and ,ith
Aod. 6e#sonal &om'#ehensible #easonable e:isten&e ,ould not e:ist ,e#e it not
)o# the T#inity o) the Aodhead th#ou"h ,hi&h Aod e:'#esses /is 'e#sonality and
'e#sonal dealin"s ,ith /is &#eations.
A"ain this all &ont#asts sha#'ly ,ith the Allah o) the 0u#1an ,ho is a non-'e#sonal
deity. /e is a deity to ,hom Islam &onside#s it blas'hemous to att#ibute
'e#sonhood. Allah is tau"ht to be so t#ans&endent that to t#y to unde#stand him as
a 'e#sonal bein" is to lo,e# him to the le$el o) his &#eation and deny his "odhood.
Allah is '#esented in the 0u#1an as bein" )a#-o)) and aloo) t#ans&endent and
im'e#sonal to be ,o#shi''ed and )ea#ed but ne$e# )ello,shi''ed ,ith o#
a''#oa&hed in a 'e#sonal )amilia# manne#. E$en ,hen Allah is des&#ibed as bein"
=nea#e# to him than ?his@ <u"ula# $ein= ?Surah 50N1C@ this is mo#e a #e)e#en&e to
AllahIs omni'#esen&e than it is to his 'e#sonal &a#e o# &on&e#n. It is a statement o)
impersonal immanen&e not the 'e#sonal immanen&e o) the Bibli&al Aod.
As ,ill be seen belo, the Islami& Allah is the end #esult o) a "ood deal o)
theolo"i&al e$olution )#om 'a"an '#e-Islami& #eli"ious systems in the Middle East.
The &on&e'tion o) Allah ideali*ed by Islam is not )a# #emo$ed )#om that o) the
henotheisti& Ghi"h "odsH that e:isted in many an&ient Mea# East #eli"ions. Amon"
many 'eo'les it ,as &ommon to ha$e a 'antheon o) "ods o# demi-"ods that 'a"an
,o#shi''e#s sou"ht to inte#a&t ,ith on a daily basis th#ou"h the ,o#kin" o) ma"i&al
o# '#o'itiato#y #ituals - seekin" blessin" )o# &#o's askin" )o# #ain et&. In most o)
these systems a Ghi"h "odH e:isted a bein" thou"ht to mo#e o# less #ule o$e# the
'antheon o) lesse# "ods to ,hom mo#e e:'li&it (ualities o) uni$e#sality ,e#e
att#ibuted but ,ho in most &ases ,as ina&&essible to man. These hi"h "ods ,e#e
)a#-o)) aloo) disinte#ested in the "ene#al a))ai#s o) the ,o#ld ,hi&h may $e#y ,ell
ha$e emanated )#om them. The Muslim &on&e'tion o) Allah is in many ,ays simila#
to this in his im'e#sonality and unkno,ability.
These di))e#en&es &an be sho,n in the dis'a#ity bet,een the '#aye#s o) 8h#istians
and those o) Muslims. 8h#istians a#e told to ='#ay ,ithout &easin"= ?I Thessalonians
5N1D@ and &an a''#oa&h Aod at any time as /is &hild#en &#yin" out to /im as a
&hild ,ould to a 'a#ent. 8h#istians may &#y =Abba KdaddyL 7athe#O= ?&). !omans
4N15@ and kno, that thei# hea$enly 7athe# hea#s and &a#es about thei# needs and
&on&e#ns. Muslims on the othe# hand a#e #e(ui#ed to make #itual '#aye#s )i$e
times in a day '#aye#s ,hi&h a#e #e'etitious and memo#i*ed 'e#)e&tly desi"ned
)o# add#essin" and a''easin" a t#ans&endent )o#&e ,ith no 'e#sonal inte#est in its
&#eatu#es. Additional '#aye#s )#om a Muslim must still be add#essed to an
unkno,able im'e#sonal bein" o) ,hom the#e is no &e#tain kno,led"e that he
&a#es o# takes noti&e.
' /od of 9oe Versus a /od of 0ate
Aod as #e$ealed in the Bible is a Aod o) lo$e ,ho &a#es )o# and desi#es the best
)o# /is &#eations. /e is me#&i)ul )ull o) "#a&e and &om'assion and seeks to #esto#e
a humanity alienated )#om him by sin. =7o# Aod so lo$ed the ,o#ld that he sent his
only be"otten %on that ,hosoe$e# belie$eth in him should not 'e#ish but ha$e
e$e#lastin" li)e.= ?.ohn 3N1C@ We a#e told in the Bible that Aod does not desi#e the
damnation o) any soul but ,ants all to &ome to /im th#ou"h 8h#ist )o# )o#"i$eness
o) thei# sins and #e&e'tion o) ete#nal li)e. It is Aod =Who ,ill ha$e all men to be
sa$ed and to &ome unto the kno,led"e o) the t#uth.= ?I Timothy 2NB@. Aod in his
"#eat me#&y to,a#ds mankind has '#o$ided to mankind an Ad$o&ate be)o#e /is
hea$enly th#one .esus 8h#ist ,ho inte#&edes on behal) o) the 8h#istian be)o#e the
7athe# and ,ho shed /is blood to )#ee lost and sin)ul men and ,omen )#om the
,#ath o) Aod a"ainst sin. =My little &hild#en these thin"s ,#ite I unto you that ye
sin not. And i) any man sin ,e ha$e an ad$o&ate ,ith the 7athe# .esus 8h#ist the
#i"hteous. And he is the '#o'itiation )o# ou# sinsN and not )o# ou#s only but also )o#
the sins o) the ,hole ,o#ld.= ?I .ohn 2N1-2@ These $e#ses illust#ate the 'osition and
a&ti$ity o) 8h#ist as both %a$io# and Ad$o&ate. /e is the '#o'itiation )o# ou# sins
meanin" that the sheddin" o) /is sinless blood in sa&#i)i&e )o# us satis)ied the
demands o) Aod1s ,#ath a"ainst sin and that this a&t o) "#a&e ,as 'e#)o#med )o#
the ,hole ,o#ld )o# e$e#y man ,oman and &hild ,ho has li$ed and e$e# ,ill
li$e. Pike,ise /e is the Ad$o&ate the one ,ho stands be)o#e the th#one o) the
7athe# and 'leads /is o,n #i"hteousness on behal) o) those ,ho ha$e t#usted in
/im as %a$io# i) ,e sin.
This &ont#asts ,ith the (u#ani& Allah ,ho hates sinne#s and has made no '#o$ision
)o# thei# #e&on&iliation to him. =..and Allah lo$eth not those that do ,#on".= ?Surah
3N1B0@ - =8ontend not on behal) o) su&h as bet#ay thei# o,n soulsJ )o# Allah lo$eth
not one "i$en to 'e#)idy and sin.= ?Surah BN10D@ - =Those ,ho #e<e&t 7aith and do
,#on"- Allah ,ill not )o#"i$e them no# "uide them to any ,ay- E:&e't the ,ay o)
/ell to d,ell the#ein )o# e$e#. And this to Allah is easy.= ?Surah BN1C4-1C2@ -
=....And i) they tu#n a,ay be assu#ed that )o# some o) thei# &#ime it is Allah1s
'u#'ose to 'unish them. And t#uly most men a#e #ebellious.= ?Surah 5NB2@ - =The
>nbelie$e#s ,ill be add#essedN =A#eate# ,as the a$e#sion o) Allah to you than ?is@
you# a$e#sion to you#sel$es seein" that ye ,e#e &alled to the 7aith and ye used to
#e)use.= ?Surah B0N10@ As '#esented in the 0u#1an Allah is a $indi&ti$e deity ,ho
desi#es to a))li&t sinne#s not sa$e them. This unde#standin" o) Allah seems to be
the o#thodo: Islami& 'osition. Mote the 'assa"e belo,N
=This is the &o$enant ,hi&h you make ,ith Allah as soon as you #e&ite 9a ilaha
illallah and in doin" so you make the ,hole ,o#ld you# ,itness. I) you $iolate this
&o$enant you# hand and )eet the minutest hai# on you# body and e$e#y 'a#ti&le o)
the ea#th and o) the hea$en be)o#e ,hi&h you made that )alse de&la#ation ,ill
#ende# e$iden&e a"ainst you in the &ou#t o) Allah ,he#e you ,ill be in the do&k in
su&h a hel'less &ondition that not a sin"le de)en&e ,itness ,ill be a$ailable to you.
Mo Ad$o&ate o# Ba##iste# ,ill be the#e to 'lead you# &ase....=
2
As demonst#ated he#e b#eakin" the &o$enant made ,ith Allah ,hi&h is the
&o$enant to li$e and abide by Islami& la, and '#a&ti&e ,ill #esult in bein" hauled
be)o#e the &ou#t o) Allah &om'letely de)enseless ,ith no ho'e o) e$e# bein"
eithe# #edeemed )#om you# sin o# o) bein" sa$ed )#om the ,#ath o) Allah. 9)
&ou#se the ,ay in ,hi&h this &o$enant is b#oken is by a'ostati*in" )#om Islam not
by &ommittin" some othe# "#oss o# ne"li"ent 'e#sonal sin. Indeed the main th#ust
o) the (u#ani& $e#ses mentioned abo$e seems to be the &ondemnation o) those
,ho =bet#ay thei# o,n soul= and ,ho ,e#e =&alled to the )aith= and #e)used
essentially &hoosin" to #e<e&t Islam.
7u#the# the 0u#1an &ontains a "#eat deal about the ty'es o) 'eo'le ,ho Allah
hates usually unde#stood to be those ,ho ha$e #e<e&ted Islam o# ,ho ,ill not
&on$e#t to itN
T#ans"#esso#s ?2N120@
>n"#ate)ul and ,i&ked &#eatu#es ?2N2DC@
Those ,ho #e<e&t )aith ?3N32J 30NB5@
Those ,ho do ,#on" ?3N5D 1B0J B2NB0@
The a##o"ant the $ain"lo#ious ?BN3CJ 1CN23J 31N14J 5DN23@
9ne "i$en to 'e#)idy and &#ime ?BN10D@
Those ,ho do mis&hie) ?5NCBJ 24NDD@
Those "i$en to e:&ess ?5N4D@
Waste#s ?CN1B1J DN31@
Those ,ho t#es'ass beyond bounds ?DN55@
T#ea&he#ous ?4N54@
>n"#ate)ul ?22N34@
Those ,ho e:ult in #i&hes ?24NDC@
This does not #e&on&ile ,ith the Aod o) the Bible ,ho ,hile hatin" sin and the
'e#)o#man&e o) sin also lo$es sinne#s and seeks to tu#n them )#om thei# ,i&ked
,ays. =But Aod &ommendeth his lo$e to,a#d us in that ,hile we were yet
sinners 8h#ist died )o# us.= ?!omans 5N4@ This 'assa"e illust#ates to us Aod1s
ama*in" lo$e /is ,illin"ness to send /is %on .esus 8h#ist to die in ou# 'la&e to
take the ,#ath a"ainst sin u'on ou#sel$es e$en thou"h ,e a#e all sinne#s. 7u#the#
Aod1s attitude to,a#d the damnation and 'unishment o) sinne#s is sho,n in E*ekiel
14N23 =/a$e I any 'leasu#e at all that the ,i&ked should die; saith the Po#d A9DN
and not that he should #etu#n )#om his ,ays and li$e;= While Allah may hate all
,ho a#e not #i"hteous and e$en seek thei# damnation Aod lo$es them and has
made abundant '#o$ision )o# them to #e&ei$e )o#"i$eness and ete#nal li)e. T#uly
human bein"s "o to hell in spite of the undese#$ed "#a&e that Aod seeks to "i$e to
them.
The #eason )o# this di))e#en&e in the 'e#&e'tion o) Aod bet,een 8h#istians and
Muslims has to do ,ith the 'e#&e'tion o) lo$e. The )o#me# belie$e in a Aod ,ho
lo$ed them enou"h to send /is %on to die )o# them e$en ,hile they ,e#e still
sinne#s the latte# belie$e Allah hates any ,ho do not &on)o#m to his demands. As
noted ea#lie# lo$e is a ne&essa#y 'a#t o) a #e&on&iled #elationshi'. 5et Islam
#e<e&ts lo$e )#om bein" an att#ibute o) Allah1s &ha#a&te#. %el)-sa&#i)i&ial lo$e is
&onside#ed to be ,eakness in the Islami& mindset and to say that Aod lo$es is
tantamount to sayin" that Aod is ,eak and $ulne#able. 5ousse) himsel) a )o#me#
Muslim des&#ibes the mindset this ,ay
=The &on&e't o) lo$e as one o) Aod1s att#ibutes is &ons'i&uously missin" )#om Islam
be&ause in Islami& thou"ht lo$e is a si"n o) ,eakness. 7a# be it )#om Allah the all-
'o,e#)ul to be ,eak. To lo$e is to be $ulne#able and )a# be it )#om Allah to be
$ulne#able. But lo$e also '#odu&es "enuine &on)iden&e and ho'e and tea&hes the
belo$ed to lo$e )#eely and "ene#ously in #etu#n. Islam has no &on&e't o) the
st#en"th o) lo$e o# o) the &ha#a&te#isti& (ualities o) lo$e as desi#able. The -o#an
"i$es no kno,led"e o) the 'e#)e&t lo$e o) Aod in .esus 8h#ist ,hi&h &asts out )ea#
and ,hi&h is st#on" enou"h to o$e#&ome death and inau"u#ate ete#nal li)e. Muslims
&annot #est in the '#omise o) a )aith)ul Aod ,ho assu#es that nothin" ,ill se'a#ate
them )#om the lo$e o) Aod in 8h#ist .esus.
=In Islam Aod and man a#e ,a#y o) ea&h othe# in &ont#ast to 8h#istianity in ,hi&h
Aod and man a#e in lo$e ,ith ea&h othe#. This di))e#en&e is o) "#eat im'o#tan&e
be&ause it lies at the hea#t o) the tensions Muslims )eel to,a#d 8h#istians. The
same #elationshi' that e:ists bet,een Aod and humans in ea&h o) the t,o #eli"ions
e:ists by e:tension bet,een the humans. 8h#istians a#e tau"ht to lo$e thei#
nei"hbo#s as they ha$e )i#st e:'e#ien&ed 8h#ist1s lo$e. Muslims a#e tau"ht - many
e:ho#tations to &ha#ity not,ithstandin" - to <ud"e &ondemn and e$en eliminate
thei# nei"hbo#s i) they )ail to measu#e u' to a &e#tain standa#d o) )aith and
'#a&ti&e be&ause that is ho, they e:'e&t Allah to deal ,ith them.=
10
8ont#ast this $ie, o) the la&k o) lo$e in Aod1s &ha#a&te# ,ith that e:'#essed by Aod
in the Bible
=And they that es&a'e o) you shall #emembe# me amon" the nations ,hithe# they
shall be &a##ied &a'ti$es be&ause I am b#oken ,ith thei# ,ho#ish hea#t ,hi&h
hath de'a#ted )#om me and ,ith thei# eyes ,hi&h "o a ,ho#in" a)te# thei# idolsN
and they shall lothe themsel$es )o# the e$ils ,hi&h they ha$e &ommitted in all
thei# abominations.= ?E*ekiel CN2@
The sin o) Aod1s 'eo'le may lead to &hastisement but /e does not seek thei#
dest#u&tion. Instead thei# sin b#eaks /is hea#t ?talk about $ulne#abilityO@ and /e
desi#es )o# them to #etu#n to /im. /e does not ,ant to dest#oy them /e ,ants to
restore them as they #e'ent o) thei# sins a"ainst /im.
The la&k o) assu#in" kno,led"e o) Aod1s lo$e )o# them is mu&h o) the #eason ,hy
the s'i#it o) Islam is so ha#sh and hate)ul to,a#ds those ,ho a#e not submitted to
its system. Be&ause Allah does not lo$e sel)-sa&#i)i&ially - and he certainly does not
lo$e those ,ho a#e not Muslims - neithe# does the o#thodo: )undamentalist Muslim
t#yin" to li$e by the lette# o) the 0u#1an. The Muslim &annot &laim that Allah lo$es
him o# he#. /e o# she has no t#ue ho'e o# assu#an&e o) sal$ation )#om all the
e))o#ts made in this li)e. The Muslim is instead le)t han"in" in limbo ne$e# (uite
kno,in" i) he o# she has =done enou"h= to 'lease Allah at the Past Day. As 5ousse)
)u#the# tells us about this
=The ha#shness o) Islam is the di#e&t #esult o) its un&e#tainty about sal$ation and
ete#nity. Mot only a#e 'eo'le ,hat they ,o#shi' but they be&ome ,hat they )ea#.
The Muslim1s )ea# o) Allah1s <ud"ment and &ondemnation tu#ns out,a#d into the
same kind o) a&tion to,a#d othe#s. A#a&e and )o#"i$eness a#e #a#e att#ibutes o)
Aod o# man in Islam ,hi&h '#o$es a &ommon sayin" that 1Islam is as a#id as the
dese#ts o) its bi#th.1=
11
As 5ousse) #i"htly 'e#&ei$es ,e be&ome ,hat ,e ,o#shi'.
4utting a Difference 2et!een the 0oly and 8nholy
Pastly but yet $e#y im'o#tantly ,e must note that the Aod o) the Bible is a holy
Aod. By this te#m is meant that Aod is &om'letely and unalte#ably se'a#ated )#om
sin. In )a&t it is this &om'lete holiness ,hi&h lies at the $e#y )oundation o) the
ne&essity o) the 8h#istian Aos'el. As the Bible tells us =the#e is none as holy as the
P9!D...= ?I %amuel 2N2@ When the Bible says =none= it #eally does mean =none=N
=7o# the#e is none #i"hteous no not oneN The#e is none that unde#standeth the#e
is none that seeketh a)te# Aod.= ?!omans 3N10-11@
=7o# all ha$e sinned and &ome sho#t o) the "lo#y o) Aod.= ?!omans 3N23@
These statements a#e di#e&ted to ea&h o) us indi$idually. 'll o) us a#e sinne#s by
natu#e and by '#a&ti&e and hen&e )all sho#t o) this "lo#y o) Aod ,hi&h is
embodied by /is holiness /is &om'lete se'a#ation )#om sin. It is this holiness that
kee's all o) us sinne#s that ,e a#e )#om bein" able to natu#ally ente# into Aod1s
'#esen&e and ,hi&h kee's us )#om bein" able to ente# into hea$en ,hen ,e 'ass
)#om this ea#th.
/o,e$e# the Bible also tells us that Aod '#o$ided a ,ay )o# us to be sa$ed )o# us
to #e&ei$e the "i)t o) ete#nal li)e and ete#nal )ello,shi' ,ith /im in a ,ay that
both u'holds /is holiness ,hile simultaneously e:e#&isin" /is lo$e )o# mankind /is
&#eation. This is th#ou"h .esus 8h#ist $e#y Aod yet $e#y man Aod in&a#nated in
the likeness o) sin)ul )lesh yet ,ithout sin so that /e &ould take our 'la&e unde#
Aod1s ,#ath a"ainst sin.
=But Aod &ommendeth /is lo$e to,a#d us in that ,hile ,e ,e#e yet sinne#s
8h#ist died for us.= ?!omans 5N4@
.esus 8h#ist ,ho is Aod ,as &om'letely sinless and /e &ame to ea#th to take ou#
'la&e to '#o$ide the sa&#i)i&e in ou# 'la&e that ,as needed to satis)y Aod1s ,#ath
a"ainst sin. Whe#eas man &annot e$e# satis)y Aod be&ause o) ou# sin)ulness .esus
,ho is sinless ,as able to do so and )aith in /is sa&#i)i&e and in /is #esu##e&tion
?,he#eby /e also de)eated death and hell and '#o$ides ete#nal li)e to sinne#@ is
the #e(ui#ement )o# the e:tension o) Aod1s "#a&e o) sal$ation to the lost sinne#.
7u#the# t#ue #e'entan&e is ne&essa#y )o# a sinne# to #e&ei$e "#a&e. It is not enou"h
)o# a 'e#son to me#ely &ome to .esus and say =I1m so##y=. The#e must be a t#ue
hea#t-)elt attitude o) #e'entan&e o) a desi#e to not only be &leansed o) sin but
also to tu#n a,ay )#om it and 'ut it a,ay )#om you# li)e. =!e'ent ye the#e)o#e and
be &on$e#ted that you# sins may be blotted out....= ?A&ts 3N12a@. /en&e ,e see
the #esolution o) the seemin" 'a#ado: bet,een Aod1s lo$e )o# man and desi#e )o#
man1s )ello,shi' and the )a&t that man is se'a#ated )#om Aod be&ause o) ou# sin
and is unde# Aod1s ,#ath a"ainst sin.
In Islam this is a 'a#ado: that ne$e# o&&u#s be&ause sin is not somethin" about
,hi&h Allah is es'e&ially &on&e#ned. In Islam Allah is not '#esented as =holy= in
the sense in ,hi&h 8h#istianity &on&ei$es o) the idea. The te#m is used &e#tainly
but not in the same ,ay as ,as t#aditionally unde#stood by the /eb#e,s
&on&e#nin" .eho$ah )o# thousands o) yea#s be)o#e Islam and ,hi&h ,as &a##ied
into 8h#istianity at its in&e'tion. A&&o#din" to Muslim theolo"y Allah has ne$e#
'#o$ided a ,ay )o# the sin '#oblem o) mankind to be dealt ,ith so that man &an be
made &lean in Aod1s eyes. In )a&t Islam does not e$en #e&o"ni*e that man is a
sinne# by natu#e. Instead sin is &onside#ed to be a =mistake= ,hi&h 'eo'le make
and ,hi&h Allah ,ill )o#"i$e ,hen asked ?i) one is al#eady a Muslim@. %o yes Islam
does en"ende# an element o) seekin" Aod1s )o#"i$eness )o# ,#on"doin" <ust as
8h#istianity does but the di))e#en&es a#e mu&h mo#e im'o#tant than this
su'e#)i&ial simila#ity. The Islami& tea&hin" on "ettin" #i"ht ,ith Allah &om'letely
i"no#es t#ue #e'entan&e. The#e is nothin" said about seekin" a &om'lete &han"e o)
li)e ,hen a 'e#son "ets #i"ht ,ith Aod. The#e is nothin" about makin" a &ons&ious
&hoi&e to a$oid sin be&ause that is ,hat Aod ,ants and be&ause ,e a#e to be holy
as Aod is holy ?&). I 6ete# 1N15-1C@. A&&o#din" to Bibli&al tea&hin" #e'entan&e is
summed u' as su&h
G/e that &o$e#eth his sins shall not '#os'e#N but ,hoso &on)esseth and forsa+eth
them shall ha$e me#&y.H ?6#o$e#bs 24N13@
/o,e$e# in Islam the '#ima#y sins ,hi&h a 'e#son &an &ommit and not #e&ei$e
easy )o#"i$eness )#om Allah seem to be a'ostasy )#om Islam ?as ,as seen abo$e in
Maududi1s statement@ and the #e)usal to &on$e#t to Islam. 7o# these the#e is little
#emedy and mu&h att#ibution o) mo#al #e'#oba&y and =ob$ious= in)e#io#ity. Indeed
it seems that the tea&hin" o) Islam on sin is mo#e desi"ned to assu#e that 'eo'le
do not #e<e&t Islam as a 'oliti&o-#eli"ious system than to en&ou#a"e them to kee'
themsel$es )#om sin. The Islami& tea&hin"s on a'ostasyQdisbelie) $e#sus othe# sins
a''ea#s to be mo#e &on&e#ned ,ith ad$an&in" Islam as a human system than in
tu#nin" 'eo'le to,a#ds Allah in any meanin")ul ,ay.
In Islam a 'e#son &ommits a sin and &an ha$e this sin )o#"i$en me#ely by askin"
but then &an "o out and &ommit the same sin o$e# and o$e# a"ain ea&h time
askin" )o# )o#"i$eness and ha$in" it "i$en. Pa&kin" )#om this ho,e$e# is any
notion o) #e'entan&e o) seekin" to 'ut a,ay sin 'e#manently. This attitude is
(uite simila# to the attitude to,a#d #e'entan&e that is e:hibited th#ou"h the
au#i&ula# &on)essional used in many 8atholi& systems. This is also ,hy ,e see so
mu&h $iolen&e and &o##u'tion in the Muslim ,o#ld.
=7o# these the#e is ho'e that Allah ,ill )o#"i$eN 7o# Allah doth blot out ?sins@ and
)o#"i$e a"ain and a"ain.= ?Surah BN22@
.eho$ah as '#esented in the Bible does bea# lon" ,ith man and ,ill )o#"i$e us
ou# sins a"ain and a"ain but the di))e#en&e is that ,hen a 'e#son has t#usted
8h#ist the %'i#it o) Aod ,ill ,o#k in them to make them mo#e 8h#ist-like ,hi&h
in&ludes sinnin" ?and desiring to sin@ less and &e#tainly not ha$in" a li)e ,hi&h is
characteri<ed by sin.
=Whosoe$e# abideth in him sinneth notN ,hosoe$e# sinneth hath not seen him
neithe# kno,n him.= ?I .ohn 3NC@
In this $e#se the ,o#d =sinneth= is t#anslated )#om a A#eek $e#b the tense o)
,hi&h indi&ates an on-"oin" state o) a))ai#s as o''osed to sin"le instan&es. What
this $e#se says is that a 'e#son ,ho is t#uly sa$ed ,ho t#uly abides ,ith 8h#ist
,ill not ha$e a li)e &ha#a&te#i*ed by on-"oin" sin and a &o##es'ondin" la&k o)
#e'entan&e. This is in )a&t a ,ay ,hi&h is '#o$ided )o# 8h#istians to be able to
distin"uish bet,een t#ue b#eth#en and )alse b#eth#en ,ho a#e only sayin" that they
a#e 8h#istians.
The Islami& $ie, does not take this into a&&ount. %ayin" =I1m so##y= is enou"h )o#
Allah. The#e is no '#o$ision in Islam made )o# the #emo$al o) that 'e#son1s sin the
,ashin" a,ay o) the sin stain )#om the hea#t as Aod has made th#ou"h the blood
o) the Pamb o) Aod 8h#ist .esus. In )a&t Allah is unholy be&ause he does not need
su&h a '#o$ision a&&o#din" to Islam. Allah is not se'a#ated )#om sin and ,ill allo,
un,ashed sinne#s into his '#esen&e )o# all ete#nity indi&atin" that Allah #eally has
no se'a#ation )#om sin that &omes )#om 'u#e holiness. Instead o) a Aod-"i$en
'#o$ision )o# the #emo$al o) sin Allah is satis)ied me#ely ,ith man1s ,o#ks and
man1s o,n ="oodness=.
=9 6#o'hetO say to those ,ho a#e &a'ti$es in you# handsN =I) Allah )indeth any "ood
in you# hea#ts /e ,ill "i$e you somethin" bette# than ,hat has been taken )#om
you and /e ,ill )o#"i$e youN )o# Allah is 9)t-)o#"i$in" Most Me#&i)ul.= ?Surah 4ND0@
In this 'assa"e abo$e it is tau"ht that Allah ,ill )o#"i$e &a'ti$e '#isone#s o) ,a#
,ho )all into Muslim hands if these '#isone#s ha$e "ood in thei# hea#ts usually
unde#stood to be a ,illin"ness to a&&e't Islam. Thus it is tau"ht that inhe#ent
"oodness in men ?o# at least some men@ ,ill be enou"h to '#o$oke Allah1s
)o#"i$eness. Indeed it may su""est that those ,ho a#e inhe#ently "ood ,ill be the
ones to &on$e#t to Islam ?and $i&e $e#sa@. This tea&hin" basi&ally a))i#ms the
Muslim &ontention that man is inhe#ently "ood and that sin is not t#uly a ba##ie#
that se'a#ates man )#om Aod. The Islami& tea&hin" is essentially man#centered
not Aod-&ente#ed.
This Islami& tea&hin" that man &an be "ood at hea#t &ont#adi&ts ,hat Aod says in
.e#emiah 1DN2
=The hea#t is de&eit)ul abo$e all thin"s and des'e#ately ,i&kedN ,ho &an kno, it;=
7u#the# the 0u#1an tea&hes that not all sin needs to be a&ti$ely )o#"i$en. Me#ely
stayin" a,ay )#om the ma<o# sins ?&alled 'a(ira #ou"hly thou"ht o) as Islam1s
e(ui$alent to mo#tal sins@ ,ill automati&ally #esult in you# =small= sins ?saghira
Islam1s $enial sins@ bein" o$e#looked by AllahN
=I) you shun the "#eat sins ,hi&h you a#e )o#bidden We ,ill do a,ay ,ith you#
small sins and &ause you to ente# an hono#able 'la&e o) ente#in".= ?Surah BN31
%haki# t#anslation@
/en&e as lon" as you do not mu#de# ?at least outside o) /ihad one su''oses@ o#
#a'e o# blas'heme it is a&&e'table )o# you to lie a little bit o# to maybe sneak an
adulte#ous "lan&e e$e#y no, and then so the lo"i&al &on&lusion o) the tea&hin"
seems to be. What ,e see is that the &ombination o) these tea&hin"s yields a
san&tionin" o) sin in a 'e#son1s li)e. A)te# all stay a,ay )#om the ma<o# sins and
the mino# ones a#e automati&ally )o#"i$en. I) you do &ommit a ma<o# sin then
me#ely askin" )o# )o#"i$eness ?e$en i) you do not ha$e t#ue #e'entan&e and <ust
,ant to "et out o) the su'e#natu#al 'unishment )o# you# sin@ "ets you o)) s&ot-)#ee.
Islam1s tea&hin"s on sin like those o) e$e#y othe# ,o#ld #eli"ious system aside )#om
Bible 8h#istianity is en"inee#ed to a''eal to ,o#ldly sin)ul 'eo'le th#ou"h its
tea&hin" that human bein"s #eally a#e not that bad ?and &an be inhe#ently "oodO@
that Aod ,ill look the othe# ,ay )o# some sins that sin is not a bi" deal that ,e
ha$e to "o &han"in" ou# ,ay o) li)e o$e# et&. It is desi"ned <ust as ,ith mu&h o)
the #est o) Islami& theolo"y to a''eal to &a#nal 'eo'le and to ti&kle the ea#s o)
the un#e'entant sinne#.
Traces of 4re#Islamic 4aganism in 'ttitude and 4ractice
Indeed this Islami& attitude to,a#ds sin and )o#"i$eness is ty'i&al o) the '#e-
Islami& 'a"an attitudes ,hi&h e:isted in the an&ient %emiti& ,o#ld. In this sense
Allah is little di))e#ent )#om the "ods o) the 'a"ans be)o#e Islami& times. %mith
notes &on&e#nin" this attitude in '#e-Islami& 'a"anism
=To #e&on&ile the )o#"i$in" "oodness o) Aod ,ith /is absolute <usti&e is one o) the
hi"hest '#oblems o) s'i#itual #eli"ion ,hi&h in 8h#istianity is sol$ed by the
do&t#ine o) the atonement. It is im'o#tant to #eali*e that in heathenism this
'#oblem ne$e# a#ose in the )o#m in ,hi&h the Me, Testament deals ,ith it not
be&ause the "ods o) the heathen ,e#e not &on&ei$ed as "ood and "#a&ious but
be&ause they ,e#e not absolutely <ust. This la&k o) st#i&t <usti&e ho,e$e# is not
to be taken as meanin" that the "ods ,e#e in thei# natu#e un<ust ,hen measu#ed
by the e:istin" standa#ds o) so&ial #i"hteousnessJ as a #ule they ,e#e &on&ei$ed as
sym'athisin" ,ith #i"ht &ondu&t but not as #i"idly en)o#&in" it in e$e#y &ase. To
us ,ho a#e a&&ustomed to take an abst#a&t $ie, o) the di$ine att#ibutes this is
di))i&ult to &on&ei$e but it seemed 'e#)e&tly natu#al ,hen the di$ine so$e#ei"nty
,as &on&ei$ed as a kin"shi' '#e&isely simila# to human kin"shi'.=
12
This &on&e'tion o) deity &ontains an im'e#)e&tly <ust "od be&ause it is 'atte#ned
o)) o) the im'e#)e&t <usti&e o) a tem'o#al human #ule#. .ust as a human #ule# may
at times )ail to a&t a"ainst a &#ime )o# ,hate$e# #eason so mi"ht the "ods.
Indeed the im'e#)e&t <usti&e o) the "ods meant that no #e&on&iliation may need to
be made bet,een the sinne# and the "od be&ause the "od mi"ht not 'unish the
sinne# )o# his e$il deeds. Indeed the <usti&e ,hen a''lied mi"ht be 'e#$e#ted
to,a#ds )a$o#ites o) the #ule# o# the "od. That this is im'lied e$en in the 0u#1an
&an be seen
=Whethe# thou ask )o# thei# )o#"i$eness o# not ?thei# sin is un)o#"i$able@N i) thou
ask se$enty times )o# thei# )o#"i$eness Allah ,ill not )o#"i$e themN be&ause they
ha$e #e<e&ted Allah and /is Messen"e#. And Allah "uideth not those ,ho a#e
'e#$e#sely #ebellious.= ?Surah 2N40@
Whe#eas the Aod o) the Bible is =no #es'e&te# o) 'e#sons= ?A&ts 10N3B@ not ,illin"
that any should 'e#ish but that all should &ome to #e'entan&e ?&). II 6ete# 3N2@
Allah "uides not those ,ho a#e =#ebellious= instead seekin" thei# damnation. I) you
ha$e not been the #e&i'ient o) Allah1s a''a#ently &a'#i&ious )a$o# then the#e is no
#emedy )o# you.
9the# as'e&ts o) '#e-Islami& 'a"an #eli"ious systems ,e#e t#ans)e##ed into the A#ab
#eli"ion as it de$elo'ed. The settin" aside o) haram san&tua#ies o# sa&#ed
'#e&in&ts de$oted to a &e#tain "od o# "ods ,as a &ommon t#ait in all '#imiti$e
%emiti& #eli"ion. These ,e#e #e"ions in ,hi&h human &ulti$ation o# othe#
a"#i&ultu#al a&ti$ity ,e#e '#ohibited be&ause the a#ea ,as san&ti)ied to the "od o)
the haram and &ould not be soiled by human labo#. The haram o)ten ,e#e
asso&iated ,ith settled #e"ions and ,ould "ene#ally be o$e#seen by a he#edita#y
'#iest ,ho ,as not ne&essa#ily asso&iated ,ith the dominant t#ibe o# t#ibes o) the
a#ea. Des'ite thei# nomadi& natu#e the Bedouin t#ibes ,ould )#e(uent these a#eas
)o# ,o#shi' and othe# #eli"ious duties. 8on&e#nin" Bedouin ,o#shi' at these
san&tua#ies !odinson says
G.../oma"e ,as 'aid to the di$inity ,ith o))e#in"s and the sa&#i)i&e o) animals and
'e#ha's o&&asionally o) human bein"s. 8e#tain san&tua#ies ,e#e the ob<e&t o)
'il"#ima"e ?ha<<@ at ,hi&h a $a#iety o) #ituals ,e#e 'e#)o#med &onsistin" notably
o) &e#emonial '#o&essions a#ound the sa&#ed ob<e&t. 8e#tain '#ohibitions had to be
obse#$ed du#in" these #ituals su&h as in many &ases abstention )#om se:ual
#elations.H
13
This so#t o) #itualism ,as &a##ied o$e# into Islam at the haram in Me&&a kno,n as
the Ka(ah. We &an see the '#e&u#so#s o) the Muslim ha// the )astin" o) !amadan
?,hi&h in&ludes se:ual abstention du#in" dayli"ht hou#s@ and the kissin" o) the
sa&#ed bla&k stone at the Ka(ah in many o) the #e'o#ted details o) ea#ly A#abian
'a"anism. 7o# instan&e the Muslim ha// to the Ka(ah in$ol$in" the
&i#&umambulation o) that st#u&tu#e ,as a ,ell-kno,n 'a"an '#a&ti&e in '#e-
Islami& times ,he#e it ,as #e&o#ded that MohammedFs o,n t#ibe ,ould &i#&le the
Ka(ah and sin" hymns to Gthe dau"hte#s o) AllahG
1B
.
Anothe# as'e&t o) this #itualisti& ,o#shi' in the Ka(ah bea#s some attention. This
is the $ene#ation o) the bla&k stone o) the Ka(ah #e'uted in some Muslim
t#aditions to ha$e )allen )#om hea$en a)te# ,hi&h it se#$ed as the &ente# about
,hi&h Ab#aham built the o#i"inal Ka(ah. The $ene#ation o) sa&#ed stones o# 'illa#s
,as &ommon to an&ient %emiti& #eli"ious systems. /ennin"e# dis&usses this
G9ne detail ,hi&h al#eady im'#essed the A#eek autho#s ,as the #ole 'layed by
sa&#ed stones....the mate#ial ob<e&t is not $ene#ated )o# itsel) but #athe# as the
d,ellin" o) eithe# a 'e#son bein" ?"od s'i#it@ o# a )o#&e.H
15
Dussaud a"#ees ,ith this assessment denyin" this $ene#ation any o$e#tly litholat#i&
&ha#a&te# and instead #e&o"ni*in" that the ,o#shi''e#s ,e#e #eally di#e&tin" thei#
hono# to,a#ds the deity ,ho inhabited o# &ould be &ontained ,ithin the stone
1C
.
/itti stated that amon" the Mabataeans Dusha#a the Mabataean hi"h "od ,as
,o#shi''ed th#ou"h an obelisk o) #ou"h-he,n bla&k stone
1D
. /e also #e'o#ts that
bla&k &oni&al stones ,e#e $ene#ated in the tem'le at Baalbek o#i"inally
dedi&ated to the ,eathe# "od /adad in %y#ia in the late# !oman 'e#iod
14
. At
Emesa anothe# &ity in no#the#n %y#ia a bla&k meteo#ite asso&iated ,ith the sola#
deity Ela"alabus ,as "i$en #e$e#en&e
12
.
9ne inte#estin" thin" to note in the 0u#Ian is the use o) the 'h#ase sala-l-lahu
alayhi wa-sallam. This A#abi& 'h#ase is also used by Muslims ,hene$e# they s'eak
o# ,#ite the name GMohammedH and is o)ten abb#e$iated in t#anslite#ated A#abi&
te:ts as saw. The 'h#ase is o)ten mist#anslated into En"lish as G'ea&e be u'on
himH ?abb#e$iated p(uh@. A lite#al t#anslation )#om the A#abi& ho,e$e# ,ould be
Gthe '#aye#s o) Allah be u'onQ)o# him ,ith 'ea&eH. This is inte#estin" as ,ell as a
bit dis&on&e#tin" to kno,led"eable Muslims be&ause the ob$ious (uestion
be&omes Gto ,hom is Allah '#ayin"H; And this is &e#tainly ,hat the A#abi& 'h#ase
im'lies as the nati$e A#abi&-s'eake# Anis %ho##osh 'oints out
20
. Muslim a'olo"ists
,ill a#"ue that the A#abi& ,o#d sala#h that a''ea#s in the in$o&ation does not
mean G'#aye#H ho,e$e# this is )latly &ont#adi&ted by Muslim-A#abi& le:i&o"#a'hi&
sou#&es. Ibn al-Athee#Is &lassi& A#abi& di&tiona#y says the )ollo,in" about this
,o#d
G1Al-%ala1h1 and 1Al-%ala,aat1N used )o# a 'a#ti&ula# kind o) ,o#shi'. Its lite#al o#i"in
is su''li&ation ?'#aye#@. %ometimes 1%ala1h1 is #e)e##ed to by mentionin" any one o#
mo#e o) its 'a#ts. It is also said that the lite#al o#i"in o) the ,o#d is 1to "lo#i)y1 and
the 'a#ti&ula# ,o#shi' is &alled 1%ala1h1 be&ause it entails the "lo#i)i&ation o) the
Po#d.H
21
This unde#standin" o) the ,o#d is also demonst#ated )#om a '#ominent A#abi&
sou#&e by %am %hamoun a))iliated ,ith %nswering Islam ,ho 'oints out that the
te#m des&#ibes the makin" o) '#aye# and su''li&ation to someone
22
. %hamoun
obse#$es )#om the hi"hly #es'e&ted A#abi& tafsir sou#&e Ibn -athi# that the
meanin" o) sala#h is (uite s'e&i)i&ally that o) Gsu''li&ationH o) Gbo,in" and
'#ost#ationH es'e&ially in ,hat a''ea#s to be a #itualisti& sense and he "oes on to
&lea#ly demonst#ate that no a#"uments &an be made to su""est that the ,o#d has
any othe# meanin" othe# than o) '#aye#. /en&e the one #e&ei$in" sala#h is
#e&ei$in" '#aye# ,o#shi' and "lo#i)i&ation )#om the one "i$in" it. The 'h#ase
#i"htly unde#stood &lea#ly im'lies that Allah is '#ayin" to anothe# bein". This
othe# bein" o) &ou#se should not be unde#stood to be Mohammed. All the same
Allah is indi&ated to be '#ayin" to someone - so ,ho is it; The ans,e# is likely
)ound in the #eli"ious and &ultu#al milieu o) the an&ient Mea# East. It ,as not
un&ommon )o# some "ods in an&ient Mea# Easte#n #eli"ion to be $ie,ed as
a#bit#ato#s o# ne"otiato#s bet,een men and othe# "ods eithe# thei# e(uals ?as a
)a$o# to the man@ o# to those ,ho ,e#e thei# su'e#io#s ?as a su''li&ant on behal)
o) the man@
23
. It is (uite 'ossible that the use o) sala-l-lahu alayhi wa-sallam in
the 0u#Ian is a $esti"e o) su&h a ty'e o) a#bit#ation a hold-o$e# )#om ea#lie#
A#abian #eli"ion that )ound its ,ay into the te:t as the de$elo'ment o) Islam )#om
'#imiti$e henotheism to absolute monotheism '#o"#essed.
Thus Islam demonst#ates se$e#al t#a&es o) 'a"an '#a&ti&es that ,e#e ,ides'#ead
a&#oss the an&ient Mea# East be)o#e the A#ab ad$ent. The tole#ation and e$en
in&o#'o#ation o) 'a"an '#a&ti&es and &on&e'ts into the ,o#shi' and &on&e'tion o)
Allah is ma#kedly di))e#ent )#om the Aod o) the Bible. Th#ou"hout the 9ld
Testament Aod &ommanded the Is#aelites to #e<e&t and e:ti#'ate heathen
'#a&ti&es )#om the nation. Indeed many o) the 9ld Testament la,s that many
8h#istians today think o) as st#an"e o# o$e#ly le"alisti& ?)o# instan&e the
'#ohibitions a"ainst ma#kin" o# &uttin" the )lesh a"ainst the sha$in" o) the head
et&.@ ,e#e 'ut in 'la&e be&ause these ,e#e '#a&ti&es that ,ent on in the 'a"an
so&ieties a#ound Is#ael. Aod ,anted to 'ut a &lea# distin&tion bet,een /is holy
'eo'le and thei# nei"hbo#s.
7#om this &om'a#ison o) the att#ibutes and attitudes o) Aod and o) Allah ,e &an
and should &on&lude that the t,o a#e not one and the same. Allah is de)initely not
the Aod o) the Bible.
'llah as the 4re#Islamic 'rabian 0igh /od
I) Allah is not me#ely .eho$ah #e'a&ka"ed unde# a ne, name then ,ho is he; Who
is this Allah to ,hom nea#ly a )i)th o) the ,o#ld1s 'o'ulation bo,s do,n and "i$es
#e$e#en&e; The ans,e# is some,hat su#'#isin" to those un)amilia# ,ith the '#e-
Islami& histo#y o) the A#abian 'eninsula and the Middle East.
Belie) in Allah ,as ,ides'#ead a&#oss the A#abian 'eninsula '#io# to the #ise o)
Mohammed. /o,e$e# the Allah ,o#shi''ed in those days ,as not the monotheisti&
Allah ,ho Muslims kno, today. !athe# Allah ,as <ust one o) many "ods most
o)ten &onside#ed to be the hi"hest o# su'#eme "od amon" many in a henotheisti&
system that de$elo'ed in A#abia o$e# the &entu#ies '#io# to Islam.
GThe name Allah as the 0u#an itsel) is ,itness ,as ,ell kno,n in '#e-Islami&
A#abia. Indeed both it and its )eminine )o#m Allat a#e )ound not in)#e(uently
amon" the theo'ho#ous names in ins&#i'tions )#om Mo#th A#abia.H
2B

GAllah ,as kno,n to the '#e-Islami& A#absJ he ,as one o) the Me&&an deities.H
25
Watt states &on&e#nin" the '#e-Islami& A#abian #eli"ious situation
GIn #e&ent yea#s I ha$e be&ome in&#easin"ly &on$in&ed that )o# an ade(uate
unde#standin" o) the &a#ee# o) Muhammad and that o) Islam "#eat im'o#tan&e must
be atta&hed to the e:isten&e in Me&&a o) belie) in Allah as a Fhi"h "odI. In a sense
this is a )o#m o) 'a"anism but it is so di))e#ent )#om 'a"anism as &ommonly
unde#stood that it dese#$es se'a#ate t#eatment.H
2C
/o,e$e# ,hen #ema#kin" that Allah ,as $ie,ed as a =hi"h "od= in A#abia this
must not be unde#stood to mean that he ,as the only "od ,o#shi''ed by the '#e-
Islami& A#abs. Watt else,he#e states
=The use o) the 'h#ase Gthe Po#d o) this /ouseH makes it likely that those Me&&ans
,ho belie$ed in Allah as a hi"h "od ] and they may ha$e been nume#ous ] #e"a#ded
the -aIba as his sh#ine e$en thou"h the#e ,e#e ima"es o) othe# "ods in it. The#e
a#e sto#ies in the %i#a o) 'a"an Me&&ans '#ayin" to Allah ,hile standin" beside the
ima"e o) /ubal.=
2D
R,eme# tells us
GBut histo#y establishes beyond the shado, o) a doubt that e$en the 'a"an A#abs
be)o#e MohammedIs time kne, thei# &hie) "od by the name o) Allah and e$en in
a sense '#o&laimed his unity. In '#e-Islami& lite#atu#e 8h#istian o# 'a"an ilah is
used )o# any "od and Al-ilah ?&ont#a&ted to Allah@ i.e. the "od ,as the name o)
the %u'#eme. Amon" the 'a"an A#abs this te#m denoted the &hie) "od o) thei#
'antheon the -aaba ,ith its th#ee hund#ed and si:ty idols.H
24
While it is ty'i&al to think o) =Allah= as a name it o#i"inally ,as not. In )a&t the
te#m =Allah= ,as a title a &ont#a&tion o) A#abi& ,o#ds meanin" =the "od=
indi&atin" the "ene#al sense in ,hi&h =Allah= ,as used '#io# to the #ise o) Islam.
Ma&Donald states about al-ilah ,hi&h a''ea#ed )#e(uently in '#e-Islami& 'oet#y
=By )#e(uen&y o) usa"e al-ilah ,as &ont#a&ted to allah )#e(uently attested to in
'#e-Islami& 'oet#y ?,he#e this name &annot in e$e#y &ase ha$e been substituted
)o# anothe#@ and then be&ame a '#o'e# name ?ism alam@.H
22
This is &o##obo#ated by 6ete#s
=The &ult o) the deity te#med sim'ly Fthe "odI ?al-ilah@ ,as kno,n th#ou"hout %y#ia
and Mo#the#n A#abia in the days be)o#e Islam -- MuhammedIs )athe# ,as named
FAbd AllahI ?%e#$ant o) Allah@ -- and ,as ob$iously o) &ent#al im'o#tan&e in Me&&a
,he#e the buildin" &alled the -aIbah ,as indis'utably his house. Indeed the
MuslimsI FshahadaI attests to '#e&isely that 'ointN the 0u#aysh the 'a#amount
t#ibe o) Me&&a ,e#e bein" &alled on by Muhammed to #e'udiate the e:isten&e o)
all the othe# "ods sa$e this one. It seems e(ually &e#tain that Allah ,as not me#ely
a "od in Me&&a but ,as ,idely #e"a#ded as the Fhi"h "odI the &hie) and head o)
the Me&&an 'antheon ,hethe# this ,as the #esult as has been a#"ued o) a
natu#al '#o"#ession to,a#d henotheism o# o) the "#o,in" in)luen&e o) .e,s and
8h#istians in the A#abian 'eninsula....Thus Allah ,as neithe# an unkno,n no#
unim'o#tant deity to the 0u#aysh ,hen Mohammed be"an '#ea&hin" his ,o#shi' at
Me&&a.H
30
Indeed the )a&t that Allah ,as at one time a sin"le "od amon" many in the 'a"an
A#abian 'antheon is a&&e'ted by o#thodo: Islam ,hi&h #e)e#s to the '#e-Islami&
'e#iod as the 2ahiliya the =times o) i"no#an&e=. /o,e$e# Islam1s t#aditional
tea&hin" about the times o) i"no#an&e di))e#s )#om the )a&ts established by
in$esti"ation into the histo#y and a#&haeolo"y o) the an&ient Mea# East. Islam
#e&o"ni*es that these othe# "ods ,e#e at one time ,o#shi''ed alon"side Allah
?te#med shir' o# asso&iationism@. /o,e$e# Islami& do"ma also holds that Allah is
the same Aod ,ho a''ea#s in the Bible in othe# ,o#ds the o#i"inal monotheisti&
bein" ,ith ,hom mankind late# asso&iated )alse "ods out o) i"no#an&e and
#ebellion. 5et as ,ill be sho,n belo, the#e does not seem to ha$e e$e# been a
time ,hen Allah ?al-ilah@ ,as &on&ei$ed o) as 'u#ely monotheisti& '#io# to the #ise
o) Islam and )u#the# al-ilah as a title ,as at $a#ious times a''lied to )alse "ods
,hose o#i"ins a#e )ound in the ea#liest &i$ili*ations o) Meso'otamia and )#om
,hom the 'ath to the &u##ent A#abian &on&e'tion o) Allah &an be t#a&ed.
The Ka(ah kno,n as (eit allah the =house o) Allah= is belie$ed to ha$e been a
&ente# o) 'a"an ,o#shi' in the /i<a* #e"ion o) A#abia )o# &entu#ies '#io# to the
a''ea#an&e o) Islam. %&hola#s #e&o"ni*e that it has se#$ed as a house o) idolat#ous
,o#shi' )o# its enti#e t#a&eable histo#y. Ail&h#ist ,#ites
GThe#e is no &o##obo#ati$e e$iden&e ,hatsoe$e# )o# the 0uI#anIs &laim that the
-aIaba ,as initially a house o) monotheisti& ,o#shi'. Instead the#e &e#tainly is
e$iden&e as )a# ba&k as histo#y &an t#a&e the o#i"ins and ,o#shi' o) the -aIaba that
it ,as tho#ou"hly 'a"an and idolat#ous in &ontent and em'hasis.H
31
+an Ess )u#the# states
=In '#e-Islami& days &alled the Days o) I"no#an&e the #eli"ious ba&k"#ound o) the
A#abs ,as 'a"an and basi&ally animisti&. Th#ou"h ,ells t#ees stones &a$es
s'#in"s and othe# natu#al ob<e&ts man &ould make &onta&t ,ith the deity. The
hea$enly bodies so )amilia# to 'asto#al 'eo'le ,e#e #e$e#edJ the moon the
she'he#d1s )#iend ,as ,o#shi'ed thou"h the sun the Bedouin1s te##o# ,as
'la&ated. At Mekka Allah ,as the &hie) o) the "ods and the s'e&ial deity o) the
0u#aish the '#o'hetIs t#ibe. Allah had th#ee dau"hte#sN Al >**ah ?+enus@ most
#e$e#ed o) all and 'leased ,ith human sa&#i)i&eJ Manah the "oddess o) destiny
and Al Pat the "oddess o) $e"etable li)e. /ubal and mo#e than th#ee hund#ed
othe#s made u' the 'antheon. The &ent#al sh#ine at Mekka ,as the 0aabah a
&ube-like stone st#u&tu#e ,hi&h still stands thou"h many times #ebuilt. Imbedded
in one &o#ne# is the bla&k stone '#obably a meteo#ite the kissin" o) ,hi&h is no,
an essential 'a#t o) the 'il"#ima"e.=
32
Indeed the#e ,e#e many =al-ilahs= e:istin" th#ou"hout the %emiti& ,o#ld do,n to
the time o) Islam1s de$elo'ment. When the A#ab Em'i#e e:tended its &ont#ol )i#st
o$e# %y#ia and 6alestine and late# o$e# E"y't Meso'otamia and the ,hole o) the
A#abian 'eninsula it be&ame ne&essa#y to )old the $a#ious #eli"ious belie)s amon"
its ne, sub<e&ts into the bosom o) the de$elo'in" #eli"ion o) Islam. 7o# the 'a"an
A#abian t#ibes this in&luded the assimilation o) thei# $a#ious hi"h "ods ,ith the
=al-ilah= ,hi&h had been established as the monotheisti& "od o) Islam. %'eakin" o)
the $a#ious A#abian t#ibes Wellhausen o#i"inally noted
GAt )i#st Allah ,as the title used ,ithin ea&h indi$idual t#ibe to add#ess its t#ibal
deity instead o) its '#o'e# name. All said 1Allah1 but ea&h one had its o,n deity in
mind. The e:'#ession 1the "od1 ?al-ilah@ ,hi&h be&ame the only usa"e be&ame the
b#id"e to the &on&e't o) an identi&al "od ,hi&h all t#ibes had in &ommon.=
33
As ,ill be dis&ussed in 8ha'te# 5 ,hile it is unlikely that Mohammed a&tually
e:isted at least in the #ole to ,hi&h Islam assi"ned him in late# &entu#ies the#e is
a st#on" &ase to be made )o# the assimilation o) the many 'a"an =al-ilahs= into
Islam that is as&#ibed to Mohammed by these abo$e. This Allah ,as the key ,hi&h
the ea#ly Muslims used to b#in" the 'a"an A#abians )i#mly into the )old. They
int#odu&ed to these t#ibes a monotheisti& $e#sion o) the "od al-ilah that they had
al#eady been ,o#shi''in" )o# &entu#ies as the title )o# $a#ious "ods di))e#in" by
lo&ality. As M^ldeke notes
GIn the Mabataean ins&#i'tions ,e #e'eatedly )ind the name o) a deity
a&&om'anied by the title Alaha 1the "od1. /en&e Wellhausen a#"ues that the A#abs
o) a late# a"e may also ha$e a''lied the e'ithet Allah 1the "od1 to a numbe# o)
di))e#ent deities and that in this manne# Allah )#om bein" a me#e a''enda"e to
the name o) a "#eat "od may "#adually ha$e be&ome the '#o'e# name o) the
%u'#eme Aod. In any &ase it is an e:t#emely im'o#tant )a&t that Mohammed did
not )ind it ne&essa#y to int#odu&e an alto"ethe# no$el deity but &ontented himsel)
,ith #iddin" the heathen Allah o) his &om'anions sub<e&tin" him to a kind o)
do"mati& 'u#i)i&ation and de)inin" him in a some,hat &lea#e# manne#.H
3B
Allah be&ame the b#id"e )o# the Muslims to link all the A#abian t#ibes to"ethe#
unde# thei# ne, #eli"ion Islam. Allah ,as a "ene#i& e:'#ession )o# the idols o)
A#abia used by ea&h t#ibe )o# its o,n 'a#ti&ula# hi"h "od and these be&ame
amal"amated into the al-ilah o) the state-s'onso#ed #eli"ious system o) the ne,
A#ab Em'i#e.
Whe#e did the =al-ilahs= o) the t#ibes &ome )#om and ,hat ,e#e the deities to
,hi&h these titles #e)e##ed; What so#t o) "ods ,e#e these deities; To be"in to t#a&e
the de$elo'ment o) the deity no, kno,n as Allah ,e must look to Meso'otamia.
Ilah and the Sumerian *rigins of 'llah
The (uest )o# the histo#i&al Allah be"ins in %ume#ia o$e# th#ee millennia be)o#e
8h#ist. The %ume#ians ,o#shi''ed a ,ell-o#"ani*ed and hi"hly de$elo'ed 'antheon
o) "ods. The "#eatest o) the %ume#ian "ods a)te# the distant sky-"od Anu ?,ho had
little to do ,ith human a))ai#s@ ,as the a&ti$e and $i"o#ous atmos'he#i& "od Enlil.
The name GEnlilH is a &om'ounded %ume#ian ,o#d meanin" =lo#d o) the sto#mQai#=
?en \ lo#d lil \ sto#m ai#@. It is )#om this "od Enlil that ,e see the be"innin" o)
Allah )o# it is )#om this deity that ,e )ind the be"innin" o) the le:i&al t#a&k ,hi&h
leads us to al-Ilah that ,as mentioned abo$e as the title ?=the "od=@ ,hi&h "#e, to
be =Allah= by elision.
Enlil ,as the '#in&i'le "od o) the %ume#ian 'antheon #ule# o) the atmos'he#e
b#in"e# o) ,inds and sto#ms and ,as also kno,n by the e'ithet o) =the "#eat
mountain= 'e#ha's em'hasi*in" his "#eat st#en"th o# &onne&tion ,ith the &osmi&
mountain the seat o) di$ine so$e#ei"nty
35
. This "od ,as kno,n amon" the
%ume#ians )#om ea#liest times ,ith his name a''ea#in" in en"#a$in"s datin" as )a#
ba&k as the .emdat Mas# 'e#iod at the be"innin" o) the %ume#ian B#on*e A"e
3C
. As
stated be)o#e the name =Enlil= is a &om'ound o) =en= and =lil=. This latte# 'a#ti&le
=lil= is o) inte#est in this dis&ussion be&ause it is the sou#&e o) the ,o#d =ilQilu=
,hi&h &ame to mean ="od= in the b#an&h o) %emiti& lan"ua"es sta#tin" ,ith
Akkadian )#om ,hi&h the A#abi& ,o#d =ilah= ultimately de#i$ed.
In the Akkadian &i$ili*ation a %emiti& "#ou' ,hi&h o&&u'ied the no#the#n 'a#t o)
Meso'otamia and ,hi&h ,as #ou"hly &ontem'o#aneous ,ith the %ume#ians Enlil
,as b#ou"ht o$e# and int#odu&ed to the %emiti& ,o#ld. In Akkad the '#onun&iation
o) his name "#adually &han"ed to =Ellil= th#ou"h assimilation o) the n
3D
. The
Akkadian ,o#d )o# ="od= ,as =il= o# =ilu=. It is likely that this meanin" de$elo'ed as
a #esult o) elidin" the syllables in the name o) this hi"h "od =Ellil= e$entually
"i$in" =il=. Be&ause o) =il=1s 'osition at the head o) the 'antheon it ,ould be
natu#al )o# the meanin" o) his name to e:'and beyond the idea o) ,ind and sto#ms
to en&om'ass a )ulle# unde#standin" o) his so$e#ei"n di$inity. Thus it is likely that
the te#m late# used to des&#ibe deity th#ou"hout A#abia o#i"inated )#om the
%ume#ian "od Enlil as he 'assed do,n to late# "ene#ations o) %emites in Akkad and
else,he#e. Indeed an 9ld Babylonian &o'y o) an Akkadian myth-hymn ?but ,hi&h
.a&obsen says =s'eaks ,ith the $oi&e= o) the 3#d millennium B8@ s'e&i)i&ally
names Enlil =Ilu=
34
sho,in" the 'a#ti&ula#i*ation o) that te#m to this "od.
9ne 'oint o) &on)usion that a#ises in the dis&ussions su##oundin" the Meso'otamian
PilQIl is that many ,ill &on)ound this "od-name ,ith the ,este#n %emiti& names
ElQEloah ,hi&h a''ea# both in the Bible as a name )o# Aod as ,ell as in $a#ious
mytholo"ies amon" the 8anaanites and allied 'eo'les as the name )o# the &hie)
"od o) thei# 'antheon. Auillaume '#esents a ty'i&al e:am'le o) the assumed
#elation o) El and Il
=The oldest name )o# Aod used in the %emiti& ,o#ld &onsists o) but t,o lette#s the
&onsonant 1l1 '#e&eded by a smooth b#eathin" ,hi&h ,as '#onoun&ed 1Il1 in an&ient
Babylonia 1El1 in an&ient Is#ael.=
32
The#e is not ho,e$e# ne&essa#ily #eason to think that the ,este#n %emiti& El
des&ends )#om the Akkadian Il. As noted be)o#e Pil is a %ume#ian te#m denotin"
=,ind= o# =ai#= and this &a##ied o$e# into the Akkadian ada'tation o) the "od-name.
%&ott in)o#ms us ho,e$e# that the o#i"in o) the te#m El as it a''ea#s as a "od-
name a&#oss the b#eadth o) %emiti& lan"ua"es is unkno,n - the most )#e(uently
mentioned etymolo"i&al su""estions )o# the o#i"inal meanin" o) the te#m a#e =)ea#=
o# ='o,e#= but he a"#ees that e$en these a#e ,idely &ontested
B0
. The me#e
simila#ity o) the le:i&al #oot does not &lin&h a direct &onne&tion bet,een El and Il.
As %hahid in)o#ms us in anothe# &onte:t
=A#abi& and othe# %emiti& lan"ua"es a#e )ull o) homo'honous but non-synonymous
#oots and le:emes....=
B1
El may ,ell '#esent a simila# sense to the Akkadian Il ,hile yet not bein" di#e&tly
#elated o# di#e&tly des&ended. The ,o#dQ'a#ti&le =il= may be #elated to the
Akkadian $e#b elu ?$o&ali*ed ,ith a lon" =e=@
B2
,hi&h has $a#ious #elated meanin"s
o) =to #aise to as&end to be hi"h to be e:alted= and ,hi&h itsel) may be
&onne&ted ,ith the %ume#ian lil th#ou"h the sense o) the hei"hts o) the ai# o#
atmos'he#e. This $e#b ,ould be &o"nate ,ith the /eb#e, $e#b
c
alah ,hi&h has
simila# meanin"s to the Akkadian elu and )#om ,hi&h &omes the e'ithet
c
aliyan=
c
elyon =most hi"h=. This &onne&tion is 'lausible be&ause in Akkadian the
'ha#yn"eal )#i&ati$e lette#
&
is lost ,hile it ,ould be '#esent in &o"nates in 6#oto-
%emiti& Ethio'i& /eb#e, and A#amai&. 7u#the# the '#o'osed etymolo"y )o# ilQilu
"i$en abo$e a&&o#ds ,ell ,ith the a&tual #ole and &ha#a&te# o) Enlil )#om ,hom
IlQIlu &ame. Whe#eas in ,este#n %emiti& #eli"ions El ,as "ene#ally $ie,ed as a
distant t#ans&endent deity la#"ely unin$ol$ed ,ith human a))ai#s Enlil ,as an
a&ti$e $i"o#ous sky and sto#m "od. 8on$e#sely !in""#en notes about El that =A
la#"e numbe# o) "ods a#e sky "ods but the#e is no di#e&t e$iden&e that El ,as
#e"a#ded as identi&al ,ith the sky o# any &elestial ob<e&t=
B3
. The &on&e'tions o)
deity bet,een El and EnlilQIlQIlu a''ea# to be (uite distin&t )#om ea&h othe# as
,ill be sho,n mo#e )ully belo,.
As su&h the#e is not ne&essa#ily a di#e&t "eneti& &onne&tion bet,een the
Akkadian IlQIlu ?and thus the %ume#ian Pil )#om ,hi&h &ame the Akkadian@ and the
West %emiti& ElQEloah. /en&e ,e &annot ne&essa#ily say ,ith &on)iden&e that El
&ame )#om the Meso'otamian Il. We can ho,e$e# say this about the A#abian
IlQIlah )o# ,hi&h "eneti& link the#e is mu&h attestation in the #ele$ant lite#atu#e.
The =ilQlil= #oot a''ea#ed ,idely th#ou"hout %emiti& Meso'otamia. It a''ea#s in the
%emiti& name )o# Babylon ?,hi&h is a A#eek te#m@ =bab ilani= meanin" ="ate o)
the "ods=. !obe#ts in his &atalo" o) the names o) "ods and "oddesses in %ume#o-
Akkad demonst#ated the "#eat '#e$alen&e that the =il= #oot en<oyed amon" di$ine
names all the ,ay u' to the ># III 'e#iod ?2115-2000 B8@
BB
. Mulle# sho,s that this
name-)o#m still e:isted in Meso'otamia as )a# )o#,a#d as the 6e#sian 'e#iod
be"innin" ,ith the &on(uest o) Babylon in 532 B8. /e states
=Allah Kal-ilah #emembe#L himsel) ,as an&ient - a thousand yea#s be)o#e
Mohammed the 6e#sians ,#ote 1Allah is e:alted1 - but he ,as only one o) many
deities.=
B5
Thus the "od-name =il= o)ten len"thened to =ilah= ?#emembe# =al-ilah= \ allah@ in
no#the#n A#abian lan"ua"es s'oken by A#ab t#ibes ,ho had s'#ead e$en into
southe#n Meso'otamia by this time ,as s'#eadin" )#om its Meso'otamian o#i"ins.
Indeed s&hola#s ha$e '#o$ided e$iden&e that the o#i"in o) the A#abian use o) "od-
names ,ith =ilQlil= and hen&e the o#i"in o) =al-ilah= is Meso'otamian. Winnett and
!eed obse#$ed a numbe# o) a''ea#an&es o) =ilQilah= bea#in" names in no#the#n
A#abian e'i"#a'hi& )inds dated as )a# ba&k as the 5th &entu#y B8. They noted
Thamudian e'i"#a'hs )#om the a#ea a#ound al-.a,) ,hi&h bo#e the "od-name Ilat
?su&h as /am1ilat@ the )eminine &ounte#'a#t to Il and a numbe# o) ins&#i'tions
,ith both Il and Allah ,e#e )ound at the site
BC
. The )eminine &ounte#'a#ts - Ilat
and Allat - ,e#e also )ound ,ith Winnett and !eed att#ibutin" Ilat to bein" the
o#i"inal A#ab name only late# a''ea#in" as Allat due to %y#ian in)luen&es
BD
. At
anothe# site in Mo#th A#abia al->la they )ound a numbe# o) Pihyanite and
Dedanite ?ea#ly A#ab "#ou's@ ins&#i'tions &ontainin" names su&h as Ma#1Allah and
Ada#1il &on&u##ently
B4
. /en&e ,e see that the PIPQIP names ,e#e )ound in no#the#n
A#abia millennia a)te# thei# a''ea#an&e in Meso'otamia ,ith A#abian )o#ms
&on&u##ent ,ith the olde# Meso'otamian )o#m.
Thus the te#m )o# deity based u'on the =il= #oot be&ame )i#mly established in
A#abia and many times ,as used as a 'e#sonal name #athe# than a titula# e'ithet.
That it did so to the det#iment o) the ,este#n %emiti& te#m =El= used by the
/eb#e,s A#amaeans 8anaanites and othe#s in the %y#ia-6alestine #e"ion ?)amilia#
to us )#om Bibli&al names su&h Is#ael Aab#iel et&.@ is a''a#ent )#om the ea#lie#
a''ea#an&es o) El in Mo#the#n A#abian a#ti)a&ts ,hi&h ,e#e "#adually su''lanted
by Il
=Amon" the Mo#the#n A#abs o) ea#ly times 'a#ti&ula#ly in the #e"ion o) %a)a the
,o#d El =Aod= ,as still $e#y &ommonly used as a se'a#ate name o) the Deity.=
B2
Mames &ontainin" The IlQIlah )o#mations &ame mu&h late#. M^ldeke notes the
a''ea#an&e o) names like Wahb El ,hi&h a''ea#ed amon" A#abs o) a late# day as
Wahbil. This su""ests that El ,as used by the A#abs at one time as the name o)
Aod but late# ,as su''lanted by IlQIlah. This name s'#ead )u#the# to %outh A#abia
as ,e ,ill see ,he#e he a"ain a''ea#ed as a hi"h "od in thei# 'antheons <ust as
he ,as in ea#ly Meso'otamia.
This same di))e#entiation bet,een El and IlQIlah is made by Me"e$ ,hose
dis&ussion o) names o) deity e$en amon" the mu&h late# Mabataeans '#esents a
&lea#ly seen distin&tion bet,een IlQIlahQAllah and El
50
. Many Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill
attem't to asso&iate the Aod o) the Bible ,ith Allah u'on the basis o) an a#"ument
that Allah is basi&ally the same te#m as the Eloah o) Bibli&al /eb#e, ?an intensi$e
)o#m o) El@ and the Alaha o) A#amai&. /o,e$e# ,hat is )o#"otten is that Allah
itsel) &omes di#e&tly )#om =al ilah= so the =al= in =Allah= &omes )#om the a#ti&le
and is not a 'a#t o) the A#abi& te#m )o# ="od= itsel). This is not the &ase ,ith Eloah
and Alaha neithe# o) ,hi&h &ontain an a#ti&le and ,hi&h a#e sel)-&ontained te#ms
meanin" ="od=. 7u#the# as has been sho,n abo$e the El #elated te#ms )o# deity in
the Weste#n %emiti& a#eas a#e not di#e&tly #elated to the IlQIlah o) Meso'otamia
and A#abia. /en&e no di#e&t &onne&tion bet,een ElQAlaha &an be made ,ith
IlQIlah. 7u#the# the )a&t that 8h#istian A#abs today use the te#m GAllahG ,hen
#e)e##in" to the Bibli&al Aod is o) little im'o#tan&e )o# that te#m is sim'ly the
,o#d denotin" deity in the A#abi& lan"ua"e ,hi&h 8h#istian A#abs ?natu#ally@ use.
Des'ite this &ommonality the only &onne&tion bet,een the t,o is that o) "ene#al
#e)e#en&e to a deity not any s'e&i)i& &onne&tion eithe# 'e#sonally o#
&on&e'tually bet,een the Bibli&al El and the (u#ani& Allah ?,hose e$olutiona#y
de$elo'ment )#om '#e-Islami& 'a"anism as ,ill be seen 'la&es him )a# a)ield
)#om the Aod o) the Bible@. El and Allah a#e t,o di))e#ent bein"s )#om the
stand'oint o) both lin"uisti& and &on&e'tual di$e#"en&e.
Enter the Moon /od
We no, tu#n to anothe# line o) de$elo'ment that led to the Allah o) Islam -
an&ient Mea# Easte#n luna# idolat#y. As is o)ten the &ase ,hen inte#&ou#se bet,een
'#o:imate &ultu#es o&&u#s &on&e'tions o) deity and e$en the deities themsel$es
&an be e:&han"ed syn&#eti*ed and amal"amated. The &ase o) the an&ient Mea#
Easte#n moon "ods thei# s'#ead th#ou"hout the 7e#tile 8#es&ent and thei#
ultimate de$elo'ment in A#abia is no di))e#ent.
A"ain ,e must tu#n to Meso'otamia )o# a sta#tin" 'oint. In %ume#ia and Akkad
the "od o) the moon ,as Manna kno,n also by the name %in ?a %emiti& name
'#obably de#i$ed )#om the %ume#ian =%u-En= also an e'ithet )o# Manna@. Manna ,as
t#aditionally &onside#ed to be the son o) Enlil. MannaQ%in ,as one o) the most
im'o#tant deities in an&ient Meso'otamia and ,as one o) the "ods that ,e#e
,idely and "ene#ally ,o#shi''ed th#ou"hout the #e"ion.
G5et othe#s thou"h mo#e es'e&ially ,o#shi''ed in &e#tain to,ns ,e#e by $i#tue
o) thei# natu#e the ob<e&ts o) a "ene#al &ults. %u&h ,e#e )o# instan&e the moon-
"od Manna ?&alled %in by the %emites@ the 'at#on-"od o) ># and his son the sun-
"od >tu ?%emiti& %hamash@ the 'at#on-"od o) %i''a# and Pa#sa.H
51
># an an&ient and '#esti"ious %ume#ian &ity ,as es'e&ially de$oted to the
,o#shi' o) the moon "od. B#itish a#&haeolo"ist %i# Peona#d Woolley e:&a$ated the
"#eat moon tem'le o) ># ,hi&h yielded de'i&tions o) the moon "od ,ith the
&#es&ent moon symbol. 9n the %tela o) >#-Mammu ?late 3#d millennium B8@ the
moon "od MannaQ%in ,as 'la&ed at the head o) the #e"iste# o) "ods mentioned
indi&atin" his 'la&e o) im'o#tan&e. In the Enuma Elish an im'o#tant sou#&e )o# ou#
kno,led"e o) %ume#ian &osmolo"y the moon ,as &#eated be)o#e the sun and in
the %ume#ian ast#al t#iad the e$enin" sta# and the sun a#e both the o))s'#in" o)
Manna
52
.
/o,e$e# as &ommonly o&&u#s ,ith "ods ,hi&h ,e#e ,idely #e$e#ed the
&on&e'tion o) MannaQ%u-En de$elo'ed )a# beyond the '#imiti$e $ie, o) him as <ust
a moon "od. In Meso'otamian mytholo"y he took on a 'letho#a o) di$ine
'#o'e#ties as sho,n by the titles ,hi&h he a&&#ued. Pambe#t has noted that
MannaQ%in bo#e titles su&h as =the )#uit)ul li)e= ?#e)e##in" to his )u#the#in" o) the
,ell-bein" o) &attle@ =the lo#d o) the )ates= =the s'lendo# o) hea$en= and =the
uni$e#sal lo#d=
53
. Amon" many "#ou's %in the moon "od ,as o)ten e:alted to the
'osition o) hi"hest "od and a numbe# o) '#o'e#ties ,e#e as&#ibed to him that
,e#e not &onne&ted ,ith his 'osition as lo#d o) the moon. /e ,as the
un)athomably ,ise "od the "ua#dian and leade# o) mankind the <ud"e o) hea$en
and ea#th the lo#d o) destinies and the o#i"inato# o) li)e
5B
. /is 'o,e# o)
illumination ,as sho,n in the e'ithets he #e&ei$ed su&h as =the lam' o) hea$en=
and =the lumina#y o) hea$en and ea#th= but his 'o,e# o) illumination ,ent beyond
the me#e 'hysi&al - to the late# Meso'otamians he ,as $ie,ed as the o#a&le o) the
"ods the '#o$ide# o) enli"htenment and o) the kno,led"e o) the ,ill o) the "ods
55
.
In many #es'e&ts the &on&e'tion o) %in as the hi"h "od o$e#took the ea#lie#
dominan&e o) Enlil. This makes sense as his &ente# o) ,o#shi' ,as at ># and >#
,as the sin"le most im'o#tant &ity in the %ume#o-Akkadian &i$ili*ation )o#
millennia o)ten dominatin" the #e"ion milita#ily and nea#ly al,ays #e$e#ed )o# its
#eli"ious and &ultu#al '#e'onde#an&e amon" the &ity-states. It is not su#'#isin" that
>#1s 'at#on "od ,ould e$entually take the 'la&e o) Enlil as the most #e$e#ed "od
and ,ould thus ado't the &on&e'tions o) deity and the status as ilu )o#me#ly
en<oyed by his )athe# Enlil. This t#ansition seems to ha$e taken 'la&e ,ell ,ithin
the de$elo'ment o) %ume#o-Akkadian &i$ili*ation and as su&h the IlQIlah
dis&ussed abo$e is not su#'#isin"ly o)ten e(uated ,ith %in and othe# moon "ods in
A#abia and the %emiti& Mea# East as ,ill '#esently be sho,n.
9ne othe# inte#estin" as'e&t o) the moon "od1s s'he#e o) in)luen&e is the
de$elo'ment o) )e#tility symbolism asso&iated ,ith his i&ono"#a'hy in
Meso'otamia. The &#es&ent asso&iated ,ith the moon ,as &onne&ted ,ith the
ho#ns o) the bull - a ,ides'#ead symbol o) male )e#tility and )#om that male
'oliti&al 'o,e#. A#een says
=The mas&uline "ende# o) the moon in Meso'otamian &ultu#es allo,s the
establishment o) a &onne&tion bet,een the deity1s dual )un&tions in both the
,o#lds o) natu#e and human e:'e#ien&e )o# the moon "od se#$es as a di$ine b#id"e
bet,een male )e#tility and male 'oliti&al 'o,e#. The most )#e(uent i&ono"#a'hi&
#e'#esentation o) the moon is the luna# &#es&ent ,hi&h is linked to the s'he#e o)
mas&uline se:uality by its )u#the# t#ans)o#mation into the ho#ns o) the bull a
uni$e#sal symbol o) male "ene#ati$e 'o,e#J it is the animal that is most )#e(uently
sa&#i)i&ed to the Moon "od. /is %ume#ian title o) En-%u desi"nates him as =Po#d
Wild Bull= ,hose ho#ns a#e mi##o#ed in the &#es&ent o) the moon.=
5C
This is im'o#tant be&ause as ,e ,ill see late# the#e is a &onne&tion bet,een the
moon "od and atmos'he#i&Q)e#tility deities su&h as Baal and mu&h late# /ubal
,hi&h ,as al#eady seen in his e$olution )#om Enlil. %in - ,hose title En-%u o# %u-
En )#om ,hi&h the name is &ont#a&ted #e'#esents the <oinin" o) atmos'he#i&
ast#al and )e#tility 'o,e#s. This &on<oinin" o) att#ibutes is t#a&eable all the ,ay
do,n to the '#e-Islami& Allah. E$en into the Islami& e#a the moon ,as still
,o#shi''ed by the 'a"ans at /a##an by means o) the sa&#i)i&e o) bulls and th#ou"h
)astin" )o# an enti#e month
5D
.
De$otion to the moon "od ,as '#e$alent all o$e# the Mea# East and ,as intimately
&onne&ted ,ith the symbolo"y o) the &#es&ent moon ,hi&h seems to ha$e #adiated
out,a#d )#om Meso'otamia th#ou"hout the #e"ion. The 8anaanite &ity o) .e#i&ho
,as named a)te# the 8anaanite moon "od 5a#ih ,ho &an be di#e&tly t#a&ed to the
Meso'otamian %in by the )a&t that he ,as asso&iated ,ith a )emale &onso#t
Mikkal ,ho is the same &onso#t ?also kno,n as Min"al@
54
assi"ned to %in in the
Meso'otamian myths. An e:&a$ation o) a ma<o# tem'le to the moon "od &a##ied
out at the 8anaanite site o) /a*o# in 6alestine in 1255-54 yielded an idol o) the
moon "od de'i&tin" a man-)i"u#e ,ith a &#es&ent moon &a#$ed into his &hest
belie$ed to be a #e'#esentation o) the moon deity himsel). Also )ound at the site
,as a ,o#shi' tablet de'i&tin" a#ms outst#et&hed to,a#ds a &#es&ent moon
symbol
52
. In an&ient %y#ia and 8anaan the moon "od ,as usually #e'#esented ,ith
the symbol o) a &#es&ent moon. In many 'la&es in the an&ient Mea# East his ,i)e
o# &onso#t ,as the sun-"oddess and thei# &hild#en ,e#e the sta#s. 7o# instan&e in
a stelae o) the Meo-Babylonian kin" Mabonidus Bath Mikkal ?=dau"hte# o) Mikkal=@ is
identi)ied ,ith the 'lanet +enus th#ou"h the si"n o) the mo#nin" sta# and is linked
to the moon "od and to the sun $ia the luna# and sola# symbols )ound ,ith he#
si"n
C0
. This &o##obo#ates ,ith the A#abian de'i&tion o) Allah ,ith his th#ee
dau"hte#s one o) ,hom ,as Al->**a ,ho &o##es'onds to +enus the b#i"htest
Gsta#H in the ni"ht sky. De'i&tions o) the moon "od )#om E"y't 6e#sia >"a#it and
!as %ham#a ?in no#the#n %y#ia@ all in&lude the &#es&ent moon symbolo"y intimately
&onne&ted ,ith the moon "od. Indeed A#abia ,as as stee'ed in luna# idolat#y as
any 'la&e in the an&ient Mea# East 'e#ha's mo#e so. It ,as to A#abia that
Mabonidus in the Cth &entu#y B8 tu#ned in his #eli"ious #e)o#min" e))o#ts in ,hi&h
he sou"ht to set the moon "od at the head o) the Meo-Babylonian 'antheon ?in
'la&e o) Ma#duk@. /e ,as in$ol$ed in buildin" the "#eat &ente# o) moon-,o#shi' in
no#the#n A#abia at Tayma.
9ne &ente# o) moon-,o#shi' in 'a#ti&ula# is o) inte#est to us he#e - /a##an.
/a##an ,as a &ity ea#ly de$oted to and 'la&ed unde# the '#ote&tion o) the moon
"od %in. In /a##an as else,he#e %in e$ol$ed into a hi"h "od ,hose s'he#es o)
in)luen&e e:tended )a# beyond the o#i"inal bounda#ies o) his 'osition as a luna#
deity. What makes /a##an some,hat uni(ue in ou# study is that in the Islami& e#a
/a##anIs de$otion to the moon "od ,as e:'loited ?a&&o#din" to the t#aditions@ by a
"#ou' kno,n as the %abians a se&t that &ombined elements o) ast#al #eli"ion ,ith
the t#ans&endent as'e&ts o) the neo-6latoni& theolo"ies o) 6lotinus and 6o#'hy#y.
It ,as in this syn&#etism that the hi"hest )o#m o) t#ans&endent ast#al #eli"ion ,as
a&hie$ed be)o#e the #ise o) Islam. E$en a)te# its &on(uest by the Muslims in the Dth
&entu#y /a##an #emained an im'o#tant &ente# o) neo-6latoni& lea#nin" and
theolo"y. Its in)luen&e in the 8ali'hate ,as su&h that one im'o#tant Islami& se&t
the IsmaIilis de$elo'ed thei# hete#odo: theolo"y la#"ely )#om this Meo-6latonism
)ound in /a##an and othe# &ente#s o) study that had been &on(ue#ed by the
e:'andin" Islami& em'i#e
C1
. Allah in the 0u#Ian &e#tainly does not e:hibit some o)
the mo#e 'e&ulia# theolo"i&al t#aits )ound in the neo-6latoni& &on&e'tion o) deity
su&h as &#eation th#ou"h ete#nal and on"oin" emanations &omin" out )#om himsel).
/o,e$e# the 'ossibility o) in)luen&e by the t#ans&endent $ie, o) deity held by the
/a##anians u'on the de$elo'in" theolo"y o) the ea#ly A#ab #eli"ion that e$entually
be&ame Islam must be ente#tained. This $ie, o) the #emoteness o) deity and its
la&k o) 'e#sonal &on&e#n )o# the &#eated ,o#ld &ou'led ,ith the $e#y #eal ast#al
element to thei# ,o#shi' su""ests the /a##anians may ha$e had a stimulatin"
e))e&t on the t#ans)o#mation o) Allah )#om henotheisti& hi"h "od to t#ans&endent
all-'o,e#)ul ?yet o#i"inally ast#al@ su'#eme "od in the eme#"in" Islami&
monotheism.
The ,o#shi' o) ast#al deities ?those asso&iated ,ith the sun moon and othe#
hea$enly bodies@ ,as &ommon-'la&e in A#abia and the Mea# East. A#een notes the
moon "od 'layed an im'o#tant 'a#t in the #eli"ion o) both the Mabataeans and the
Bedouin A#ab "#ou's lo&ated in the no#the#n 'a#t o) the 'eninsula and in the
dese#ts ski#tin" %y#ia-6alestine and Meso'otamia
C2
. In dis&ussin" the &ommonality
o) this so#t o) ,o#shi' in %emiti& 'a"anisms /ennin"e# #e&o#ds
GA&&o#din" to D. Meilsen the sta#tin" 'oint o) the #eli"ion o) the %emiti& nomads
,as ma#ked by the ast#al t#iad %un-Moon-+enus the moon bein" mo#e im'o#tant
)o# the nomads and the sun mo#e im'o#tant )o# the settled t#ibes.H
C3
Meilsen is ,idely #e&o"ni*ed to ha$e o$e#estimated the im'o#tan&e o) ast#al triads
in the #eli"ion o) the nomadi& Bedouin 'eo'les o) A#abia ?but not ne&essa#ily o)
ast#al #eli"ion itself@ thou"h he ,as &lose# to the t#uth &on&e#nin" the #eli"ion o)
settled A#abian 'eo'les es'e&ially in the %outh but also in mo#e no#the#ly &ente#s
o) settlement su&h as Me&&a. 6a#ti&ula# to A#abia 8oon elu&idates on this
'henomenon o) ast#al '#e)e#en&e
=Amon" the no#the#n %emites the sun ,as the most im'o#tant as the '#omote# o)
)e#tility in $e"etationJ in southe#n A#abia ,he#e the sun is too hot )o# &om)o#t
and s&o#&hes and ,ithe#s the ni"ht is the time )o# &oolness and in the moonli"ht
the time )o# t#a$el and ,o#k. Momads t#a$el mu&h at ni"ht and the moon ,ith its
'hases "i$es them thei# ya#dsti&k )o# measu#in" time. Thus ,he#eas the sun ,as
the im'o#tant "od to the no#the#n %emites the moon ,as su'#eme amon" the
southe#n "#ou's in&ludin" not only the southe#n A#abian 'eo'les but also the '#e-
Islami& A#abs '#o'e# ,ho li$ed )a#the# no#th in the 'eninsula.=
CB
The#e is mu&h e$iden&e to &onne&t Allah ?an IlQIlah de#i$ed deity@ ,ith the ,o#shi'
o) the moon "od in A#abia. The moon "od ,hethe# by the name o) %in o# by some
othe# ,as ,o#shi''ed in tem'les all a&#oss the 'eninsula. At -hi#bet Tannu# a
Mabataean stele ,as )ound that ,as dedi&ated to a "od &alled 0os-Allah
C5
. Me"e$
like,ise notes e'i"#a'hi& e$iden&es )#om the Mabataean 'e#iod )o# the 'e#sonal
theo'ho#ous name 0os1-allah - =0os is allah=
CC
. 0os in tu#n is identi)ied ,ith
0aush a "od ,o#shi''ed by the Edomites ,ho inhabited the #e"ion a#ound 6et#a
be)o#e bein" dis'la&ed and abso#bed by the Mabataean t#ibes bet,een the Bth-2nd
&entu#ies B8. 0aush has been #e&o"ni*ed as a luna# deity )#om an Edomite seal
)ound nea# 6et#a that ,as dedi&ated to him and bo#e the ty'i&al &#es&ent and sta#
symbolo"y o) the an&ient Mea# East moon "ods
CD
. Amon" the %abaeans o) %outh
A#abia Allah a''ea#s to ha$e de#i$ed )#om an ea#lie# moon "od. %ykes in his
des&#i'tion o) Allah says this
=Islami& name )o# Aod. Is de#i$ed )#om %emiti& El and o#i"inally a''lied to the
moonJ he seems to ha$e been '#e&eded by Ilma(ah the moon "od.=
C4
While %ykes is in&o##e&t in his de#i$ation o) the name )#om the ,est %emiti& El ?as
noted abo$e the A#abian IlQIlah names ,hile #elated to the ,est %emiti&
ElQAlaha a#e e$olutiona#ily de#i$ed th#ou"h the Meso'otamian PilQIlQIlu@ he does
note that in %outh A#abia ?,he#e Ilma(ah ,as the moon "od and national hi"h "od
o) the %abaeans@ Allah de#i$es )#om a "od o) the moon and in )a&t the name ,as
o#i"inally a''lied to the moon be)o#e it be&ame the name )o# hi"hQonly "od. In all
likelihood the &on&e'tion o) Allah as a hi"h "od '#e&eded by Ilma(ah the moon
"od demonst#ates yet a"ain the de$elo'ment o) the hi"h "od =ilah= )#om the
ea#lie# lo&al hi"h "ods o) the $a#ious A#abian 'eo'le "#ou's. This same so#t o)
a#"ument &an be a''lied to Pandau1s statement &on&e#nin" the Ka(ah in Me&&a
=Mo, the#e d,elt in Me&&a a "od &alled Allah. /e ,as the '#o$ide# the most
'o,e#)ul o) all the lo&al deities the one to ,hom e$e#y Me&&an tu#ned in time o)
need. But )o# all his 'o,e# Allah ,as a #emote "od. At the time o) Muhammad
ho,e$e# he ,as on the as&endan&y. /e had #e'la&ed the moon "od as lo#d o) the
-aaba althou"h still #ele"ated to an in)e#io# 'osition belo, the $a#ious t#ibal idols
and th#ee 'o,e#)ul "oddessesN al-Manat "oddess o) )ate al-Pat mothe# o) the
"ods and al->**a the 'lanet +enus.=
C2
The moon "od ,as &alled by $a#ious names one o) ,hi&h ,as Ilah. Auillaume has
noted that &e#tain s&hola#s belie$e that Ilah in '#e-Islami& A#abia ,as a title o) the
moon "od
=The oldest name )o# Aod used in the %emiti& ,o#ld &onsists o) but t,o lette#s the
&onsonant 1l1 '#e&eded by a smooth b#eathin" ,hi&h ,as '#onoun&ed 1Il1 in an&ient
Babylonia 1El1 in an&ient Is#ael. The #elation o) this name ,hi&h in Babylonia and
Assy#ia be&ame a "ene#i& te#m sim'ly meanin" F"odI to the A#abian Ilah )amilia#
to us in the )o#m Allah ,hi&h is &om'ounded o) al the de)inite a#ti&le and Ilah by
elidin" the $o,el FiI is not &lea#. %ome s&hola#s t#a&e the name to the %outh
A#abian Ilah a title o) the Moon "od but this is a matte# o) anti(ua#ian
inte#est...it is &lea# )#om Mabataean and othe# ins&#i'tions that Allah meant Fthe
"odI.=
D0
/e states that this identi)i&ation is o) =anti(ua#ian inte#est= sin&e this $ie, o) Ilah
as a moon "od e:isted '#io# to the de$elo'ment o) the &on&e'tion o) Ilah as hi"h
"od in these A#abian &ultu#es. A#ay like,ise notes that Il ,as a %outh A#abian
moon "od
D1
. 7u#the# al-Ilaha a sun "oddess ,as 'ai#ed ,ith Allah in se$e#al
'la&es in the A#abian 'eninsula in&ludin" in %outh A#abia ,he#e it is said that
lhtn ?,ith the ty'i&ally %outh A#abian su))i:ed a#ti&le =n=@
=....may be &onside#ed and unde#stood in asso&iation ,ith the %abaean deity lhn=
D2
We kno, that lhtn &o##elates ,ith the mo#e no#the#n IlatQAllat the#e)o#e lhn
most likely &o##es'onds to the IlahQAllah ,ho is o)ten asso&iated ,ith Allat.
IlatQAllat as a sun "oddess ,ould then be 'ai#ed ,ith IlahQAllah as a moon "od 'e#
the ty'i&al %outh A#abian ast#al a##an"ement. 7u#the# a /ad#amauti& ins&#i'tion
on Delos ,as dedi&ated to %in Dhu Ilim #ou"hly =%in he o) the "ods=
D3
su""estin"
that in late# 'e#iods %in ,as unde#stood as a hi"h "od amon" A#abians. 7u#the#
Thom'son un&o$e#ed a s'e&ta&ula# tem'le to the moon "od in southe#n A#abia. In
dis&ussin" he# ,o#k she #e$ealed that the symbol o) the &#es&ent moon and 21
ins&#i'tions made ,ith the name G%inH ,e#e )ound in this tem'le alon" ,ith a
statue ,hi&h she tentati$ely identi)ied as the moon "od
DB
. /e# )indin"s ,e#e late#
&o##obo#ated by othe# s&hola#s
D5
. This )indin" is im'o#tant in li"ht o) the )a&t that
as has been )ound in nume#ous ins&#i'tions both at this A#abian site and else,he#e
,hile the name o) the moon "od ,as =%in= his title ,as Gal-ilahH the same al-ilah
,hi&h ,as "lossed to )o#m =Allah= o$e# time in A#abia.
Al)#ed Auillaume noted that in mu&h o) A#abia the sun ,as $ie,ed as a )emale
"oddess and the moon as the male "od
DC
,hi&h )ollo,s the Meso'otamian
&on&e'tion o) the moon "od as male but alte#s the "ende# o) the sun ,hi&h ,as
also male in %ume#o-Akkadian mytholo"y. It has o)ten been a#"ued that as&#ibin"
to the A#abians the $ie, o) the moon as male and the sun as )emale is
(uestionable due to the $a#ian&e o) this state o) a))ai#s )#om the male sunQ)emale
moon )ound in some %emiti& mytholo"i&al systems. /o,e$e# %mith noted that it is
&ommon ,ithin %emiti& mytholo"ies to )ind )emale deities bein" ada'ted to take
on the male "ende#
DD
. 7ine"an also 'oints out that Allat a no#the#n A#abian moon-
"oddess &o##es'onded to the moon deity ?male@ in %outh A#abia kno,n unde#
$a#ious names su&h as %in Alma(ah 1Amm and +add
D4
. Also /ennin"e# noted that
in both %outh A#abia and amon" the Beduoin the 'lanet +enus ,as o#i"inally
$ie,ed as a mas&uline deity only late# be&omin" )eminine in as'e&t
D2
. Indeed the
"ende# o) ast#al deities th#ou"hout the %emiti& ,o#ld is o)ten &han"eable and a
'#o&ess o) =sola#i*ation= has been noted in some an&ient Mea# Easte#n mytholo"i&al
systems ,he#eby moon "ods and sun "oddesses s,it&h "ende#s be&omin" moon
"oddesses and sun "ods. M_lle# demonst#ated the ea#ly sola#i*ation o) se$e#al
&elestial "oddesses in an&ient E"y'tian mytholo"y
40
. Di#$en '#o$ides a likely late
e:am'le o) this 'henomenon amon" the 6almy#enes ,hen she notes that Ia#hibol
?5a#hibol@ a sun "od asso&iated ,ith Bol ?dis&ussed belo,@ &ould o#i"inally ha$e
been a moon "od ,ho late# ado'ted sola# &ha#a&te#isti&s based u'on an
inte#'#etation o) his name as =ne, moon o) Bol.=
41
A#een 'oints out that in
Meso'otamian mythos the moon &ould take on (oth "ende#s de'endin" on ,hi&h
as'e&t o) the luna# &y&le ,as in $ie,.
=Des'ite the &lea#ly mas&uline &ha#a&te# o) the moon deity in myth the#e seems to
be e$iden&e )o# a )eminine as'e&t o) the moon in Meso'otamia ,hi&h mani)ests
itsel) only in the )ull moon. Those &ultu#es ,hi&h t#aditionally ha$e seen the moon
as )eminine in "ende# ha$e &onne&ted its &y&les ,ith those o) )emale )e#tilityN the
moon1s a''ea#an&e o) "#o,in" )ullness is a mani)estation o) ,oman1s )e&undity. I)
the &#es&ent o) the moon is the symbol o) male $i#ility and se:ual 'o,e# the )ull
moon may be seen to 'o#t#ay the "#a$idity o) a ,oman about to "i$e bi#th thus
,ithin the moon1s 'e#iodi& natu#e the#e is a &onstant &y&le o) alte#nation bet,een
male and )emale. The moon is bo#n and dies in its mas&uline )o#m but it is as
)emale that it #ea&hes its )ullness.=
42
Due to the 'at#ia#&hal natu#e o) A#abian so&ieties it is not su#'#isin" that the
moon ,hi&h they #e$e#en&ed mo#e than the sun and $ie,ed as the mo#e 'o,e#)ul
sou#&e o) li)e ,ould take on male "ende#. The a''ea#an&e o) the &#es&ent moon
symbolo"y in A#abian and ,est %emiti& i&ono"#a'hies su""ests that in these
so&ieties the male as'e&t o) the moon '#edominated but no statement &an be
made that the moon in an&ient Mea# Easte#n mytholo"ies only took on one "ende#.
7u#the# it has be&ome a''a#ent in the li"ht o) mo#e #e&ent a#&haeolo"i&al and
e'i"#a'hi& dis&o$e#ies that the moon deity in A#abia ,as ?most o)ten@
un(uestionably male. E$en Islami& sou#&es #e&o"ni*e this ,ith the 'o'ula#
t#anslato# and &ommentato# o) the 0u#1an 5usu) Ali notin" about the '#e-Islami&
A#abian 'a"anism
=It ,ill be noti&ed that the sun and the moon and the )i$e 'lanets "ot identi)ied
,ith a li$in" deity "od o# "oddess ,ith the (ualities o) its o,n....Moon ,o#shi'
,as e(ually 'o'ula# in $a#ious )o#ms....It may be noted that the moon ,as a male
di$inity in an&ient IndiaJ it ,as also a male di$inity in an&ient %emiti& #eli"ion and
the A#abi& ,o#d )o# the moon ?(ama#@ is o) the mas&uline "ende#. 9n the othe#
hand the A#abi& ,o#d )o# the sun ?shama@ is o) the )eminine "ende#. The 'a"an
A#abs e$idently looked u'on the sun as a "oddess and the moon as a "od.=
43
2el" 2aal" and 0ubal
Pet us no, tu#n to anothe# line o) de$elo'ment )o# Allah this one also o#i"inatin"
in Meso'otamia. Amon" the e'ithets a''lied to Enlil in Akkad one stands out in
im'o#tan&e )o# )utu#e #eli"ious de$elo'ment in the an&ient Mea# EastN Bel. In
%emiti& Meso'otamia Enlil ,as o)ten kno,n as =Bel= meanin" =lo#d=
4B
. Ma&-en*ie
noted that Enlil ,as kno,n as =the olde# Bel= so as to distin"uish him )#om the late#
Bel Me#oda&h o) Babylon
45
. 7#a*e# like,ise identi)ied EnlilQIllil ,ith Bel
4C
. Pike
Allah in A#abia Bel o) Mi''u# o#i"inally had Allat as his &onso#t
4D
,hi&h )u#the#
su""ests the &onne&tion bet,een EnlilQEllil and IlQIlah-de#i$ed deities as ,ell as
the e$olutiona#y #elationshi' bet,een Bel and Allah. In the '#o&ess o) time this
title ,as t#ans)e##ed to the Babylonian deity Ma#duk ?Me#oda&h@ ,ho ,as
"ene#ally identi)ied ,ith Enlil and to ,hom ,as as&#ibed a so$e#ei"nty and
omni'oten&e indi&ati$e o) monothei*in" tenden&ies. At the same time Ma#duk and
%in ,e#e also sometimes identi)ied ,ith ea&h othe# in late# myths - one o) %in1s
e'ithets ,as =Ma#duk ,ho illuminates the ni"ht=
44
. Mot su#'#isin"ly then Ma#duk
also ,as asso&iated ,ith ast#al #eli"ion as !in""#en notes
=In the #itual )o# the Me, 5ea# 7esti$al in Babylon Ma#duk is identi)ied ,ith a se#ies
o) ast#al deities and the '#aye# ends ,ith the ,o#ds= 1My lo#d is my "od my lo#d is
my #ule# is the#e any lo#d a'a#t )#om him1;=
42
Thus ,e a"ain see the )amilia# asso&iation o) Meso'otamian henotheism o) the
hi"h "od ,ith ast#al deities ,hi&h ,ould in&lude the moon "od. Pate# in the
/ellenisti& and !oman 'e#iods the ,o#shi' o) Bel s'#ead to 6almy#a a &a#a$an
&ity in the %y#ian dese#t. The 'o'ulation o) 6almy#a ,as mi:ed ,ith se$e#al
distin&t "#ou's inhabitin" the &ity and b#in"in" thei# "ods ,ith them. Mi"#ants )#om
no#the#n Meso'otamia and the su##oundin" #e"ions b#ou"ht the #e$e#en&e )o# Bel
,ith them. In 6almy#a Bel ,as a hi"h "od ?te#med a =&osmo&#ato#= #ule# o) the
uni$e#se@ and ,as asso&iated ,ith t,o ast#al "ods 5a#hibol a sola# deity and
A"libol a luna# deity
20
. Both o) these "ods &a##y names &ontainin" =Bol= ,hi&h is
identi)ied as a '#e-/ellenisti& %y#ian name )o# Bel ?to ,hi&h the name Bol ,as
&han"ed th#ou"h the in)luen&e o) the Bel-Ma#duk &ult b#ou"ht in by Meso'otamian
immi"#ants@
21
. Tei:ido# notes that the &ult o) the t#iad o) Bel 5a#hibol and A"libol
a#ose in the )i#st &entu#y AD as the #esult o) both theolo"i&al and 'oliti&al
'#essu#es that led to the asso&iation o) these t,o ast#al deities ,ith the Bel ,ho
#e&ei$ed a &osmi& #ole. This asso&iation unattested in the e'i"#a'hi& e$iden&e
until a dedi&ato#y ins&#i'tion o) 32 AD is thou"ht to ha$e de$elo'ed th#ou"h a
slo, '#o&ess o) assimilation that in$ol$ed the di$ine 'at#ons o) s'e&i)i& "#ou's
,hi&h 'o'ulated 6almy#a
22
. As su&h it &an be su#mised that 5a#hibol and A"libol
'#e$iously the 'at#on "ods o) se'a#ate t#ibes o# ethni& "#ou's may ha$e been
unde#stood mo#e than <ust as asso&iates but #athe# as subo#dinated
'e#soni)i&ations o) the eme#"ent su'#eme "od Bel. This ,ould tend to #ein)o#&e
the henotheisti& tenden&ies o) Bel in late# times as ,ell as the asso&iation o) him
,ith ast#al #eli"ion.
8losely #elated to the Meso'otamian Bel ,as a titula# deity )ound in the %y#o-
6alestinian 'a"an systems - Baal. =Baal= is me#ely the ,est %emiti& &o"nate o) the
Assy#o-Babylonian =Bel= and amon" the ,este#n %emites the te#m ,as 'ut to
simila# use as mu&h a title o# e'ithet as a '#o'e# name. Indeed the te#m =Baal=
,as o)ten used to des&#ibe lo&al hi"h deities ,ho ,e#e #e$e#ed as hi"h "ods by
lo&al "#ou's. 7o# instan&e ,e )ind Baal-6eo# o) the Moabites Baal-Rebul o) the
6hilistines Baal-%hamin o) the nati$e %y#ian 6almy#enes and so )o#th. E$iden&e
)#om the Al-Ama#na do&uments and >"a#iti& te:ts indi&ate that by the si:teenth o#
)i)teenth &entu#ies B8 Baal had taken on a b#oade# s&o'e than <ust as a title )o#
lo&al deities and had "#o,n to be unde#stood as a "od in his o,n #i"ht
23
. 9ne
inte#estin" thin" ,e should note about Baal is that in the !as %ham#a te:ts an
ea#ly ,itness to Baal he ,as asso&iated ,ith th#ee dau"hte#s mu&h as Allah
,ould be late#
2B
. 9ne o) these dau"hte#s o) Allah - al->**a - is identi)ied ,ith the
A#abi& "oddess !uda by Pundin ,ho 'oints out that the #oot behind that name
8) &an be linked ,ith the >"a#iti& A#s.ay one o) these dau"hte#s o) Baal
25
.
The lo&al Baals ,e#e most likely unde#stood to be lo&ali*ed mani)estations o) this
Baal 'e#ha's as tutela#y 'e#soni)i&ations 'a#ti&ula# to ea&h indi$idual &ity o#
#e"ion. These Baals usually took on the &ha#a&te#isti&s o) atmos'he#i& $e"etation
and )e#tility deities ?see the dis&ussion belo, o) the e(ui$alen&e o) Baal ,ith
/adadQAdad@ but in late# 'e#iods also ,e#e identi)ied ,ith ast#al s'he#es o)
in)luen&e. This ast#al &ha#a&te# "ene#ally took on sola# o$e#tones
2C
but &ould at
times also be luna#. %mith notes that in 6hoeni&ian mytholo"y e$en a)te# the "ods
had be&ome mo#e '#onoun&ed in thei# ast#al &ha#a&te# they still #etained thei#
mo#e '#imiti$e )un&tions as the "i$e#s o) #ain and othe# atmos'he#i& 'henomena
2D
.
This b#oadly 'a#allels the #eli"ious de$elo'ment in Meso'otamia )#om the o#i"inal
$ie, o) the sto#m and ,eathe# "od Enlil as the hi"hest "od to,a#d the e:altation
o) %in the moon "od into the #ole o) hi"h "od ,ith a &on&u##ent usu#'ation o)
mu&h o) Enlil1s )o#me# '#o$enan&e. Indeed !obe#ts notes that in the >"a#iti&
mytholo"ies Da"an ,as analo"ous to Enlil ?both bein" ,eathe# deities@ ,hile Ba1al
?Da"an1s son also a ,eathe# and )e#tility "od@ ,as analo"ous to %inQManna ?Enlil1s
son the moon "od@
24
. Pike the moon "od Baal ,as #e'#esented by the bull a
symbol o) male se:uality and )e#tility. 7u#the# the Baal title &ould be a''lied
di#e&tly to the ast#al deities. 7o# instan&e Tei:ido# notes that in /a##an the &ity
in 6addan-A#am de$oted to the moon "od ,hi&h ,as dis&ussed b#ie)ly ea#lie# %in
,as kno,n as the Baal o) /a##an
22
. This )#e(uent me#"in" o) ast#al ,ith
atmos'he#i& and )e#tility )un&tions in the "ods ,ill be #e$isited sho#tly.
Ea#lie# ,e sa, that a "od &alled Ma#-Allah ,as #e&o"ni*ed )#om ins&#i'tional
e$iden&es in no#the#n A#abia. We see a '#obable a''ea#an&e o) this deity a"ain in
ins&#i'tions )ound at %umata# /a#abesi a site lo&ated about 25 miles no#theast o)
/a##an. This site &ontains a numbe# o) ins&#i'tions in %y#ia& that a#e dated to the
mid-to-late 2nd &entu#y AD and ,e#e made by o# on behal) o) &e#tain #ule#s =o) the
A#ab=. A numbe# o) dedi&ations to %in &ou'led ,ith the ty'i&al &#es&ent moon
symbolo"y a#e )ound he#e. As ,ell ho,e$e# a#e a numbe# o) ins&#i'tions
dedi&ated to "rlh. In A#een1s dis&ussion o) these ins&#i'tions
100
she #e'o#ts that
D#i<$e#s t#ans&#ibes the name as "ar
e
lahe =The Po#d o) the "ods= ,hi&h is
e(ui$alent to the Meso'otamian =Bel-ilani= and that ,hile the title itsel) &an
denote the &hie) "od o) any 'antheon he#e at %umata# /a#abesi it ,as a''lied to
%in the moon "od o) /a##an ,ho is the only "od mentioned by name at the site.
%e"al on the othe# hand t#ans&#ibes the name as "arilaha =the Po#d "od= and
su""ested it as an e'ithet o) Ba1alshamen a name that had by this 'e#iod &ome to
desi"nate any "od ,ho ,as seen as the 'ossesso# o) the hea$ens ?as ,as the &ase
,ith %in the moon "od in the late# Meso'otamian myths as seen abo$e@. Eithe#
,ay ,e see a &lea#ly identi)ied moon "od #e)e##ed to as a Bel o# Baal and A#een
sees these ins&#i'tions as e$iden&e )o# the &ontinuation o) %in1s #ole as besto,e# o)
'oliti&al 'o,e#
101
.
In A#abia Baal ?Ba1l@ ,as int#odu&ed into the settled a"#i&ultu#al &ente#s likely
bein" bo##o,ed )#om the %emiti& "#ou's no#th o) A#abia at the same time that the
a#ts o) a"#i&ultu#e ,e#e int#odu&ed
102
. 9n the 'eninsula Baal ,as mo#e ,idely
kno,n in late# 'e#iods as /ubal ?meanin" =the lo#d=@. The#e is some &ont#o$e#sy
o$e# ,hethe# /ubal ,as a t#aditional deity in A#abia o# i) he ,as int#odu&ed at
some 'oint in the 3#d &entu#y o# immediately the#eabouts )indin" his ,ay to the
Ka(ah at Me&&a then a '#e-Islami& 'a"an sh#ine. 7o# instan&e R,eme# states
=/obal K/ubalL ,as in the )o#m o) a man and &ame )#om %y#iaJ he ,as the "od o)
#ain and had a hi"h 'la&e o) honou#.=
103
%ome s&hola#s $ie, /ubal as a ne,&ome# to the Ka(ah based u'on the t#adition
that Am# ibn Puhayy a 3#d &entu#y A#ab b#ou"ht the statue o) /ubal to the Ka(ah
)#om %y#ia.
=/a$in" asked the lo&al inhabitants ,hat ,as the <usti)i&ation o) thei# idols `Am#
b. Puhayy is said to ha$e #e&ei$ed the )ollo,in" #e'lyN .. these a#e the lo#ds
?a#bab@ ,hom ,e ha$e &hosen ha$in" KsimultaneouslyL the )o#m o) the &elestial
tem'les ?al-hayakil al-`ul,iyya@ and that o) /uman bein"s. We ask them )o#
$i&to#y o$e# ou# enemies and they "#ant it to usJ ,e ask them )o# #ain in time o)
d#ou"ht and they "i$e it to us=. In the -a1ba /ubal must ha$e '#ese#$ed this
o#i"inal &ha#a&te# o) a stella# deityJ but his most &ha#a&te#isti& #ole ,as that o) a
&le#omanti& di$inity. Indeed it ,as be)o#e the "od that the sa&#ed lots ,e#e &ast.
The statue stood inside the -a1ba abo$e the sa&#ed ,ell ,hi&h ,as thou"ht to
ha$e been du" by Ab#aham to #e&ei$e the o))e#in"s b#ou"ht to the san&tua#y.
Anothe# some,hat su#'#isin" )a&t indi&ates a &onne&tion ,ith Ab#ahamN in the
mu#al 'aintin"s o) the '#e-islami& -a1ba /ubal #e'#esented as an old man holdin"
a##o,s seems to ha$e been assimilated ,ith Ab#aham.=
10B
/en&e a)te# his a''ea#an&e in Me&&a /ubal ,ould ha$e #etained his ea#lie# ast#al
t#aits. Additionally he ,ould ha$e "ained his ,ell-kno,n o#a&ula# )un&tion by
,hi&h su''liants ,ould d#a, lots usin" a##o,s so as to obtain ans,e#s )o#
im'o#tant (uestions 'ut to the "od. 6ete#s states that ,hile /ubal "#e, to be an
im'o#tant deity in Me&&a he ne$e# #e'la&ed Allah as the Po#d o) the Ka(ah and
bases his a#"ument u'on the )a&t that the 0u#1an ne$e# #aises a &ontention about
/ubal bein" =lo#d o) the house=
105
. This $ie, un)o#tunately su))e#s )#om the
t#aditional o$e#-#elian&e u'on late and #eda&ted Muslim sou#&es ,hi&h a#e tainted
,ith a'olo"eti& #e$ision. As 8oon has obse#$ed
=Moslems a#e noto#iously loath to '#ese#$e t#aditions o) ea#lie# 'a"anism and like
to "a#ble ,hat '#e-Islami& histo#y they 'e#mit to su#$i$e in ana&h#onisti& te#ms.=
10C
/en&e it must be unde#stood that mu&h o) ,hat is said about the late a##i$al o)
/ubal to the Ka(ah and the attem'ts to dis&onne&t him )#om lo#dshi' o$e# that
/ouse is sus'e&t be&ause o) the tenden&y o) s&hola#s in the ea#lie# days o) Islami&
studies to #ely u'on Islami& sou#&es themsel$es )o# in)o#mation 'e#tainin" to the
2ahiliyya the '#e-Islami& 'a"an 'e#iod. 6ete#s mentioned abo$e makes his
a#"uments ,ith the di&hotomy o) Allah $e#sus /ubal in mind. 5et the 'ossibility
must be e:'lo#ed that Allah !as /ubal and that the initial unde#standin" o) /ubal
as the lo&al al-ilah )alls #i"ht into line ,ith the tenden&y mentioned abo$e )o#
the de$elo'in" A#ab monotheism to in&o#'o#ate lo&al hi"h "ods into the state
s'onso#ed hi"h "od. It ,as sho,n abo$e that Allah =,as '#e&eded= by the moon "od
Ilma(ah in %outh A#abian that Ilah ,as =o#i"inally a 'hase o) the moon= and late#
be&ame a te#m )o# the hi"h "od in %outhe#n A#abia and e$en that Allah =#e'la&ed=
/ubal as the Po#d o) the Ka(ah. What i) these a#e all $esti"es o) these $a#ious
A#abian hi"h "ods be&omin" =al-ilah= the "od in de$elo'in" henotheisti& systems
that e$entually led to the monotheisti& Allah o) Islam;
With the ad$ent o) inde'endent in)o#mation obtained )#om di#e&t a#&haeolo"i&al
and e'i"#a'hi& studies it is bein" mo#e ,idely #e&o"ni*ed that /ubal ,as not a
late a##i$al to the Ka(ah but ,as instead lon" #esident the#e and ,as himsel) the
Po#d o) the Ka(ah '#obably a##i$in" not lon" a)te# the 8h#istian e#a be"an. 9n the
o#i"inality o) /ubal at the Ka(ah !odinson ,#ites
=The -a1ba at Me&&a ,hi&h may ha$e initially been a sh#ine o) /ubal alone housed
se$e#al idolsJ a numbe# o) othe#s too ,e#e "athe#ed in the $i&inity.=
10D
!uth$en states )u#the#
=Althou"h o#i"inally unde# the ae"is o) the 'a"an "od /ubal the Makkan haram
,hi&h &ent#ed a#ound the ,ell o) Ram*am may ha$e be&ome asso&iated ,ith the
an&est#al )i"u#es o) Ib#ahim and Isma1il as the A#ab t#ade#s sheddin" thei#
'a#o&hial ba&k"#ounds sou"ht to lo&ate themsel$es ,ithin the b#oade# #e)e#en&e-
)#ame o) .udeo-8h#istianity.=
104
A&&o#din" to 7ahd the ea#liest a''ea#an&e o) /ubal in the e'i"#a'hi& #e&o#d is in
an ins&#i'tion )#om Mabataea ?a #e"ion in no#th,est A#abia in&ludin" '#esent-day
.o#dan@ in ,hi&h he is asso&iated ,ith Mana,at ,hi&h is &o"nate ,ith the name
o) the dau"hte# o) Allah Manat
102
. 6ete#s notes that some o) his sou#&es also
indi&ate the o#i"in o) the /ubal idol ?and '#esumably the &ult ,hi&h &ame to
Me&&a@ to be )#om .o#dan
110
.
The#e is am'le e$iden&e to su""est that /ubal ,as the =Po#d o) the Ka(ah=.
A#mst#on" '#o$ides an inte#estin" 'ie&e o) in)o#mation thou"h she still tends to be
too #eliant u'on Islami& t#adition instead o) s&ienti)i& )a&ts
=By the time he be"an to '#ea&h in Me&&a it seems to ha$e been "ene#ally
a&kno,led"ed that the -aIaba ,as dedi&ated to al-Plah the /i"h Aod o) the 'a"an
A#abs des'ite the '#esidin" e))i"y o) /ubal. By the be"innin" o) the se$enth
&entu#y al-Ilah had be&ome mo#e im'o#tant than be)o#e in the #eli"ious li)e o)
many o) the A#abs. Many '#imiti$e #eli"ions de$elo' a belie) in a /i"h Aod ,ho is
sometimes &alled the %ky Aod...But they also &a##ied on ,o#shi''in" the othe#
"ods ,ho #emained dee'ly im'o#tant to them.=
111
The (uestion ,hi&h must lo"i&ally be asked is ,hethe# this dedi&ation o) the
Ka(ah to the hi"h "od al-Ilah 'e#ha's ,as not =des'ite= the '#esidin" e))i"y o)
/ubal but #athe# because o) it; As noted be)o#e =/ubal= is #eally a title
?&onside#ed by many to be o) A#amai& o#i"in and im'o#ted into the ea#ly A#abi&
diale&ts@ ,hi&h sim'ly means =the lo#d= and as su&h is no di))e#ent )#om the usa"e
o) the BaalQBa1l te#minolo"y )ound all o$e# %y#ia 6alestine and no#the#n A#abia.
This asso&iation o) /ubal ,ith Baal is noted by al-%aeh
GAs ,ell as ,o#shi''in" idols and s'i#its )ound in animals 'lants #o&ks and
,ate# the an&ient A#abs belie$ed in se$e#al ma<o# "ods and "oddesses ,hom they
&onside#ed to hold su'#eme 'o,e# o$e# all thin"s. The most )amous o) these ,e#e
Al-Pat Al->**a Manat and /ubal. The )i#st th#ee ,e#e thou"ht to be dau"hte#s o)
Allah ?Aod@ and thei# inte#&essions on behal) o) thei# ,o#shi''e#s ,e#e the#e)o#e
o) "#eat si"ni)i&an&e. /ubal ,as asso&iated ,ith the %emiti& "od BaIal and ,ith
Adonis and Tammu* the "ods o) s'#in" )e#tility a"#i&ultu#e and 'lenty..../ubalIs
idol used to stand by the holy ,ell inside the %a&#ed /ouse. It ,as made o) #ed
sa''hi#e but had a b#oken a#m until the t#ibe o) 0u#aysh ,ho &onside#ed him one
o) thei# ma<o# "ods made him a #e'la&ement in solid "old.H
112
It seems $e#y likely that this =al-Ilah= to ,hi&h the Ka(ah ,as dedi&ated ,as kno,n
also by the titula# name /ubal es'e&ially as the '#esidin" idol o) that house ,as
/ubal1s and it ,as be)o#e /ubal that de&isions #e(ui#in" o#a&ula# #esolution ,e#e
b#ou"ht. Indeed an e:&e#'t )#om Ibn Isha( ?an ea#ly Muslim bio"#a'he# o)
Mohammed D0B-DCD AD@ in a "a#bled and obli(ue manne# seems to su""est the
$alidity o) this $ie,. /e #elates the )ollo,in" sto#y about Mohammed1s "#and)athe#
1Abd1ul Muttalib
=It is alle"ed and Aod only kno,s the t#uth that ,hen 1Abdu1l-Muttalib
en&ounte#ed the o''osition o) 0u#aysh ,hen he ,as di""in" Ram*am he $o,ed
that i) he should ha$e ten sons to "#o, u' and '#ote&t him he ,ould sa&#i)i&e one
o) them to Aod at the -a1ba. A)te#,a#ds ,hen he had ten sons ,ho &ould '#ote&t
him he "athe#ed them to"ethe# and told them about his $o, and &alled on them to
kee' )aith ,ith Aod. They a"#eed to obey him and asked ,hat they ,e#e to do. /e
said that ea&h one o) them must "et an a##o, ,#ite his name on it and b#in" it to
himJ this they did and he took them be)o#e /ubal in the middle o) the -a1ba. ?The
statue o)@ /ubal stood by a ,ell the#e. It ,as that ,ell in ,hi&h "i)ts made to the
-a1ba ,e#e sto#ed.
GMo, beside /ubal the#e ,e#e se$en a##o,s ea&h o) them &ontainin" some ,o#ds.
9ne ,as ma#ked 1blood,it1. When they dis'uted about ,ho should 'ay the blood,it
they &ast lots ,ith the se$en a##o,s and the one on ,hom the lot )ell had to 'ay
the money. Anothe# ,as ma#ked 1yes1 and anothe# 1no1 and they a&ted a&&o#din"ly
on the matte# on ,hi&h the o#a&le had been in$oked. Anothe# ,as ma#ked 1o) you1J
anothe# mulsa( anothe# 1not o) you1J and the last ,as ma#ked 1,ate#1. I) they
,anted to di" )o# ,ate# they &ast lots &ontainin" this a##o, and ,he#e$e# it &ame
)o#th they set to ,o#k. I) they ,anted to &i#&um&ise a body o# make a ma##ia"e
o# bu#y a body o# doubted someone1s "enealo"y they took him to /ubal ,ith a
hund#ed di#hams and a slau"hte# &amel and "a$e them to the man ,ho &ast the
lotsJ then they b#ou"ht nea# the man ,ith ,hom they ,e#e &on&e#ned sayin" 19
ou# "od this is A the son o) B ,ith ,hom ,e intend to do so and soJ so sho, the
#i"ht &ou#se &on&e#nin" him1. Then they ,ould say to the man ,ho &ast the a##o,s
18astO1 and i) the#e &ame out 1o) you1 then he ,as a t#ue membe# o) thei# t#ibeJ and
i) the#e &ame out 1not o) you1 then he ,as an allyJ and i) the#e &ame out mulsa( he
had no blood #elation to them and ,as not an ally. Whe#e 1yes1 &ame out in othe#
matte# they a&ted a&&o#din"lyJ and i) the ans,e# ,as 1no1 they de)e##ed the
matte# )o# a yea# until they &ould b#in" it u' a"ain. They used to &ondu&t thei#
a))ai#s a&&o#din" to the de&ision o) the a##o,s.
G1Abdu1l-Muttalib said to the man ,ith the a##o,s 18ast the lots )o# my sons ,ith
these a##o,s1 and he told him o) the $o, ,hi&h he had made. Ea&h man "a$e him
the a##o, on ,hi&h his name ,as ,#itten. Mo, 1Abdullah ,as his )athe#1s youn"est
son he and al-Rubay# and Abu Talib ,e#e bo#n to 7atima d.1Am# b.1A1idh b.1Abd
b.1Im#an b. Makh*um b.5a(a*a b. Mu##a b. -a1b b.Pu1ayy b.Ahalib b.7ih# ?113@. It is
alle"ed that 1Abdullah ,as 1Abdu1l-Muttalib1s )a$o#ite son and his )athe# thou"ht
that i) the a##o, missed him he ,ould be s'a#ed. ?/e ,as the )athe# o) the a'ostle
o) Aod@. When the man took the a##o,s to &ast lots ,ith them ''bdu'l#Muttalib
stood by 0ubal praying to 'llah. Then the man &ast lots and 1Abdullah1s a##o,
&ame out. /is )athe# led him by the hand and took a la#"e kni)eJ then he b#ou"ht
him u' to Isa) and Ma1ila ?T. t,o idols o) 0u#aysh at ,hi&h they slau"hte#ed thei#
sa&#i)i&es@ to sa&#i)i&e himJ but 0u#aysh &ame out o) thei# assemblies and asked
,hat he ,as intendin" to do. When he said that he ,as "oin" to sa&#i)i&e him they
and his sons said 1By AodO you shall ne$e# sa&#i)i&e him until you o))e# the "#eatest
e:'iato#y sa&#i)i&e )o# him. I) you do a thin" like this the#e ,ill be no sto''in" men
)#om &omin" to sa&#i)i&e thei# sons and ,hat ,ill be&ome o) the 'eo'le then;1
Then said al-Mu"hi#a b. 1Abdullah b. 1Am# b. Makh*um b. 5a(a*a 1Abdullah1s mothe#
bein" )#om his t#ibe 1By Aod you shall ne$e# sa&#i)i&e him until you o))e# the
"#eatest e:'iato#y sa&#i)i&e )o# him. Thou"h his #ansom be all ou# '#o'e#ty ,e ,ill
#edeem him1. 0u#aysh and his sons said that he must not do it but take him to the
/i<a* )o# the#e ,as a so#&e#e# ,ho had a )amilia# s'i#it and he must &onsult he#.
Then he ,ould ha$e libe#ty o) a&tion. I) she told him to sa&#i)i&e him he ,ould be
no ,o#se o))J and i) she "a$e him a )a$o#able #es'onse he &ould a&&e't it. %o they
,ent o)) as )a# as Medina and )ound that she ,as in -hayba# so they alle"e. %o
they #ode on until they "ot to he# and ,hen 1Abdu1l-Muttalib a&(uainted he# ,ith
the )a&ts she told them to "o a,ay until he# )amilia# s'i#it $isited he# and she
&ould ask him. When they had le)t he# 1Abdu1l-Muttalib '#ayed to Allah and ,hen
they $isited he# the ne:t day she said 1Wo#d has &ome to me. /o, mu&h is the
blood money amon" you;1 they told he# that it ,as ten &amels as indeed it ,as.
/e told them to "o ba&k to thei# &ount#y and take the youn" man and ten &amels.
Then &ast lots )o# them and )o# himJ i) the lots )alls a"ainst you# man add mo#e
&amels until you lo#d is satis)ied. I) the lots )alls a"ainst the &amels then sa&#i)i&e
them in his stead )o# you# lo#d ,ill be satis)ied and you# &lient es&a'e death. %o
they #etu#ned to Me&&a and ,hen they had a"#eed to &a##y out thei# inst#u&tions
1Abdu1l-Muttalib ,as '#ayin" to Allah. Then they b#ou"ht nea# 1Abdullah and ten
&amels ,hile ''bdu'l#Muttalib stood by 0ubal praying to 'llah. Then they &ast
lots and the a##o, )ell a"ainst 1Abdullah. They added ten mo#e &amels and the lot
)ell a"ainst 1Abdullah and so they ,ent on addin" ten at a time until the#e ,e#e
one hund#ed &amels ,hen )inally the lot )ell a"ainst them. 0u#aysh and those ,ho
,e#e '#esent said 1At last you# lo#d is satis)ied 1Abdu1l-Muttalib1. 1Mo by Aod1 he
ans,e#ed ?so they say@ 1not until I &ast lots th#ee times1. This they did and ea&h
time the a##o, )ell a"ainst the &amels. They ,e#e duly slau"hte#ed and le)t the#e
and no man ,as ke't ba&k o# hinde#ed ?)#om eatin" them@.H
113
Thus ,e &an see that this man ,as essentially '#ayin" to the idol o) /ubal ,hile
'#ayin" to Allah. As /ubal ,as the =Po#d o) the Ka(ah= and the tutela#y deity o)
Me&&a it is inst#u&ti$e to note that a)te# the #ise o) the A#ab Em'i#e Allah seems
to ha$e maintained his 'la&e as the Po#d o) that G/ouseH e$en i) unde# a di))e#ent
name and ,ith an inno$ati$e &on&e'tion o) deity. Indeed the Ka(ah ,as o)ten
kno,n by the name (eit %llah =house o) Allah= e$en thou"h it ,as '#esided o$e#
by /ubal.
Inte#estin"ly ,e should note the ea#ly inte#est amon" the Muslims in
?#e-@establishin" the o#i"inal #eli"ion o) Ab#aham at least as they &on&ei$ed it.
A#abi& lo#e e:tendin" into the 'e#iod be)o#e Islam held that Ab#aham himsel) had
built the Ka(ah du" its ,ell and established its ,o#shi'. In the &entu#ies be)o#e
the #ise o) the A#ab Em'i#e the#e ,e#e many A#abs ,ho ,hile a&&e'tin" neithe#
8h#istianity no# .udaism did &on&ei$e o) the idea o) establishin" a 'u#e
monotheism to #e'la&e the 'a"anism o) thei# day. Many o) these "#ou's &ould ha$e
been &alled =Ab#ahami&= as they desi#ed to #ene, the deen the #eli"ion o)
Ab#aham. This Ab#ahamism em'hasi*ed its link to Ab#aham as its 'utati$e )ounde#
and its )ollo,e#s ,e#e des&#ibed by the 8h#istian histo#ian %o*omenus ,#itin"
&i#&a B50 AD as Ishmaelite monotheists ,ho )ollo,ed a loose analo" o) .udaism
11B
.
Indeed 6ines notes e$iden&e )o# Ab#ahamists as ea#ly as the time o) Te#tullian
?S200 AD@ ,ho dis'uted ,ith a "#ou' o) them
115
. The Ab#ahamists ,e#e one o)
many "#ou's o) hanifiyya eme#"ent monotheists ,ho '#e&eded Islam in A#abia.
The monotheism o) these "#ou's en"ende#ed the belie) in a hi"h "od ,ho ,as
,ithout 'a#tne#s. It is likely that these hanifiyya ,ho ,e#e mo#e o# less
inde'endent o) .udaism and 8h#istianity ,e#e the ne:t natu#al ste' in the
'#o"#ession )#om 'u#e 'a"anism to the henotheisti& belie) in a =hi"h "od= to
monotheism. As a #esult it is likely that thei# $ie,s ,e#e a##i$ed at by ele$atin"
one o) thei# nati$e "ods at the e:'ense o) the othe#s and a&&e'tin" him as the
=only= "od. That this seems to ha$e been the &ase at least ,ith those ,ho #e$e#ed
the Ka(ah as the =house o) Allah= ?in&ludin" o) &ou#se lo&al "#ou's o)
Ab#ahamists@ seems e$ident in the asso&iation ,ith Ab#aham o) the o#a&ula#
method o) di$ination th#ou"h /ubal. !ubin notes that the #itual o) &astin" a##o,s
be)o#e /ubal ,as itsel) Ab#ahami& ?#e)e##in" to the '#e-Islami& #eli"ious system
not to the Bibli&al Ab#aham@ and that ,hen Mohammed &on(ue#ed Me&&a he
o#de#ed the #emo$al o) a 'aintin" o) Ab#aham holdin" a##o,s )#om ,ithin the
Ka(ah
11C
. The deen o) Ab#aham at least as it a''ea#ed to the A#abs both 'a"an
and hanif in$ol$ed #e$e#en&e )o# both the Ka(ah and its lo#d and this su""ests
that the "od ,hi&h they ,e#e monothei*in" ,as '#obably /ubal.
This unde#standin" o) the =lo#d o) the Ka(ah= as a hi"h "od a"ain 'oints to the
)amilia# 'atte#n o) henotheism that &an be )ound all a&#oss the %emiti& ,o#ld.
Wellhausen &onside#ed /ubal to be an an&ient name )o# Allah
11D
. In this is meant
the sense that he belie$ed Allah to be an abst#a&tion ,hi&h o#i"inated in the many
lo&al "ods ?one o) ,hom ,as /ubal@ and "a$e #ise to a &ommon ,o#d )o# the hi"h
"od. This $ie, has been <ud"ed as inade(uate by many late# s&hola#s
114
. I ,ould
note ho,e$e# that mu&h o) the late# im'etus a"ainst Wellhausen1s initial $ie,
stems )#om the o$e#-#elian&e o) s&hola#s u'on Islami& sou#&es )o# in)o#mation
&on&e#nin" the 'e#iod o) 2ahiliyya the 'a"an 'e#iod '#io# to Islam. It ,ould seem
natu#al that Islami& t#aditions '#odu&ed t,o &entu#ies o# mo#e a)te# the )a&t
,ould '#esent an a#ti)i&ially saniti*ed $ie, o) the '#e-Islami& 'e#iod. As noted
'#e$iously this ,as &ommon in ea#ly Muslim ,o#ks )o# 'olemi&al 'u#'oses. We
ha$e seen ea#lie# that it ,as &ommon )o# &ultu#es in the an&ient Mea# East to hold
u' a hi"h "od and to att#ibute to him $a#ious s'he#es o) in)luen&e de'endin" on
the '#io# natu#e o) the henothei*ed deity. This ,ould seem to su''o#t the
a#"uments made abo$e and by Wellhausen that the hi"h "od o) the A#abs ,as not
one o#i"inal deity but #athe# be&ame su&h by the synthesis o) the $a#ious lo&al
hi"h "ods o) A#abia and the #e"ions &on(ue#ed by the A#abs.
As has been alluded /ubal seems to ha$e also had a $a#iety o) &ha#a&te#isti&
s'he#es ,hi&h he dominated. R,eme# abo$e identi)ied /ubal as a "od o) #ain
,hi&h &o##elates ,ell ,ith the ty'i&al station o) Baal amon" the A#abs1 no#the#ly
nei"hbo#s. /ubal also ho,e$e# had se$e#al ma#ked ast#al stations amon" the
A#abs. /ommel tells us that in southe#n A#abia /ubal ,as to be identi)ied ,ith the
'lanet +enus unde#stood by these "#ou's to be male. In no#the#n A#abia in&ludin"
the #e"ion o) Me&&a /ubal ,as unde#stood to be a luna# "od
G7i#st o) all as #e"a#ds the #eli"ion o) the %outh A#abians as ,e )ind it in thei#
ins&#i'tions it is a st#on"ly ma#ked sta#-,o#shi' in ,hi&h the &ult o) the moon-
"od &on&ei$ed as mas&uline takes &om'lete '#e&eden&e o) that o) the sun ,hi&h
is &on&ei$ed as )eminine. This is sho,n in the &lea#est )ashion by the ste#eoty'ed
se#ies o) "ods ?MinaeanN FAtha# Wadd Mak#uh %hamsJ /ad#ama,ti&N FAtha# %an
/ol %hamsJ 0atabanianN FAtha# FAmm Anbai %hamsJ %abaeanN FAtha# /a,bas
Al-maku-hu %hams@J he#e ,e )ind th#ou"hout a. FAtha# ?the 'lanet +enus
&on&ei$ed as mas&uline...as symbol o) the sky@ the "od o) the hea$ens mentioned
)i#st b. Wadd o# as the &ase may be %an FAmm o# /a,bas the #eal &hie) "od i.e.
the moonJ &. Mak#uh ?the 'lanet %atu#n o# Ma#s@ o# /ol Anbai ?messen"e# o) the
"ods Mebo@ o# Almaku-hu his ?the moonIs@ se#$ant o# messen"e# and )inally d.
%hams the dau"hte# o) the moon-"od to ,hom ,omen may ha$e a''ealed by
'#e)e#en&e and ,ho the#e)o#e stands at the end o) the ,hole enume#ation. Besides
these a &e#tain 'a#t ,as 'layed by a "#eat Mothe#-"oddesses the mothe# and
&onso#t o) the moon-"od &on&ei$ed as a 'e#soni)ied luna# station the Minaean
Athi#at ,ho ,as &alled /a#imtu amon" the %abaeans and ,ho ,as in all
'#obability uni$e#sally kno,n as Ilat ?e.". as a &om'onent 'a#t in names o)
'e#sons also in the sho#tened )o#m Pat@. We may also mention $a#ious lesse#
FAtha# deities ?&on)ined late# to the 'a#t 'layed by +enus as mo#nin" o# e$enin"
sta#@ and amon" the West %abaeans TaIlab a "od o) the bo, ,ho also bea#s
me#ely the e'ithet DhW %ama,a Flo#d o) the hea$ensI and to ,hom es'e&ially
&amels ?ibil@ a#e sa&#ed ?hen&e in Midian but '#obably in %outh A#abia 0abul or
0ubal et&.@. It is a 'a#ti&ula#ly )a$ou#ite mode o) thou"ht to &on&ei$e the t,o
&hie) as'e&ts o) the moon ?,a:in" and ,anin" moon@ as t,in deities in ,hi&h
&onne&tion sometimes the one and sometimes the othe# 'hase is s'e&ially )a$ou#ed
a&&o#din" to the lo&ality....In Mo#th West A#abia )#om Mekka on,a#ds to 6et#a and
)u#the# on,a#ds to the %y#ian dese#t ?6almy#a@ and the /a,#an the same ideas
'#e$ailed 'a#tly e$en a''ea#in" unde# the old names 'a#tly ,ith ne,
desi"nations. /e#e ,e ha$e es'e&ially to do ,ith the &ults o) Mekka and o) the
,hole /id<a* sho#tly be)o#e Muhammad ?al-Pat and /ubal in &e#tain &ases also al-
Pat and Wudd in addition al-F>**a a )eminine )o#m o)...A*i*-Pat the "oddess o)
death Manat a "od !uda and othe#s@ and at an ea#lie# 'e#iod the still mo#e
im'o#tant &ult o) the Mabataeans. Amon" the latte# also ,e )ind the moon di$ided
into t,in deitiesN Dhu %ha#a ?F/e o) the mountainI@ and his -ha#isha ?the sun@ the
)o#me# es'e&ially in 6et#a and 0abul (or 0ubal) and his consort Mana!at....=
112
9the# s&hola#s ha$e also noted the 'la&e o) /ubal as the moon "od. 8on&e#nin"
/ubal Alass[ ,#ites
=An idol the "od o) the Moon...=
120
9&&hi"#osso )u#the# illust#ates
=Be)o#e Muhammad a''ea#ed the -aaba ,as su##ounded by 3C0 idols and e$e#y
A#ab house had its "od. A#abs also belie$ed in <inn ?subtle bein"s@ and some $a"ue
di$inity ,ith many o))s'#in". Amon" the ma<o# deities o) the '#e-Islami& e#a ,e#e
al-Pat ?=the Aoddess=@ ,o#shi'ed in the sha'e o) a s(ua#e stoneJ al->**ah ?=the
Mi"hty=@ a "oddess identi)ied ,ith the mo#nin" sta# and ,o#shi'ed as a thi"h-
bone-sha'ed slab o) "#anite bet,een al-Tai) and Me&&aJ Manat the "oddess o)
destiny ,o#shi'ed as a bla&k stone on the #oad bet,een Me&&a and MedinaJ and
the moon "od /ubal ,hose ,o#shi' ,as &onne&ted ,ith the Bla&k %tone o) the
-aaba.=
121
9n&e a"ain ,e see that the hi"h "od o) this lo&ality ,as thus a moon deity and
yet also st#on"ly &onne&ted ,ith the #ealm o) atmos'he#i& 'henomena and )e#tility
th#ou"h his bein" a b#in"e# o) #ains and sto#ms. The ast#al as'e&ts o) the Ka(ah
o$e# ,hi&h /ubal #uled ha$e been noted by s&hola#s. 9&&hi"#osso notes that the
bla&k stone in the Ka(ah ,as said by the '#e-Islami& A#abs to ha$e &ome )#om the
moon
122
. The )a&t that the numbe# o) idols in the '#e-Islami& Ka(ah is #e'eatedly
said to be 3C0 is $ie,ed by some as ha$in" ast#onomi&al o$e#tones #elated to the
,o#shi' o) the hea$enly bodies
=The ea#liest Muslim sou#&es su""est that the '#e-Islami& &ult o) the -a1ba had
some ast#onomi&al si"ni)i&an&e. The histo#ian Mas1udi ?42C-25C@ stated that &e#tain
'eo'le had #e"a#ded the -a1ba as a tem'le dedi&ated to the %un Moon and the
)i$e $isible 'lanets ?makin" u' the mythi&al )i"u#e o) se$en the numbe# o)
&i#&umambulations #e(ui#ed )o# ea&h ta,a)@. The sto#y that the#e ,e#e e:a&tly 3C0
idols 'la&ed #ound the tem'le also 'oints to an ast#onomi&al si"ni)i&an&e. Amon"
the $oti$e "i)ts said to ha$e been o))e#ed to the idols ,e#e "olden suns and
moons.=
123
This &onne&tion o) the Islami& #eli"ion ,ith a site sa&#ed to the moon "od is not
uni(ue to the Ka(ah. %'eakin" o) the an&ient tem'le to the moon "od %in lo&ated
at /a##an ?,ho as ,e sa, abo$e ,as the =Baal o) /a##an=@ A#een says this
=It is most likely that it ,as on the site o) his "#eat tem'le that the Muslim #ule#s
o) the &ity &onst#u&ted the A#eat Mos(ue.=
12B
Dushara # 4roto#Islamic 'rabian 0igh /od
Pet us no, tu#n to yet anothe# '#e-Islami& A#ab "od ,ith &lose asso&iations both
&on&e'tual and th#ou"h linea"e to the deities '#e$iously mentioned as '#e&u#so#s
to Allah. This deity is Dusha#a a "od ,o#shi''ed '#ima#ily in Mabataea and nea#by
#e"ions in no#the#n A#abia. Dusha#a ,hose name a''ea#s in many &ases to be an
e'ithet #athe# than a '#o'e# name ,as ,o#shi''ed as the su'#eme "od amon"
the Mabataeans but may ha$e been kno,n by se$e#al othe# names
125
. Indeed
/ealey notes that s&hola#s a#e still t#yin" to )ind the t#ue name o) the su'#eme "od
to ,hom this e'ithet a''lied
12C
. The nameQtitle Dusha#a is &ommonly unde#stood
to mean =he o) the mountain= indi&atin" a lo&al "eo"#a'hi& e:tent as a mountain-
"od ?but ,hi&h also #e&alls the 'la&e o) Enlil as a lo#d o) mountains seen abo$e@.
In this $ein B#o,nin" identi)ies the name as Dhu-esh-%he#a G/e ?Po#d@ o) %he#a
?%ei#@H thus 'la&in" Dusha#a as a lo&al deity based a#ound Mount %ei# in Edom
12D
.
/o,e$e# it &annot be #uled out that the se&ond 'a#t o) his name des&#ibes a
"ene#al &ha#a&te#isti& o) the "od instead. 9ne o) the most '#ominent meanin"s
su""ested is that o) $e"etation
124
. /ealey also su""ests that Dusha#a may ha$e had
ast#al &ha#a&te#isti&s as ,ell
122
,hi&h ,as su''o#ted abo$e by the statement o)
/ommel to the e))e&t that Dhu %ha#a ,as one o) t,o moon deities )ound amon"
the Mabataeans alon" ,ith /ubal. /ealey also notes that the#e is a &lose
#elationshi' 'e#ha's a non-s'ousal 'ai#in" bet,een Dusha#a and /ubal as
indi&ated by &e#tain Mabataean )une#a#y ins&#i'tions
130
. Thou"h /ealey himsel)
notes a se&onda#y sola# #ole )o# this deity #athe# than a luna# it is 'ossible that
both &ha#a&te#s ,e#e &ombined in this "od. /itti also 'oints out Dusha#a1s sola#
#ole dis&usses the ,o#shi' o) Dusha#a th#ou"h the bo:-like 'a(ah mentioned
'#e$iously and notes that Dusha#a ,as asso&iated ,ith Allat $ie,ed in no#the#n
A#abia as a moon "oddess
131
. The name itsel) is t#a&ed by some e$en )u#the# ba&k
than the Mabataeans to the Meso'otamian di$ine name =Du-sha#-#a= )ound in
&unei)o#m #e&o#ds )#om Meso'otamia. It has been su""ested that this name
ente#ed into West %emiti& mytholo"y )#om Assy#o-Babylonia
132
.
Amon" the Mabataeans and othe# Mo#the#n A#ab t#ibes Dusha#a ,as o)ten kno,n
sim'ly as lh =the "od= par e0cellence
133
. 7o# the Mabataeans this a&&o#ded to
Dusha#a the #ole o) hi"h "od as /ealey states
=9n this basis Dusha#a ?o# the "od behind the title....@ ,as #e"a#ded as the "od par
e0cellence and this ,ould in 'a#t e:'lain ,hy the name o) Dusha#a a''ea#s #athe#
#a#ely in theo'ho#i& 'e#sonal names ,hile de#i$ati$es o) lh 1the "od1 ?lhy et&.@
a''ea# (uite o)ten. 1The "od1 in the Mabataean &onte:t meant 1the one and only
si"ni)i&ant "od also kno,n as Dusha#a1.=
13B
The#e a''ea#s to ha$e been the same tenden&y to both de$elo' him into a hi"h
"od and to asso&iate both luna# and )e#tilityQatmos'he#i& s'he#es to"ethe# into
his &ha#a&te# ,hi&h 'a#allels this same 'henomenon as it o&&u##ed all a&#oss the
an&ient Mea# East. Indeed amon" this A#abian t#ibe Dusha#a ,as asso&iated ,ith
a &onso#t Allat 'la&in" him )i#mly ,ithin the A#abian Allah-Allat milieu. /ealey
(uestions the $ie, that Allat ,as the &onso#t o) Dusha#a ho,e$e# instead
su""estin" that she may ha$e been $ie,ed as his mothe# and that she and anothe#
"oddess al->**a ?also )ound in the Islami& des&#i'tions as a Gdau"hte# o) AllahH@
,e#e o#i"inally the same deity late# di$e#"in" to se'a#ate deities at some time
'#io# to the #ise o) Islam
135
. 7u#the# #e)e#en&es to othe# deities '#e$iously
asso&iated ,ith Allah su&h as Manat and al->**a and also Baal had been )ound
amon" the Mabataean #emains
13C
. Dusha#a is mentioned alon"side /ubal and
Mana,at ?Manat@ in a Mabataean ins&#i'tion )ound in Edom
13D
. In se$e#al Mabataean
ins&#i'tions Dusha#a is &losely asso&iated ,ith Manotu
134
and it is si"ni)i&ant that
the ins&#i'tion se#ies ,as )ound in the $i&inity o) the Mabataean &ente# o) /e"#a
,hi&h is in Mo#the#n A#abia mu&h &lose# to the /i<a* than is 6et#a and thus
"eo"#a'hi&ally ad<a&ent to the &lassi&ally A#abian milieu. Also notable is that
Dusha#a ,as ,o#shi''ed th#ou"h a ty'i&al %emiti& litholat#i& blo&k des&#ibed by
the By*antine histo#ian %uidas ?)#om his anti(ue sou#&es@ as a &ubi& bla&k stone
132

a $ie, also su''o#ted by Alue&k
1B0
.
0adad=,immon and the Islamic ,ahman
Anothe# as'e&t o) this o$e#all &on<oinin" o) ast#al atmos'he#i& and )e#tility
s'he#es is to be )ound ,ith the deity kno,n in %ume#ia as Ishku# and in the
%emiti& ,o#ld as Adad o# /adad. This deity also ,as a sto#m thunde# and ,eathe#
"od and at $a#ious 'oints in time ,as ,o#shi''ed as the hi"h o# hi"hest "od in
some 'antheons es'e&ially amon" the A#amaeans. Adad a''ea#s in many &ases to
ha$e been synonymous ,ith Baal ?anothe# sto#m "od@ bein" also &alled /add at
$a#ious 'oints and asso&iated in 'a#allel ,ith /adad at one 'oint in the !as %ham#a
te:ts
1B1
. -a'el#ud notes )#om te:ts )#om !as %ham#a that Ba1l as a name ,as
a''lied to and e$entually ,as used $i#tually in 'la&e o) the name /adadQ/addu
1B2
.
Adad ,as unde#stood in Babylonian te:ts not sim'ly to be a )ea#some "od o)
sto#ms but also as the =lo#d o) abundan&e the &ont#olle# o) the )lood"ates o) the
ea#th= ?be&ause o) his #ole as a ,eathe# "od@
1B3
. The#e natu#ally ,ould seem to be
a st#on" &on&e'tual &onne&tion bet,een the ,eathe#Qsto#m s'he#e o) a "od1s
in)luen&e and his &a'a&ity )o# '#odu&in" )e#tility and a"#i&ultu#al abundan&e
es'e&ially in many 'la&es in %y#ia and 6alestine ,hi&h #ely '#ima#ily u'on #ain)all
)o# the sustenan&e o) )a#min" and )lo&ks.
8o##obo#ation )o# the <oinin" o) ast#al and $e"etationQ)e#tility s'he#es in
/adadQAdad is )ound in A#abian e$iden&es )#om Mo#th A#abia and the T#ans<o#dan
#e"ion. Pate# i&ono"#a'hi& e$iden&e )#om the Mabataean tem'le site at -hi#bet
Tannu# is identi)ied by -nau)
1BB
as denotin" Dusha#a-Reus-/adad and the#e is
am'le e$iden&e )#om Mabataean ins&#i'tions to indi&ate the inte"#ation o) the
Mabataean hi"h "od Dusha#a ,ith Reus the hi"h "od o) the /ellenisti& A#eeks
,ho ,e#e '#esent in the #e"ion )#om the time o) Ale:ande#Is &on(uests on,a#d
1B5
.
Aleu&k identi)ied the main deity o) the tem'le at Tannu# as Reus-/adad
1BC
?so-
&alled be&ause o) the &ombination o) /ellenisti& and %emiti& &ha#a&te#isti&s@ on
the basis o) the Gea"leH i&ono"#a'hy asso&iated ,ith the ima"es o) the main deity
in the &om'le: su""estin" this "od to be an atmos'he#i& deity thou"h as has been
'#e$iously noted this deity ,as Dusha#a. /ealey )ollo,in" %ta#&key instead
identi)ies this deity as 0os based u'on the )a&t that 0os is the only "od mentioned
in the ins&#i'tional e$iden&e )#om the site. This &onne&tion is also made ho,e$e#
on the basis o) the li"htnin"Qsto#m i&ono"#a'hy asso&iated ,ith the "od in this
tem'le ,hi&h su""ests an asso&iation ,ith Reus-/adad
1BD
. Eithe# ,ay ,hethe# this
"od ,as 0os o# Dusha#a the e$iden&es )#om Tannu# &lea#ly &onne&t him ,ith the
atmos'he#i& "od /adad ?asso&iated in /ellenisti& times ,ith Reus@. 0os as ,as
seen ea#lie# $e#y &lea#ly had luna# att#ibutes ?and ,as di#e&tly &ou'led ,ith
Allah@ and Dusha#a ,as also asso&iated ,ith ast#al idolat#y as ,ell. The e$iden&e
)o# the &on<oinin" o) ast#al and )e#tility s'he#es "i$en by Tannu# is st#en"thened
th#ou"h the a''ea#an&e o) a "#ain ?and dol'hinO@ "oddess thou"ht by Aleu&k to be
Ata#"atis ,ith the main "od o) that tem'le
1B4
.
Anothe# 'oint o) e$iden&e )o# the <oinin" o) ast#al and ,eathe# t#aits is in the
%outh A#abian "od kno,n as Alma(ahQIlma(ah ,ho ,as su""ested abo$e as a
%outh A#abian ante&edent to the mo#e "ene#ally kno,n Allah. !in""#en notes that
Baal also &alled /add sits enth#oned u'on his mountain and that the i&ono"#a'hy
o) Baal in&luded his bein" su##ounded by se$en li"htnin" )lashes amon" othe#
details
1B2
. Else,he#e ,e see that the symbol o)ten asso&iated ,ith Adad is a )o#k-
sha'ed )lash o) li"htnin"
150
em'hasi*in" his #ole as a sto#m and ,eathe# "od.
Alma(ah the national "od o) the %outh A#abian %abaeans is also ,idely
#e&o"ni*ed as a moon "od
151
. Alma(ah ho,e$e# also demonst#ates i&ono"#a'hi&
e$iden&es ,hi&h su""est a sto#mQ,eathe# #ole. The %abaeans symboli*ed this "od
usin" a &luste# o) li"htnin" )lashes and a ,ea'on that looks like a sli"htly-bent
&a'ital %
152
,hi&h is (uite simila# to the symbolo"y used ,ith Adad and Teshub ?an
analo"ous /u##ian sto#m "od@.
.ust as %in and othe# moon "ods ,e#e o)ten asso&iated ,ith %hamash ?the sun@ and
Ishta# ?#e'#esentin" +enus and also a )e#tility "oddess@ so ,as AdadQ/adad
153

kno,n also by the e'ithet !immon ?meanin" ='ome"#anate=@. This su""ests a link
bet,een %in and AdadQ!immon '#obably anothe# e:am'le o) assimilation #athe#
than a di#e&t att#ibution o) luna# '#o$in&e to Adad. Both ,e#e hi"h "ods
,o#shi''ed in Meso'otamia and else,he#e in the no#the#n and ,este#n %emiti&
a#eas and thus it is natu#al that both ,ould essentially be&ome the same deity
e$en i) not s'e&i)ied as su&h in the minds o) thei# )ollo,e#s. /en&e this &ould
su""est an asso&iation o) the !immonQ/adad deity ,ith luna# idolat#y a tenden&y
,hi&h has been sho,n abo$e )o# se$e#al ,eathe# andQo# )e#tility "ods.
But ,hat o) the 'otential &onne&tion bet,een !immon and !ahman ?,hi&h is
'#esented as an e'ithet )o# Allah at se$e#al 'oints in the 0u#1an@; %ome Muslim
a'olo"ists ,ill attem't to deny the asso&iation o) !ahman ,ith !immonQ!ammanu.
It is a#"ued that !ahman ?)#om the rhm #oot ha$in" the meanin"
G&om'assionateG@ &annot be #elated to !immon o# !ammanu ?)#om the rmn #oot
meanin" G'ome"#anateH@. They ,ill a#"ue that be&ause the %emiti& t#i&onsonantal
#oots a#e di))e#ent the#e &annot be a &onne&tion bet,een !ahman and the
an&ient %y#o-Babylonian sto#m "od !immonQ!ammanu. /o,e$e# this a#"ument
does not take into a&&ount the )a&t that lan"ua"es &an &han"e o$e# time di$e#"in"
and &on$e#"in" and that 'honemes may e$ol$e &ausin" ,o#ds and #oots to &han"e
o$e# time. This &an be seen in the &om'a#ison o) the A#abi& and /eb#e, #oots
meanin" G&om'assionH. In A#abi& the #oot is rhm ,ith the h indi&atin" the lette#
h#aa ,hi&h has a sound a''#o:imated by a hea$y o'en GhH sound made )#om the
so)t 'alate at the ba&k o) the th#oat. In /eb#e, the #oot is rchm ,he#e &h
denotes the lette# cheth ,hi&h has a sound a''#o:imated by the G&hH in the %&ots
'#onun&iation o) Glo&hH. %ame #oot yet a some,hat di))e#ent 'honeme. 7u#the#
the a'olo"eti& a#"ument i"no#es the )a&t that simila# ,o#ds &an ha$e di$e#"ent
andQo# multi'le meanin"s a&#oss di))e#ent &ultu#es and time 'e#iods.
In the lin"uisti& &ase o) !immon and !ahman it is im'o#tant to )i#st note that
!immonQ!ammanu ,as also kno,n by the name G!a"imuH amon" Meso'otamian
%emiti& "#ou's
15B
. This is enli"htenin" be&ause both the G"H and GhG a#e sounds
,ith $e#y simila# a#ti&ulation. Both o) these 'honemes a#e $ela# sounds '#odu&ed
by 'ushin" ai# o$e# the $elum o# the so)t 'alate that sits #i"ht in )#ont o) the
u$ula. The '#ima#y di))e#en&e bet,een these sounds is that the G"H is a sto'
?meanin" that the )lo, o) ai# is sto''ed a)te# the initial sound is made@ ,hile the
GhG is a )#i&ati$e sound '#odu&ed by )o#&in" ai# th#ou"h a na##o, o'enin" bet,een
the ti' o) the ton"ue and the $elum and hen&e &an be e:tended. The shi)t )#om
="= to =h= ,ould be the #esult o) a '#o&ess in %emiti& 'honeti& de$elo'ment &alled
=s'i#anti*ation= in ,hi&h a sto' &onsonant &han"es into a )#i&ati$e &onsonant. The
'oint to this lin"uisti& di"#ession is that it is &e#tainly $e#y 'ossible ?and 'e#ha's
e$en likely )#om a 'honeti& stand'oint@ )o# the G"H in !a"imu to ha$e de$elo'ed
into the GhG o) !ahman in the &ou#se o) the de$elo'ment o) the set o) A#abian
lan"ua"es )#om thei# Meso'otamian %emiti& '#e&u#so#s. A)te# all ,e see that
!a"imu is #elated to !ammanu '#obably de$elo'in" th#ou"h a '#o&ess o)
e'enthesis ?a '#o&ess in ,hi&h a 'honeme is inse#ted into the middle o) a ,o#d to
&la#i)y o# sim'li)y '#onun&iation@ so the theo#y '#o'osed abo$e is &e#tainly not at
all unlikely. The d#o''in" o) the )inal GnH in the &ou#se o) the de$elo'ment )#om
rmn --b rgm --b rhm is easily e:'lained by notin" that nasal sounds ?su&h as GnH@
tend to d#o' out )#om the end o) ,o#ds ,hi&h )ind &ommon use o# ha$e a
systemati& histo#y o) de$elo'ment a )o#m o) a'o&o'e ?a '#o&ess ,he#e ,o#d )inal
'honemes a#e d#o''ed@. This is seen in En"lish ,he#eby many ,o#ds endin" in
Gin"H ?the Gn"H is a sin"le nasal sound@ tend to eithe# lose that )inal Gn"H
&om'letely o# else be&ome the so)te# GnH sound in e$e#yday o# hu##ied s'ee&h.
Thus the Muslim a#"uments a"ainst the identi)i&ation o) the $e#y an&ient
!immonQ!ammanu ,ith the mu&h late# !ahman a#e not ne&essa#ily $alid.
%&hola#s ha$e noted that the rhm #oot usually said to mean =&om'assionate= may
ha$e an ea#lie# andQo# alte#nati$e meanin". !in""#en notes that the e'ithet rhm
&an st#ess youth)ulness as ,ell as the 'o,e#s o) li)e and "ene#ation t#aditional
#oles o) An&ient Mea# East )e#tility deities. /e &onne&ts it ,ith the /eb#e,
rechem a &o"nate ,o#d meanin" =,omb=
155
. It is likely that the late# atta&hment
o) the ideas o) me#&y and &om'assion to rhm s'#an" )o#th )#om these ea#lie#
)e#tility as'e&ts. It is enti#ely lo"i&al to 'ostulate that a "od ,ho ,as #es'onsible
)o# b#in"in" in the #ains and &ausin" the ea#th to b#in" )o#th )e#tility ?as ,as the
)un&tion o) !immonQ!ammanu and the im'li&ation o) his name meanin"
G'ome"#anateH@ ,ould e$ol$e into a "od ,hose name ,as asso&iated ,ith
&om'assion. 9ne o) the most &om'assionate thin"s a "od in the a#id Mea# East
&ould do ,as b#in" in the #ains ,ith some #e"ula#ity. The &onne&tion o) this
e'ithet ,ith Allah is natu#al then and the a''ea#an&e o) Allah as a #ain-b#in"e# in
'#e-Islami& A#ab myth is ,ell-kno,n
15C
.
Indeed this so#t o) &onne&tion bet,een the #ainQsto#m "od !immonQAdad and the
&om'assionate "od !ahman is made in the lite#atu#e
=...I) this ,e#e >mm-a#-!ahma ,e ,ould not hesitate )o# a moment to &hoose the
)i#st solutionJ but the anti(uated o# a#&hai& #eadin" o) >mm-!uhm s'e&i)ied by
the autho#s &auses us to see in !uhm a $esti"e o) the old %emiti& #eli"ion. Indeed
its %emiti& #oot #1QhQhm 'uts us )a&e to )a&e ,ith one o) the oldest %emiti& names
o) the "od Adad e:'#essin" ,hat &ha#a&te#i*es it '#ima#ily namely the #ain ,hi&h
makes =so)t= and =tende#= the "#ound the $e"etation and by analo"y the hea#ts o)
humans and also the thunde# sou#&e o) #ain ,hi&h symboli*es it. 7#om the
double si"ni)i&an&e o) the #oot the#e o&&u#s the t,o se#ies o) names ,hi&h a#e
"i$en to him on the one hand !amman !ihamun !amimu and !a"imu
e:'#essin" #oa#in" thunde# and the ho,lin" o) the bull ,hi&h symboli*es this
as'e&t o) itJ on the othe# hand !hQhm !hman ?Akk. #emenu@ ,hi&h e:'#esses
the "#a&e and the me#&y o) Ba1l o) the sky. But in this last sense this e'ithet
a''lied to othe# "ods.=
15D
7ahd notes the dual de$elo'ment o) !ahman and !immon )#om this &ommon
%emiti& #oot e$en statin" that !ahman is the Akkadian =#emenu=. 7ahd "oes
)u#the# sho,in" that the rhm #oot ,as a s'e&i)i& e'ithet a''lied to a numbe# o)
an&ient Mea# East "ods
=The use o) the #oot #hm in A#ab 'a"anism to (uali)y the di$inity is attested in
addition to the testimony o) Ibn Du#ayd by anothe# no less im'o#tant '#o$ided by
the 6almy#ene e'i"#a'hy ,he#e a "od !/M is named at the side o) Allat. In
addition ,ithin Thamudi& onomasti&s a theo'ho#e !aham1il &on)i#ms the
e:isten&e o) this use in Mo#the#n A#abia. These ,eak indi&ations )o# the name ,e#e
to en<oy in Islam a $e#y "#eat e:'ansion in 'a#ti&ula# in the t,o )o#ms o) Abd a#-
!ahman and Abd a#-!ahim and a#e the e&hoes o) an an&ient usa"e "oin" ba&k to
Assy#o-Babylonia one o) the '#in&i'al hea#ths o) %emiti& 'a"anism ,he#e the
e'ithet 1me#&i)ul1 o# the in$o&ation 1ha$e me#&y u'on me1 ,as <oined to the names
o) '#in&i'le "ods su&h as Ma#duk Ishta# %in %hamash Adad and Assu#. In the
isolated state !i-mi-nu-u be&ame an e'ithet o) Ma#duk.=
154
A"ain the e(uation o) rhm ,ith rmn is taken )o# "#anted. !ahman ,as a''lied to
many deities in&ludin" both Adad the sto#m "od %in the moon "od and Ma#duk
anothe# name )o# Bel ?identi)ied by 7ahd )u#the# abo$e as Ba1l@. Indeed the "od-
name !i.ha.mun a''ea#s on an&ient "od lists )#om an&ient Assy#o-Babylonia
attestin" the anti(uity o) rhm )a# be)o#e the a''ea#an&e o) this "od in A#abian
mytholo"y
152
. In one o) these a''ea#an&es the name is a&&om'anied by a
des&#i'to# meanin" =he ,ho holds the noseQb#idle )o# >tu=. >tu ,as an a#&hai&
%ume#ian name ?thou"h a''a#ently still bein" used in Babylonia at the time@ )o#
the sun-"od %hamash. The des&#i'tion seems to indi&ate !i.ha.mun as bein" in an
in)e#io# 'osition holdin" the ho#se o) his maste# >tuQ%hamash. This same
&ombination o) !ahim ,ith the sun "od is noted mu&h late# in 6almy#a ,he#e
!ahim a''ea#s as an asso&iated a&olyte o) %hamash alon" ,ith Allat as the thi#d
membe# o) the t#iad
1C0
. 9ne othe# 'oint o) inte#est is that 7ahd noted that the
=ho,lin" o) the bull= ,as asso&iated ,ith this )e#tility "od !immonQ!ahman <ust as
the bull symbolo"y ,as seen ,ith othe# deities ,ith )e#tility )un&tions su&h as the
moon "od and Baal.
By the !oman 'e#iod the t#ansition had been made o) rhm )#om
)e#tilityQ&om'assion deity to a mo#e abst#a&ted ideali*ation o) me#&y and
&om'assion. !ahim ,as a "od o) me#&y in the 6almy#ene Du#a-Eu#o'an and
%a)aiti& 'antheons and !ahman ,as a "od o) &om'assion in the %outh A#abian
'antheon o) this 'e#iod. !ahman in the %outh "#adually ,as #aised to the 'osition
o) bein" an e'ithet )o# the uni(ue "od a''ea#in" in the nas&ent %outh A#abian
monotheism and ,ould seem to be a st#on" &andidate )o# the ent#an&e o) this
deity into the de$elo'in" Islami& belie) system a)te# the A#abs had &emented thei#
hold on the A#abian 'eninsula and needed a &ohesi$e #eli"ious system to uni)y thei#
&on(uests. /ealey has 'ostulated that the t#aditional %outh A#abian e'ithet rhmn
?,ith the su))i:ed %outh A#abian a#ti&ula# n@ a''ea#in" in the monothei*in" &ult o)
the Me#&i)ul 9ne in %outh A#abia &ould easily ha$e a#isen )#om ea#lie# 'a"an usa"e
as he notes that the ,o#shi' o) the Me#&i)ul 9ne ,as ,ides'#ead th#ou"hout %y#ia
in the )i#st &entu#y AD in a non-8h#istian and non-.e,ish &onte:t instead t#a&in"
to Meso'otamian &ultu#al in)luen&es
1C1
. The a''ea#an&e o) the same so#t o) &ult in
%outh A#abia ?as ,ell as else,he#e in A#abia in&ludin" the Mabataeans@ su""ests
the natu#al de$elo'ment o) this $ie, o) rhmn a''lied to eme#"ent nati$e
monotheism. It ,ould )u#the# then seem natu#al that this !ahman ,ould be
ado'ted into the theolo"y o) Islam as a ,ay o) b#in"in" his ,o#shi'e#s in %outhe#n
A#abia into the )old o) the de$elo'in" monotheisti& state #eli"ion. Indeed both
!ahman and !ahim a''ea#s as e'itheti& names )o# Allah in the 0u#1an in nume#ous
'la&es.
-hat Does It 'll Mean3
Essentially ,e must unde#stand and a&&e't that Allah o) the Islami& #eli"ion is not
the same as the Aod o) the Bible. Allah &an be t#a&ed ba&k,a#ds th#ou"h an&ient
Mea# Easte#n #eli"ious histo#y as the latest de$elo'ment in a se#ies o) ast#al and
atmos'he#i& deities in the an&ient %emiti& ,o#ld all the ,ay ba&k to $e#y an&ient
Meso'otamia the o#i"inal seat o) both &i$ili*ation and also idolat#y. Muslims
,hen they ,o#shi' Allah a#e not ,o#shi''in" the t#ue 8#eato# Aod but a#e #athe#
,o#shi''in" a )alse "od one ,hose ,o#shi' is &ondemned in the BibleN
G...And hath "one and se#$ed othe# "ods and ,o#shi''ed them eithe# the sun o#
moon o# any o) the host o) hea$en ,hi&h I ha$e not &ommanded.H ?Deute#onomy
1DN3@
=And he 'ut do,n the idolat#ous '#iests ,hom the kin"s o) .udah had o#dained to
bu#n in&ense in the hi"h 'la&es in the &ities o) .udah and in the 'la&es #ound
about .e#usalemJ them all that bu#ned o))e#in" unto Baal to the sun and to the
moon and to the 'lanets and to all the host o) hea$en.H ?II -in"s 23N5@
7o# the Muslim ,ho ,ished to deny o# i"no#e this e$iden&e the (uestion is 'osedN
Why does Islam ha$e su&h a )i:ation ,ith the &#es&ent moon symbol a symbol
,hi&h is intimately and ,idely asso&iated ,ith the ,o#shi' o) the moon "od
th#ou"hout histo#y unde# ,hate$e# name in %ume# Akkad %y#ia 6e#sia 8anaan
E"y't and A#abia; Thou"h some Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill a#"ue that the &#es&ent
moon symbolo"y ente#ed Islam $e#y late as a #esult o) Tu#kish in)luen&e in the 15th
&entu#y this is sim'ly not the &ase. The 'hysi&al e$iden&e )o# the &#es&ent moon
as a #eli"ious symbol in Islam "oes ba&k to D5 A/ ?C2C AD@ ,he#e it is used as a
symbol on Islami& &oins
1C2
. Why do many mos(ues and othe# Islami& #eli"ious
buildin"s ha$e de'i&tions o) the &#es&ent moon on thei# s'i#es and 'inna&les; Why
do the )la"s o) t,el$e Muslim nations ?Al"e#ia A*e#bai<an B#unei 8omo#os
Malaysia Maldi$es Mau#itania 6akistan Tunisia Tu#key Tu#kmenistan and
>*bekistan@ "o so )a# as to in&lude this &#es&ent moon symbol; Why is the
kno,led"e o) the timin" o) the hilal the &#es&ent moon so im'o#tant )o# sta#tin"
the Muslim holy month o) )astin" !amadan; All the e$iden&e 'oints to the )a&t o)
the moon symbol bein" im'o#tant to the ea#ly A#abs amon" ,hom the #eli"ion o)
Islam "#adually de$elo'ed and that this '#e-Islami& 'a"an symbol ,as im'o#ted
into Islam alon" ,ith the #est o) the an&ient t#a''in"s.
7o# the Muslim to be )#ee o) idolat#y means ultimately that he o# she must tu#n
)#om Islam ,ith its ,o#shi' o) this &#eated "od and tu#n to the T#ue 8#eato# Aod
o) the Bible ,ho has said that /e ,ill not sha#e /is "lo#y ,ith othe# G"odsH ?Isaiah
B2N4@.
In sho#t the notion that Allah is the same as the Aod o) the Bible and that Allah is
<ust the )ullest #e$elation o) Aod ,ho had '#e$iously been #e$ealed in the To#ah
and the Bible must be #e<e&ted. As 8aesa# 7a#ah has said in his book about Islam
=The#e is no #eason the#e)o#e to a&&e't the idea that Allah 'assed to the Muslims
)#om the 8h#istians and .e,s=.
1C3
The Aod o) the Bible is not the same as the Allah ,o#shi''ed in Islam. Instead the
#oots o) Islam1s deity a#e )ound in Middle Easte#n mytholo"y and as su&h #e'#esent
the latest mani)estation o) idolat#y in that #e"ion and ,he#e$e# Islam has s'#ead.
End Motes
?1@ - 7. %hehadi 7ha.alis Unique Un'nowa(le 7od '. 3D
?2@ - I. al-7a#u(i +hristian "ission and Islamic )aFwah3 6roceedings of the
+ham(Isy )ialogue +onsultation ''. BD-B4
?3@ - M. 5ousse) %merica4 &il4 and the Islamic "ind ''. DB-D5
?B@ - %. Akhta# % !aith for %ll Seasons '. 141
?5@ - W. 6annenbe#" GEte#nity Time and the T#inita#ian AodH 8eflections
annual antholo"y o) 'ubli& le&tu#es "i$en by the 8ente# o) Theolo"i&al In(ui#y +ol.
3 1222
?C@ - W. 6annenbe#" %n Introduction to Systematic $heology ''.35-3C
?D@ - M. 6ea#&ey $otal $ruth3 9i(erating +hristianity from its +ultural +aptivity
'. 34D
?4@ - 7.A. %&hae))e# $he 7od -ho Is $here '. 24
?2@ - %.A.A. Maududi !undamentals of Islam '. 2D
?10@ - 5ousse) o'. &it. '. 42
?11@ - Ibid. '. 44
?12@ - W.!. %mith 8eligion of the Semites '. C2
?13@ - M. !odinson "ohammed '. 1D
?1B@ - /isham ibn al--aldi Kita( al-%snam t#ans. M.A. 7a#is '. 1D
?15@ - .. /ennin"e# =6#e-Islami& Bedouin !eli"ion= Studies on Islam ed. M.P.
%,a#t* '. 4
?1C@ - -. Dussaud 9a 6AnAtration des %ra(es en Syrie avant lIslam '. B1
?1D@ - 6.-. /itti *istory of Syria '. 345
?14@ - Ibid. '. 312
?12@ - %. 7i&k 8eligionsgeschichte Syriens3 von der !rJh.eit (is .ur 7egenwart
Eds. 6.W. /aide# M. /utte# and %. -#eu*e# '. 125
?20@ - A.A. %ho##osh Islam 8evealed3 % +hristian %ra(#s View of Islam '. 1D2
?21@ - Ibn al-Athi# %l-Cihaayah fi 7haree( al-%thar ent#y )o# salah
?22@ - %. %hamoun =The FMyste#yI o) 6B>/ !e$ealedN Allah1s 6#aye#s 7o# Muhammad
E:amined= )ound at htt'NQQ,,,.ans,e#in"-islam.o#"Q!es'onsesQMen<Q'buh.htm
?23@ - %ee e.". the dis&ussion o) %ume#ian mythos in %.M. -#ame# $he Sumerians3
$heir *istory4 +ulture4 and +haracter ''. 112-1CB ,he#e this moti) a''ea#s
)#e(uently
?2B@ - A. .e))#ey Islam3 "ohammed and *is 8eligion '. 45
?25@ - P. Aa#det Encyclopedia of Islam eds. B. Pe,is 8. 6ellat and .. %&ha&ht
+ol. 1 '. B0C
?2C@ - W.M. Watt "uhammad#s "ecca ''. 31-32
?2D@ - Ibid. '. 32
?24@ - %.M R,eme# $he "oslem )octrine of 7od ''. 2B-25
?22@ - D.B. Ma&Donald Encyclopedia of Islam eds. B. Pe,is +.P. M[na"e 8. 6ellat
and .. %&ha&ht +ol. 3 '. 1023
?30@ - 7.E. 6ete#s $he &0ford Encyclopedia of the "odern Islamic -orld ed. ..P.
Es'osito +ol. 1 ''. DC-DD.
?31@ - .. Ail&h#ist $he $emple4 $he Ka#a(a4 and +hrist '. 1C
?32@ - .. +an Ess "eet the %ra( '. 22
?33@ - .. Wellhausen 8este %ra(ischen *eidenthums '. 214
?3B@ - T. M^ldeke Encyclopaedia of 8eligion and Ethics eds. .. /astin"s and ..A.
%elbie +ol. 1 '. CCB
?35@ - /. !in""#en 8eligions of the %ncient Cear East t#ans. .. %tu#dy '. C
?3C@ - T. .a&obsen $reasures of )ar'ness3 % *istory of "esopotamian 8eligion '.
20
?3D@ - Many s&hola#s '#o$ide Illil as an alte#ati$e t#anslite#ation )o# the Akkadian
)o#m o) the name. This does not directly a))e&t the de#i$ation o) the ,o#d =ilQilu=
sin&e this &omes )#om the PIP but it does se#$e to illust#ate a 'a#allel
t#anslite#ation issue )#om ,hi&h the#e is a "ood deal o) &on)usion int#odu&ed into
the #ende#in" o) this "od-name into ou# al'habet ,hi&h &ont#ibutes in tu#n to
&on)usion ,hen the di#e&t e(uation o) the Meso'otamian and A#abian IlQIlah and
the ,este#n %emiti& ElQEloahQAlaha is attem'ted. 7o# some ,o#ks both #e&ent and
anti(ue ,hi&h "i$e Illil as an alte#nati$e #ende#in" o) the name see W.!.
Aalla"he# Sennacheri(s +ampaign to 2udah3 Cew Studies '. 44J "yths from
"esopotamia3 +reation4 !lood4 7ilgamesh4 and &thers t#ans. %. Dalley '. 321J A.
Woods cbThe 8ont#ibution An&ient Mea# East Ba&k"#ound Mate#ial Makes to
>nde#standin" and Inte#'#etin" Isaiah 1BN12-15 'ubl. onlineJ !.P. Pitke %
8econstruction of the %ssyro-5a(ylonian 7od-9ists4 %n3
d
%-Cu-U" and %n3%nu Sha
%meli '. 3DJ ..8. 6oi#ie# =Illuminatin" 6a#allels to Isaiah ZI+ 12= Vetus
$estamentum +ol. B2 7as&. 3 ?.uly 1222@ '. 3D2 n. BJ A.T. 8lay =EllilN The Aod
o) Mi''u#= %merican 2ournal of Semitic 9anguages and 9iteratures +ol. 23 Mo. B
?.uly 120D@ ''. 2C2 2D1J and es'. ..A. 7#a*e# !ol'lore in the &ld $estament
+ol. 1 '. 113 n. 5 ,he#e 7#a*e# "i$es Illil as the preferred #ende#in" )o# the
name
?34@ - .a&obsen o'. &it. '. 11D
?32@ - A. Auillaume Islam '. D
?B0@ - ..B. %&ott $heological -ord(oo' of the &ld $estament eds. !.P. /a##is
A.P. A#&he# and B.-. Waltke +ol. 1 '. B2
?B1@ - I. %hahid 8ome and the %ra(s3 % 6rolegomenon to the Study of 5y.antium
and the %ra(s '. 132
?B2@ - %hend"e "i$es ilu as a t#anslite#ation )o# this $e#b M... %hend"e $he
9anguage of the *arappans3 from %''adian to Sans'rit '. 20B
?B3@ - !in""#en o'. &it. '. 131
?BB@ - ..M.M. !obe#ts $he Earliest Semitic 6antheon th#ou"hout
?B5@ - /... Mulle# $he 9oom of *istory '. 2CB
?BC@ - 7.+. Winnett and W.P. !eed %ncient 8ecords !rom Corth %ra(ia ''. D4-D2
?BD@ - Ibid. '. D4
?B4@ - Ibid. '. 12D
?B2@ - T. M^ldeke Encyclopaedia of 8eligion and Ethics eds. .. /astin"s and ..A.
%elbie lo&. &it.
?50@ - %ee A. Me"e$ Ca(ataean %rchaeology $oday ''. 12-1B
?51@ - A. !ou: %ncient Iraq '. 22
?52@ - T.M. A#een $he +ity of the "oon 7od3 8eligious $raditions in *arran '. 2B
?53@ - M. Pambe#t =Pa Pitt[#atu#e %um[#ienne= 8evue d%ssyriologie et
d%rchAologie &rientale +ol. 55 ?12C1@ '. 140
?5B@ - !in""#en o'. &it. '. 5C
?55@ - A#een o'. &it. '.33
?5C@ - Ibid. '. 25
?5D@ - Ibid. '. 153
?54@ - This identi)i&ation is (uite 'lausible. De$o&ali*ation o) the g --b ' is
&ommon and the assimilation o) the n be)o#e a &onsonant to "i$e a doublin" o) the
&onsonant ?n8 to 88@ is ,ell-attested in Mo#the#n %emiti& lan"ua"es in&ludin" in
loan ,o#ds - see M. %outhe#n and A.A. +au"hn =Whe#e /a$e All the Masals Aone;
n8 b 88 in Mo#th %emiti&= 2ournal of Semitic Studies +ol. B2 ?122D@ Autumn ''.
2C3 242. Anothe# 'ossible e:am'le o) this ty'e o) 'honeme &han"e bet,een
%ume#ian and ,este#n %emiti& may be the %ume#ian ingal to /eb#e, #i''ar.
?52@ - 5. 5adin *a.or3 8ediscovery of a 7reat +itadel of the 5i(le ''. BB-B5
?C0@ - A#een o'. &it. '. 52
?C1@ - I.!. Metton =Meo'latonism in Islami& 6hiloso'hy= 8outledge Encyclopaedia
of 6hilosophy Ed. E. 8#ai" +ol. C ''. 40C-40D
?C2@ - A#een o'. &it. '. C3
?C3@ - /ennin"e# o'. &it. '.D
?CB@ - 8. 8oon =%outhe#n A#abiaN A 6#oblem )o# the 7utu#e= $he %nnual 8eport of
the Smithsonian Institute4 KLMM '. 322
?C5@ - M. Alue&k )eities and )olphins ''. 51B-515
?CC@ - Me"e$ o'. &it. '. 12
?CD@ - I. B#o,nin" 6etra '. 24
?C4@ - E. %ykes Everymans )ictionary of Con-+lassical "ythology '. D
?C2@ - !. Pandau Islam and the %ra(s '. 13
?D0@ - A. Auillaume Islam '.D
?D1@ - .. A#ay $he 9egacy of +anaan3 $he 8as Shamra $e0ts and their 8elevance
to the &ld $estament %u''lement to Vetus $estamentum +ol. 5 ?125D@ '. 123
?D2@ - M. Ma#a(ten =An Ins&#ibed Amulet )#om %hab,a= %ra(ian %rchaeology and
Epigraphy +ol. D ?122C@ '. 21
?D3@ - A. !y&kmans 9es 8eligiones %ra(es 6rAislamiques '. B3
?DB@ - A. 8aton-Thom'son $he $om(s and "oon $emple of *ureidha '. B2 also
A. !y&kman1s dis&ussion o) Thom'son1s e'i"#a'hi& )inds ''. 15D-1D3 ,hi&h in
addition to the nume#ous dedi&ations to %in also demonst#ated one dedi&ation to
Alma(ah anothe# %outh A#abian moon "od.
?D5@ - !.P.B. Bo,en and 7.6. Alb#i"ht %rchaeological )iscoveries in South %ra(ia
'. D4J !y&kmans o'. &it. ''. 24 B3
?DC@ - Auillaume lo&. &it.
?DD@ - %mith o'. &it '. 52
?D4@ - .. 7ine"an $he %rchaeology of -orld 8eligions3 $he 5ac'ground of
6rimitivism4 :oroastrianism4 *induism4 2ainism4 5uddhism4 etc< '.B43
?D2@ - /ennin"e# o'. &it. '. 12
?40@ - W.M. M_lle# "ythology of %ll 8aces +ol. 12 ''. 22-30
?41@ - %ee P. Di#$en $he 6almyrenes of )ura-Europos '. B4 n. 3DJ this
inte#'#etation seems likely "i$en the &lose simila#ity o) 5a#hibol1s name ,ith
5a#ih a moon "od amon" the 8anaanites and %y#ians
?42@ - A#een o'. &it. '. 2C
?43@ - A.5. Ali $he *oly 1uran3 %ra(ic $e0t with an English $ranslation and
+ommentary '. 1C21
?4B@ - !in""#en o'. &it. '. 5B
?45@ - D.A. Ma&-en*ie "yths of 5a(ylonia and %ssyria '.35
?4C@ - 7#a*e# lo&. &it.
?4D@ - M. .ast#o, 8eligion of 5a(ylonia and %ssyria '. 10B
?44@ - A#een o'. &it. '. 33
?42@ - !in""#en o'. &it. '. CD
?20@ - /...W. D#i<$e#s $he 8eligion of 6almyra '.2
?21@ - T. -ai*e# $he 8eligious 9ife of 6almyra ''. D1-D2
?22@ - .. Tei:ido# $he 6antheon of 6almyra ''. 2-3
?23@ - !in""#en o'. &it. '. 131
?2B@ - %ee A.%. -a'el#ud 5aal in the 8as Shamra $e0ts ''. 40-42
?25@ - %ee A.A. Pundin =Die A#abis&hen A^ttinnen !uda und al->**a= %l-*udhud3
!estschrift "aria *Nfner .um OP< 7e(urtstag Ed. !.A. %tie"ne# ''. 211-214
?2C@ - %ee e.". 7.M. 8#oss +anaanite "yth and *e(rew Epic n. 13 '.D ,ho notes
the e(ui$alen&e o) Baal %hamen ,ith Reus /elios a sola# deity in Mabataean
ins&#i'tions.
?2D@ - %mith o'. &it. '. 10C-10D
?24@ - !obe#ts o'. &it. '. 12
?22@ - Tei:ido# o'. &it. '. B3J see also A#een o'. &it. '. 153 n. 1B ,he#e %in is
identi)ied as =the Bel o) /a##an=.
?100@ - A#een o'. &it. ''. CC-C2
?101@ - Ibid. '. C2
?102@ - %mith o'. &it. '.110
?103@ - %.M. R,eme# $he Influence of %nimism in Islam '. 5
?10B@ - T. 7ahd $he Encyclopedia of Islam eds. B. Pe,is +.P. M[na"e 8h. 6ellat
and .. %&ha&ht +ol. 3 '. 53D
?105@ - %ee 7.E. 6ete#s *a//3$he "uslim 6ilgrimage to "ecca and the *oly 6laces
'. 25
?10C@ - 8oon o'. &it. '. 324
?10D@ - M. !odinson o'. &it. '. B0
?104@ - M. !uth$en Islam in the -orld '. 1D
?102@ - T. 7ahd $he Encyclopedia of Islam eds. B. Pe,is +.P. M[na"e 8h. 6ellat
and .. %&ha&ht lo&. &it.
?110@ - 6ete#s o'. &it. '. 3C5 n. 52
?111@ - -. A#mst#on" "uhammad3 % 5iography of the 6rophet ''. C4-C2
?112@ - -. al-%aleh !a(led +ities4 6rinces and 2inn !rom %ra( "yths and 9egends
''. 24-22
?113@ - $he 9ife of "uhammad3 % $ranslation of Ishaqs Sirat 8asul %llah t#ans. A.
Auillaume ''. CC-C4
?11B@ - %o*omenus Ecclesiastical *istory Bk. C 8h. 34.3
?115@ - %. 6ines =Motes on Islam and on A#abi& 8h#istianity and .udaeo-
8h#istianity= 2erusalem Studies in %ra(ic and Islam +ol. B ?124B@ '. 1B3
?11C@ - >. !ubin =/ani)iyya and -a1baN an In(ui#y into the A#abian 6#e-Islami&
Ba&k"#ound o) Din Ib#ahim= 2erusalem Studies in %ra(ic and Islam +ol. 13 ?1220@
'. 10B
?11D@ - Wellhausen o'. &it. '. D5
?114@ - E.". see 7. Buhl )as 9e(en "ohammeds '. 2BJ /ennin"e# o'. &it. '. 12
?112@ - 7. /ommel !irst Encyclopedia of Islam eds. M.T. /outsma T.W. A#nold
!. Basset and !. /a#tmann +ol. 1 ''. 3D2-340
?120@ - 8. Alass[ $he Cew Encyclopedia of Islam '. 145
?121@ - 6. 9&&hi"#osso $he 2oy of Sects '. 324
?122@ - Ibid. '. 322
?123@ - !uth$en o'. &it. '. 14
?12B@ - A#een o'. &it. '. 1B
?125@ - ..7. /ealey $he 8eligion of the Ca(ataeans '. 43))
?12C@ - Ibid. '. 45
?12D@ - B#o,nin" o'. &it. '. BB
?124@ - /ealey o'. &it. '. 44J )ollo,in" 7. Rayadine =Die A^tte# de# Mabatde#=
6etra und das KNnigreich der Ca(atQer ed. M. Pindne# '. 115
?122@ - Ibid. '. 23
?130@ - Ibid. '. 124
?131@ - /itti o'. &it. '. 345
?132@ - %ee e.". A. Pa&e#en*a =Il dio Dusa#es a 6uteoli= 6uteoli3 Studi di Storia
%ntica +ols. 12-13 '. 120
?133@ - /ealey o'. &it. '. 22
?13B@ - Ibid. '. 45
?135@ - Ibid. ''. 110 113
?13C@ - Me"e$ o'. &it. ''. 11 1B-15
?13D@ - A. .aussen and !. %a$i"na& "ission %rchAologique en %ra(ie +ol. 1 ''.
1C2))
?134@ - /ealey o'. &it. ''. 132-13B
?132@ - B#o,nin" lo&. &it.
?1B0@ - M. Alue&k $he &ther Side of the 2ordan '. 213
?1B1@ - !in""#en o'. &it. ''. 132-133
?1B2@ - -a'el#ud o'. &it. ''. 50-51
?1B3@ - /.W.7. %a""s $he 7reatness that was 5a(ylon '. 335
?1BB@ - %ee E.A. -nau) =Die /e#kun)t de# Mabatde#= in 6etra3 Ceue %usgra(ungen
und Entdec'ung ed. M. Pindne# ''. D4
?1B5@ - %ee /ealey o'. &it. ''. 101-102
?1BC@ - M. Aleu&k )eities and )olphins3 $he Story of the Ca(ataeans '. 4CJ $he
&ther Side of the 2ordan '. 221
?1BD@ - /ealey o'. &it. '. 12D
?1B4@ - M. Aleu&k $he &ther Side of the 2ordan '. 222
?1B2@ - !in""#en o'. &it. ''. 133-13B
?150@ - Ibid. '. 1C2
?151@ - Des'ite a )e, #e&ent attem'ts to inte#'#et him as a sun "od ,hi&h a#e not
"ene#ally a&&e'ted by the #ele$ant s&hola#shi'.
?152@ - M. Pu#ke# )ictionary of 7ods and 7oddesses4 )evils and )emons '. 14
?153@ - !in""#en o'. &it. '. C1
?15B@ - T.A. 6in&hes $he 8eligion of 5a(ylonia and %ssyria ''. CD2J &an be
$ie,ed online in Adobe A&#obat )o#mat at
htt'NQQ,,,.semantikon.&omQtheolo"i&aQ#eli"ionbabyloniasy#ia.'d)
?155@ - !in""#en o'. &it. ''. 1B2-1B3
?15C@ - %ee 8. B#o&kelmann =Allah und die A^t*en de# >#s'#un" des islamis&hen
Monotheismus= %rchiv fJr 8eligionswissenschaft +ol. 21 ?1222@ ''. 10D-104J
%mith o'. &it. '. 111J /ennin"e# o'. &it. '. 12
?15D@ - T. 7ahd 9e 6antheon )e 9%ra(ie +entrale % 9a Veille )e 9*egire '. 220-
221J t#anslation )#om the 7#en&h is mine
?154@ - Ibid. '. 1B1J t#anslation )#om the 7#en&h is mine
?152@ - Pitke o'. &it. ''. 13B 232
?1C0@ - .. Tei:ido# o'. &it. ''. 5B C2
?1C1@ - /ealey o'. &it. '. 2C
?1C2@ - !. Ettin"hausen Encyclopedia of Islam eds. B. Pe,is +.P. M[na"e 8h.
6ellat and .. %&ha&ht o'. &it. '. 341J indeed the a#ti&le notes that the hilal
moti) o) a &#es&ent moon ,ith sta#s ,as ,idely used in Islam be)o#e the #ise o) the
9ttoman Em'i#e
?1C3@ - 8. 7a#ah Islam3 5eliefs and &(servances '. 24
Myth EB
Muslims !e$e#en&e .esus
8h#ist
GE:'e#ien&e sho,s us an eno#mous di))e#en&e bet,een 'iety and "oodness.H
- Blaise 6as&al 6enseAs
A %ho#t %yno'sis o) What Islam Tea&hes About 8h#ist
Aettin" it W#on" About .esus
The Aos'el o) Ba#nabas
It is not un&ommon )o# Muslims to '#o&laim that they ha$e a #es'e&t and #e$e#en&e
)o# .esus 8h#ist. This is a &laim that many Muslims in Weste#n nations ,ill o)ten
make so as to en&ou#a"e "#eate# =dialo"ue= and o'enness to,a#d Islam. Be&ause
.esus 8h#ist is mentioned at $a#ious 'oints in the 0u#1an it is said to )ollo, that
the 0u#1an hono#s /im. Indeed Islam a&kno,led"es that .esus 8h#ist ,as a
'#o'het that /e ,as bo#n o) a $i#"in and e$en that /e ,as sinless. /o,e$e#
sim'ly "i$in" li' se#$i&e to these )a&ts does not ne&essa#ily mean that Muslims
unde#stand the si"ni)i&an&e o) these 'oints o# that they a#e the#e)o#e #e$e#en&in"
the Po#d. This is be&ause in the '#o&ess o) s'eakin" and tea&hin" about .esus
Islam #e<e&ts and denies many t#uths about the Po#d that a#e o) $ital im'o#tan&e
and that a#e &lea#ly tau"ht in %&#i'tu#e. 7u#the# thou"h many Muslims ,ill a))i#m
thei# #e$e#en&e )o# .esus 8h#ist in theory it is not un&ommon to see Muslims in
practice deni"#ate the 6e#son and name o) .esus as 'a#t o) mo#e systemati& e))o#ts
to )o#&e Islami& &hau$inism u'on 8h#istianity and 8h#istians.
' Short Synopsis of -hat Islam Teaches 'bout Christ
The 0u#1an says (uite a lot about .esus 8h#ist -- some o) it t#uth)ul and some o) it
#athe# outlandish. Islam tea&hes the $i#"in bi#th o) the Po#d .esus 8h#ist. =And
Ma#y dau"hte# o) 1Im#an ,hose body ,as &haste the#e)o#e We b#eathed the#ein
somethin" o) 9u# %'i#it. And she 'ut )aith in the ,o#ds o) he# Po#d and /is
s&#i'tu#es and ,as o) the obedient.= ?Surah CCN12 6i&kthal t#anslation@ And also
=%he saidN 1/o, shall I ha$e a son seein" that no man has tou&hed me and I am
not un&haste;1 /e saidN 1%o ?it ,ill be@N Thy Po#d saith 1that is easy )o# MeN and ?We
,ish@ to a''oint him as a %i"n unto men and a Me#&y )#om >s1NIt is a matte# ?so@
de&#eed.1 %o she &on&ei$ed him and she #eti#ed ,ith him to a #emote 'la&e.=
?Surah 12N20-22@ In both o) these (u#ani& 'assa"es ,e &an see that o#thodo:
Muslim tea&hin" holds to the )a&t that 8h#ist ,as &on&ei$ed in Ma#y des'ite he#
bein" a $i#"in. 7u#the# it is tau"ht that the &on&e'tion o) 8h#ist in Ma#y ,as a
#esult o) the a&tion o) the %'i#it o) Allah. The $i#"inal &on&e'tion o) .esus 8h#ist is
also e:'li&itly stated to ha$e been a si"n to men and a me#&y )#om Allah. Whe#e
Islam )ails thou"h is to unde#stand ,hat this si"n 'ointed to and ,hat the me#&y
o) Aod th#ou"h the Po#d .esus 8h#ist #eally is.
The 0u#1an also #e'o#ts that .esus 8h#ist ,as sinless in /is li)e on ea#th. =/e saidN I
am only a messen"e# o) thy Po#d that I may besto, on thee a )aultless son.=
?Surah 12N12 6i&kthal t#anslation@ 8h#ist ,as the#e)o#e des&#ibed to Ma#y as
)aultless indi&atin" that /e ,ould be sinless. The 5usu) Ali t#anslation o) the
0u#1an uses the ,o#d =holy= to des&#ibe .esus ,hi&h is a ,o#d meanin" =to be set
a'a#t and se'a#ated )#om sin=. This does indeed des&#ibe .esus 8h#ist ,ho is
sinless and &om'letely se'a#ated )#om any sin in /is holiness.
%ome o) the e$ents su##oundin" the bi#th o) the Po#d a#e tau"ht as ,ell. The 0u#1an
#e'o#ts that .esus s'oke at bi#th. =But she 'ointed to the babe. They saidN 1/o,
&an ,e talk to one ,ho is a &hild in the &#adle;1 /e saidN 1I am indeed a se#$ant o)
AllahN /e hath "i$en me #e$elation and made me a '#o'het.1= ?Surah 12N22-30@ The
Bible thou"h makes no #e&o#d o) this e$ent ,hi&h a''ea#s to be a late# Muslim
addition desi"ned to st#en"then the do&t#ine o) .esus1 '#o'hethood by att#ibutin"
this mi#a&le to /im.
In Islam .esus 8h#ist is a&kno,led"ed as ha$in" 'e#)o#med many mi#a&les. /e
#aised 'eo'le )#om the dead and healed the si&k and in)i#med. /e had su'e#natu#al
kno,led"e o) thin"s that 'eo'le ke't se&#et. /e is also #e'o#ted to ha$e )ashioned
a bi#d out o) &lay b#eathed into it and it &ame to li)e. =And ?a''oint him@ a
messen"e# to the 8hild#en o) Is#ael ?,ith this messa"e@N =1I ha$e &ome to you ,ith
a %i"n )#om you# Po#d in that I make )o# you out o) &lay as it ,e#e the )i"u#e o) a
bi#d and b#eathe into it and it be&omes a bi#d by Allah1s lea$eN And I heal those
bo#n blind and the le'e#s and I (ui&ken the dead by Allah1s lea$eJ and I de&la#e
to you ,hat ye eat and ,hat ye sto#e in you# houses. %u#ely the#ein is a %i"n )o#
you i) ye did belie$e.= ?Surah 3NB2@ %ome o) these mi#a&les a#e t#ue to the Bibli&al
#e&o#d the mi#a&le o) the &lay bi#d is not. /o,e$e# ,e &an see that Islam does
#e&o#d that .esus 'e#)o#med mi#a&les th#ou"h the 'o,e# o) Allah and that these
mi#a&les ,e#e )o# the 'u#'ose o) se#$in" as si"ns so that the 'eo'le mi"ht belie$e.
Islam ,ill e$en "o so )a# as to tea&h that .esus 8h#ist ,as the Messiah )#om Aod
and that /e ,as Aod1s Wo#d and mediato#. In Surah 3NB5 ,e see the Messiani&
natu#e o) .esus 8h#ist su''o#ted =?And #emembe#@ ,hen the an"els saidN 9 Ma#yO
PoO Allah "i$eth thee "lad tidin"s o) a ,o#d )#om him ,hose name is the Messiah
.esus son o) Ma#y illust#ious in the ,o#ld and the /e#ea)te# and one o) those
b#ou"ht nea# ?unto Allah@= ?6i&kthal t#anslation@. The A#abi*ation o) the
&o##es'ondin" %y#ia& ,o#d t#anslated as =Messiah= by 6i&kthal is al-masseh ,hi&h
lite#ally means =the anointed one the messiah= <ust as does the ,o#d "essiah in
/eb#e,. Mote the simila#ity bet,een the t,o ,o#ds in these t,o %emiti&
lan"ua"es. As the Messiah o) Aod .esus ,as then also #e&koned by the 0u#1an to
be the Wo#d o) Aod. =9 6eo'le o) the BookO 8ommit no e:&esses in you# #eli"ionN
Mo# say o) Allah au"ht but the t#uth. 8h#ist .esus the son o) Ma#y ,as ?no mo#e
than@ a messen"e# o) Allah and /is Wo#d ,hi&h /e besto,ed on Ma#y and a s'i#it
'#o&eedin" )#om /im...= ?Surah BN1D1@
The 0u#1an e$en hints at the di$inity and inte#&ession o) 8h#ist thou"h most
Muslims '#obably ,ould not be in&lined to a&&e't this. Surah 32NBB states =%ayN
>nto Allah belon"eth all inte#&ession. /is is the %o$e#ei"nty o) the hea$ens and the
ea#th. And a)te#,a#d unto /im ye ,ill be b#ou"ht ba&k= ?6i&kthal t#anslation@.
/en&e Allah alone has the #i"ht to inte#&ede be)o#e himsel) )o# human bein"s.
Inte#estin"ly then o$e# in Surah 3NB5 ,e see =And #emembe# ,hen the an"els
saidN 9 Ma#yO PoO Allah "i$eth thee "lad tidin"s o) a ,o#d )#om him ,hose name is
the Messiah .esus son o) Ma#y illust#ious in the ,o#ld and the /e#ea)te# and one
o) those b#ou"ht nea# unto Allah= ?6i&kthal t#anslation@. That 'h#ase =b#ou"ht nea#
unto Allah= has been inte#'#eted by many '#ominent Muslim s&hola#s in&ludin" Al-
Baida,i the autho# o) one o) the most #es'e&ted medie$al &ommenta#ies on the
0u#Ian as indi&atin" a 'osition and o))i&e o) inte#&ession ,ith Allah ,hi&h ,e sa,
'#e$iously is said to only #eside ,ith Allah himsel)
1
.
Pastly and most &ont#o$e#sially the 0u#1an a''ea#s to tea&h both the death and
#esu##e&tion o) the Po#d .esus 8h#ist. In Surah 3N55 the 0u#1an says =And ,hen
Allah saidN 9 Isa I am "oin" to te#minate the 'e#iod o) you# stay ?on ea#th@ and
&ause you to as&end unto Me and 'u#i)y you o) those ,ho disbelie$e and make
those ,ho )ollo, you abo$e those ,ho disbelie$e to the day o) #esu##e&tionJ then
to Me shall be you# #etu#n so l ,ill de&ide bet,een you &on&e#nin" that in ,hi&h
you di))e#ed= ?%haki# t#anslation@. 6i&kthal t#anslates the 'h#ase =I am "oin" to
te#minate the 'e#iod o) you# stay= as =I am "athe#in" thee=. Muslim a'olo"ists &laim
that this does not indi&ate the death o) .esus 8h#ist but that Allah me#ely b#ou"ht
/im u' to him th#ou"h as&ension. /o,e$e# D#. Anis %ho##osh makes the
statement
=This 'h#ase in the A#abi& lan"ua"e 1Inni muta,a)-)eeka1 is t#anslated as =I am
"athe#in" thee.= %ome say the ,o#d does not indi&ate death ,hile othe#s a))i#m
that 8h#ist did a&tually die. As an A#ab I ha$e ne$e# kno,n o) any othe# meanin"
than death )o# this e:'#ession ,ithin o# ,ithout the 0u#an.=
2
Pike,ise Muslim inte#'#ete#s &lea#ly unde#stand that the 0u#1an tea&hes the death
and #esu##e&tion o) .ohn the Ba'tist in Surah 12N15 =%o 6ea&e on him the day he
,as bo#n the day that he dies and the day that he ,ill be #aised u' to li)e a"ainO=
/o,e$e# almost the e:a&t same ,o#din" in the A#abi& is used ,hen the 0u#1an
#e'o#ts that .esus said =%o 'ea&e is on me the day I ,as bo#n the day that I die
and the day that I shall be #aised u' to li)e a"ainO= ?Surah 12N33@. 5et many Muslim
s&hola#s ,ill &ontend that .esus did not say he ,as "oin" to die and be #aised u'
a"ain in this 'assa"e '#e)e##in" to say instead that it tea&hes the ="athe#in" in=
mentioned ea#lie# ?thou"h as ,e ha$e seen that 'h#ase also #e)e#s to death@.
They ,ould #athe# make &om'letely unsu''o#table a#"uments than admit that
thei# s&#i'tu#es #e'o#t the death and #esu##e&tion o) 8h#ist.
/etting it -rong 'bout >esus
%o does all this tea&hin" about .esus #eally hono# /im as Muslim a'olo"ists say;
And )u#the# do Muslims #eally e$en abide by the a''a#ent tea&hin"s o) thei# o,n
s&#i'tu#es ,ith #e"a#ds to the Po#d .esus; Mot #eally. 7o# all that the 0u#1an says
about .esus it still in the main denies /is di$inity. =9 6eo'le o) the BookO 8ommit
no e:&esses in you# #eli"ionN Mo# say o) Allah au"ht but the t#uth. 8h#ist .esus the
son o) Ma#y ,as ?no mo#e than@ a messen"e# o) Allah and /is Wo#d ,hi&h /e
besto,ed on Ma#y and a s'i#it '#o&eedin" )#om /imN so belie$e in Allah and /is
messen"e#s. %ay not =T#inity= N desistN it ,ill be bette# )o# youN )o# Allah is one
AllahN Alo#y be to /imN ?)a# e:alted is /e@ abo$e ha$in" a son. To /im belon" all
thin"s in the hea$ens and on ea#th. And enou"h is Allah as a Dis'ose# o) a))ai#s=
?Surah BN1D1@. Muslims use this 'assa"e as a sou#&e )o# thei# a#"uments a"ainst the
di$inity o) .esus. 6ointin" to this they ,ill say that .esus ,as no mo#e than a
messen"e# o) Allah that /e ,as not 'a#t o) the T#inity and that Allah is )a#
e:alted abo$e ha$in" a son so hen&e .esus ,as not the %on o) Aod.
9the# (u#ani& $e#ses that Muslims use to deny the T#inity in&lude
=In blas'hemy indeed a#e those that say that Allah is 8h#ist the son o) Ma#y. %ayN
=Who then hath the least 'o,e# a"ainst Allah i) /is ,ill ,e#e to dest#oy 8h#ist the
son o) Ma#y his mothe# and all e$e#y - one that is on the ea#th; 7o# to Allah
belon"eth the dominion o) the hea$ens and the ea#th and all that is bet,een. /e
&#eateth ,hat /e 'leaseth. 7o# Allah hath 'o,e# o$e# all thin"s.= ?Surah 5N1D@
=They do blas'heme ,ho sayN Allah is one o) th#ee in a T#inityN )o# the#e is no "od
e:&e't 9ne Allah. I) they desist not )#om thei# ,o#d ?o) blas'hemy@ $e#ily a
"#ie$ous 'enalty ,ill be)all the blas'heme#s amon" them.= ?Surah 5ND3@
=And beholdO Allah ,ill sayN =9 .esus the son o) Ma#yO Didst thou say unto men
take me and my mothe# )o# t,o "ods beside Allah;= /e ,ill sayN =Alo#y to TheeO
ne$e# &ould I say ,hat I had no #i"ht ?to say@. /ad I said su&h a thin" Thou ,ouldst
indeed ha$e kno,n it. Thou kno,est ,hat is in my hea#t Thou I kno, not ,hat is
in Thine. 7o# Thou kno,est in )ull all that is hidden.= ?Surah 5N11C@
Muslims ha$e lon" misunde#stood the do&t#ine o) the T#inity as these $e#ses
demonst#ates. This )a&t is unde#stood e$en by se&ula# s&hola#shi'. Watt dis&usses
the Muslim misunde#standin" o) T#inita#ian do&t#ine in "#eat detail statin" at one
'oint about the (u#ani& statements in BN1D1 and 5ND3
GMo, i) these 'assa"es a#e e:amined ,ithout parti pris it is &lea# that they a#e
not atta&kin" the o#thodo: 8h#istian do&t#ine o) the T#inity but the
misinte#'#etation o) that do&t#ine sometimes &alled Ft#itheismI. The "#eat body o)
8h#istians o))i&ially deny that they belie$e in th#ee "ods and in thei# &#eeds
'#o)ess thei# belie) in Aod ,ho is one. They o))i&ially &laim to be monotheists and
,ould indi"nantly #e'udiate the &ha#"e that they a#e t#itheists. The#e may indeed
be sim'leminded 8h#istians ,ho )all into somethin" like the e##o# o) t#itheism in
'#a&ti&e but inso)a# as they a#e t#itheists they a#e he#eti&s.H
3

Dis&ussin" Muslim a#"uments based u'on 5N11C he ,#ites
GThe asse#tion that .esus is deity a'a#t )#om Aod is de)initely he#eti&al )#om the
stand'oint o) 8h#istian o#thodo:y. In the li"ht o) the 0u#Iani& atta&k on t#itheism
it seems &e#tain that the denial that the Messiah ,as the son o) Aod ,as a denial
that he ,as a deity se'a#ate )#om AodJ and this is &on)i#med by the late# 'a#t o)
2.30 ?qawl alladhina 'afaru min qa(l@ that is '#esumably o) the 'a"ans.H
B
And )u#the# in #e)e#en&e to the Muslim use o) 5N1D and 5ND3 he says
GWhat is denied he#e is the asse#tion o) &om'lete identity bet,een .esus and Aod
an asse#tion sometimes made by 8h#istians but "ene#ally #e"a#ded as the he#esy o)
&on)usin" the hy'ostases. 9n&e a"ain the 0u#Ian is atta&kin" 8h#istian he#esy and
not 8h#istian o#thodo:y.H
5
/en&e ,hat the 0u#Ian atta&ks is not e$en the o#thodo: bibli&al do&t#ine o) the
T#inity. Instead the 0u#Ian 'olemi&ists a"ainst $a#ious ty'es o) he#esies about the
T#inity - '#ima#ily those o) modalisti& and t#itheisti& leanin"s. This o) &ou#se
makes 'e#)e&t sense ,hen ,e &onside# that the e$olution o) the 0u#Ian took 'la&e
at a time ,hen mu&h o) the G8h#istianityH o) the Mea# East ,as a mishmash o)
$a#ious he#eti&al se&ts ?Mono'hysite Mesto#ian A#ianism et&.@ most o) ,hi&h
,e#e distin"uished by thei# 'a#ti&ula# tea&hin"s about the natu#e o) 8h#ist ,hi&h
,ould subse(uently in)luen&e thei# inte#'#etation o) the T#inity ?i) they e$en
belie$ed in it@. The 'olemi&s o) the 0u#Ian ,e#e '#odu&ed in #es'onse to ea#ly
Islami& &om'etition ,ith these $a#ious 'seudo-8h#istian "#ou's and the#e)o#e
a"ainst the "ene#al #un o) he#eti&al tea&hin" about 8h#ist ,hi&h ,e#e &u##ent in
the #e"ion at the time o) the de$elo'ment o) Islam. It is inte#estin" that all o) the
$e#ses "i$en abo$e - the '#ima#y (u#ani& mate#ials that 'olemi&i*e a"ainst the
?misunde#stood@ T#inity - a''ea# in suwar o) the 0u#1an ,hi&h as ,e sa, ea#lie#
,e#e amon" the only ones that e:isted ?as su""ested by the e$iden&e@ )o# the )i#st
&entu#y o# so o) the Islami& e#a the e#a in ,hi&h the "#eatest st#u""le by the ea#ly
Muslims )o# a se'a#ate #eli"ious identity took 'la&e. >nde#standable )#om a
histo#i&al 'e#s'e&ti$e but it is di))i&ult to &on&ei$e o) ho, the #e$eale# o) a
'e#)e&t book ,ould make su&h a basi& mistake in unde#standin" the natu#e o) a
G)alseH do&t#ine that needed to be &o##e&ted by )inal #e$elation.
Bibli&ally s'eakin" the T#inity does not &onsist o) th#ee se'a#ate "ods. The T#inity
does not &onsist o) Aod .esus and Ma#y ?as 'e# Surah 5N11C@. The T#inity does not
&onsist o) one Aod ,ho #e$eals /imsel) as one 6e#son at a time. Instead the
T#inity is one Aod ,ho has #e$ealed /imsel) to mankind in th#ee &ontem'o#aneous
mani)estations ea&h 'layin" a $a#yin" #ole in Aod1s 'lan o) #edem'tion )o#
mankind. These a#e th#ee in 'e#son but one in essen&e and all a#e one Aod. =7o#
the#e a#e th#ee that bea# #e&o#d in hea$en the 7athe# the Wo#d and the /oly
AhostN and these th#ee a#e one.= ?I .ohn 5ND@ This is T/E &lea#est statement o) the
T#inity in all the Bible thou"h by no means the only one. .esus 8h#ist the Wo#d o)
Aod is &lea#ly sho,n to be Aod in the Bible. 8h#ist /imsel) made the &laim to
deity. =I and my 7athe# a#e one.= ?.ohn 10N30@ The men o) .esus1 day kne, that /e
&laimed deity ,hi&h is ,hy the .e,ish leade#s sou"ht to lod"e blas'hemy &ha#"es
a"ainst /im.
=When .esus sa, thei# )aith he said unto the si&k o) the 'alsy %on thy sins be
)o#"i$en thee. But the#e ,e#e &e#tain o) the s&#ibes sittin" the#e and #easonin" in
thei# hea#ts Why doth this man thus s'eak blas'hemies; ,ho &an )o#"i$e sins but
Aod only; And immediately ,hen .esus 'e#&ei$ed in his %'i#it that they so
#easoned ,ithin themsel$es he said unto them Why #eason ye these thin"s in you#
hea#ts; Whethe# is it easie# to say to the si&k o) the 'alsy Thy sins be )o#"i$en
theeJ o# to say A#ise and take u' thy bed and ,alk; But that ye may kno, that
the %on o) man hath 'o,e# on ea#th to )o#"i$e sins ?he saith to the si&k o) the
'alsy@ I say unto thee A#ise and take u' thy bed and "o thy ,ay into thine
house. And immediately he a#ose took u' the bed and ,ent )o#th be)o#e them
allJ insomu&h that they ,e#e all ama*ed and "lo#i)ied Aod sayin" We ne$e# sa,
it on this )ashion.= ?Ma#k 2N5-12@
What .esus ,as illust#atin" in this 'assa"e ,as /is deity. /e asks the #heto#i&al
(uestion o) ,hi&h is mo#e di))i&ultN to )o#"i$e a man o) his sins o# to heal a man o)
his 'hysi&al in)i#mities. The ans,e# o) &ou#se is that it is mo#e di))i&ult to heal
the man 'hysi&ally. .esus sho,ed that sin&e /e had the su'e#natu#al 'o,e# to heal
the man ,ithout the least bit o) e))o#t then /e also had the autho#ity to )o#"i$e
sins ,hi&h is #ese#$ed )o# Aod alone. By )o#"i$in" sins .esus demonst#ated /is
deity in a ,ay that /is audien&e easily #e&o"ni*ed.
7u#the# it must be unde#stood by all Muslim and non-Muslim that .esus /imsel)
laid &laim to deity (uite s'e&i)i&ally. When s'eakin" o) the "i$in" o) ete#nal li)e
.esus 8h#ist stated that /e and the 7athe# ,e#e e(ually able to '#ese#$e that
ete#nal li)e
GAnd I "i$e unto them ete#nal li)eJ and they shall ne$e# 'e#ish neithe# shall any
man 'lu&k them out o) my hand. My 7athe# ,hi&h "a$e them me is "#eate# than
allJ and no man is able to 'lu&k them out o) my 7athe#Is hand. I and my 7athe# a#e
one. ?.ohn 10N24-30@
8h#istIs statement he#e establishes an ontolo"i&al unity bet,een /imsel) and the
7athe#. This t#uth is sho,n ho,e$e# in a mu&h dee'e# )ashion than the me#e
statement o) unity bet,een them in $e#se 30. Pet us note that 8h#ist said that /is
7athe# ,as greater than all. Immediately '#io# /e said that Gneithe# shall anyH
'lu&k the saints )#om /is hand. In the -in" .ames the GmanH in $e#se 24 is
itali&i*ed indi&atin" it is su''lied by the t#anslato#s and does not a''ea# in the
o#i"inal te:t. The o#i"inal te:t he#e only says GanyH not Gany manH. This is
im'o#tant be&ause .esus ,ould a''ea# on the )a&e o) it to be makin" t,o
&ont#adi&to#y statements - that no one &an &ause those /e has "#anted ete#nal li)e
to lose it and be 'lu&ked out o) /is hand ?im'lyin" that nobody is "#eate# than /e
to be able to Go$e#'o,e#H /im@ yet /e also says that /is 7athe# is "#eate# than all
?,hi&h ,ould su""est that the 7athe# must be able to Go$e#'o,e#G the %on@. I) The
7athe# and the %on a#e not one in the ontolo"i&al unity o) the T#inity then these
t,o statements &ould not be #e&on&iled. /o,e$e# the 7athe# and the %on a#e in
t#ue unity in e$e#y ,ay - unity o) ,ill unity o) 'u#'ose and unity o) essen&e and
thus .esusI statements a#e enti#ely &om'lementa#y. The #eason they &an both be
t#ue is be&ause the 7athe# and the %on a#e the same Aod - t,o distin&t and
&ontem'o#aneous mani)estations o) /im but the same Aod ne$e#theless.
8h#ist else,he#e stated /is unity and e(uality ,ith the 7athe# as Aod. In the
$e#ses &ommonly &alled Gthe A#eat 8ommissionH .esus embeds a $e#y im'o#tant
<e,el o) in)o#mation about /is Bein" in the &ommand /e "a$e
GAo ye the#e)o#e and tea&h all nations bapti<ing them in the name of the
:ather" and of the Son" and of the 0oly /hostN Tea&hin" them to obse#$e all
thin"s ,hatsoe$e# I ha$e &ommanded youN and lo I am ,ith you al,ays e$en
unto the end o) the ,o#ldeH ?Matthe, 24N12-20@
.esus did not says GnamesH /e said GnameH - the sin"ula#. The si"ni)i&an&e o) this
be&omes mo#e a''a#ent ,hen ,e &onside# some thin"s. Thou"h "i$en in A#eek
the Aos'el o) Matthe, ,as #e$ealed in the .e,ish &ultu#al milieu ,hi&h ,ould
in&lude the /eb#e, %&#i'tu#es o) the Tanakh - the Pa, the 6#o'hets and the
W#itin"s. In /eb#e, the ,o#d )o# GnameH is sheym and &a##ies ,ith it mu&h mo#e
im'o#tan&e than ,e atta&h to ou# &o##es'ondin" En"lish ,o#d. Sheym "oes )a#
beyond me#ely des&#ibin" a ,o#d atta&hed to a 'e#son so as distin"uish him )#om
othe#s. Instead sheym #e)e#s to the enti#ety o) the &ha#a&te# #eno,n #e'utation
di"nity and essential bein" o) a 'e#son - in othe# ,o#ds sheym des&#ibes ,hat a
'e#son is not <ust ,hat ,e &all him. When .esus said to ba'ti*e in the name o) the
7athe# %on and /oly Ahost /e ,as im'li&itly makin" the &laim that all th#ee
6e#sons o) the T#inity sha#e the one name o) Aod - they a#e &o-e(ual in essen&e
&ha#a&te#isti&s and #e'utation. In othe# ,o#ds .esus ,as makin" a &laim )o#
/imsel) o) deity alon"side the 7athe# and the %'i#it.
6a#t and 'a#&el ,ith /is deity is the )a&t o) /is '#e-e:isten&e. While in )ello,shi'
,ith /is 7athe# .esus says in .ohn 1DN5
GAnd no, 9 7athe# "lo#i)y thou me ,ith thine o,n sel) ,ith the "lo#y ,hi&h I had
,ith thee before the !orld began.H
.esus e:'li&itly states he#e that /e e:isted ,ith the 7athe# be)o#e &#eation &ame
into bein". Indeed /e ,as the means by ,hi&h e$e#y &#eated thin" ,as b#ou"ht
into e:isten&e
G7o# by him ,e#e all thin"s &#eated that a#e in hea$en and that a#e in ea#th
$isible and in$isible ,hethe# they be th#ones o# dominions o# '#in&i'alities o#
'o,e#sN all thin"s ,e#e &#eated by him and )o# him and he is be)o#e all thin"s
and by him all thin"s &onsist.H ?8olossians 1N1C-1D@
This 'assa"e em'hasi*es the '#e-e:isten&e and the &#eato#shi' o) .esus 8h#ist. By
him ,e#e all thin"s &#eated and /e is be)o#e all thin"s. The &on&e't o) Ghea$ens
and ea#thH a#e used '#o"#ammati&ally th#ou"hout the %&#i'tu#e to si"ni)y Gall that
e:istsH. It )ollo,s then that i) all o) &#eation ,e#e made by /im as the Wo#d and
a"en&y o) &#eation then /e /imsel) &ould not be a &#eated bein" as Islam and
&e#tain 'seudo-8h#istian he#esies tea&h. To &o-e:ist ,ith the 7athe# )#om ete#nity
'ast be)o#e any element o) &#eation ,as made ,ould demand that 8h#ist be Aod
,ith the 7athe#.
Islam denies /is deity thou"h and #edu&es .esus to the status o) a '#o'het only.
=/e s'akeN PoO I am the sla$e o) Allah. /e hath "i$en me the %&#i'tu#e and hath
a''ointed me a 6#o'het.= ?Surah 12N30 6i&kthal t#anslation@ /en&e .esus is
subo#dinate to Allah and &annot be #e&koned as ha$in" deity o# bein" Allah. The
t,o a#e &lea#ly delineated and de&la#ed as se'a#ate bein"s. %imila#ly Islam denies
that .esus is Aod1s %on usin" Surah BN1D1 ,he#e it says that Allah is e:alted abo$e
ha$in" a son. Most e:'osito#s on this that I ha$e seen thou"h &onsistently think
that this idea #e)e#s to Aod 'hysi&ally ha$in" a son in the same ,ay that a mo#tal
human bein" ,ould i.e. th#ou"h se:ual '#o&#eation. /o,e$e# they )ail to
unde#stand that the $i#"in bi#th o) 8h#ist #ende#s this a#"ument moot. Aod
mi#a&ulously &aused Ma#y to &on&ei$e th#ou"h the o$e#shado,in" a&tion o) /is
/oly %'i#it ?as the 0u#1an itsel) testi)iesO@ and thus .esus ,as bo#n ,ithout a
human )athe#. This is im'o#tant also in that it &on)i#ms /is sinless 'e#)e&tion. As
8h#ist ,as not bo#n th#ou"h the 'hysi&al means o) 'assin" the sin natu#e o) man
do,n )#om "ene#ation to "ene#ation 8h#ist did not inhe#it in the human as'e&t o)
/is natu#e the sin)ulness ,hi&h a))li&ts the mo#tal human #a&e.
/en&e ,hat ,e see in the ,ay Islam deals ,ith the deity and 'e#sona"e o) 8h#ist
is that they ,ill "o #i"ht to the b#ink and then )ail to take that all-im'o#tant ste'
o) )aith to t#ust in /is deity. Islam a&kno,led"es /is sinlessness /is &on&e'tion
th#ou"h a $i#"in and that /e ,as indeed )#om Aod ?as )a# as bein" a '#o'het is
&on&e#ned@. Muslims say and belie$e that /e 'e#)o#med many mi#a&les and that
/e is the Messiah ,ho inte#&edes be)o#e Aod on behal) o) man. 5et they tu#n ba&k
at unde#standin" and belie$in" ,hat this all means. 8h#ist1s $i#"in bi#th and
sinlessness 'oint to /is deity. /is 'osition as the Messiah ,ho ,as to die )o# the
sins o) the ,o#ld made /im the only one ,ho &ould be the s'otless sa&#i)i&e )o#
man1s sin. Aod /imsel) ,as the only a&&e'table sa&#i)i&e to Aod to take a,ay man1s
sin "uilt as /e is the only one ,ho has ne$e# sinned and thus is s'otless and
#i"hteous in /is o,n #i"ht.
Islam also t#ies to deny the death o) 8h#ist. Many )ai#y tales ha$e been 'ut )o#th
o$e# the yea#s by Muslims ,ishin" to deny the sa&#i)i&ial death o) .esus 8h#ist. It
,ill has been said that /e #eally s,ooned on the &#oss did not #eally die and ,as
taken do,n a)te# ,hi&h /e ,oke u' a"ain
C
. Muslims ,ill &laim that it ,as #eally
.udas ,ho died on the &#oss instead o) .esus. They ,ill say that an"els #emo$ed
/im )#om the &#oss be)o#e /e died. Any numbe# o) sto#ies a#e told to "et a#ound
the sim'le )a&t as seen )#om all )ou# Aos'els and e:t#a-bibli&al sou#&es as ,ell
that .esus 8h#ist died u'on the &#oss at 8al$a#y. Muslims ,ill make the a#"ument
that sayin" .esus died on the &#oss dishono#s Aod as it '#esumes that one o) Aod1s
se#$ants ,ould be killed by sinne#. The )a&t not,ithstandin" that Aod1s Wo#d
#e&o#ds many o) Aod1s )aith)ul se#$ants ,ho ,e#e killed )o# se#$in" /im )aith)ully
this a#"ument demonst#ates the i"no#an&e o) Muslims as to the purpose o) 8h#ist1s
death on the &#oss. The a#"ument that they think is hono#in" the Po#d #eally
dishono#s /im as it denies the $e#y #eason /e e$en &ame amon" mankind as the
Aod-man. .esus 8h#ist ,as in&a#nated as a man )o# the s'e&i)i& 'u#'ose o)
sheddin" /is blood and dyin" on the &#ossO It ,as /is ,hole #eason )o# &omin" to
&onsummate Aod1s 'lan o) sal$ation )o# man by se#$in" as the ultimate )inal
sa&#i)i&e )o# man1s sin.
=7o#asmu&h as ye kno, that ye ,e#e not #edeemed ,ith &o##u'tible thin"s as
sil$e# o# "old )#om you# $ain &on$e#sation #e&ei$ed by t#adition )#om you# )athe#sJ
But ,ith the '#e&ious blood o) 8h#ist as o) a lamb ,ithout blemish and ,ithout
s'ot.= ?I 6ete# 1N14-12@
=%o 8h#ist ,as on&e o))e#ed to bea# the sins o) many...= ?/eb#e,s 2N24@
=And you that ,e#e sometime alienated and enemies in you# mind by ,i&ked
,o#ks yet no, hath he #e&on&iled. In the body o) his )lesh th#ou"h death to
'#esent you holy and unblameable and un#e'#o$eable in his si"htJ= ?8olossians
1N21-22@
8h#ist died to se#$e as the sa&#i)i&e )o# us /e &ould and ,ould atone )o# ou# sins.
Man &annot sa$e himsel) th#ou"h his "ood ,o#ks o# #eli"ious #ituals. 8h#ist ,ho
,as &om'letely #i"hteous took the 'la&e o) e$e#y man ,oman and &hild ,ho
e$e# li$ed and e$e# ,ill li$e. /e $olunta#ily "a$e /imsel) to su))e# the death
'enalty the ,#ath o) Aod a"ainst sin so that th#ou"h /im ,e all mi"ht #e&ei$e
)o#"i$eness o) ou# sins i) ,e t#ust in /im and /is sa&#i)i&e and #esu##e&tion. The
Muslim &laims that 8h#ist did not die is an attem't to ne"ate this. While they think
they a#e hono#in" /im they a#e in )a&t denyin" /im &allin" /im a lia# and lea$in"
themsel$es ,ith no ho'e o) ete#nal sal$ation.
Pike,ise the #esu##e&tion o) 8h#ist )#om the dead demonst#ated /is t#ium'h o$e#
death and hell and "i$es '#omise o) ete#nal li)e to all ,ho t#ust in /im. /is
#esu##e&tion ,as a )i#st)#uits o) the #esu##e&tion to ete#nal "lo#y ,hi&h all ,ho
belie$e on /im ,ill also #e&ei$e. =7o# as in Adam all die e$en so in 8h#ist shall all
be made ali$e. But e$e#y man in his o,n o#de#N 8h#ist the )i#st)#uitsJ a)te#,a#d
they that a#e 8h#ist1s at his &omin".= ?I 8o#inthians 15N22-23@ Without the
#esu##e&tion o) 8h#ist ,hi&h Muslims deny im'li&itly ,hen they deny /is death
the#e is no ho'e )o# any man to be sa$ed. =And i) 8h#ist be not #isen then is ou#
'#ea&hin" $ain and you# )aith is also $ain.= ?I 8o#inthians 15N1B@
What is ama*in" in all this is that Islam dimly #e&o"ni*es and hono#s the need )o# a
sa&#i)i&e to be made in the 'la&e o) sin)ul man. E$e#y yea# at the &on&lusion o)
the ha// o# 'il"#ima"e to Me&&a Muslims &eleb#ate a th#ee-day )esti$al &alled Eid
al-%dha. This )east 'e#iod &eleb#ates the sto#y in ,hi&h Ab#aham ,as &alled by
Allah to sa&#i)i&e his son Ishmael on an alta# but at the last moment an an"el
inte#$ened and allo,ed Ab#aham to sa&#i)i&e a #am in the 'la&e o) Ishmael. This is
$e#y simila# to the Bibli&al a&&ount o) the nea#-sa&#i)i&e and sal$ation o) Isaa& in
Aenesis 22N1-14. Ty'olo"i&ally Isaa& #e'#esents sin)ul mankind ,ho must die )o#
its t#ans"#essions but Aod then sends a male #am to die in Isaa&1s 'la&e '#o$idin"
a ty'e o) the &omin" Messiah .esus 8h#ist ,ho ,as des&#ibed by .ohn the Ba'tist
as =the Pamb o) Aod= ?.ohn 1N22@. The Muslim Eid Al-Adha ,hile bein" t#ans'osed
to Ishmael '#o$ides a loose &o#olla#y o) this e$ent. 5et the im'li&ations o) the
need )o# man to die )o# his sins and the '#o$ision o) Aod to take man1s 'la&e unde#
,#ath a#e not unde#stood by the Muslim ,o#ld.
The /ospel of 2arnabas
At this 'oint I should b#ie)ly mention the so-&alled =Aos'el o) Ba#nabas= ?not to be
&on)used ,ith the GE'istle o) Ba#nabasG a #e&o"ni*ed e:ho#tato#y e'istle o) a
se&ond &entu#y 8h#istian autho#@. This ,o#k is an e:t#a-bibli&al book ,hi&h &laims
to be an a&&ount o) the li)e and ,o#k o) 8h#ist. Muslim a'olo"ists lo$e this book
and &ite it o)ten in su''o#t o) the Islami& $ie, o) 8h#ist. The #eason )o# this is
be&ause the book &on)o#ms $e#y mu&h to Islami& theolo"y &on&e#nin" .esus 8h#ist.
The Aos'el o) Ba#nabas denies that .esus &laimed deity denies that /e ,as the
%on o) Aod and denies /is death on the &#oss ?this is ,he#e the &laim that .udas
,as substituted on the &#oss 'a#tially &omes )#om@. Muslims say that this book ,as
&onside#ed autho#itati$e by the ea#ly &hu#&h but this &laim is &ont#adi&ted by the
)a&t that no &hu#&h )athe#s e$e# &ited it in thei# ,#itin"s and that the ea#liest
te:tual e$iden&e )o# this book is a si:teenth &entu#y Italian manus&#i't
D
. %ome
a'olo"ists &laim that the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas is mentioned in GThe Aelasian
De&#eeH o) 'o'e Aelasius ?B22-B25 AD@. Mo, a GAos'el in the name o) Ba#nabasH
is dis&ussed in that de&#ee but is #e<e&ted alon" ,ith a host o) othe# ,#itin"s as
s'u#ious and a'o&#y'hal ,hi&h had been att#ibuted to $a#ious A'ostles and othe#
)i#st "ene#ation 8h#istians
4
. This a'o&#y'hal "os'el ,as dismissed at the end o) the
5th &entu#y ,hile the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas '#e)e##ed by Muslims sho,s mu&h
inte#nal e$iden&e o) ha$in" o#i"inated at a mu&h late# date. 7u#the# as %lom' has
obse#$ed ,hile the name o) the 7ospel of 5arna(as is mentioned nothin"
,hatsoe$e# is said about its &ontent o# why it ,as #e<e&ted. %lom' a#"ues that
be&ause the )ecree ,as 'ublished not lon" a)te# the in$ention o) the '#intin"
'#ess ,hi&h made it a$ailable in lib#a#ies all a&#oss Eu#o'e that a )o#"e# &ould
easily ha$e taken the title a''lied it to a ,o#k o) his o,n and attem'ted to 'ass
it o)) as "enuine in that ,ay
2
. Muslims ,ill sometimes also attem't to 'oint to
$a#ious othe# de&#ees o) the ea#ly 8atholi& &hu#&h as e$iden&e o) an ea#ly date )o#
the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas su&h as the De&#ee o) 6o'e %i:tus I but e:amination o)
these do&uments sho,s no mention o) su&h a "os'el.
7u#the# e$iden&e a"ainst the authenti&ity o) the 7ospel of 5arna(as is )ound in the
)a&t that the ea#ly 8h#istians ,#ite#s in the )i#st &entu#ies o) 8h#istianity ,e#e
uni)o#mly silent about this ,o#k. They neithe# s'eak )o# it no# do they s'eak
a"ainst itJ they neithe# a))i#m its t#uth)ulness no# do they &ondemn it as the ,o#k
o) a he#esia#&h. !athe# the 7ospel a''ea#s not to ha$e e:isted in thei# times at
all. E$en mo#e dest#u&ti$e to the &laims )o# authenti&ity is the )a&t as !a"" has
obse#$ed that not a sin"le medie$al "uslim ,#ite# e$en mentions the book. They
note
=A"ainst the su''osition that the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas e$e# e:isted in A#abi& ,e
must set the a#"ument )#om the total silen&e about su&h a Aos'el in the 'olemi&al
lite#atu#e o) the Moslems.=
10
Mone o) the Muslim theolo"ians and histo#ians e$en the most 'olemi&al a"ainst
8h#istianity seemed to ha$e had the sli"htest &lue that any 7ospel of 5arna(as
e:isted.
The Aos'el o) Ba#nabas &ontains many histo#i&al mistakes and ana&h#onisms that
date to medie$al Eu#o'e and that ,ould not ha$e e:isted in the )i#st &entu#y AD
and the many Islami& in)luen&es in the ,o#k seem to indi&ate the =Aos'el= is the
,o#k o) a medie$al Eu#o'ean )o#"e# likely a &on$e#t to Islam. The style o)
(uotations )#om the 9ld Testament )ound in this ,o#k a#e )#om the Patin +ul"ate
,hi&h ,as not e$en t#anslated until the $e#y end o) the Bth &entu#y and ,hi&h
#emained the standa#d Patin Bible )o# most o) !oman 8atholi& histo#y to the
'#esent. 7u#the# e$iden&e o) an a&(uaintan&e ,ith the Patin +ul"ate a''ea#s in
&ha'te# B0 ,he#e Adam and E$e a#e said to ha$e eaten an a''le in the Aa#den o)
Eden. The t#adition that the )#uit ?,hi&h is ne$e# s'e&i)i&ally identi)ied beyond
bein" =)#uit o) the t#ee o) the kno,led"e o) "ood and e$il= in the Aenesis a&&ount@
,as an a''le ente#ed into 8h#istian t#adition as a #esult o) the t#anslation o) the
/eb#e, 9ld Testament into the Patin +ul"ate ?&i#&a B00 AD@ ,he#eby =e$il=
?malum@ ,as &on)used ,ith =a''le= ?,hi&h is the same ,o#d in Patin@. The
t#adition in the 8atholi& &hu#&h that Mt. Mo#iah ,as the mount o) T#ans)i"u#ation
be"an only in the 3#d &entu#y yet this is the 'la&e '#esented in the Aos'el o)
Ba#nabas. In &ha'te# 21 =Ba#nabas= #e)e#s to the =7o#ty Days= indi&atin" an annual
)ast. The Penten )astin" 'e#iod ho,e$e# only be"an a)te# the 8oun&il o) Mi&aea in
325 AD and the#e is no su&h )o#ty day )astin" 'e#iod a''ea#in" in .e,ish histo#y
eithe#. This GAos'elH also &ontains se$e#al #e)e#en&es to medie$al elements su&h
as ,ooden ,ine &asks and #omanti&i*ed duals bet,een lo$e#s that did not e:ist in
1st &entu#y 6alestine. =Ba#nabas= makes a sim'le mistake in &ha'te# B2 ,hen he
has .esus sayin" =I am not the Messiah= but yet else,he#e the ,#ite# des&#ibes
.esus as =.esus 8h#ist= - both =8h#ist= and =Messiah= mean =anointed one= and a#e
synonymous ,o#ds. Most #e$ealin" o) all a#e the nume#ous #e)e#en&es to
Mohammed by name ?in &ha'te#s 55 2D 112 1C3 et&.@ that #e$eal an Islami&
o#i"in )o# the ,o#k.
In )a&t the datin" )o# the &#eation o) the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas &an be 'ositi$ely
'la&ed bet,een 1300 and 1350 AD. This is be&ause o) the use by its autho# o) a
&entennial 5ea# o) .ubilee. In &ha'te# 42 the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas states
=....insomu&h that the yea# o) <ubilee ,hi&h no, &ometh e$e#y hund#ed yea#s....=
In the 9ld Testament the 5ea# o) .ubilee ,as set )o# e$e#y )i)ty yea#s and this
#emained the '#a&ti&e ?at least in ,o#d e$en i) the .ubilee ,as not ke't@
th#ou"hout the subse(uent histo#y o) both the .e,s and ea#ly and medie$al
8h#istendom. 5et the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas says that the .ubilee ,as &han"ed to
bein" e$e#y 100 yea#s. Why; Aai#dne# and Abdul-Ahad su''ly the ans,e# by notin"
that a)te# &eleb#atin" this yea# in 1300 'o'e Boni)a&e +III alte#ed the .ubilee to a
&entennial e$ent. /o,e$e# his su&&esso# 'o'e 8lement +I #e$e#sed this de&ision in
13B3 and &eleb#ated the ne:t .ubilee in 1350
11
. 9nly a 'e#son li$in" in that 'e#iod
bet,een 1300 and 1350 ,ould ha$e &onside#ed the yea# o) .ubilee as ha$in" been
&han"ed to &ome e$e#y 100 yea#s. 7u#the# e$iden&e )o# datin" the GAos'elH to at
least this date lies in that it a&tually on se$e#al o&&asions alludes to the ,o#ks o)
Dante Ali"he#i ?12C5-1321@O All o) these e$iden&es 'lus many many mo#e that ,ill
not be listed he#e )o# the sake o) s'a&e 'oint to the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas as bein" a
&om'lete and utte# )o#"e#y '#odu&ed by an indi$idual *ealous )o# Muslim theolo"y
and t#adition yet ,ho ,as also at least ma#"inally kno,led"eable o) the
=8h#istianity= o) his day.
7o# mu&h mo#e detailed e:'ositions on the #easons ,hy the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas &an
be nothin" but a )o#"e#y #ead the se&tion )#om thei# book %nswering Islam3 $he
+rescent in the 9ight of the +ross ,hi&h deals ,ith the Aos'el o) Ba#nabas by
Mo#man Aeisle# and Abdul %aleeb
12
and also the essay on this sub<e&t by Ae#ha#d
Mehls
13
. Any se#ious seeke# o) t#uth ,ill be )o#&ed to #e&o"ni*e the )ake#y behind
this 'seudo"#a'hi&al )o#"e#y.
7#om all this ,e &an see that ,hile Islam says that they #e$e#en&e and hono# .esus
8h#ist as a '#o'het o) Aod they #eally &all /im a lia# and dishono# /im. The ea#ly
Muslims in the ne,ly-)o#med A#ab Em'i#e seem to ha$e been &on)#onted ,ith a
=8h#istianity= that ,as he#eti&al in its a''#oa&h to the 'e#son and natu#e o) .esus
8h#ist and #es'onded to it in the '#o&ess o) settlin" thei# o,n de$elo'in"
o#thodo:y. This &onta&t ,ith the &on)usin" #eli"ious milieu o) the Mea# East in the
Dth-4th &entu#ies - ,ith its mi: o) 9#thodo: 8hal&edonians he#eti&al Mono'hysites
and Mesto#ians and A#ians .udaism .udaeo-8h#istian se&ts and so )o#th - seems to
ha$e ,a#'ed thei# theolo"i&al unde#standin" o) 8h#istianity and #esulted in his
denial o) the T#inity and the#e)o#e 8h#ist1s deity. Muslim &laims o) hono#in" 8h#ist
sound mu&h like those mentioned in Isaiah 22N13 =Whe#e)o#e the Po#d said
7o#asmu&h as this 'eo'le d#a, nea# me ,ith thei# mouth and ,ith thei# li's do
honou# me but ha$e #emo$ed thei# hea#t )a# )#om me and thei# )ea# to,a#d me is
tau"ht by the '#e&e't o) man.=
End Motes
?1@ - D.B. Ma&Donald Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam eds. /.A.!. Aibb and ../.
-#ame#s '. 1D3J Ma&Donald notes Baida,i1s statement ,ith #e"a#d to .esus1 li)e on
ea#th and in hea$en that /e se#$ed =as '#o'het in the one and as inte#&ede# in the
othe#.=
?2@ - A.A. %ho##osh Islam 8evealed3 % +hristian %ra(s View of Islam '. 2D
?3@ - W.M. Watt GThe 8h#istianity 8#iti&i*ed in the 0u#IanH Early Islam3 +ollected
Essays '. CD
?B@ - Ibid. '. C4
?5@ - Po&. &it.
?C@ - %imila# to the tales told by libe#al in)idels in many o) ou# =8h#istian=
semina#iesO
?D@ - P.B. .ones +hristianity E0plained to "uslims '. D2
?4@ - 8.A. de Boo# =De&#etum Aelasianum de Pib#is !e&i'iendis et Mon
!e&i'iendis= $e0te und Untersuchungen .ur 7eschichte der %ltchristlichen
9iteratur ed. E. $on Dobs&h_t* 34.B ?1212@
?2@ - .. %lom' =The Aos'el in Dis'ute= Islamochristiana +ol. B ?12D4@ '. DB
?10@ - $he 7ospel of 5arna(as eds. P. !a"" and P. !a"" '. B4
?11@ - %. Abdul-Ahad and W./.T. Aai#dne# $he 7ospel of 5arna(as3 %n Essay and
Inquiry '. 12
?12@ - This may be )ound at htt'NQQans,e#in"-islam.o#"QBa#nabasQsaleeb.html
?13@ - %ee htt'NQQ,,,.ans,e#in"-islam.o#"QMehlsQAns,e#Qba#nabas.html
Myth E5
Mohammed ,as a 6#o'het
)#om Allah
G/e#o-,o#shi' is st#on"est ,he#e the#e is least #e"a#d )o# human )#eedom.H
- /e#be#t %'en&e# Social Statistics
!ethinkin" the +alue o) the T#aditions About Mohammed
The Meed )o# a 6#o'het
A 8all )o# 9'en In(ui#y About the T#aditions
What Did Mohammed as a 6#o'het !e'#esent;
Mohammed1s %e:ual E:&esses
Mohammed1s A#eed )o# Wealth
Mohammed1s 6en&hant )o# +iolen&e
In 8ont#ast - The Aoodness and 6u#ity o) 8h#ist
7o# mo#e than a billion Muslims the ,o#ld o$e# Mohammed is the e'itom[ o)
'#o'hethood. /e is $ie,ed as the =seal o) the '#o'hets= b#in"in" the )inal
#e$elation o) Allah to man. Indeed he is &alled al-insan al-'amil the 'e#)e&t man.
Most $ie, Mohammed as a sinless saint the 'e#)e&tion o) ho, humanity ou"ht to
&ondu&t itsel). This man1s li)e and ,ay o) &ondu&tin" himsel) a#e held u' as models
)o# humanity and thei# emulation is en&ou#a"ed in e$e#y "ene#ation. But ,ho ,as
this Mohammed ,hat is the t#ue testimony about him and did he #eally )ul)ill the
#ole o) a '#o'het )#om Aod;
,ethin+ing the Value of the Traditions 'bout Mohammed
Be)o#e e:'lo#in" in detail ,hat the Muslim t#aditions tea&h about Mohammed the
(uestion o) ,hethe# Mohammed a&tually e:isted as a histo#i&al 'e#son at least as
he is de'i&ted in the t#aditions must be #aised. 6#a&ti&ally the only a$ailable
kno,led"e about the li)e and histo#y o) Mohammed &omes )#om the t#aditional
Muslim sou#&es the ahadith the sunnat and the sirat o# bio"#a'hies o)
Mohammed. The '#ima#y de)i&ien&y in the t#aditional Weste#n study o) Islam has
been its un&#iti&al o$e#-#elian&e u'on these t#aditions and histo#io"#a'hy as the
means o) e:aminin" Islam in ,hat !enan the ea#ly 9#ientalist &alled =the &lea#
li"ht o) histo#y=. %&hola#s ha$e lon" #e&o"ni*ed that the $a#ious ahadith and othe#
t#aditional mate#ials su&h as the histo#i&al #e&o#ds o) battles in the A#ab &on(uest
and the bio"#a'hi&al mate#ials &on&e#nin" Mohammed a#e o)ten (uite
&ont#adi&to#y and #a#ely &an be 'ut to"ethe# into a lo"i&al &ohe#ent o#de# o)
e$ents. 7u#the# the mate#ials makin" u' the ahadith and the bio"#a'hies a#e $e#y
late o)ten as mu&h as t,o &entu#ies a)te# the )a&t and ,e#e o)ten blatantly
'olemi&al in thei# outlook. This su""ests that the #eason )o# the &on)li&tin" details
in so many o) these sou#&es is due to thei# bein" =s'un= ?o# e$en in$ented@ by
)a&tionalists amon" the Muslims ea&h t#yin" to bolste# thei# o,n 'a#ti&ula# $ie, o#
'a#ty by layin" &laim to some sayin" o# a&tion o) the '#o'het. %&ha&ht has
e:'#essed an o'inion ,hi&h has be&ome in&#easin"ly &ommon'la&e in the studies
o) Islam ,hen he stated
=I should like to '#esent some ideas on ,hat I think is a ne&essa#y #e$aluation o)
Islami& t#aditions in the li"ht o) ou# '#esent kno,led"eJ but am at a loss ,hethe#
to &all my &on&lusions somethin" ne, and un'#e&edented o# somethin" old and
,ell kno,n. Mo one &ould ha$e been mo#e su#'#ised than I ,as by the #esults
,hi&h the e$iden&e o) the te:ts has )o#&ed u'on me du#in" the last ten yea#s o# soJ
but lookin" ba&k I &annot see ,hat othe# #esult &ould 'ossibly be &onsistent ,ith
the $e#y )oundations o) ou# histo#i&al and &#iti&al study o) the )i#st t,o o# th#ee
&entu#ies o) Islam. 9ne o) these )oundations I may take it )o# "#anted is
Aold*ihe#1s dis&o$e#y that the t#aditions )#om the 6#o'het and )#om his 8om'anions
do not &ontain mo#e o# less authenti& in)o#mation on the ea#liest 'e#iod o) Islam to
,hi&h they &laim to belon" but #e)le&t o'inions held du#in" the )i#st t,o and a
hal) &entu#ies a)te# the hi<#a.=
1
%&ha&ht thus a))i#ms the un#eliability o) the Muslim t#aditions )o# use as '#ima#y
sou#&e mate#ials ,hen studyin" the e$ents su##oundin" the #ise o) Islam. 7a# )#om
bein" a &lea# and #eliable #e&o#d o) ea#ly Islam these t#aditions a#e o)ten
inauthenti& and &ont#i$ed. Indeed %&ha&tIs )u#the# statements a#e e$en mo#e
se$e#e
=We must the#e)o#e abandon the "#atuitous assum'tion that the#e e:isted
o#i"inally an authenti& &o#e o) in)o#mation "oin" ba&k to the time o) the
6#o'het....=
2

=E$e#y le"al t#adition )#om the 6#o'het until the &ont#a#y is '#o$ed must be taken
not as an authenti& o# essentially authenti& e$en i) sli"htly obs&u#ed statement
$alid )o# his time o# the time o) the 8om'anions but as the )i&titious e:'#ession o)
a le"al do&t#ine )o#mulated at a late# date....We shall not meet any le"al t#adition
)#om the 6#o'het ,hi&h &an 'ositi$ely be &onside#ed authenti&.=
3
%&ha&tIs 'e#&e'tions ,e#e (uite needed )o# instead o) #e)le&tin" histo#i&al )a&t
these t#aditional mate#ials #e)le&t late# o'inions and #eda&ted a&&ounts o) Muslims
,ho ,e#e a''lyin" thei# late# standa#ds and belie)s onto an ea#lie# "ene#ation.
This unde#standin" &o##e&ts the ea#lie# and e##oneous tenden&y amon" s&hola#s o)
Islam to a&&e't the t#aditional mate#ial absolutely at )a&e $alue. Daniel 6i'es has
&om'a#ed the use o) these mate#ials by Weste#n s&hola#s ,ho attem't to
dete#mine the =authenti&= histo#y o) Islam to a simila# thou"h hy'otheti&al
situation ,he#e ,e in the 21st &entu#y ,ould t#y to dete#mine the makeu' o) the
8onstitution solely on the basis o) the ideas and inte#'#etations o) $a#ious mode#n
)a&tions in Ame#i&a ,hi&h ,ould ob$iously "i$e &on)li&tin" a&&ounts and
em'hases.
B

As noted ea#lie# nea#ly the only sou#&e )o# di#e&t in)o#mation &on&e#nin"
Mohammed ?as ,ell as a host o) othe# to'i&s &on&e#nin" ea#ly Islam@ a#e the
ahadith. The mate#ial in ,o#ks su&h as that o) Ibn Isha( his #eda&to# Ibn /isham
and othe# ea#ly bio"#a'hies o) Mohammed ?sirat@ la#"ely d#a, )#om the ahadith as
thei# sou#&es. The ahadith a#e said to ha$e been t#ansmitted o#ally )#om the time
o) Mohammed and the 8om'anions $ia &hains o) autho#ity &on$eyed to late#
"ene#ations th#ou"h se#ies o) t#ust,o#thy Muslims ,ho 'assed do,n ,hat they had
hea#d about Mohammed and the ea#ly Muslims. This '#o&ess is kno,n as isnad and
the dete#mination o) an =authenti&= hadith by Muslim s&hola#s has t#aditionally
been made by <ud"in" the isnad the 'e#sons makin" u' the &hain o) autho#ity )o#
the hadith on a numbe# o) )a&to#s su&h as #eliability and #e'utation ?hen&e
makin" it a some,hat sub<e&ti$e e:e#&ise@.
This method in ,hi&h the ahadith ,e#e t#ansmitted and #e&o#ded is less than
ins'i#in" in its &a'a&ity to a&&u#ately t#ansmit in)o#mation. Mui# a)te# notin" that
e$en #es'e&table and a&&e'ted t#aditions &ontain mu&h that is =e:a""e#ated and
)abulous= (uotes Austa$ Weil sayin" this about the #eliability o) the o#al t#aditions
and t#ansmission o) t#aditions
=!elian&e u'on o#al t#aditions at a time ,hen they ,e#e t#ansmitted by memo#y
alone and e$e#y day '#odu&ed ne, di$isions amon" the '#o)esso#s o) Islam
o'ened u' a ,ide )ield )o# )ab#i&ation and disto#tion. The#e ,as nothin" easie#
,hen #e(ui#ed to de)end any #eli"ious o# 'oliti&al system than to a''eal to an o#al
t#adition o) the 6#o'het.=
5
/e )u#the# notes
=....the te#ms in ,hi&h the e$iden&e ,as "i$enJ ,he#eas t#adition 'u#ely o#al is
a))e&ted by the &ha#a&te# and habits the asso&iations and the '#e<udi&es o) ea&h
,itness in the &hain o) #e'etition. Mo '#e&aution &ould hinde# the &ommin"lin" in
o#al t#adition o) mistaken o# )ab#i&ated matte# ,ith ,hat at the )i#st may ha$e
been t#ust,o#thy e$iden&e. The )lood"ates o) e##o# e:a""e#ation and )i&tion
,e#e th#o,n o'en.=
C
Also the inde'enden&e o) the ,itnesses in the isnad has likely been o$e#estimated
by 'ast s&hola#s o) Islam. Motin" that the '#o&ess o) isnad as a means o)
t#ansmittin" in)o#mation about Mohammed and ea#ly Islam e$ol$ed many de&ades
a)te# the )a&ts they 'u#'o#t to t#ansmit .uynboll e:'#esses a studied t#e'idation
about the autho#ity and authenti&ity o) these t#aditions.
=In my $ie, be)o#e the institution o) the isnad &ame into e:isten&e #ou"hly th#ee
(ua#te#s o) a &entu#y a)te# the '#o'het1s death the ahadith and the (isas ?mostly
le"enda#y sto#ies@ ,e#e t#ansmitted in a ha'ha*a#d )ashion i) at all and mostly
anonymously. %in&e the isnad &ame into bein" names o) olde# autho#ities ,e#e
su''lied ,he#e the ne, isnad '#e&e'ts #e(ui#ed su&h. 9)ten the names o) ,ell-
kno,n histo#i&al 'e#sonalities ,e#e &hosen but mo#e o)ten the names o) )i&titious
'eo'le ,e#e o))e#ed to )ill the "a's in isnads ,hi&h ,e#e as yet )a# )#om
'e#)e&t...The o$e#all ma<o#ity o) alle"edly the most an&ient t#aditions is likely to
ha$e o#i"inated at the ea#liest in the &ou#se o) the last )e, de&ades o) the )i#st
&entu#y Ked. note - Islami& &entu#yL ?D00s-D20s@ ,hen )o# the )i#st time the need
)o# t#aditions be&ame "ene#ally )elt. The isnad as institution had <ust &ome into
bein" and slo,ly but "#adually the &on&e't o) sunnat an-nabi be"an to e&li'se the
%unna o) a #e"ion o# o) a ?"#ou' o)@ 'e#son?s@.=
D
Thus .uynboll a#"ues )#om the e$iden&e )o# a '#o&ess o) standa#di*ation ?isnad@
that be"an in the dusk o) the )i#st Islami& &entu#y. This '#o&ess a#ose out o) a
#e&o"ni*ed need on the 'a#t o) the &ommunity ,ithin the A#ab #eli"ion to establish
a solid basis u'on ,hi&h to "#ound thei# t#aditional belie)s and to b#in" o#de# to
the $e#y ha'ha*a#d system o) &ommandments sto#ies 'e#sonal e:am'les and
do&t#ines ea&h &laimin" autho#ity. Wansb#ou"h "oes e$en )u#the# #e&o"ni*in" the
su''lyin" o) isnad )o# statements o# e:am'les att#ibuted to Mohammed and his
8om'anions as a )o#mal inno$ation datable only to the $e#y be"innin" o) the thi#d
Islami& &entu#y ?200 A/Q415 AD@
4
'ushin" the o#i"ins o) )o#mal isnad ba&k anothe#
&entu#y. Indeed 8#a"" notes that the mo#e )o#mally o#"ani*ed and =s&ienti)i&ally=
established a t#adition in the ahadith is the mo#e likely it is to ha$e been se$e#ely
#eda&ted andQo# delibe#ately in$ented. /e says
=This s&ien&e bein" so meti&ulous that it is )ai# ?e$en i) some,hat 'a#ado:i&al@ to
sus'e&t that the mo#e &om'lete and )o#mally satis)a&to#y the attestation &laimed
to be the mo#e likely it ,as that the t#adition ,as o) late and delibe#ate o#i"in.
The de$elo'ed #e(ui#ements o) a&&e'tability that the t#adition boasted sim'ly did
not e:ist in the ea#ly mo#e ha'ha*a#d and s'ontaneous days.=
2
Aold*ihe# ,as the )i#st mode#n ,este#n s&hola# o) Islam to #e&o"ni*e the s'u#ious
natu#e o) the hadithi& #e&o#ds ,hen his tho#ou"h e:amination o) them ?'#a&ti&ally
the )i#st unde#taken by a Weste#n s&hola#@ un&o$e#ed the astoundin" #e"ula#ity
,ith ,hi&h the t#aditions &ont#adi&ted ea&h othe# and ,hose numbe#s seemed to
balloon ,ith ea&h su&&eedin" "ene#ation. Aold*ihe# su&&in&tly summa#i*ed his
)indin"s
=In the absen&e o) authenti& e$iden&e it ,ould indeed be #ash to attem't the most
tentati$e o'inion as to ,hi&h 'a#ts o) the /adith a#e the oldest o#i"inal mate#ial
o# e$en as to ,hi&h o) them date ba&k to the "ene#ations immediately )ollo,in"
the 6#o'het1s death. 8lose# a&(uaintan&e ,ith the $ast sto&k o) /adiths indu&es
ske'ti&al &aution #athe# than o'timisti& t#ust #e"a#din" the mate#ial b#ou"ht
to"ethe# in the &a#e)ully &om'iled &olle&tions. We a#e unlikely to ha$e e$en as
mu&h &on)iden&e as Do*y #e"a#din" a la#"e 'a#t o) the /adith but ,ill '#obably
&onside# by )a# the "#eate# 'a#t o) it as the #esult o) the #eli"ious histo#i&al and
so&ial de$elo'ment o) Islam du#in" the )i#st t,o &entu#ies. The /adith ,ill not
se#$e as a do&ument )o# the histo#y o) the in)an&y o) Islam but #athe# as a
#e)le&tion o) the tenden&ies that a''ea#ed in the &ommunity du#in" the matu#e#
sta"es o) its de$elo'ment. It &ontains in$aluable e$iden&e )o# the e$olution o)
Islam du#in" the yea#s ,hen it ,as )o#min" itsel) into an o#"ani*ed ,hole )#om
'o,e#)ul mutually o''osed )o#&es.=
10
This 'oint is #e&o"ni*ed and #e'eated by mo#e mode#n s&hola#s on the sub<e&t o)
Islami& t#adition. Amon" them 8#one states about the Sira o) Ibn Isha( ?,hi&h ,as
ultimately based u'on the t#aditional hadithi& mate#ials@
=The ,o#k is lateN ,#itten not by a "#and&hild but by a "#eat "#and&hild o) the
6#o'het1s "ene#ation it "i$es us the $ie, )o# ,hi&h &lassi&al Islam had settled. And
,#itten by a membe# o) the ulama the s&hola#s ,ho had by then eme#"ed as the
&lassi&al bea#e#s o) the Islami& t#adition the 'i&tu#e ,hi&h it o))e#s is also one-
sidedN ho, the >mayyad &ali'hs #emembe#ed the 6#o'het ,e shall ne$e# kno,.
That it is unhisto#i&al is only ,hat one ,ould e:'e&t but it has an e:t#ao#dina#y
&a'a&ity to #esist inte#nal &#iti&ism...&ha#a&te#isti& o) the enti#e Islami& t#adition
and most '#onoun&ed in the -o#anN one &an take the 'i&tu#e '#esented o# one &an
lea$e it but one &annot wor' ,ith it.=
11
%he )u#the# &on&ludes about the hadithi& t#aditions
=But abo$e all the t#adition is ma#ked by hi"h ent#o'y. >nsu#'#isin"ly it is )ull o)
&ont#adi&tions &on)usions in&onsisten&ies and anomalies and i) these &ould be
o#de#ed a &e#tain meanin" mi"ht eme#"e. But the deb#is is de<e&tin"ly #esistant to
inte#nal &#iti&ism and be&ause it &annot be o#de#ed nothin" mu&h &an be '#o$ed
o# dis'#o$ed. The#e is nothin" ,ithin the Islami& t#aditions that one &an do ,ith
Baladhu#i1s statement that the kiblah ?di#e&tion o) '#aye#@ in the )i#st -u)an
mos(ue ,as to the ,est ?o''osite di#e&tion to Me&&a@N eithe# it is )alse o# else it is
odd but ,hy it should be the#e and ,hat it means Aod only kno,s. It is simila#ly
odd that >ma# ?se&ond &ali'h@ is kno,n as the 7a#u( ?!edeeme#@ that the#e a#e so
many 7atimas that Ali ?Muhammad1s &ousin@ is sometimes Muhammad1s b#othe#
and that the#e is so mu&h 'ointless in)o#mation...It is a t#adition in ,hi&h
in)o#mation means nothin" and leads no,he#eJ it <ust ha''ens to be the#e and
lends itsel) to little but a##an"ement by ma<o#ity and mino#ity o'inion.=
12
The '#o&ess o) isnad is also hi"hly sus'e&t and ,as sho,n on se$e#al &ounts by
Aold*ihe# to yield seemin" authenti&ity to mutually &ont#adi&to#y ahadith. 8ook
has sho,n a numbe# o) ,ays in ,hi&h the isnads &ould s'#ead in ,ays that ,ould
)alsely a''ea# to "i$e "#eate# authenti&ity to them
13
. Indeed that the ahadith and
othe# t#aditional mate#ials a#e most likely )o#"e#ies de$elo'ed o$e# time in the
Muslim &ommunity to =)ill out= )o# itsel) and it1s '#o'het a sense o) histo#y has been
sho,n as both 'lausible
1B
and likely
15
. Moth and 8on#ad ha$e noted )o#mal
elements in many a&&ounts in the Muslim t#aditions that a#e so ste#eoty'ed that
they &an easily be t#ans'o#ted )#om one a&&ount to the ne:t and that su""ests
that they a#e not so mu&h a&&u#ate histo#y as a lite#a#y a#ti)i&e o) symboli& $alue
1C
.
8on&e#nin" the #eliability o) the sirat bio"#a'hi&al mate#ial o) Ibn Isha( ?)#om
,hom most o) the late# bio"#a'he#s obtained thei# mate#ial@ 8on#ad ,#ites
=Ibn Isha(1s nume#ous students and thei# su&&esso#s took ,hat they #e&ei$ed )#om
the maste# and #eda&ted and t#ansmitted it in di))e#ent ,ays. Witness )o#
e:am'le the di))e#en&es bet,een Ibn /isham the (uotations o) al-Taba#i the
#e&ension o) 5unus ibn Bukay# and that o) Muhammed ibn %alama al-/a##ani. As
di))e#ent lines o) t#ansmission #e'#esent 'otentially di))e#ent #eda&tions e))o#ts to
#e&onst#u&t the o#i"inal )o#m o) a te:t &annot sim'ly &ombine (uotations )#om
di))e#ent lines o) t#ansmission as i) Ibn Isha(1s students and su&&esso#s ,e#e
makin" no &han"es o) thei# o,n....T#ansmitte#s did not limit themsel$es to 'assin"
on ,hat they had #e&ei$ed )#om thei# tea&he#s but #athe# laid &laim to the #ole o)
ada'tin" and #e$isin" thei# mate#ials as they sa, )it not <ust by the ,ell-kno,n
means o) the &olle&ti$e isnad but also by #ea##an"in" abb#e$iatin" e:'andin"
and #e&astin".=
1D
7inally it must be unde#stood that the shee# ma"nitude o) hadithi& t#aditions
e:isted <ust )o# the #easons "i$en abo$e - the need to '#o$ide a &ommon basis )o#
belie) and '#a&ti&e amon" the &ommunity in the A#ab #eli"ion and the need )o# the
s&hola#ly and &le#i&al &lass in this so&iety to '#o$ide le"itimi*ation )o# itsel) and
the =o#thodo:= system that they ,e#e e$ol$in" and en)o#&in". 8#one dis&usses the
la#"e numbe#s o) ahadith at len"th 'ointin" out that ,hat ,as si)ted out and
handed do,n ,as ,hat late# Islami& <u#ists inte#'#eted Mohammed as ha$in" said
)ilte#ed th#ou"h the lenses o) thei# o,n biases and o'inions
=The &han&es o) authenti& mate#ial su#$i$in" at thei# hands is e:&eedin"ly small.
Indeed in 'u#ely statisti&al te#ms it is minute. Bukha#i is said to ha$e e:amined a
total o) C00000 t#aditions att#ibuted to the 6#o'hetJ he '#ese#$ed some D000
?in&ludin" #e'etitions@ o# in othe# ,o#ds dismissed some 523000 as inauthenti&. I)
Ibn /anbal e:amined a simila# numbe# o) t#aditions he must ha$e #e<e&ted about
5D0000 his &olle&tion &ontainin" some 30000 ?a"ain in&ludin" #e'etitions@. 9) Ibn
/anbal1s t#aditions 1D10 ?in&ludin" #e'etitions@ a#e t#ansmitted by the 8om'anion
Ibn Abbas. 5et less than )i)ty yea#s ea#lie# one s&hola# estimated that Ibn Abbas
had only hea#d nine t#aditions )#om the 6#o'het ,hile anothe# thou"ht that the
&o##e&t )i"u#e mi"ht be ten. I) Ibn Abbas has hea#d ten t#aditions )#om the 6#o'het
in the yea#s a#ound 400 but o$e# a thousand by 450 ho, many had he hea#d in
D00 o# C32; E$en i) ,e a&&e't that ten o) Ibn Abbas1 t#aditions a#e authenti& ho,
do ,e identi)y them in the 'ool o) 1D10; We do not e$en kno, ,hethe# they a#e
to be )ound in this 'ool as o''osed to that o) the 530000 t#aditions dismissed on
the "#ound that thei# &hain o) autho#ities ,e#e )aulty. >nde# su&h &i#&umstan&es it
is s&a#&ely <usti)ied to '#esume /adith to be authenti& until the &ont#a#y has been
'#o$en.=
14
Essentially she is makin" the 'oint that the hu"e numbe# o) ahadith that ,e#e
a$ailable to al-Bukha#i and Ibn /anbal to si)t th#ou"h all '#esentin" themsel$es as
authenti& ?thou"h most #e&o"ni*ably not@ ,as the #esult o) a '#o&ess o) hadithi&
in)lation. /u"e numbe#s o) ahadith ,e#e bein" &#eated and added to the
&om'ilations o) these t#aditions su&h that ,hile Islami& s&hola#s in 400 AD
#e&o"ni*ed a me#e ten ?o# nine@ ahadith as t#ansmitted )#om the 8om'anion Ibn
Abbas a me#e )i)ty yea#s late# this numbe# has in&#eased to ?"@?7. This
e:'ansion in the numbe# o) ahadith ,as most likely due to the #eda&tions and
in$entions dis&ussed abo$e.
Due to the e:t#eme un#eliability o) these bio"#a'hi&al mate#ials &on&e#nin"
Mohammed and the ahadith u'on ,hi&h the la#"e 'o#tion o) this bio"#a'hy is
based the (uest )o# Mohammed must be di#e&ted a,ay )#om 'olemi&al and o)ten
sel)-se#$in" t#aditional a&&ounts and to,a#ds the e$iden&es '#o$ided by
a#&haeolo"y and )#om the a&&ounts o) obse#$e#s ,ho ,e#e &lose# to the )a&t than
the late# Muslim bio"#a'he#s and t#adition-make#s. We must unde#stand that the#e
is a&tually $e#y little #eal e$iden&e )o# Mohammed at least as a ='#o'het= and
#eli"ious leade#. 8on&u##ently '#a&ti&ally e$e#ythin" in the t#aditional a&&ount o)
the #ise o) Islam ,hi&h has been 'ie&ed to"ethe# )#om the Muslim t#aditions is not
substantiated by e$idential )a&ts.
Alon" ,ith the '#oblems int#odu&ed by in$ention and )alse as&#i'tion the
likelihood that many ea#ly Muslim t#aditions ,he#e handed do,n o#ally )o# at least
a &entu#y &ont#ibutes to the un#eliability o) these a&&ounts ,hen they ,e#e )inally
,#itten do,n. The be,ilde#in" a##ay o) in&onsisten&ies and #e'etitions ,hi&h
'la"ue t#aditional Muslim a&&ounts &on&e#nin" <ust about e$e#ythin" ha$in" to do
,ith ea#ly Islami& histo#y &an be att#ibuted to the natu#al e$olution o) sto#ies
'asses mouth to mouth $ia o#al t#adition in an e$en loose# )ashion than that
'#o'osed by the t#aditional a''eal to isnad autho#ity. 8ook dis&ussin" the "ene#al
solidi)i&ation and =)illin" out= o) bio"#a'hi&al details a''ea#in" bet,een the ,o#ks
o) Ibn Isha( ?d. DCD@ and al-Wa(idi ?d. 422@ says this
=The most inte#estin" hy'othesis ,hi&h has been ad$an&ed and one ,hi&h
a&&ounts #athe# ,ell )o# this and othe# e))e&ts is that the ei"hth-&entu#y autho#s
d#e, mu&h o) thei# mate#ial di#e&tly )#om the s'e&ialist sto#y-telle#s o) ea#ly
Islam the qussas. We should then think in te#ms o) a &ommon #e'e#toi#e o)
mate#ial in &i#&ulation amon" the sto#y-telle#s #athe# than o) ha#d and )ast lines
o) indi$idual t#ansmission. I) as is 'lausible ,e assume that this sto#y-tellin"
#emained a li$in" sou#&e )o# the autho#s o) s&hola#ly bio"#a'hies as late as the
time o) Wa(idi ,e &an #eadily e:'lain Wa(idi1s su'e#io# kno,led"e as a #e)le&tion
o) the &ontinuin" e$olution o) this o#al t#adition.
=%to#y-tellin" is an a#t not a s&ien&e and si"ns o) the a#t a#e &ommon'la&e in the
bio"#a'hy o) Muhammad. 7o# e:am'le one element in the #e'e#toi#e ,as &lea#ly a
sto#y o) a )#i"htenin" en&ounte# bet,een the ,oman ,ho su&kled Muhammad and
some 'e#son o# 'e#sons ,hose s'i#itual e:'e#tise enabled them to di$ine his )utu#e
"#eatness. Whethe# the en&ounte# is ,ith .e,s Ethio'ian 8h#istians o# an A#ab
soothsaye# is ne$e#theless a 'oint ,hi&h $a#ies )#om one $e#sion o) the sto#y to
anothe#. %imila# )loatin" ane&dotes o&&u# late# in Muhammad1s li)e. The details
a"ain a#e t#i$ial but the o$e#all im'li&ations a#e not. We ha$e seen ,hat hal) a
&entu#y o) sto#y-tellin" &ould a&hie$e bet,een Ibn Isha( and Wa(idi at a time
,hen ,e kno, that mu&h mate#ial had al#eady been &ommitted to ,#itin". What
the same '#o&ess may ha$e b#ou"ht about in the &entu#y be)o#e Ibn Isha( is
somethin" ,e &an only "uess at.=
12
9#al t#ansmission o) bio"#a'hi&al details e$en in a late# 'e#iod ,hen the sirat
,e#e al#eady bein" ,#itten do,n still sa, the addition and &han"in" o) histo#i&al
and bio"#a'hi&al mate#ial. As 8ook su""ests the lo"i&al (uestion is =I) this is so
then ho, mu&h mo#e e:tensi$e ,e#e the &han"es to the bio"#a'hi&al mate#ial due
to o#al t#ansmission in the '#e-sirat a"e ,hen these had not been ,#itten do,n;=
Analyti&al s&hola#shi' #e&o"ni*es the &ont#adi&to#y and o)ten 'ointless natu#e o)
the hadithi& mate#ial. 7u#the# it is obse#$ed that this mate#ial ,as &olle&ted
,ithin the milieu o) inte#se&ta#ian #i$al#ies and s&holasti& (ua##els. The e$iden&es
'#o$ided by &ontem'o#a#y sou#&es in the )i#st 'a#t o) the Dth &entu#y as ,ell as
the tan"ible 'hysi&al a#ti)a&ts o) both A#ab and non-A#ab )#om the 'e#iod unde#
s&#utiny 'aint a 'i&tu#e in ,hi&h the#e ,as no '#o'het named Mohammed ?o#
indeed a #eli"ion &alled Islam@ )o# many de&ades into the =Islami&= 'e#iod.
7#om e$iden&e unea#thed in the sands o) 6alestine and othe# a#eas o) %l-Shams ?an
A#abi& te#m )o# the %y#ia-6alestine #e"ion@ it a''ea#s that ,hen the dese#t A#abs
be"an to in)ilt#ate %y#ia and the su##oundin" #e"ions in )o#&e be"innin" in the )i#st
de&ade o) the Dth &entu#y they ,e#e still la#"ely 'a"an thou"h many had ado'ted
some )o#m o) 8h#istianity .udaism o# Ab#ahamism. The #eli"ion o) the A#abs that
e$entually be&ame Islam de$elo'ed o$e# the ne:t &entu#y o# so a)te# the A#ab
takeo$e# o) %y#ia 6alestine and Meso'otamia. 7u#the# this de$elo'ment initially
be"an in these #e"ions and ,as late# "i$en a #eda&ted o#i"in in the /i<a* ,he#e
Me&&a and Medina a#e lo&ated.
Bashea# usin" a lo"i&al enou"h a#"ument (uestions the /i<a*i o#i"ins o) Islam
=The '#o'osition that A#abia &ould ha$e &onstituted the sou#&e o) the $ast mate#ial
'o,e# #e(ui#ed to e))e&t su&h &han"es in ,o#ld a))ai#s ,ithin so sho#t a s'an o)
time is to say the least a thesis &allin" )o# '#oo) and substantiation #athe# than a
se&u#e )oundation u'on ,hi&h ,e &an build. 9ne may obse#$e )o# e:am'le that in
s'ite o) all its t,entieth-&entu#y oil ,ealth A#abia still does not 'ossess su&h
mate#ial and s'i#itual mi"ht. And at least as e:t#ao#dina#y is the disa''ea#an&e o)
most 'ast le"a&ies in a ,ide a#ea o) the utmost di$e#sity in lan"ua"es ethni&ities
&ultu#es and #eli"ions. 9ne o) the most im'o#tant de$elo'ments in &ontem'o#a#y
s&hola#shi' is the mountin" e$iden&e that these ,e#e not sim'ly and suddenly
s,allo,ed u' by A#abian Islam in the ea#ly se$enth &entu#y but this is '#e&isely
the 'i&tu#e that the A#abi& histo#i&al sou#&es o) the thi#dQninth &entu#y '#esent.=
20
Bashea# is #i"ht o) &ou#se. The 'o,e# and ,ealth ne&essa#y to o$e#,helm a host
o) settled &i$ili*ations and &on$e#t them as tho#ou"hly as A#ab Islam did #e(ui#es
the #esou#&es o) a ,ealthy land - ,hi&h %y#ia and the #e"ions #ound about it that
had been "#adually in)ilt#ated by the A#abs ,ould ha$e had. Bashea# )u#the# notes
the "#adual de$elo'ment o) the no, ,ell-kno,n A#ab-Islami& 'olity
=....the )i#stQse$enth &entu#y ,itnessed t,o 'a#allel albeit initially se'a#ate
'#o&essesN the #ise o) the A#ab 'olity on the one hand and the be"innin"s o) a
#eli"ious mo$ement that e$entually &#ystalli*ed into Islam. It ,as only in the
be"innin" o) the se&ondQei"hth &entu#y and th#ou"hout it and )o# #easons that
ha$e yet to be e:'lained that the t,o '#o&esses ,e#e )used #esultin" in the bi#th
o) A#abian Islam as ,e kno, it i.e. in the Islami*ation o) the A#ab 'olity and
A#abi*ation o) the ne, #eli"ion.=
21
Essentially the A#ab #eli"ion only be"an to be =A#abian= in its s'e&i)i& &ha#a&te#
su""estin" that its A#abi*ation ,as the #esult o) #eda&tion in its histo#y and )o&us
o&&u##in" de&ades a)te# Islam =o))i&ially= a''ea#ed. 7o# instan&e )#om the
e$iden&e at hand it is hi"hly doubt)ul that initially at least Me&&a e:isted as a
&ente# o) any im'o#tan&eJ &e#tainly it ,as nothin" like ,hat is de'i&ted in the
0u#1an. The !oman "eo"#a'he# 6tolemy is o)ten &ited as an ea#ly ,itness to Me&&a
th#ou"h his des&#i'tion o) a &ity &alled Ma&o#aba
22
. /o,e$e# as has been 'ointed
out =Ma&o#aba= is o) a di))e#ent lin"uisti& #oot than Me&&a
23
. 8#one )u#the#
demonst#ates that 6tolemy1s Ma&o#aba &annot be identi)ied ,ith Me&&a and that i)
6tolemy did #e)e# to anythin" like Me&&a it ,ould ha$e been to a to,n in A#abia
6et#aea named Moka
2B
)a# to the no#th o) Me&&a. This identi)i&ation ,ith the
Me&&a o) Islami& t#adition is ob$iously e:t#emely tenuous at best.
Me&&a as the &ente# o) &a#a$an t#ade '#esented in the Islami& t#adition ,as
'#a&ti&ally unkno,n by &ontem'o#a#ies. Whe#eas A#abia ?a te#m ,hi&h &an in&lude
the dese#ts east o) %l-Shams@ ,as o) 'oliti&al and e&&lesiasti&al im'o#tan&e in the
Cth &entu#y the#e is no mention o) the 0u#aysh o# the t#adin" &ente# o) Me&&a in
any ,ay in any lite#atu#e )#om the time e$en thou"h A#eek and Patin autho#s had
,#itten e:tensi$ely about the t#ade ,hi&h su''lied them ,ith the s'i&es and othe#
"oods o) southe#n A#abia and ,hi&h is assumed in Muslim t#adition to ha$e &ome
th#ou"h Me&&a
25
. 8#one 'oints out that in sou#&es &ontem'o#a#y ,ith the
matu#ation o) the A#ab #eli"ion ?late Dth - 4th &entu#ies@ the#e seems to be some
&on)usion as to ,he#e Me&&a e$en ,as. %he notes that the +ontinuatio 5y.antia
%ra(ica "i$es a lo&ation )o# Me&&a bet,een ># and /a##an 'la&in" it not in the
/i<a* but on the ed"e o) Meso'otamia
2C
. This may belie an a''a#ent Ab#ahami&
in)luen&e in the A#abi& #eli"ion du#in" this time ?as the 'at#ia#&h ,as asso&iated
,ith both &ities in the bibli&al #e&o#ds@. %he also notes that .a&ob o) Edessa kne,
o) the Ka(ah to ,hi&h the A#abs '#ayed but 'la&ed it not in today1s Me&&a but at
a 'oint &lose to the Moka mentioned by 6tolemy ,hi&h is )a# no#th o) Me&&a.
Indeed it is 'ossible that this Ka(ah to ,hi&h these A#abs ,e#e di#e&tin" thei#
'#aye#s lo&ated as it ,as in the old Mabataean te##ito#y may ,ell ha$e been the
same 'a(ah in the a#ea o) 6et#a dedi&ated to Dusha#a that E'i'hanius obse#$ed
,as "i$en #e$e#en&e in the Bth &entu#y AD as noted in 8ha'te# 2. As su&h in the
ea#ly yea#s o) the A#ab &on(uest and the de$elo'ment o) the A#ab #eli"ion the
&ente# o) the A#abs1 #eli"ious de$otion a''ea#s to ha$e been di#e&ted to,a#ds a
'oint in the dese#t south o) 6alestine and Me&&a as a "#eat #eli"ious &ente# and
home o) the '#o'het o) the )inal #e$elation seems to ha$e been #elati$ely
unkno,n. As Bashea# notes Me&&a as the &ulti& &ente# o) Islam a''ea#s to be late
and ,as the #esult o) a delibe#ate attem't to build =an A#abian-/i<a*i $e#sion o)
.udaeo-8h#istian 1'#o'hetolo"y1= &ente#ed a#ound Ab#aham1s su''osed &onne&tion
,ith the site and a#ound the #eda&ted sto#y o) Ab#aham1s attem'ted sa&#i)i&e o)
his son Ishmael
2D
.
Anothe# e$iden&e )o# the %y#ian o#i"in o) the A#ab #eli"ion lies in the dis'osition o)
the #eli"ious milieu in ,hi&h the A#abs o) %l-Shams e:isted $e#sus the /i<a*. The#e
is no a#&haeolo"i&al e$iden&e to su''o#t the &ontention in the 0u#1an that Me&&a
and the /i<a* ,e#e hu"e &ente#s o) '#e-Islami& 2ahiliyya 'a"anism. Indeed the#e
has not been )ound any solid e$iden&e o) 'e#manent A#ab settlement in the #e"ion
o) the /i<a* in the Cth and ea#ly Dth &entu#ies
24
. The#e is ho,e$e# e$iden&e )o#
e:a&tly the ty'e o) 'a"an &ente#s '#a&ti&es and san&tua#ies that a#e des&#ibed in
the 0u#1an and the Muslim t#aditions - in %y#ia-6alestine. +a#ious 'a"an sites ha$e
been unea#thed in this #e"ion that &on)o#m to ,hat is #e&o#ded in the 0u#1an. 9ne
o) the most '#ominent is a site at %ede Bo(e# in the Me"e$ dese#t ?bet,een
6alestine and the %inai 'eninsula@. The#e ,e#e 2ahiliyya-ty'e 'a"an sites at %ede
Bo(e# all the ,ay u' to 1C0-1D0 A/ ?#ou"hly D40-D20s AD@
22
e$en thou"h the
T#aditional a&&ount &laims this #e"ion ,ould ha$e been tho#ou"hly unde# the
&ont#ol o) Islam )o# o$e# a &entu#y and a hal). E$iden&e )#om o$e# thi#ty sites in
the Me"e$ and su##oundin" a#eas "i$e e$iden&e to a&ti$e and th#i$in" 'a"an &ult
&ente#s e$en into the #ei"n o) the >mayyad 8ali'h /isham ?D2B-DB3 AD@
30
. This
su""ests to us that the #ea&tion to 'a"anism ,hi&h is so e$ident in Muslim 'olemi&
,o#ks not the least o) ,hi&h ,ould be the 0u#1an e:ists not be&ause o)
inte#a&tion ,hi&h the ea#ly Muslims had in the /i<a* and Me&&a but be&ause o)
,hat they &on)#onted in %l-Shams.
7u#the# the#e is e$iden&e that ,hat is &alled =8lassi&al A#abi&= ?the lan"ua"e o)
the 0u#1an@ did not o#i"inate in the A#abian 'eninsula but a#ose instead amon" the
A#abs o) %l-Shams
31
. 8lassi&al A#abi& ada'ted an A#amai& ?22 lette#@ s&#i't ,hi&h is
a&tually not $e#y suitable )o# t#ans&#ibin" A#abi&. This is des'ite the '#esen&e
amon" 'eninsula# A#abian t#ibes o) %outh A#abian s&#i'ts ,ith 24 o# 22 lette#s
,hi&h ,ould be mo#e suitable )o# 8lassi&al A#abi& ?,ith ,hi&h any hy'otheti&al
Me&&ans in a busy &a#a$an to,n ,ould ha$e been $e#y )amilia#@. The )a&t that a
mo#e un,ieldy s&#i't ,as &hosen su""ests that the #eason ,as due to the
a$ailability o) the A#amai&-based s&#i'ts in tu#n su""estin" a mo#e no#the#ly o#i"in
)o# 8lassi&al A#abi& than in the /i<a*. In )a&t the#e is no e'i"#a'hi& o# othe#
e$iden&e )o# 8lassi&al A#abi& in the /i<a* #e"ion until the #ei"n o) Mu1a,iyah in the
CC0s AD. This late a''ea#an&e &ou'led ,ith the )a&t that ,hen 8lassi&al A#abi&
a''ea#ed in the /i<a* it did so )ully de$elo'ed ?,ith no lon" histo#y o) e$olution@
indi&ates that it ,as int#odu&ed )#om outside 'e#ha's by a &oloni*ation e))o#t into
the #e"ion instituted by Mu1a,iyah. The t#a&es o) de$elo'ment o) 8lassi&al A#abi&
)#om '#e&u#so#s a#e instead )ound in %y#ia ,he#e an ea#ly )o#m o) this lan"ua"e
,#itten in a '#oto--u)i& s&#i't has been )ound at a numbe# o) sites datin" to the
Cth &entu#y in&ludin" on the lentils o) &hu#&h doo#s
32
. It ,ould seem that )a# )#om
o#i"inatin" in the /i<a* Islam ?o# at least a '#oto-Islami& A#abi& monotheism@ ,as
int#odu&ed into the a#ea by &olonists o# othe# o&&u'ants as e$iden&ed by the
s&#i'ts and lan"ua"e they used. The late# ado'tion o) the /i<a* as the )#ame,o#k
,ithin ,hi&h the Muslim t#aditional a&&ounts took 'la&e may be the #esult o) a
desi#e amon" the late# ulama to #eda&t a mo#e =A#abian= )eel and o#i"in )o# thei#
#eli"ion mo$in" its 'la&e o) bi#th into the 'eninsula )#om ,hen&e the A#abs had
o#i"inally &ame. Indeed Aold*ihe# ,as 'e#ha's the )i#st s&hola# on #e&o#d to note
that the Muslim &onse&#ation o) $a#ious lo&ations )ound in the /i<a* be"an ,ith the
Abbasid dynasty ?sta#tin" in D50 AD@
33
.
The (uestion o) %y#ian o#i"ins )o# the #eli"ious system that e$ol$ed into Islam
'e#ha's #aises an ob<e&tion in the mind o) the #eade# be&ause the A#abs a#e )#om
%ra(ia and not %y#ia. The#e is a &ommon mis&on&e'tion ho,e$e# as to ,hat
GA#abiaH is and the $ie, o) it as the enti#ety o) the 'eninsula ,e no, &all by that
te#m ,as de$elo'ed by A#eek "eo"#a'he#s du#in" the /ellenisti& e#a and
'e#'etuated by !oman ,#ite#s. Mati$e Middle Easte#ne#s in an&ient times did not
hold this &on&e'tion o) GA#abiaH. Instead the te#m #e)e##ed to se$e#al #e"ions in
o# a#ound %y#ia and 6alestine and 'eo'le li$in" in these a#eas ,e#e #e)e##ed to by
a numbe# o) distin&t thou"h #elated te#ms ?A#abs /a"a#enes Ishmaelites@.
GA#abiaH as &on&ei$ed o) by the ma<o#ity o) an&ient sou#&es )#om the Babylonians
to the By*antines "ene#ally des&#ibed th#ee #e"ionsN the dese#t a#eas south o)
6alestine and east o) E"y't ?%inai the Me"e$ dese#t and the #e"ion east o) the
Mile delta bet,een an&ient 6elusium and Pake %i#bonis@ the dese#t a#eas east o)
6alestine and %y#ia and the dese#t and "#a*in" #e"ions to the ,est and south o)
Meso'otamia
3B
. In ea&h o) these #e"ions 'eo'le &alled by the name GA#absH had
'enet#ated and ,e#e 'e#manent )i:tu#es in the 'o'ulations o) these a#eas e$en as
ea#ly as the 4th &entu#y B8. 8e#tain "#ou's o) A#abs ,e#e e$en settled in st#ate"i&
lo&ations by em'i#e-builde#s as )a# ba&k as the Assy#ian and 6e#sian Em'i#es to
se#$e as allies and bo#de# "ua#ds a"ainst )o#ei"n enemies o) the em'i#es
35
. E$en
into the late !omanQea#ly By*antine 'e#iod $a#ious A#ab t#ibes ,e#e used as
foederati ?allies and '#ote&to#s o) 'e#i'he#al #e"ions@ by the Em'i#e. These t#ibes
,e#e settled nea# o# in &e#tain &ases ,ithin the bo#de#s o) the Em'i#e and o)ten
,ielded 'o,e# )a# beyond thei# lo&al #e"ions
3C
. A#a) has also noted the intimate
'#esen&e o) A#ab t#ibal "#ou's settled ,ell ,ithin the bo#de#s o) the Em'i#e and
,ho 'e#)o#med $a#ious 'oli&in" and '#ote&tion #oles
3D
.
The &ommon mis&on&e'tion is that the )i#st Muslim em'i#e a#ose as a #esult o) a
$ast in)lu: o) a#oused A#ab t#ibes ,ho &ame 'ou#in" into the easte#n '#o$in&es o)
the By*antine Em'i#e o$e#,helmin" stout de)enses by the 'o,e# o) Allah and
establishin" Islam in its 'la&e. This is not the &ase. A#abs ,e#e )ound all o$e# in
the easte#n '#o$in&es o) the Em'i#e )o# &entu#ies be)o#e the #ise o) Islam. 7u#the#
Me$o and -o#en ha$e made a "ood &ase that the 'o,e# o) the By*antine Em'i#e in
its easte#n '#o$in&es ,as '#a&ti&ally on its last le" any,ise and thei# '#o'osal that
the !omans had "i$en u' on makin" any se#ious de)ense o) thei# t#oublesome
easte#n '#o$in&es o# at least ,e#e unable to do so e$en i) they did desi#e to
de)end them
34
)its ,ell ,ith the e$iden&es o) histo#y in the ea#ly 'a#t o) the Dth
&entu#y. The 6e#sian Em'e#o# 8hos#oe II ,as able to o$e##un A#menia and
Meso'otamia in C0C and then took %y#ia and 6alestine in C0D
32
. The )ollo,in" yea#
the 6e#sians ,e#e e$en able to ad$an&e into Asia Mino# as )a# as the no#th,este#n
&oast - and this ,as aided by the )a&t that many &ities and e$en ,hole '#o$in&es
su##ende#ed to them $ie,in" the 6e#sians as libe#ato#s )#om the #ule o) the &#uel
Em'e#o# 6ho&as ,ho then #uled the By*antine Em'i#e. Posin" them to /e#a&litus
the ne, Em'e#o# ,ho "ained the th#one in C10 the 6e#sians a"ain #etook %y#ia and
6alestine in C13 and in$aded E"y't in C12. E$e#y,he#e the 6e#sians ,ent they
)ound disa))e&ted '#o$in&ials o)ten o) Mono'hysite o# Mesto#ian 'e#suasion ?and
hen&e anta"onisti& to the 8hal&edonian o#thodo:y in 8onstantino'le@ ,ho ,e#e
mo#e than ,illin" to &oo'e#ate ,ith the in$ade#s <ust as they ,ould be late# ,hen
the A#ab 'o,e# a#ose. The &onditions )o# the Em'i#e in the east ,e#e so bad that
by C12 /e#a&litus &ontem'lated abandonin" the east enti#ely and #ebuildin" his
milita#y base o) o'e#ations in Mo#th A)#i&a. In the ensuin" ,a# ,hi&h #a"ed until
C30 ,hen /e#a&litus mana"ed to #e"ain &ont#ol o) %y#ia and 6alestine the
By*antines and 6e#sians e:hausted ea&h othe# &om'letely. The e:tended 'e#iod o)
6e#sian &ont#ol o$e# al-Shams it is )u#the# said Gb#oke the ba&kH o) !oman
&ont#ol 'e#manently
B0
. The !oman 'o,e# in the East ,as in tu#moil
B1
and the
Im'e#ial )o#&es de)endin" .e#usalem a"ainst the 6e#sians had only been able to
muste# token #esistan&e
B2
.
In li"ht o) all this it &annot 'lausibly be said that the By*antine state in the east
,as 'o,e#)ul o# e$en de)ensible. /o, ,ould it be 'ossible that only si: yea#s
a)te# /e#a&litusI #e&on(uest the By*antine 'osition in this #e"ion ,ould be su&h as
to allo, them to ,ield hu"e 'o,e#)ul ?and e:'ensi$e@ a#mies su&h as a#e #e'o#ted
in the Islami& t#aditions a#mies #e(ui#in" a st#on" ta: base and &ent#ali*ed
"o$e#nment )o# o#"ani*ation and su''o#t; This is es'e&ially unlikely sin&e the
Em'i#e in the middle 'a#t o) the Dth &entu#y ,as at the same time )a&in" se$e#e
th#eats on othe# )#onts as ,ell ?su&h as the A$a#s in Eu#o'e ,ho e$en mana"ed to
besie"e 8onstantino'le on a )e, o&&asions@. When the A#abs a#ose ?many )#om
within the Em'i#e@ and th#e, out the By*antines they did so in the &onte:t o)
establishin" thei# bases o) o'e#ation ,ithin %y#ia and the dese#t #e"ions to the
East. Indeed the )i#st histo#i&ally do&umented A#ab dynasty the >mayyads ,e#e
&ente#ed in Damas&us not Me&&a. Thei# &on(uests ,e#e not a"ainst mi"hty a#mies
o) a 'o,e#)ul By*antine Em'i#e but a"ainst lo&al unt#ained and uno#"ani*ed
militias o)ten hastily "athe#ed to"ethe# by lo&al #ule#s o# #eli"ious autho#ities. The
By*antine Em'i#e in the east '#esented no o#"ani*ed o''osition to the A#ab
#e$olutiona#iesQin$ade#s. 9ne e:am'le o) this )a&t has been noted in E"y't ,hi&h
the Muslims took ?a&&o#din" to the t#aditional histo#y@ in CB1 AD
=7inally ,e should #e&all that )o# E"y't at least the a##i$al o) the Muslims seems
to ha$e #esulted in the establishment o) a &ent#ali*ed "o$e#nment ,he#e the#e
#eally had not been one be)o#e. The By*antine #e"ime in E"y't on the e$e o) the
Islami& &on(uest had been ma#ked by de&ent#ali*ation so tho#ou"h that it
&on$e#ted the &ount#y into 1a numbe# o) un&onne&ted '#o$in&es o# e'a#&hies ea&h
unde# a "o$e#no# en<oyin" both &i$il and milita#y 'o,e#. The#e ,as no &ent#al
autho#ity...1=
B3
This seems to su""est that in E"y't at least the thesis '#o'osed by -o#en and
Me$o that the By*antines had la#"ely abandoned the easte#n '#o$in&es has some
$alidity to it im'lyin" that the Muslim histo#y o) "#eat battles a"ainst
o$e#,helmin" odds that sho,ed the t#uth o) Islam be&ause Allah ste''ed in and
"a$e them $i&to#y a#e la#"ely unt#ue. The 'i&tu#e is undoubtedly $e#y simila# )o#
the othe# easte#n '#o$in&es that ,e#e like,ise #a$a"ed and #ebellious a"ainst
By*antine o#thodo:y and autho#ity. It is ,ithin this 'oliti&al &onte:t and the
#eli"ious milieu o) #am'ant 8h#istian hete#odo:y that the A#ab domination o) the
Mea# East )i#st be"an and it is ,ithin them that ,e must look )o# the t#uth about
the #ise and e$olution o) the A#ab #eli"ion ,hi&h be&ame Islam.
As ,as seen ea#lie# the o#i"ins o) the A#ab #eli"ious ,#itin"s that e$entually
be&ame the 0u#Ian a''ea# to be t#a&eable to %y#ia& a ,idely used diale&t o)
A#amai& that had be&ome the #eli"ious lan"ua"e )o# mu&h o) the Mea# East by the
time o) the #ise o) Islam. In li"ht o) this the a''ea#an&e o) A#ab "#ou's th#ou"hout
%y#ia-6alestine %inai and the /au#an ?the dese#t #e"ion to the East o) %y#ia@ )o#
&entu#ies '#io# to the #ise o) Islam is si"ni)i&ant be&ause these A#ab "#ou's did not
use eithe# the &lassi&al A#abi& s&#i't no# the &lassi&al A#abi& lan"ua"e ?as it is
unde#stood today@. The Mabataeans th#ou"hout thei# 'e#iod as a distin&t 'eo'le
?,hi&h did not ne&essa#ily end ,ith the te#mination o) thei# 'oliti&al inde'enden&e
in 10C AD@ used an A#amai&-style s&#i't and thei# lan"ua"e ?at least )o# o))i&ial
'u#'oses@ seems to ha$e been a diale&t o) A#amai&
BB
thou"h it is 'ossible that it
,as some medial )o#m bet,een A#amai& and A#abi&. /ealey indi&ates that
Mabataean A#amai& ,hile ,#itten in an A#amai& s&#i't &ontains a numbe# o)
bo##o,ed ,o#ds that a#e A#abi& in &ha#a&te# thou"h he notes that thei# usa"es a#e
mo#e &losely #elated to Pihyani& than to &lassi&al A#abi&
B5
. The s&#ibes and
en"#a$e#s themsel$es ,e#e likely #es'onsible )o# these A#abisms G&#ee'in" inH to
the &han&elle#y A#amai& o) the e'i"#a'hs #e)le&tin" the )a&t that the Mabataeans
used a )o#m o) A#abi& in e$e#yday li)e
BC
but he notes that the diale&t indi&ated in
these le:i&al int#usions a''ea#s to be a more de$elo'ed )o#m o) A#abi& than
&lassi&al A#abi&
BD
O 9the# diale&ts asso&iated ,ith A#abian "#ou's in %y#ia and
Mo#the#n A#abia su&h as Thamudi& %a)aiti& and Pihyani& a#e also medial
bet,een A#abi& and A#amai& in &ha#a&te# both in )o#m and s&#i't. %e$e#al
#e)e#en&es to an GA#abi& lan"ua"eH )#om '#e-Islami& sou#&es "i$e little indi&ation
as to the s'e&i)i&s o) this lan"ua"e and !ets^ 'oints out that the one #e)e#en&e in
,hi&h the )o#m o) the lan"ua"e is dis&e#nable )ound in the Talmud indi&ates it to
be Gsome,he#e bet,een ,hat ,e ,ould &all A#abi& and A#amai&H
B4
. /e )u#the#
'ostulates that the (u#ani& insisten&e u'on &laimin" to be #e$ealed in G&lea#H o#
G'u#eH A#abi& may not be so mu&h a linguistic statement as it is a sociological one.
/en&e the &laim to A#abi&ity made by the 0u#Ian need not be $ie,ed as a
statement o) 'u#ity o) lan"ua"e as Muslims &laim today but #athe# that it is in the
Glan"ua"e o) the A#absH so as to distin"uish it )#om the non-A#ab 'eo'les amon"
,hom the A#abs ,e#e in the "#adual '#o&ess o) settlin". This need only mean
ho,e$e# that it ,as in some 'a#ti&ula# diale&t o) A#amai& used by the A#abian
t#ibes not that it ,as in ,hat ,e te#m today to be &lassi&al A#abi& - a lan"ua"e
,hi&h a''ea#s to ha$e )ully de$elo'ed and s'#ead only a)te# the be"innin" o) the
Islami& 'e#iod. As a #esult o) all this the su""estion that the A#abian holy ,#itin"s
o#i"inally a''ea#ed in %y#ia& ?o# some othe# &losely #elated A#amai& diale&t@ as
'ostulated by Pu:enbe#" and hinted at by ea#lie# ,#ite#s is &e#tainly 'lausible
and in li"ht o) the othe# e$iden&es dis&ussed in this &ha'te# a''ea#s (uite likely. It
)alls #i"ht into line ,ith the #est o) the e$iden&e that su""ests a %y#ian #athe# than
Me&&an o#i"in )o# Islam.
The ;eed :or a 4rophet
The 'i&tu#e ,hi&h the e'i"#a'hi& and numismati& e$iden&es in %y#ia-6alestine and
I#a( 'aint is one o) "#adual de$elo'ment o) an A#ab monotheism )#om an
indete#minate sta"e to a sta"e in ,hi&h the '#o'het Mohammed ,as int#odu&ed
?#e)e##ed to as the =Mohammedan= sta"e@ to the )inal &#ystalli*ation o) the A#ab
monotheism into the Islam that is still ,ith us today. The de$elo'ment o) the A#ab
#eli"ion )#om indete#minate monotheism to Mohammedanism to Islam on the basis
o) the #eli"ious de&la#ations and statements made on &oins and in the e'i"#a'hy
&an be "ene#ally t#a&ed. As noted abo$e 'a"anism #emained a )a&to# ?and seems
not to ha$e been su''#essed until ,ell into the 4th &entu#y@ amon" the A#abs and
thei# sub<e&t 'eo'les )o# (uite some time a)te# the A#ab &on(uests. /o,e$e# )o#
se$e#al &entu#ies '#e$ious to the A#ab Em'i#e monotheisti& )o#&es had been at
,o#k amon" the A#abs. The 5th &entu#y e&&lesiasti&al histo#ian %o*omenus
des&#ibed the =%a#a&ens= as Ab#ahamists ,ho &i#&um&ised thei# sons abstained
)#om 'o#k and othe#,ise en"a"ed in many .e,ish #ites and &ustoms
B2
. +a#ious
se&ts o) 8h#istianity as ,ell as .udaism and the .udaeo-8h#istian "#ou's had also
&on$e#ted a numbe# o) A#abs to thei# belie)s. /en&e ,hen the A#abs obtained
maste#y o$e# the #e"ion monotheism ,as a kno,n (uantity )o# them. Amon" the
A#abs ,ho ,e#e hi"he# on the so&ial and 'oliti&al ladde# an indete#minate
monotheism seems to ha$e de$elo'ed ,hi&h blended elements )#om these $a#ious
belie) systems ,hile asse#tin" a distin&tly A#ab &ha#a&te# )o# itsel).
This indete#minate monotheism ho,e$e# "#adually de$elo'ed into a belie)
system &ente#ed about a 8hosen 9neQ'#o'het ,ho &ould se#$e as a )i"u#ehead and
'#o'heti& 'edi"#ee )o# the A#ab monotheism. With the &ali'h Abd al-Malik ?#. C45-
D05 AD@ ,e ha$e the #ise o) ,hat is #e)e##ed to by Me$o and -o#en as
=Mohammedanism= the sta"e in A#ab #eli"ious de$elo'ment ,he#e this 8hosen
9neQ'#o'het ,as )elt to be needed and this need a&ted u'on and )#om ,hi&h
Mohammed as a #eli"ious )i"u#e a#ose. Mohammedanism ,as an inte#media#y sta"e
in the de$elo'ment o) the A#ab #eli"ion. As the A#abs &ame in &onta&t ,ith
established #eli"ions in the Em'i#e ,hi&h they had obtained the theolo"i&al ideas
o) these #eli"ions "#adually ,e#e ado'ted into the A#ab #eli"ion. 9ne o) these ,as
the messiani& idea the need )o# a &hosen one ?akin to the =anointed one=@ an
A#abi& 'a#allel to the .e,ish and 8h#istian '#o'hets ,ho ,ould '#o$ide both
#eli"ious uni)o#mity and a ='edi"#ee= o) #es'e&tability to the A#abs ,ho almost
&e#tainly )elt the la&k o) this in the '#esen&e o) so many "#ou's ,ho &ould 'oint
ba&k to thei# '#o"enito#s ,ith '#ide. The Ab#ahamism ,hi&h tin"ed the ea#ly
monotheism o) the A#abs be)o#e du#in" and into the )i#st )e, yea#s a)te# the
a&(uisition o) thei# Em'i#e ,as a sta#tin" 'oint but one ,hi&h still 'la&ed the
A#abs into an in)e#io# 'osition to the .e,s o,in" to the )a&t that the A#abs ,e#e
t#a&ed ba&k to Ab#aham th#ou"h the #e<e&ted son Ishmael #athe# than the son o)
'#omise Isaa&. The national '#o'het built by Abd al-Malik and enhan&ed in late#
"ene#ations by the t#aditions o) the ahadith and the sirat #e&ti)ied this
de)i&ien&y
50
. It ,as Abd al-Malik ,ho mo$ed the A#ab #eli"ion )#om indete#minate
monotheism to Mohammedanism ,hen he int#odu&ed the '#o'het #ole )o#
Mohammed. The A#ab #eli"ion needed a messiani&-style '#o'het o) the model had
)o# .esusQMessiah to the 8h#istians and .e,s hen&e the int#odu&tion o) a t#adition
,hi&h )illed this need.
/o, and ,he#e did Malik &ome u' ,ith the '#o'heti& #ole )o# Mohammed; It is
'ossible that Mohammed ,as an histo#i&al 'e#son a)te# a )ashion. The e$iden&e o)
&ontem'o#a#y &h#oni&les and othe# lite#a#y sou#&es su""est the e:isten&e o) an
A#ab kin" named =Mohammed= at the time o) the A#ab &on(uests o) %l-Shams. Me$o
and -o#en demonst#ate a numbe# o) &ontem'o#a#y and nea#-&ontem'o#a#y %y#ia&
lite#a#y sou#&es ?#ou"hly the len"th o) the Dth &entu#y@ ,hi&h dis&uss the A#ab
&on(uest o) 6alestine and %y#ia
51
. These sou#&es mention Mohammed as a kin" o)
the A#abs and '#o$ide "ene#ally &o##elatin" dates )o# his #ule#shi' but do not
mention him as any so#t o) A#ab ='#o'het=. Mo# do they indi&ate any idea that an
A#ab #eli"ion =Islam= e:isted. Indeed this e$iden&e is silent &on&e#nin" any
'a#ti&ula#ly #eli"ious as'e&t to his 'e#son. B#o&k like,ise has 'ointed out that
the Dth &entu#y %y#ia& sou#&es i) they e$en #e)e# to Mohammed $e#y #a#ely i) e$e#
do so as a '#o'het o# a'ostle but #athe# sim'ly as a kin" o) the A#abs and that
the %y#ia& ,#ite#s $ie,ed the takeo$e# as an A#ab not a Muslim in$asion
52
. B#o&k
)u#the# su""ests that initially at least the 8h#istians amon" ,hom the A#abs ,e#e
settlin" ,e#e not e$en a,a#e o) a #eli"ion &alled =Islam=. Indeed the lite#a#y
e$iden&e )#om a numbe# o) Dth &entu#y sou#&es su&h as the %y#ia& autho#s and the
A#menian ,#ite# %ebeos su""est that these ,#ite#s ,e#e not a,a#e o) any 'lanned
in$asion by the A#abs and that only a)te# some time ,as the #eali*ation had that
the#e had been a takeo$e# by the in)ilt#atin" A#abs #athe# than <ust the ty'i&al
#aidin" beha$io# ,hi&h had "one on )o# &entu#ies. The a&&ounts o) the "#eat
battles in ,hi&h the Muslim mu/aheddin &#ushed thei# By*antine o''onents
a''ea# as )a# as the e$iden&e is &on&e#ned to be )i&titious. 7u#the# these
a&&ounts '#o$ide no e$iden&e )o# any o) the ea#ly &ali'hs in the Muslim t#aditions
until Mu1a,iyah I ?CC1-C40 AD@
53
. E$en a)te# the time o) MuIa,iyah e$iden&es at
hand seem to su""est that the#e ,as no distin&ti$e #eli"ion o) GIslamH as yet
'#esent. Mo&hi#i #e'o#ts a %assanian-style &oin ?an A#ab &oin minted in I#an usin"
the old %assanian )o#m@ datin" )#om the time o) the &ali'h 5a*id ?C40-C43 AD@ the
son o) Mu1a,iyah that &ontained no distin&ti$ely Islami& elements ,hatsoe$e# not
e$en the usual (ismallah ,hi&h &ha#a&te#i*es the %assanian-style &oins )#om the
latte# hal) o) the )i#st Islami& &entu#y
5B
. 7#om the &ontem'o#a#y sou#&es o) $a#ious
ty'es the#e seem to be no &o##elations ,ith the a&&ounts "i$en in the t#aditional
Muslim histo#io"#a'hy. 7a# )#om Mohammed bein" a unite# o) the A#abs unde# the
banne# o) Islam the a&&ounts "i$en by those ,ho ,e#e eye-,itnesses to the A#ab
&on(uests in the #e"ion su""est that the A#ab in$asions ,e#e ha'ha*a#d and )it)ul
until the C50s ,hen Mu1a,iyah su&&eeded in unitin" the A#abs into one state
55
.
As su&h it a''ea#s likely that #athe# than bein" a "#eat leade# and '#o'het the
Mohammed ,ho ,as late# e:'anded ,as me#ely one o) many A#ab &hie)tains
mo$in" his )lo&ks and his t#ibe into the %y#ia-6alestine a#ea out o) the Easte#n
dese#ts. The late# details o) the e:'loits o) Mohammed and the $e#y ea#ly &ali'hs
su&h as >ma# and >thman a''ea# to be mo#e o) the same in$ention o) t#aditions
that has been noted abo$e.
Abd al-Malik1s &ont#ibution to the de$elo'ment o) the A#ab #eli"ion ,as to take an
obs&u#e ba#ely kno,n &hie)tain and tu#n him into a '#o'het and ha#bin"e# o) a
ne, #eli"ion and a ne, so&ial o#de# - Mohammedanism. Mo lon"e# ,e#e the A#abs
me#ely ,o#shi''in" thei# al-ilah but he no, had a messen"e# and a'ostle to b#in"
his ,o#ds to man. That this de$elo'ment in A#ab theolo"y ,as a late one is sho,n
by the e$iden&e at hand. The )i#st e$iden&e )o# this A#ab '#o'het Mohammed dates
to D1 A/ ?C20 AD@ ,ith the )i#st kno,n ins&#i'tions bea#in" his name and his title
o) =#asulullah= ?messen"e# o) "od@ on &oins and then late# in the im'o#tant Dome o)
the !o&k ins&#i'tions. Be)o#e this the#e is no e$iden&e in any e'i"#a'hy 'a'y#i o#
othe# ,#itten ?and thus tan"ible@ sou#&es to su""est that the A#abs a&&e'ted o#
unde#stood the#e to ha$e been an A#ab messen"e# )#om Allah. It seems st#an"e
that the A#abs i) sti##ed u' by a mi"hty '#o'het-,a##io# as the T#aditional a&&ount
su""ests ,ould ,ait o$e# se$en de&ades to sta#t de&la#in" the 'osition o# e$en
the name o) this man. 5et this is e:a&tly the 'i&tu#e ,hi&h the e$iden&e 'aints
as has been noted by a "#o,in" body o) s&hola#s o) Islam
=It is a st#ikin" )a&t that su&h do&umenta#y e$iden&e as su#$i$es )#om the %u)yanid
'e#iod KCC1-C4BL makes no mention o) the messen"e# o) Aod at all. The 'a'y#i do
not #e)e# to him. The A#abi& ins&#i'tions o) the A#ab-%assanian &oins only in$oke
Allah not his #asulJ and the A#ab-By*antine b#on*e &oins on ,hi&h Muhammad
a''ea#s as #asul Allah '#e$iously dated to the %u)yanid 'e#iod ha$e no, been
'la&ed in that o) the Ma#,anids KC4B-D50L. E$en the t,o su#$i$in" '#e-Ma#,anid
tombstones )ail to mention the #asul thou"h both mention AllahJ and the same is
t#ue o) Mu1a,iya1s ins&#i'tion at Ta1i). In the %u)yanid 'e#iod a''a#ently the
6#o'het had no 'ubli&ly a&kno,led"ed #ole.=
5C
Also many o) the T#aditional details o) Mohammed1s li)e ,e#e taken )#om the li)e
o) Mohammed bin al-/ana)iyyah a '#o'het-like )i"u#e 'ut )o#,a#d by a losin"
)a&tion in one o) the ea#ly A#ab &i$il ,a#s
5D
. Bashea# hints that this Mohammed
mi"ht ha$e been the Mohammed but this is not likely. !athe# he '#o$ided as the
ideali*ed ='#o'het o) Allah= a tem'late u'on ,hi&h late# Muslims built the
bio"#a'hy o) the '#o'het Mohammed. 7u#the# Mohammed a''ea#s $e#y little in
the 0u#1an and in a ,ay not 'a#ti&ula#ly su""esti$e o) bein" a s'e&i)i& 'e#son but
#athe# a "ene#ali*ed =&hosen one= style o) '#o'het ,hi&h #eally &ould #e)e# to
anyone. The many a''ea#an&es o) te#ms #e)e##in" to =Aod1s 6#o'het= o# =the
messen"e#= a#e me#ely assumed to be #e)e##in" to Mohammed. Indeed many
En"lish t#anslations o) the 0u#1an e$en inse#t his name in 'a#entheses to st#en"then
the mental asso&iation yet the#e is little to s'e&i)i&ally su""est that these a#e
about Mohammed othe# than to #ely u'on the a priori assum'tion that these
statements a#e s'eakin" o) him. Me$o and -o#en ha$e also noted that in A#abi&
lite#atu#e the #oot hmd ?)#om ,hi&h &omes the name =Mohammed=@ ,as )i#st used
as a title )o# the '#o'heti& )i"u#e only late# did it s'e&i)i&ally be&ome his name
a#ound the )i#st )e, yea#s o) the 4th &entu#y bein" linked to the .udaeo-8h#istian
style '#o'het bein" int#odu&ed by Abd al-Malik
54
. The #oot itsel) means not so
mu&h =one ,ho is '#aised= ?the t#aditional unde#standin" de$elo'ed late# and
atta&hed to Mohammed@ but =&hosen one= thus &la#i)yin" the ea#ly messiani& #ole
)o# the A#ab '#o'het. The te#m GmuhammedH a''ea#s )ou# times in the 0u#Ian
and in ea&h &ase the use is a&&om'anied by no 'e#sonal in)o#mation e$en thou"h
the 0u#Ian else,he#e takes "#eat 'ains to em'hasis the kinshi' a))iliation o) othe#
'#o'hets ,ith the 'eo'le to ,hom they ,e#e sent. This su""ests that the
#e)e#en&es to Mohammed ente#ed the de$elo'in" A#ab s&#i'tu#es be)o#e thei#
'#o'het had been '#o$ided ,ith a bio"#a'hy and 'e#ha's e$en be)o#e
GMohammedH ,as unde#stood to be his name #athe# than <ust his title.
This seems to )ind su''o#t )#om a 'ie&e o) e$iden&e &ontem'o#a#y ,ith this
'#o&ess o) de$elo'in" a '#o'het )o# Islam. In .ohn o) Damas&us1 *aeresies he
,#ote
=%o until the times o) /e#a&lius they Kthe A#absL ,e#e 'lain idolato#s. 7#om that
time till no, a )alse '#o'het a''ea#ed amon" them su#named Muhammad ,ho
ha$in" ha''ened u'on the 9ld and the Me, Testament and a''a#ently ha$in"
&on$e#sed in like manne# ,ith an A#ian monk 'ut to"ethe# his o,n he#esy....=
52
Moti&e that .ohn identi)ies =Mohammed= as the surname )o# this A#abian '#o'het.
This su""ests that =Mohammed= o#i"inally ,as not the 'e#sonal name )o# this
'#o'het at all but that the te#m ,as instead titula# o# des&#i'ti$e likely a laqa(
?the 'a#t o) an A#abi& name that "i$es a des&#i'tion o) its bea#e#@.
It ,as not until al-Walid ?D05-D15 AD@ the son o) Abd al-Malik that =Islam= as a
distin&t entity stood out as the #eli"ion o) the A#abs. Walid 'u#sued a mu&h mo#e
hostile 'oli&y to,a#ds the $a#ious 8h#istian se&ts in the A#ab Em'i#e than '#e$ious
&ali'hs had done sta#tin" ,ith his &on)is&ation o) %t. .ohn1s 8hu#&h in Damas&us
and its &on$e#sion into a mas/id ?an Islami& house o) '#aye#@ at the sta#t o) his
#ei"n an a&t desi"ned to indi&ate his o))i&ial 'oli&y o) intole#an&e to,a#ds these
se&ts. The ea#liest a''ea#an&e o) the te#m =Islam= is on the Dome o) the !o&k
ins&#i'tion dated at D2 A/ ?C21 AD@ used by Abd al-Malik. /o,e$e# it has been
,ell-a#"ued that the manne# in ,hi&h this te#m is used by Abd al-Malik and his
immediate su&&esso#s di))e#s in s'i#it and intent )#om the ,ay it ,as used in late#
A#ab #eli"ion. The te#m =Muslim= denotin" one submitted to Islam does not
a''ea# in any A#abi& te:ts o))i&ial o# othe#,ise '#io# to the #ise o) the Abbasids
?SD50 AD@.
It is im'o#tant to em'hasi*e a"ain that the 'o#t#ait o) IslamIs ea#ly de$elo'ment is
based u'on tan"ible e$iden&es that &an be obse#$ed )#om a numbe# o) di))e#ent
sou#&es. It is this em'hasis on the ne&essity )o# e$iden&e to su''o#t histo#i&al
asse#tions ?as a"ainst the tan"led and &ont#adi&to#y set o) #eda&ted t#aditions@ that
sets many o) the Gne,H s&hool o) s&hola#s in Islami& studies a'a#t )#om thei#
'#ede&esso#s. 9ne su&h s&hola# ,ho ,as at the )o#e)#ont o) the ne, demand )o#
#eal e$iden&e in the study o) Islam ,as .ohn Wansb#ou"h ,ho ,as seen ea#lie# in
the dis&ussion about the histo#i&ity o) the 0u#Ian. Mo<adeddi had this to say about
Wansb#ou"h
=I) the#e is one methodolo"i&al '#in&i'le ,hi&h sets Wansb#ou"h1s ,o#k a'a#t )#om
that o) his o''onents it is his un&om'#omisin" demand )o# lite#a#y e$iden&e to
su''o#t histo#i&al &laims. Althou"h it may be &ommon'la&e in the "ene#al
dis&i'line o) histo#i&al studies it is still the e:&e'tion in the study o) ea#ly Islam.
This is la#"ely due to the im'li&ations o) the )a&t that no su#$i$in" Muslim te:ts &an
be dated ea#lie# than about 400 8E. Whilst this '#oblem ,as #e&o"ni*ed be)o#e
Wansb#ou"h his s&hola#shi' )o# many has be&ome ine:t#i&ably linked to it on
a&&ount o) the se#iousness ,ith ,hi&h he takes it into &onside#ation. Most s&hola#s
ha$e &hosen to ,o#k a#ound the '#oblem usually by 'ointin" to the likelihood that
ninth-&entu#y te:ts &ontain 1authenti& &o#es1 o) mu&h ea#lie# o#i"in. The )a&t that
Wansb#ou"h has not o'ted )o# this a''#oa&h is la#"ely due to his a''#e&iation o)
lite#atu#eJ he #e&o"ni*es that ,ithout kno,led"e o) the o#i"inal &onte:t o) the
ea#lie# mate#ial it is ha*a#dous to estimate its histo#i&al $alue.=
C0
In his a#ti&le Mo<addedi dis&usses Wansb#ou"h1s de$elo'ment o) the thesis ?both
'#io# to and th#ou"h his o,n &ont#ibutions@ that Islam did not a''ea# in vacuo as a
no$el #eli"ious #e$elation but e$ol$ed in the =se&ta#ian milieu= o) Cth-Dth &entu#y
%emiti& #eli"ious de$elo'ment in the Mea# East and as it ,as 'a#ti&ula#ly
in)luen&ed by 8h#istianity .udaism and .udaeo-8h#istianity. /e then &ommends
Wansb#ou"hIs 'a#ti&ula# a''#oa&h to the s'e&i)i& study o) the o#i"ins o) Islam
=As /a,tin" 'oints out Wansb#ou"h1s su""estion that Islam in its &om'leted )o#m
eme#"ed in the 7e#tile 8#es&ent o$e# about a &ou'le o) &entu#ies has the
ad$anta"e o) lo&atin" the #eli"ion1s o#i"ins as 'a#t o) the &ontinuity o) Middle
Easte#n histo#y. It is in this #e"a#d simila# to 8a#l Be&ke#1s )#ame,o#k )o# the
eme#"en&e o) Islam as 1the end-'#odu&t o) so&ial and &ultu#al &han"es ,hi&h had
been takin" 'la&e in the Middle East e$en be)o#e the A#ab &on(uests1 ?'.31@
C1
.
A&&o#din" to Be&ke#1s a''#oa&h Islam "#adually e$ol$ed th#ou"h the inte#a&tion o)
the A#ab &on(ue#o#s ,ith thei# sub<e&ts. %u&h a '#o&ess ,ould a&&ount )o# the
ob$ious #elation bet,een Islam and .e,ish and 8h#istian t#aditions ,ithout
#e&ou#se to dubious theo#ies about t#ade #outes and A#abian monotheists.=
C2
' Call for *pen InAuiry 'bout the Traditions
As one &an ima"ine the theses '#esented abo$e a#e in many ,ays (uite #adi&al
)o# they o$e#tu#n a numbe# o) dea#ly-held yet 'oo#ly-su''o#ted assum'tions about
Islami& histo#y and the #eliability o) t#aditional Muslim sou#&es. Muslims
themsel$es as ,e ,ould e:'e&t tend to $ie, su&h &#iti&isms as satani& attem'ts
by in)idels to atta&k Islam. Ty'i&ally little e))o#t is made by Muslims to &#iti&ally
inte#a&t ,ith the &hallen"es to the t#aditional histo#io"#a'hy. Instead su&h
ob<e&tions a#e dismissed out-o)-hand ,ithout any #easoned dis&ussion on the 'a#t
o) Muslim a'olo"ists. What is distu#bin" ho,e$e# is that many times the
#es'onses to su&h &hallen"es from within the -estern academic community a#e
not that mu&h di))e#ent. Abo$e I alluded to the )a&t that the a&ademi& study o)
Islam has been ham'e#ed by an o$e#-#elian&e u'on the t#aditional Muslim sou#&es -
the sunnat the ahadith the $a#ious sirat about the '#o'het Mohammed and so
)o#th. These sou#&es ,hile bein" &ont#adi&to#y and in many &ases nonsensi&al
ne$e#theless do '#esent a #elati$ely systemati& $ie, o) ,hat is usually seen to be
the histo#y o) the #ise o) Islam - !enanIs su''osedly G&lea# li"ht o) histo#yH.
%&hola#s like e$e#yone else &an "#o, to be $e#y &om)o#table ,ith belie)s that
G,o#kH - that seem to &ome to"ethe# ni&ely and '#esent a &om'#ehensible 'i&tu#e
o) a sub<e&t. The d#i$e )o# this is es'e&ially st#on" in Islami& studies. This is
be&ause you ha$e the Muslim t#aditions ,hi&h '#esent a #eady-made 'i&tu#e o)
,hat ha''ened ba&k then. Wo#kin" to"ethe# ,ith this is the )a&t that a'a#t )#om
these t#aditional sou#&es the e$iden&es bea#in" on this time 'e#iod in the Mea#
East a#e &om'a#ati$ely s&ant and thus di))i&ult to systemati*e and d#a,
&on&lusions )#om. It is satis)yin" to ha$e a &om'leted 'i&tu#e and sayin" that the
t#aditional sou#&es a#e un#eliable and need to be eithe# &on)i#med o# else
o$e#tu#ned by tan"ible e$iden&es )#om lite#a#y e'i"#a'hi& and a#&haeolo"i&al
sou#&es #o&ks the boat. An e:am'le o) the o))ense ,hi&h &hallen"in" the t#aditions
&an &ause is sho,n in the $it#ioli& &#iti&isms made in a #e$ie, o) 6at#i&ia 8#oneIs
book "eccan $rade and the 8ise of Islam a''ea#in" in a #es'e&ted a&ademi&
<ou#nal
=/o, does one deal ,ith su&h a book as this &al&ulated to att#a&t 'ubli&ity by
sho&kin" Islamists th#ou"h the st#an"e theo#ies it ad$an&es on '#e-Islami& Me&&a
no$el theo#ies to be su#e but )ounded u'on misinte#'#etations misunde#standin"s
o) sou#&es e$en at times on in&o##e&t t#anslations o) A#abi&; Add to this the
autho#1s a##o"ant styleO 5et bein" ni&ely '#inted and ,ith the imprimatur o)
6#in&eton >ni$e#sity 6#ess this diat#ibe mi"ht easily att#a&t the &#edulous
attention o) those not ,ell in)o#med on Islam and its o#i"ins in the A#abian settin".
The sim'lest &ou#se o'en to the #e$ie,e# seems to be to #e-e:amine the sou#&es
&ited by D#. 8#one to su''o#t he# &ontentious and o)ten )alla&ious notions and
attem't to a##i$e at ,hat they a&tually do say.=
C3
%e#<eant &ontinues this dismissi$e and 'olemi&al style th#ou"hout the #e$ie,. Mote
that his is a te:tbook e:am'le o) the Islami& studies s&hola# ,ho )indin" the
t#aditional $ie,s about Islam &hallen"ed #es'onds ,ith $it#iol insultin" atta&ks
and G'oisonin" the ,ellG ta&ti&s. %u#ely an a&ademi& disa"#eement &an be
&ondu&ted ,ithout #e&ou#se to a&&usin" the one ,ith ,hom you disa"#ee o) bein"
a##o"ant unin)o#med and a 'ubli&ity hound; In #es'onse to the #e$ie, 8#one
'#e'a#ed a solid and thou"ht)ul de)ense o) he# ,o#k ,hi&h ,hile not al,ays
di#e&tly add#essin" %e#<eant deals ,ith some o) the endemi& '#oblems ,ith
mode#n Islami& studies that lead to su&h de)enses o) the t#aditional histo#y
=A "#eat many Muslim s&hola#s still &annot belie$e that Weste#n s&hola#s study the
#ise o) Islam )o# 'u#ely histo#i&al #easons no# does it lend itsel) easily to histo#i&al
t#eatment )o# i) e$ents a#e ,#itten u' to &on$ey #eli"ious messa"es one &annot
sim'ly i"no#e the messa"es and use the shells as st#ai"ht)o#,a#d )a&ts. Islami&ists
a#e ho,e$e# so#ely tem'ted to do <ust that )o# the sou#&es a#e nume#ous
$oluminous and endlessly #e'etiti$e thei# o$e#all e))e&t bein" akin to
b#ain,ashin" and it is ha#d to study them yea# in and yea# out ,ithout bein"
a))e&ted by the #e$e#en&e ,ith ,hi&h the su''osed )a&ts a#e '#esented. Weste#n
Islami&ists )#e(uently sound like Muslims usually o) the %unni $a#iety not only in
the sense that they a&&e't %unni in)o#mation but also in that they #e$e#e it in a
manne# in&om'atible ,ith the (uestion ma#k to ,hi&h they ha$e in '#in&i'le
&ommitted themsel$es. This is a &om'liment to the st#en"th o) %unnism but it
does not do the mode#n study o) its o#i"ins and de$elo'ment any "ood.
GMo# does the &u##ent 'oliti&i*ation o) Islami& studies do it any "ood. This '#oblem
is undoubtedly mo#e a&ute on the othe# side o) the Atlanti& than it is in Eu#o'e
A#abist s&hola#shi' o) the old-)ashioned kind bein" 'a#ti&ula#ly ,ell and ali$e in
Ae#many ?,ith im'#essi$e #esults@. But old-)ashioned A#abists all too easily )ind
themsel$es at one ,ith 'oliti&i*ed Islamists ,hen it &omes to #e<e&tin" s&hola#shi'
that seeks to "et behind the no#mati$e 'atte#ns so as to e:'lain thei# )o#mation
#athe# than to )o#e$e# #estate themJ )o# i) the )o#me# a#e t#ained on one su&h
'atte#n the latte# a''#o$e o) the Islami&ists tenden&y to assimilate all o) them
bein" a''a#ently &on$in&ed that mode#n Islami&ist s&hola#shi' should )ul)ill the
t#aditional #ole o) unde#'innin" Muslim $alues ?o# se&ula#i*ed $e#sions the#eo)@.=
CB
8#one has hit the nail on the head. %&hola#s in$esti"atin" the o#i"ins and natu#e o)
Islam all too o)ten be"in to lose thei# ob<e&ti$e $ie, o) thei# sub<e&t matte# and
be"in to em'athi*e ,ith it instead. They be&ome hesitant to t#uly &hallen"e the
assum'tions behind the mate#ial they study to ob<e&ti$ely analy*e it a'a#t )#om
the #e$e#en&e ,hi&h Muslims themsel$es hold )o# the mate#ial. In the end many in
the )ield end u' a&tin" as i) thei# 'u#'ose ,e#e to defend Islam )#om Gatta&ksH
#athe# than &ome to inde'endent &on&lusions about it based u'on unbiased
in$esti"ation. !es'ondin" to a simila# assault u'on anothe# o) he# books ?8oman4
6rovincial4 and Islamic 9aw@ by /alla(
C5
,hi&h a''ea#ed the same yea# as
%e#<eantFs &#iti&ism 8#one )u#the# says
=...but I ha$e sim'ly #e)used to t#eat the A#abs as an e:&e'tion to the no#mal #ules
o) histo#y and somethin" is badly ,#on" in Islami& studies i) I ha$e to /ustify this
'#o&edu#e. I am ha''y to #e'o#t that no#mally <usti)i&ation is unne&essa#yN
nume#ous #e$ie,e#s both &#iti&al and a''#e&iati$e ha$e unde#stood my books in
the s'i#it in ,hi&h they ,e#e ,#itten and me#&i)ully su&h #e$ie,e#s a#e to be
)ound on the othe# side o) the Atlanti& too. But the unholy allian&e bet,een
&onse#$ati$e A#abists and 'oliti&i*ed Islami&ists is nonetheless de'lo#able and one
ho'es that its unholiness ,ill e$entually dissol$e it.=
CC
6e#ha's the t#end in some &i#&les in Islami& %tudies to,a#ds t#eatin" Islam as i) it
,e#e an e:&e'tional &ase that must be a''#oa&hed di))e#ently )#om othe# sub<e&ts
is due to the )a&t that Muslims themsel$es a#e $e#y ade't at ado'tin" a $i&tim
mentality ,hi&h ,ill natu#ally ,in them su''o#te#s amon" edu&ated and
sym'atheti& Weste#ne#s. This sym'athy leads many to assume that &#iti&ism o)
Islam is made by those ,ho Ghate IslamH o# a#e GIslamo'hobi&H. Indeed the#e a#e
'#obably many ,ho ,ill #ead this $e#y book and assume that I Ghate MuslimsH
be&ause I &#iti&i*e Islam on a numbe# o) di))e#ent "#ounds. This attitude ho,e$e#
is su'#emely anti-intelle&tual. I) one &annot &#iti&i*e Islam be&ause one mi"ht
a''ea# to be GIslamo'hobi&H and i) Muslims themsel$es o# thei# de)ende#s ,ill not
#ise to the o&&asion to #ationally de)end thei# system but instead t#y to su''#ess all
&#iti&ism o) it then ,e a#e ba&k in the Da#k A"es al#eady. 9ne ou"ht &e#tainly )eel
)#ee to disa"#ee ,ith the G#adi&alH a''#oa&h to Islam studies so lon" as one is
,illin" to deal ,ith the sub<e&t #ationally. 7o# e:am'le Donne# ,ho is "ene#ally
mo#e &onse#$ati$e and #eliant u'on the t#aditional histo#io"#a'hy ne$e#theless
makes this statement
=7#ankly I am un&on$in&ed o) the $alidity o) the histo#io"#a'hi&al ske'ti&ism
'#o'osed o) late by the #adi&al sou#&e &#iti&s and by the histo#i&al
#einte#'#etations based in 'a#t on the ske'ti&al attitude to,a#d the lite#a#y
sou#&es. It is &lea# ho,e$e# that the #e$isionist a''#oa&h #aises some unsettlin"
and mi"hty im'o#tant (uestions that soone# o# late# histo#ians o) ea#ly Islam
must &on)#ont o'enly and )ai#ly.=
CD
E:a&tly. E$en i) one disa"#ees ,ith the a''#oa&h taken by Wansb#ou"h 8#one and
othe#s ?)o# whatever #eason@ the )a&t #emains that thei# methodolo"y and
&on&lusions a#e based u'on tan"ible e$iden&es and need to be taken se#iously. It is
)oolish to dismiss them be&ause they do not say ,hat some 'e#ha's want them to
say. %o let us dis'ense ,ith a&&usations o) 'e#)idy and sim'ly be &ontent to d#a,
&on&lusions about Islam and its &laims based u'on the e$iden&es at hand.
-hat did Mohammed as a 4rophet ,epresent3
It ,ould be the e:'e&tation o) most 'eo'le that a 'e#son ,ho ,as a '#o'het o)
Aod ,ould be a 'e#son o) hi"h mo#al inte"#ity one ,ho se#$ed and li$ed )o# his
Aod. Th#ou"hout the Bible )o# instan&e ,e see e:am'le a)te# e:am'le o) men
,ho ,e#e Aod-&alled '#o'hets and ,ho des'ite thei# human )ailin"s ,e#e men o)
"#eat )aith)ulness to the Po#d and ,ho had 'la&ed thei# )ull )aith and t#ust in /im.
We see men like .ohn the Ba'tist .e#emiah Isaiah Daniel and many othe#s ,ho
met the e:'e&tations o) )aith)ulness and holy li$in" be)o#e Aod. Islam tea&hes and
makes the same &laims )o# the man ,hom it &onside#s to be the )inal '#o'het o)
Allah Mohammed.
=%u&h ,as ou# /oly 6#o'het Muhammed ?'ea&e be u'on him@. /e ,as a '#odi"y o)
e:t#ao#dina#y me#its a 'a#a"on o) $i#tue and "oodness a symbol o) t#uth and
$e#a&ity a "#eat a'ostle o) Aod /is messen"e# to the enti#e ,o#ld. /is li)e and
thou"ht his t#uth and st#ai"ht)o#,a#dness his 'iety and "oodness his &ha#a&te#
and mo#als his ideolo"y and a&hie$ements - all stand as unim'ea&hable '#oo)s o)
his '#o'hethood. Any human bein" ,ho studies his li)e and tea&hin"s ,ithout bias
,ill testi)y that $e#ily he ,as the T#ue 6#o'het o) Aod and the 0u#1an - the Book he
"a$e to mankind - the t#ue book o) Aod. Mo unbiased and se#ious seeke# o) t#uth
&an es&a'e this &on&lusion.=
C4
We ,ould the#e)o#e e:'e&t that an e:amination o) the li)e and tea&hin"s that a#e
t#aditionally as&#ibed to Mohammed ,ould ba&k u' this $e#y laudato#y $ie, o) the
man. %o ,hat do these t#aditional tea&hin"s that a#e att#ibuted to Mohammed
indi&ate about this man1s &ha#a&te#; Does he #eally )it the (uali)i&ations )o# a man
,hom a holy Aod ,ould use to se#$e as /is '#o'het; Aod ,ants )o# se#$ants 'eo'le
,ho ,ill kee' themsel$es &lean and 'u#e in /is si"ht. =De'a#t ye de'a#t ye "o ye
out )#om then&e tou&h no un&lean thin"J "o ye out o) the midst o) he#J be ye
&lean that bea# the $essels o) the P9!D.= ?Isaiah 52N11@.
We must unde#stand )#om ,hat has been seen abo$e that ,hat ,e a#e lookin" at
,hen ,e s'eak o) the t#aits &ha#a&te#isti&s and a&tions o) Mohammed a#e the
ideali*ed belie)s o) the ea#ly Muslims ,ho '#odu&ed the bio"#a'hi&al details in the
ahadith that ,e#e in&o#'o#ated into the bio"#a'hies o) Mohammed. These details
do little to enli"hten us as to the a&tual natu#e o) the #eal 'e#son Mohammed ?the
ea#ly A#ab &hie)tain@. !athe# they hel' to sho, ,hat the ideals and $alues o)
these ea#ly Muslims ,e#e mo#es based u'on the Dth-4th &entu#y &ultu#e o) the
A#abs and ,hat they $ie,ed as t#aits o) manliness o# "oodness o# #i"ht o#de#.
Mohammed's Se$ual E$cesses
In studyin" the li)e o) Mohammed in an unbiased )a&tual ,ay )#ee o) blind
ado#ation )o# him ,e see that Mohammed did not )it the des&#i'tion o) a man
kee'in" himsel) 'u#e be)o#e Aod. In )a&t his ,hole li)e is de'i&ted as bein" that o)
a man li$in" to )ul)ill his lusts and desi#es li$in" a sel)-&ente#ed li)e at the
e:'ense o) those ,ho "ot in his ,ay. This is 'e#ha's most &lea#ly sho,n in his
mani)ested ,eakness )o# ,omen. The 0u#1an in Surah BN3 limits a man to )ou#
,i$es but Mohammed ,ent ,ell beyond this limit. Mohammed took to himsel) 1C
,i$es th#ou"h )o#mal ma##ia"e. In addition he ke't t,o ,omen as sla$e-
&on&ubines and had )ou# de$out Muslim ,omen ,ho ="a$e= themsel$es to him as
a&ts o) de$otion. The =&anoni&al= list o) Mohammed1s ,omen is "i$en belo,N
1 - -hadi<ah bint -hu,aylid
2 - %a,da bint Ram1a
3 - Ayesha bint Abu Bak#
B - /a)sa bint >ma#
5 - Raynab bint -hu*aymah
C - >mm %alama /ind bint Abi >mayya
D - Raynab bint .ahsh
4 - .u,ay#iya bint al-/a#ith
2 - !amlah bint Abi %u)yan
10 - %a)iyya bint /uyayy
11 - Maymuna bint al-/a#ith
12 - Ma#y the 8o'ti& 8h#istian ?&on&ubine@
Dashti '#o$ides a )u#the# list o) othe# ,omen ,ho ,e#e eithe# )ull ,i$es
&on&ubines o# de$otees o) Mohammed d#a,n )#om the T#aditions
C2
N
13 - 9mm /abiba bint Abu-%u)yan
1B - 7atima bint %hu#ayh
15 - /end bint 5a*id
1C - Asma bint %aba
1D - /abla bint 0ays
14 - Asma bint Mu1man
12 - !ayhana ?&on&ubine@
20 - 9mm %ha#ik ?de$otee@
21 - Raynab ?de$otee@
22 - -ha,la ?de$otee@
%ome notes ou"ht to be made &on&e#nin" some o) these ,omen. /is )i#st ,i)e
-hadi<ah ,as his em'loye# ,hile he ,as still a &a#a$an d#i$e#. %he ,as his senio#
by 15 yea#s and many indi&ations seem to sho, that she '#o'osed to him unusual
)o# A#abian so&iety at the time but less so ,hen the man ,as in an in)e#io# so&ial
and e&onomi& situation to the ,oman
D0
. /is se$enth ,i)e Raynab bint .ahsh ,as
o#i"inally the ,i)e o) his ado'ted son Rayd. /o,e$e# Mohammed be&ame smitten
,ith Raynab and Rayd o))e#ed to di$o#&e he# so that she &ould ma##y Mohammed.
This ,as &a##ied out and &aused "#eat s&andal amon" the ea#ly Muslim )ollo,e#s
until Mohammed had a timely #e$elation.
=BeholdO Thou didst say to one ,ho had #e&ei$ed the "#a&e o) Allah and thy )a$o#N
=!etain thou thy ,i)e and )ea# Allah.= But thou didst hide in thy hea#t that ,hi&h
Allah ,as about to make mani)estN thou didst )ea# the 'eo'le but it is mo#e )ittin"
that thou shouldst )ea# Allah. Then ,hen Raid had dissol$ed ,ith he# We <oined
he# in ma##ia"e to theeN in o#de# that the#e may be no di))i&ulty to the Belie$e#s in
ma##ia"e ,ith the ,i$es o) thei# ado'ted sons ,hen the latte# ha$e dissol$ed ,ith
them. And Allah1s &ommand must be )ul)illed.= ?Surah 33N3D@
6oo)O 6#oblem sol$ed and it suddenly be&ame a&&e'table )o# men to ma##y the e:-
,i$es o) thei# sons. Inte#estin"ly it is in this same surah that Mohammed ,as "i$en
a s'e&ial e:em'tion )#om the )ou#-,i$es limit im'osed ea#lie# ?Surah 33N50@.
MohammedIs t,el)th ,oman Ma#y ,as a 8o'ti& 8h#istian ,ho ,as "i$en to
Mohammed as a "i)t )#om the #ule# o) E"y't. B#a$ely #e)usin" to #enoun&e he#
8o'ti& 8h#istianity and a&&e't Islam she #e)used to ma##y him and instead
#emained his sla$e. 6e#ha's most distu#bin" o) all o) Mohammed1s #elations ,ith
,omen is his takin" o) his thi#d ,i)e Ayesha. %he ,as si: yea#s o) a"e ,hen he
=ma##ied= he# nine ,hen he &onsummated the #elationshi' and she #emained his
)a$o#ite ,i)e th#ou"hout the #est o) his li)e
D1
. When he died at the a"e o) C2 she
,as a me#e 14 yea#s old. This e'isode in Mohammed1s li)e 'oints to $e#y dist#essin"
'edo'hili& tenden&ies in the man ,hi&h &annot sim'ly be dismissed on the basis o)
&ultu#al a#"uments.
Mohammed1s a&tions "i$e e$e#y indi&ation that he ,as a man d#i$en by his lust )o#
,omen. The t#aditions at one 'oint b#a" about Mohammed1s nea#-mytholo"i&al
se:ual &a'a&ities statin" that he had the '#o,ess o) B0 men and that in 6a#adise
he ,ould ha$e that o) 40
D2
. Pike,ise the t#aditions #e&o#d that Mohammed
des'ite bein" a '#o'het and the#e)o#e one ,ho should be on a hi"he# mo#e
s'i#itual le$el ne$e#theless lo$ed 'e#)ume and ,omen mo#e than anythin" else
)#om the ,o#ldly li)e and that Mohammed &ould be #e&o"ni*ed ,hen he ,ent out
by the 'e#)ume he ,o#e
D3
.
Also Mohammed ad$o&ated ma##yin" ,omen )o# thei# ,ealth beauty and also as
a means o) &on$e#tin" ,omen to Islam. =A ,oman &an be ma##ied )o# #eli"ion he#
)o#tune o# he# beauty. %o ma##y one )o# the #eli"ion.=
DB
A''a#ently =lo$e= o# =Aod1s
,ill= do not )a&to# into the e(uation. This also tellin"ly #e$eals the #eason ,hy so
many Muslim men ma##y non-Muslim ,omen in the West. It1s easie# to in)luen&e a
,oman to,a#ds Islam ,hen a man is ma##ied to he# as she seeks to 'lease he#
husband and in 'a#t e:'lains the "#eatly une(ual #ates o) &on$e#sion to Islam by
Weste#n ,omen $e#sus Weste#n men.
9) &ou#se no e:'osition o) Mohammed1s 'e#$e#se attitude to,a#ds se:uality ,ould
be &om'lete ,ithout a look at his $e#sion o) =6a#adise= that ,ould make /u"h
/e)ne# blush ,ith shame. Muslim men a#e '#omised D2 youn" $i#"ins )o# 'e#'etual
en<oyment. 7o# the sake o) '#o'#iety I ,ill not in&lude the (uotes but this all is
easily seen in the 0u#1an in Suwar 3DNB0-B4 BBN51-55 52N1D-20 55N5C-54 D0-DD
5CND-B0 and D4N30-3B. Additionally sodomy ,ith youn" boys 'lays a #ole in the
Muslim 'a#adise ?Suwar 52N2B 5CN1D and DCN12@ ,ith these boys bein" des&#ibed
usin" mu&h the same lan"ua"e as ,as em'loyed to des&#ibe the $i#"ins. 9) &ou#se
Islam1s 'a#adise has 'lenty o) ,ine ,ealth and )ood )o# the en<oyment o) those
,ho ha$e 'assed on. Mohammed ,as a man )o# ,hom the )ul)illment o) bodily
'leasu#es ,as o) 'a#amount and some ,ould say &onsumin" im'o#tan&e.
Mohammed's /reed for -ealth
In addition to a lust )o# ,omen Mohammed also had a lust )o# ,ealth. This )i#st
seems to ha$e mani)ested itsel) ea#ly in his li)e. A)te# "#o,in" u' in the )ashion o)
many youn" Me&&an boys as a 'oo# she'he#d ,hen he ,as 25 yea#s o) a"e
Mohammed )ollo,ed the ad$i&e o) his un&le Abu Talib and hi#ed on as a
&a#a$anse#ai in the em'loy o) a #i&h ,ido, named -hadi<ah ?his )utu#e )i#st ,i)e@.
/e a&&om'anied he# &a#a$an as )a# as %y#ia and a''a#ently did su&h a "ood <ob o)
makin" money )o# he# that u'on his #etu#n to Me&&a she e:tended a '#o'osal o)
ma##ia"e to him. /e a&&e'ted des'ite the )a&t that she ,as at least )i)teen yea#s
his senio# and had been ma##ied t,i&e be)o#e. /e# "#eat 'e#sonal ,ealth and
'osition as o,ne# o) a '#os'e#ous &a#a$an likely did mu&h to o$e#&ome his natu#al
a$e#sion to ,hat ,ould ha$e been se$e#e d#a,ba&ks )o# ma##ia"e in A#abian
&ultu#e at the time.
This &laim that Mohammed had a "#eed )o# ,ealth is &on)i#med by his a&tions
late# in li)e many o) ,hi&h ,e#e &a##ied out ,ith the assistan&e and a&&e'tan&e o)
his Muslim )ollo,e#s. In C23 AD Mohammed1s &a#ee# in &a#a$an 'i#a&y be"an. Pate
in that yea# se$e#al o) his Muslim )ollo,e#s a&tin" u'on his o#de#s ambushed and
looted a small Me&&an &a#a$an. In this #aid one Me&&an ,as killed t,o othe#s
taken as sla$es and a si*eable amount o) booty &a'tu#ed
D5
. Emboldened by this
su&&ess Mohammed ne:t 'e#sonally led a #aid on the main &a#a$an o) the Me&&an
0u#aysh t#ibe #etu#nin" )#om %y#ia. In this #aid he led 305 men and ,as en"a"ed
in battle at Bad# by a Me&&an )o#&e o) 400-200 ,ith the out&ome bein" a Muslim
t#ium'h. While this Muslim $i&to#y ,as a &om'a#ati$ely small )#a&as it is he#alded
as one o) the "#eatest $i&to#ies in histo#y by many Muslim histo#ians. The Muslims
&onside#ed it a mi#a&le )#om Allah and $ie,ed it as "i$in" san&tion to thei# 'i#a&y.
6#a&ti&ally s'eakin" the $i&to#y did '#o$ide them ,ith mu&h booty in the )o#m o)
sla$es ho#ses &amels and milita#y e(ui'ment ,hi&h ,e#e to '#o$e use)ul in the
yea#s to &ome.
Be&ause o) this battle and thei# 'i#a&y Mohammed and the Muslims be&ame a
sten&h in the nost#ils o) the Me&&ans and othe#s ,ith &omme#&ial inte#ests in the
#e"ion. Thus in C25 the Me&&ans sent an a#my numbe#in" about 3000 a"ainst
Medina the &ity to ,hi&h Mohammed and the Muslims had )led ,hen they es&a'ed
)#om Me&&a se$e#al yea#s be)o#e. Mohammed ele&ted to meet this a#my on the
)ield o) battle and the Muslims ,e#e se#iously de)eated ,ith Mohammed himsel)
bein" ,ounded and sent )leein" )#om the battle)ield. Be&ause o) inte#nal
dissentions the Me&&ans )ailed to )ollo, u' on thei# ad$anta"e and 'u#sue the
Muslims. T,o yea#s late# thou"h they #etu#ned and attem'ted to lay sie"e to
Medina. Bein" )o#e,a#ned o) the Me&&an #etu#n Mohammed a&ted u'on the ad$i&e
o) a 6e#sian )#iend and o#de#ed a dit&h du" a#ound the mo#e ,eakly de)ended
(ua#te#s o) Medina as '#ote&tion. This ta&ti& '#e$iously unkno,n in A#abia
hinde#ed the Me&&ans and thei# allies ,ho li)ted the sie"e and de'a#ted
DC
.
A)te# this =$i&to#y= Mohammed and the Muslims be&ame en&ou#a"ed and ste''ed
u' thei# #aidin" beha$io#. Many Bedouin t#ibes ,e#e d#a,n to the Muslim &i#&le by
the milita#y $i&to#ies and '#os'e&ts o) t#easu#e addin" thei# st#en"th to
Mohammed1s. It ,as at this time that Mohammed )inished the e:'ulsion o) many
.e,ish t#ibes )#om Medina and e:'#o'#iated thei# lands and '#o'e#ties )o# himsel)
and his )ollo,e#s.
+i&to#y o$e# Me&&a ,as )inally obtained in C30 AD. >sin" an insi"ni)i&ant in&ident
to '#o$oke a &lash o) a#ms Mohammed led his )ollo,e#s a"ainst Me&&a this <ust a
yea# a)te# Mohammed had si"ned a ten yea# 'ea&e t#eaty ,ith that &ity. The
Me&&ans ,ho #e&o"ni*ed the solidi)i&ation o) Mohammed1s 'o,e# and the
as&endan&y o) his a#ms )olded ,ith ba#ely a )i"ht and the Muslims ente#ed
$i&to#iously into the &ity. As a #esult o) these yea#s o) 'i#a&y Mohammed had
amassed "#eat 'e#sonal ,ealth and 'o,e# and A#ab t#ibes )#om all o$e# the
'eninsula )lo&ked to him.
Du#in" the &ou#se o) all this )i"htin" and #aidin" Mohammed and his Muslim
)ollo,e#s de$elo'ed a lo$e )o# )i"htin" and loot ,hi&h &ame )#om the li)e o)
'i#a&y.
=When he ,as at the head o) a #obbe# &ommunity ?in Medina@ it is '#obable that
the demo#ali*in" in)luen&e be"an to be )eltJ it ,as then that men ,ho had ne$e#
b#oken an oath lea#ned that they mi"ht e$ade thei# obli"ations and that men to
,hom the blood o) the &lansmen had been as thei# o,n be"an to shed it ,ith
im'unity in the &ause o) AodJ and that lyin" and t#ea&he#y in the &ause o) Islam
#e&ei$ed di$ine a''#o$al hesitation to 'e#<u#e onesel) in that &ause bein"
#e'#esented as a ,eakness. It ,as then too that Moslems be&ame distin"uished
by the obs&enity o) thei# lan"ua"e. It ,as then too that the &o$etin" o) "oods and
,i$es ?'ossessed by unbelie$e#s@ ,as a$o,ed ,ithout dis&ou#a"ement )#om the
'#o'het.=
DD
What hono# these men had )#om thei# '#e$ious u'b#in"in" in the &ultu#e o) A#abi&
t#adition ,hat mo#ality they may ha$e en"ende#ed )#om thei# t#aditional #aisin"
slo,ly e#oded as the sin in thei# li$es in&#eased and in&#eased. As they be&ame
in&#easin"ly ha#dened in thei# hea#ts and thei# &ons&ien&es sea#ed &#imes that
,ould be)o#e ha$e been unthinkable to them "#adually be&ame &ommon'la&e.
Islam as a $ehi&le to ,ealth and 'o,e# is &lea#ly demonst#ated. Mohammed
himsel) #e&ei$ed by =di$ine= de&#ee a )i)th o) all booty &a'tu#ed in ,a#
=It has been na##ated on the autho#ity o) Abu /u#ai#a that the Messen"e# o) Allah
?may 'ea&e be u'on him@ saidN I) you &ome to a to,nshi' ?,hi&h has su##ende#ed
,ithout a )o#mal ,a#@ and stay the#ein you ha$e a sha#e ?that ,ill be in the )o#m
o) an a,a#d@ in ?the '#o'e#ties obtained )#om@ it. I) a to,nshi' disobeys Allah and
/is Messen"e# ?and a&tually )i"hts a"ainst the Muslims@ one-)i)th o) the booty
sei*ed the#e)#om is )o# Allah and /is A'ostle and the #est is )o# you.=
D4
The #est o) &ou#se ,ent to the Muslim )ollo,e#s ,ho took 'a#t in battle. /en&e
it ,as "ood money to be in the business o) ,a#)a#e as a Muslim. A)te# &on(uest
Islam ,as )u#the# st#en"thened by the =th#ee &hoi&es= o'tion im'osed u'on
&on(ue#ed 'eo'les. %ub<e&t nations ,e#e o))e#ed one o) th#ee &hoi&esN A&&e't
Islam and be&ome membe#s o) Da# es-%alaamJ 'ay the /i.yah the unbelie$e#1s ta:J
o# death
D2
. Eithe# ,ay Islam bene)ited mate#ially. >nbelie$e#s eithe# be&ame
Muslims and &ont#ibuted to the enhan&ement o) Islami& ,a#makin" booty-
"athe#in" and so&ial st#en"thJ o# they be&ame di#e&t sou#&es o) #e$enue )o#
Islami& statesJ o# else they &eased to be =in the ,ay= o) Islam1s e:'ansion.
Mohammed and his #eli"ion1s att#a&tion to ,ealth t#uly bea#s ,itness to the Bibli&al
#e&o#d )ound in I Timothy CN10 =7o# the lo$e o) money is the #oot o) all e$il...=.
Mohammed's 4enchant for Violence
As ,as alluded to abo$e the li)estyle o) lootin" and 'illa"in" took men ,ho ,e#e
al#eady a&&ustomed to $iolen&e and ha#dshi' and made them e$en mo#e ,i&ked
and de'#a$ed in thei# $iolent deeds. The $iolen&e ,hi&h ,e see in Islam and ,hi&h
,ill be e:'lo#ed in "#eate# detail late# did not a#ise ,ithout a sou#&e. It &omes
)#om the 'atte#n established by Mohammed and the ea#ly Muslim leade#shi'. It ,as
)#om thei# e:am'le that Muslims lea#ned the ,ays o) $iolen&e mu#de# and
sub<u"ation.
Mohammed ,as a $iolent man. As ,ith othe# 'a"an ,a# leade#s o) his day it ,as
not me#ely enou"h to de)eat and &ont#ol an enemy. A)te# de)eatin" one .e,ish
to,n Mohammed o#de#ed the beheadin" o) all the adult males in the 'la&e
numbe#in" any,he#e )#om D00-1000 indi$iduals. The ,omen and &hild#en ,e#e sold
into sla$e#y and the to,n looted
40
. Muslim t#adition also #e&ounts that u'on
takin" Me&&a Mohammed o#de#ed the death o) a 'oetess o) the &ity Asma bint
Ma#,an ,ho had #idi&uled him and ,ho had 'ointed out that some o) the mate#ial
in the 0u#1an had a&tually been stolen )#om he# )athe# also a 'oet and used by
Mohammed. The t#aditions #elate this sto#y as )ollo,s
GWhen the A'ostle hea#d ,hat she had said he said 1Who ,ill #id me o) Ma#,an1s
dau"hte#;1 1>may# b. 1Adiy al--hatmi ,ho ,as ,ith him hea#d him and that $e#y
ni"ht he ,ent to he# house and killed he#. In the mo#nin" he &ame to the A'ostle
and told him ,hat he had done and he said 15ou ha$e hel'ed Aod and /is A'ostle
9 1>may#O1 When he asked i) he ,ould bea# any e$il &onse(uen&es the A'ostle said
1T,o "oats ,on1t butt thei# heads about he#1 so 1>may# ,ent ba&k to his 'eo'le.G
41
Thus this ='#o'het= o#de#ed the death o) a ,oman be&ause o) 'e#sonal $endetta
and to '#ote&t himsel) )#om &ha#"es o) 'la"ia#ismO Also anothe# =#as&al= ,ho
Mohammed o#de#ed to be killed ,as a 'oet named Abu 1A)ak ,ho had &#iti&i*ed
the =a'ostle1s= mu#de# o) a man named al-/a#ith b. %u,ayd b. %amit and ,ho had
mo&ked the lan"ua"e o) Mohammed1s #e$elations. Abu 1A)ak ,as killed by %alim b.
1>may# in a simila# )ashion to Asma bt. Ma#,an
42
. Mohammed one time o#de#ed the death o) an old man ,ho mo&ked the Muslim
'#ide in thei# di#ty )o#eheads. Muslims in Mohammed1s day ,e#e '#oud o) thei#
method o) '#aye# 'la&in" thei# )o#eheads di#e&tly in the di#t. The elde#ly man
mo&kin"ly su""estin" that the#e ,as mo#e to '#aye# than me#e out,a#d )o#m
?ha$in" a di#ty )o#ehead@ took some di#t s'#ead it on his o,n )o#ehead and
stated that this ,as "ood enou"h )o# him. The old man ,as late# mu#de#ed as an
unbelie$e#
43
. 8e#tain o) the ahadith #elate that Mohammed o#de#ed o''onents and
those ,ith ,hom he had 'e#sonal "#ud"es to be killed
4B
. 9ne e:am'le in 'a#ti&ula#
sho,s MohammedIs 'en&hant )o# ,i&kedness as he '#essed his #e$en"e. The
t#aditions #e&o#d the )ate o) a &e#tain A#abian .e, o) the t#ibe o) the Bene Madi#
named -a1b ibnu1l Ash#a) ,ho ,as belie$ed to ha$e been &ons'i#in" a"ainst
MohammedIs li)e as ,ell as sin"in" insultin" son"s about Muslim ,omen. 7o# these
o))en&es
=It has been na##ated on the autho#ity o) .abi# that the Messen"e# o) Allah ?may
'ea&e be u'on him@ saidN Who ,ill kill -a1b b. Ash#a); /e has mali"ned Allah the
E:alted and /is Messen"e#. Muhammad b. Maslama saidN Messen"e# o) Allah do
you ,ish that I should kill him; /e saidN 5es. /e saidN 6e#mit me to talk ?to him in
the ,ay I deem )it@. /e saidN Talk ?as you like@. %o Muhammad b. Maslama &ame
to -a1b and talked to him #e)e##ed to the old )#iendshi' bet,een them and saidN
This man ?i.e. the /oly 6#o'het@ has made u' his mind to &olle&t &ha#ity ?)#om us@
and this has 'ut us to a "#eat ha#dshi'. When be hea#d this -a1b saidN By Aod you
,ill be 'ut to mo#e t#ouble by him. Muhammad b. Maslama saidN Mo doubt no, ,e
ha$e be&ome his )ollo,e#s and ,e do not like to )o#sake him until ,e see ,hat
tu#n his a))ai#s ,ill take. I ,ant that you should "i$e me a loan. /e saidN What ,ill
you mo#t"a"e; /e saidN What do you ,ant; /e saidN 6led"e me you# ,omen. /e
saidN 5ou a#e the most handsome o) the A#absJ should ,e 'led"e ou# ,omen to
you; /e saidN 6led"e me you# &hild#en. /e saidN The son o) one o) us may abuse us
sayin" that he ,as 'led"ed )o# t,o ,as(s o) dates but ,e &an 'led"e you ?&u#@
,ea'ons. /e saidN All #i"ht. Then Muhammad b. Maslama '#omised that he ,ould
&ome to him ,ith /a#ith Abu 1Abs b. .ab# and Abbad b. Bish#. %o they &ame and
&alled u'on him at ni"ht. /e &ame do,n to them. %u)yan says that all the
na##ato#s e:&e't 1Am# ha$e stated that his ,i)e saidN I hea# a $oi&e ,hi&h sounds
like the $oi&e o) mu#de#. /e saidN It is only Muhammad b. Maslama and his )oste#-
b#othe# Abu Ma1ila. When a "entleman is &alled at ni"ht e$en it to be 'ie#&ed ,ith
a s'ea# he should #es'ond to the &all. Muhammad said to his &om'anionsN As he
&omes do,n I ,ill e:tend my hands to,a#ds his head and ,hen I hold him )ast
you should do you# <ob. %o ,hen he &ame do,n and he ,as holdin" his &loak unde#
his a#m they said to himN We sense )#om you a $e#y )ine smell. /e saidN 5es I ha$e
,ith me a mist#ess ,ho is the most s&ented o) the ,omen o) A#abia. /e saidN Allo,
me to smell ?the s&ent on you# head@. /e saidN 5es you may smell. %o he &au"ht it
and smelt. Then he saidN Allo, me to do so ?on&e a"ain@. /e then held his head
)ast and said to his &om'anionsN Do you# <ob. And they killed him.=
45
Ibn /isham the ea#ly Muslim bio"#a'he# and #eda&to# o) Ibn Isha(1s Sirat #elates
anothe# as'e&t o) this sto#y in ,hi&h youn" Ibn Maslama and a "#ou' o) his )#iends
&a##ied out his "#eat se#$i&e to Allah ,ith MohammedFs '#oddin"
GAll that is in&umbent u'on you is that you should t#y. F/e saidN 19 A'ostle o) Aod
,e shall ha$e to tell lies.I /e ans,e#edN F%ay ,hat you like )o# you a#e )#ee in the
matte#1....Then he sent them o)) sayin" FAo in Aod1s nameJ 9 Aod hel' them.I
A)te# ha$in" sei*ed the lo&ks o) -a1b he saidN =1%mite the enemy o) Allah1.
A&&o#din"ly they smote him. Thei# s,o#ds &ame in &ollision ,ith one anothe# and
e))e&ted nothin". Muhammad ibn Maslama saidN 1Then I #e&alled to mind my da""e#
,hen I sa, that ou# s,o#ds ,e#e useless and I sei*ed it. The enemy o) Allah &#ied
out ,ith su&h a &#y that a#ound us the#e #emained not a st#on"hold on ,hi&h a
)i#e ,as not kindled. Then I stu&k it into his abdomen then I '#essed u'on it till it
#ea&hed his "enitals and the enemy o) Allah )ell.I In the "#a''lin" ,ith the s,o#ds
one o) the &om'anions ,as ,ounded. They &a##ied him ba&k to Mohammed ,ho
,as - =standin" '#ayin". We saluted him and he &ame out to us. We in)o#med him
o) the killin" o) the enemy o) Allah. /e s'at u'on ou# &om#ade1s ,ound and ,ent
ba&k.= The la&oni& end o) the sto#y "oes like thisN F9u# atta&k u'on Aod1s enemy
&ast te##o# amon" the .e,s and the#e ,as no .e, in Medina ,ho did not )ea# )o#
his li)e.I G
4C
Ibn Isha( )u#the# elabo#ates this 'oint notin" that Mohammed used this as an
e:&use to sti# u' his Muslim )ollo,e#s a"ainst the .e,s
Gthe A'ostle o) Allah said 1-ill any .e, that )alls into you# 'o,e#.1 G
4D
Thus it may be seen )#om ,he#e the )oundation o) anti-%emitism ,as laid in Islam.
MohammedIs 'e#sonal dislike )o# the .e,s #esulted in the &ondemnation o) this
"#ou' to death a 'oint ,hi&h to this day still bea#s its e$il )#uit in the attitudes
and beha$io# o) o#thodo: Islam. This 'a#ti&ula# 'oint o) anti-%emitism )u#the#
,as <ust one sym'tom o) the &h#oni&ally $iolent and #e$en"e)ul natu#e o)
Mohammed.
In Contrast # The /oodness and 4urity of Christ
/a$in" e:amined the li)e o) Mohammed it &an be '#etty &lea#ly seen that he &ould
not be a man o) Aod at least not o) a holy Aod ,ho demands that /is se#$ants
kee' themsel$es uns'otted )#om the ,o#ld ?.ames 1N2D@. In &ont#ast thou"h ,e
&an see the testimony o) the "oodness u'#i"ht &ha#a&te# and 'e#)e&tion o) the
Po#d .esus 8h#ist ,ho ,as mo#e than a '#o'het but ,as indeed the sinless %on o)
Aod. Mo #e&o#d any,he#e eithe# bibli&al o# se&ula# has e$e# #e&o#ded a sin"le
misdeed &ommitted by the Po#d.
The s&#ibes and 6ha#isees and othe# so&io-'oliti&al leade#s o) the .e,s in .esus1
day &ould )ind no )ault in /im. Des'ite the $e#y 'ubli& natu#e o) /is minist#y
,hi&h lasted )o# th#ee yea#s du#in" ,hi&h time /e ,as unde# the ,at&h)ul eye o)
all those leade#s ,ho hated /im and ,anted to dest#oy /im these enemies o)
8h#ist ,e#e still &om'letely unable to lay anythin" to /is &ha#"e. /e asked them
=Whi&h o) you &on$in&eth me o) sin;= ?.ohn 4NBC@. All they &ould do ,as mo&k and
insult him ,hi&h has al,ays been the last #eso#t o) those ,ho kno, they ha$e not
a le" to stand on a"ainst an enemy. When the #eli"ious leade#s o) the .e,s
&a'tu#ed the Po#d in the "a#den o) Aethsemane and took /im be)o#e the &hie)
'#iest .esus said =..I) I ha$e s'oken e$il bea# ,itness o) the e$ilN but i) ,ell ,hy
smitest thou me;= ?.ohn 14N23@ .esus s'oke no e$il no# &ould these enemies o) the
Po#d )ind any t#uth)ul a&&usation to make a"ainst /im. Instead they had to t#y to
)alsely a&&use /im on t#um'ed u' &ha#"es.
=Mo, the &hie) '#iests and elde#s and all the &oun&il sou"ht )alse ,itness a"ainst
.esus to 'ut him to deathJ But )ound noneN yea thou"h many )alse ,itnesses
&ame yet )ound they none....= ?Matthe, 2CN52-C0@
They &ould )ind no )alse ,itnesses ,ho &ould '#odu&e ?(uite lite#ally@ any e$iden&e
a"ainst the Po#d1s &ha#a&te# #i"hteousness o# t#uth)ulness. As the Bible #e&o#ds in
Ma#k 1BN5C =7o# many ba#e )alse ,itness a"ainst him but thei# ,itness a"#eed not
to"ethe#.= Thei# =,itnesses= a"ainst the Po#d &ould not e$en "et thei# o,n sto#ies
st#ai"ht and thei# la&k o) t#uth ,as e:'osed immediatelyO
The se&ula# autho#ities )ound no )ault in the Po#d .esus eithe# the#e ,as nothin"
,hi&h /e#od o# 6ilate &ould lay to /is a&&ount. A)te# bein" (uestioned by /e#od
,ho &ould make no <ud"ment on /im .esus ,as sent to the !oman "o$e#no#
6ilate. A)te# bein" (uestioned 6ilate '#onoun&ed his o,n <ud"ment on the matte#
o) .esus. =Then said 6ilate to the &hie) '#iests and to the 'eo'le I )ind no )ault in
this man.= ?Puke 23NB@
E$en the man ,ho bet#ayed the Po#d .esus this bein" .udas a&kno,led"ed the
'u#ity o) the Po#d. =Then .udas ,hi&h had bet#ayed him ,hen he sa, that he ,as
&ondemned #e'ented himsel) and b#ou"ht a"ain the thi#ty 'ie&es o) sil$e# to the
&hie) '#iests and elde#s. %ayin" I ha$e sinned in that I ha$e bet#ayed the inno&ent
blood...= ?Matthe, 2DN3-B@ A)te# #eali*in" that .esus ,as &ondemned to die .udas
#eali*ed the ma"nitude o) his &#ime that he had <ust handed o$e# the most
inno&ent man ,ho had e$e# ,alked the ea#th one ,ho had done nothin" to
dese#$e death o# 'unishment.
.esus 8h#ist the %on o) Aod ,as #e&o"ni*ed as s'eakin" ,ith autho#ity by those
,ho hea#d /im and sa, /is mi#a&les and /is 'u#ity. =And he &ha#"ed them that
they should tell no manN but the mo#e he &ha#"ed them so mu&h the mo#e a "#eat
deal they 'ublished itJ And ,e#e beyond measu#e astonished sayin" /e hath done
all thin"s ,ellN he maketh both the dea) to hea# and the dumb to s'eak.= ?Ma#k
DN3C-3D@ Also =And they ,e#e astonished at his do&t#ineN )o# he tau"ht them as one
that had autho#ity and not as the s&#ibes.= ?Ma#k 1N22@ The Po#d .esus 8h#ist ,as
so "#a&ious in ,o#d so 'o,e#)ul in deed and so #i"hteous in li)e that /e ,as the
standa#d ,hi&h 'ut the #eli"ious leade#s and sel)-#i"hteous 6ha#isees to shame.
.esus s'oke as one ,ith autho#ity ,hi&h /e indeed ,as as /e is Aod In&a#nate.
/is sinless 'e#)e&tion demonst#ates /is &ha#a&te# as +e#y Aod. =Pet no man say
,hen he is tem'ted I am tem'ted o) AodN )o# Aod &annot be tem'ted ,ith e$il
neithe# tem'teth he any man.= ?.ames 1N13@. 8h#ist ,as is and al,ays ,ill be
sinless as /e ,as is and al,ays ,ill be Aod ,hi&h &annot sin. 8h#ist endu#ed B0
days o) tem'tation in the dese#t unde# the du#ess o) hun"e# and solitude )#om
%atan the maste# tem'te# himsel) and 'assed this test ,ith )lyin" &olo#s. Matthe,
BN1-11 and Puke BN1-13 #e&o#d in-de'th the tem'tation o) and su&&ess)ul #esistan&e
to that tem'tation by the Po#d .esus 8h#ist.
E$en the 0u#1an bea#s ,itness to the sinless 'e#)e&tion o) 8h#ist. In Surah 12N12
the an"el s'eaks to Ma#y &on&e#nin" he# son to be bo#n .esus. =/e saidN I am only
a messen"e# o) thy Po#d that I may besto, on thee a )aultless son= ?6i&kthal
t#anslation@. Muslims both )#om the #e&o#d o) thei# o,n book and )#om the #e&o#d
o) the holy %&#i'tu#es o) the Bible ,hi&h they a#e bound by the 0u#1an to a&&e't
must a&kno,led"e and admit the sinless 'e#)e&t 'u#ity o) the Po#d .esus 8h#istO
Thus ,e see bet,een Islam1s Mohammed and the Po#d .esus 8h#ist a sha#'
&ont#ast. 9n the one hand Mohammed a man ,ho killed )o#ni&ated &o$eted
and bet#ayed the t#ust o) those ,ith ,hom he had made a 'a&t o) 'ea&e. 9n the
othe# hand the Po#d .esus 8h#ist ,hom nobody not e$en /is bitte#est enemies
&ould lay a &ha#"e to /is a&&ount. While Mohammed ,ent out to make ,a# .esus
8h#ist &ame )#om Aod to make 'ea&e 'ea&e bet,een sin)ul man and the holy Aod.
=And all thin"s a#e o) Aod ,ho hath #e&on&iled us to himsel) by .esus 8h#ist...= ?II
8o#inthians 5N14@. The #e&o#d is &lea# and the obse#$e# &an &lea#ly see ,hi&h it
,as that ,as o) Aod this bein" .esus 8h#ist.
End Motes
?1@ - .. %&ha&ht =A !e$aluation o) Islami& T#aditions= 2ournal of the 8oyal %siatic
Society ?12B2@ 6a#t 3 '. 1B3
?2@ - Ibid. ''. 1BC-1BDJ &ited by !. Talmon 1%&ha&ht1s theo#y in the li"ht o) #e&ent
dis&o$e#ies &on&e#nin" and the o#i"ins o) A#abi& "#amma#1 in Studia Islamica +ol.
C5 ?124D@ '. 35 n. 12
?3@ - .. %&ha&ht &rigins of "uhammadan 2urisprudence '. 1B2
?B@ - D. 6i'es =Who Was the 6#o'het Mohammed;= .e#usalem 6ost 12 May 2000
#e'#inted at Daniel'i'es.o#"
?5@ - W. Mui# $he 9ife of "ahomet '. :li
?C@ - Ibid '. :l$i
?D@ - A./.A. .uynboll "uslim $radition ''. 5 D2-D3
?4@ - .. Wansb#ou"h 1uranic Studies '. 1D2
?2@ - A.-. 8#a"" Encyclopaedia 5ritannica3 "acropaedia 15th Ed. ?1224@ +ol. 22
'. 11
?10@ - I. Aold*ihe# "uhammedanische Studien +ol. 2 ''. 14-12
?11@ - 6. 8#one Slaves on *orses '. B
?12@ - Ibid. '. 12
?13@ - %ee )o# instan&e M. 8ook Early "uslim )ogma3 % Source-+ritical Study ''.
102-110 ,he#eby the att#ibution o) '#ima#y ,itness to ,hat is #eally a se&onda#y
one &an "i$e the )alse im'#ession o) t,o inde'endent ,itnesses to a sayin" ,hen
in )a&t only one ,ould be a ,itness and the othe# de'endent u'on the )i#st as a
sou#&e. This ,ould "i$e un,a##anted &#edibility to the t#adition.
?1B@ - %ee A. Moth and P.I. 8on#ad $he Early %ra(ic *istorical $radition3 % Source-
+ritical Study '. 2B
?15@ - %ee %&ha&ht o'. &it. es'. his statements o) ''. B-5
?1C@ - Moth and 8on#ad o'. &it. '. 12
?1D@ - P.I. 8on#ad =!e&o$e#in" Post Te:tsN %ome Methodolo"i&al Issues= 2ournal of
the %merican &riental Society +ol. 113 ?1223@ Mo. 2 '. 2C0
?14@ - 6. 8#one 8oman4 6rovincial4 and Islamic 9aw '.33
?12@ - M. 8ook "uhammad ''. CC-CD
?20@ - %. Bashea# %ra(s and &thers in Early Islam '. 113
?21@ - Ibid. '. 11C
?22@ - 8laudius 6tolemaeus 7eography Eds. /. /umba&h and %. Rie"le# Bk. C 8h.
D.32
?23@ - %ee D.%. Ma#"oliuth Encyclopaedia of 8eligion and Ethics eds. .. /astin"s
and ..A. %elbie +ol. 4 '.511
?2B@ - 6. 8#one "eccan $rade and the 8ise of Islam '. 13C
?25@ - Ibid. '. 13B
?2C@ - Ibid. '. 13D n. 21
?2D@ - %. Bashea# =Ab#aham1s %a&#i)i&e o) /is %on and !elated Issues= )er Islam
+ol. CD ?1220@ '. 2DD
?24@ - 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en =Methodolo"i&al A''#oa&hes to Islami& %tudies= )er
Islam +ol. C4 ?1221@ ''. 101-102J &itin" the "ene#al #esults o) a#&haeolo"i&al
#e'o#ts in the %nnual of the )epartment of %ntiquities of 2ordan %l-%(hath3
2ournal of the +entre for %ra( and "iddle East Studies ?Ame#i&an >ni$e#sity o)
Bei#ut@ and %l-%tlal3 2ournal of Saudian %ra(ian Studies as ,ell as 7.+. Winnett
and ..P. /a#din" Inscriptions in !ifty Safaitic +airns
?22@ - Ibid. '. 102
?30@ - 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en =The 9#i"ins o) the Muslim Des&#i'tions o) the .ahili
Me&&an %an&tua#y= 2ournal of Cear Eastern Studies +ol. B2 Mo. 1 ?.an. 1220@ '.
2C
?31@ - 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en =Methodolo"i&al A''#oa&hes to Islami& %tudies= )er
Islam +ol. C4 ?1221@ ''. 103-10CJ also 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en =The 9#i"ins o) the
Muslim Des&#i'tions o) the .ahili Me&&an %an&tua#y= 2ournal of Cear Eastern
Studies +ol. B2 Mo. 1 ?.an. 1220@ '. 2B
?32@ - %ee A. A#ohman %ra(ische 6alQographie 7olio 2 6a#t 2 ''. 1C-1D
?33@ - Aold*ihe# o'. &it. ''. 2D2-241
?3B@ - %ee es'e&ially .. !ets^ $he %ra(s in %ntiquity3 $heir *istory from the
%ssyrians to the Umayyads 8hs. 2-12 1B-15
?35@ - Ibid. ''. 152 2BC-2BD
?3C@ - E.". see A#a)Is dis&ussion o) the Thamudian A#abs as allies and foederati o)
!ome du#in" the &entu#ies be)o#e the #ise o) Islam in D.7. A#a) G0u#a
&
A#abiyya
and the 6#o$in&ia A#abiaH 7Aographie historique au 6roche &rient4 %ctes de la
$a(le 8onde de Val(onne4 KR-KO Septem(re KLOS4 Cotes et "onographies
$echniques DE eds. 6.-P. Aatie# B. /elly and ..-6. !ey-8o(uais ''. 1D4-141
?3D@ - %ee D.7. A#a) GThe %a#a&ens and the De)ense o) the A#abian 7#ontie#H
5ulletin of the %merican Schools of &riental 8esearch no. 222 ''. 1-2C
?34@ - %ee the dis&ussion and &#iti(ue o) the T#aditional /isto#y in 5.D. Me$o and ..
-o#en +rossroads to Islam ''. 4D-1C4
?32@ - ..W. Ba#ke# 2ustinian and the 9ater 8oman Empire '. 230
?B0@ - 8. 7oss GThe 6e#sians in the !oman Mea# EastH 2ournal &f the 8oyal %siatic
Society Thi#d %e#ies +ol. 13 6a#t 2 - .uly 2003 '. 1D0
?B1@ - Ibid. '. 151
?B2@ - Ibid. ''. 152-153
?B3@ - 7.M. Donne# =The 7o#mation o) the Islami& %tate= 2ournal of the %merican
&riental Society +ol. 10C ?124C@ Mo.2 '. 22B &itin" /.I. Bell =The
Administ#ation o) E"y't unde# the >mayyad -hali)s= By*antinis&he Reits&h#i)t
24?1224@ '. 2D4
?BB@ - !ets^ o'. &it. ''. 340-341
?B5@ - ..7. /ealey GPe:i&al Poans in Ea#ly %y#ia&N A 8om'a#ison ,ith Mabataean
A#amai&H Studi Epigrafici e 9inguistici Sul Vicino &rientale %ntico +ol. 12 ?1225@
'. D2
?BC@ - Ibid. '. DD
?BD@ - Ibid. '. D2
?B4@ - !ets^ o'. &it. '. 521
?B2@ - %o*omenus Ecclesiastical *istory Bk. C 8h. 34.3
?50@ - Me$o and -o#en o'. &it. ''. 255-25C
?51@ - %ee ibid. ''. 122-135
?52@ - %.6. B#o&k =%y#ia& +ie,s o) Ea#ly Islam= in Studies on the !irst +entury of
Islamic Society ed. A./.A. .uynboll '. 1B
?53@ - 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en =Methodolo"i&al A''#oa&hes to Islami& %tudies= )er
Islam +ol. C4 ?1221@ ''. 22-100
?5B@ - M.I. Mo&hi#i GA %assanian-%tyle 8oin o) 5a*id B. MuIa,iyaH 2ournal &f the
8oyal %siatic Society. no. 2 1242 ''. 13D-1B0 es'. '. 134
?55@ - %ee e.". .ohn Ba# 6enkaye Bk. 15 '. 4 t#ans. !. Ab#amo,ski in )ionysius
von $ellmahre3 .ur 7eschichte der Kirche unter dem IslamJ also %ebeos *istoire
d*Araclius par lTvUque Se(eos 8h. 34 t#ans. 7. Ma&le#
?5C@ - 6. 8#one and M. /inds 7ods +aliph3 8eligious %uthority in the !irst
+enturies of Islam ''. 2B-25
?5D@ - 5. Me$o and .. -o#en +rossroads to Islam '. 241J &itin" %. Bashea#
"uqaddimah fi al-$ari'h al-a'har
?54@ - Ibid. ''. 2CB-2C5
?52@ - !. /oyland Seeing Islam as &thers Saw It3 % Survey and Evaluation of
+hristian4 2ewish4 and :oroastrian -ritings on Early Islam '. B4C
?C0@ - ..A. Mo<addedi =Takin" Islam %e#iouslyN The Pe"a&y o) .ohn Wansb#ou"h=
2ournal of Semitic Studies +ol. B5 ?%'#in" 2000@ ''. 103-10B
?C1@ - This &itation is )#om 8./. Be&ke# =The E:'ansion o) the %a#a&ens= in $he
8ise of Saracens and the !oundation of the -estern Empire 8amb#id"e Mediae$al
/isto#y +ol. 2 ''. 331-332J Be&ke# dis&usses the "#adual in)ilt#ation o) the A#abs
into the bo#de#lands o) the t,o ,o#ld em'i#es and 'oints out that Islam ,as not
a&tually that im'o#tant )o# this '#o&ess.
?C2@ - Mo<addedi o'. &it. '. 10D
?C3@ - !.B. %e#<eant =Me&&an T#ade and the !ise o) IslamN Mis&on&e'tions and
7la,ed 6olemi&s= #e$ie, a#ti&le a''ea#in" in 2ournal of the %merican &riental
Society +ol. 110 ?1220@ Mo. 3 '. BD2
?CB@ - 6. 8#one =%e#<eant and Me&&an T#ade= %ra(ica +ol. 32 ?1222@ Mo. 2 '. 232
?C5@ - %ee W.B. /alla( 2ournal of the %merican &riental Society +ol. 110 ?1220@
Mo. 1 ''. 40 21
?CC@ - 8#one o'. &it. '. 2B0
?CD@ - Donne# o'. &it. '. 245
?C4@ - %.A.A. Maudadi $owards Understanding Islam '. D4
?C2@ - A. Dashti $wenty $hree ;ears3 % Study of the 6rophetic +areer of
"ohammed ''. 123-125
?D0@ - %.M. 7ishe# $he "iddle East4 a *istory. '. 30
?D1@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. 3 Bk. 2 Mos. 14DC and 14DD
?D2@ - Ibn %a1d Kita( al-ta(aqat al-'a(ir +ol. 1 ''. B34-B32
?D3@ - Ibid. ''. BC2-BD0
?DB@ - Sahih 5u'hari +ol. D Bk. C2 Mo. 2D
?D5@ - 7ishe# o'. &it. '. 34
?DC@ - Ibid. '. 32
?DD@ - D.%. Ma#"oliouth "ohammed and the 8ise of Islam '.1B2
?D4@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 12 Mo. B3BC
?D2@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2454
?40@ - Dashti o'. &it. ''. 44-21
?41@ - A. Auillaume $he 9ife of "uhammad3 % $ranslation of Ishaqs Sirat 8asul
%llah '. CDC
?42@ - Ibid. '. CD5
?43@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 2 Bk. 12 Mo. 1D3
?4B@ - %ee e.". Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 3 Bk. 22 Mo. D2J +ol. 3 Bk. B5 Mo. C4DJ
+ol. 3 Bk. B4 Mo. 422
?45@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 12 Mo. BB3C
?4C@ - Auillaume o'. &it. '. 3CD
?4D@ - Ibid. '. 3C2
Myth EC
Mohammed ,as the
7ul)illment o) Bibli&al
6#o'he&y
GI6#o'hetOI said I Fthin" o) e$ilO - '#o'het still i) bi#d o# de$ilO
Whethe# tem'te# sent o# ,hethe# tem'est tossed thee he#e asho#e
Desolate yet all undaunted on this dese#t land en&hanted -
9n this home by ho##o# haunted - tell me t#uly I im'lo#e -
Is the#e - is the#e balm in Ailead; - tell me - tell me I im'lo#eOI
0uoth the #a$en FMe$e#mo#eOI
- Ed"a# Allan 6oe $he 8aven
Bibli&al 6assa"es That Muslims Misuse to 8laim that Mohammed ,as 7o#etold
6#o'he&ies 7ul)illed by the 8#u&i)i:ion o) .esus 8h#ist
9the# 6#o'he&ies 7ul)illed by 8h#ist
Many Muslims ,ill &laim that Mohammed ,as )o#etold in ea#lie# %&#i'tu#es i.e. the
Bible and thus 8h#istians and .e,s ou"ht to #e&o"ni*e that he ,as The 7inal
6#o'het o) Aod. To substantiate this &laim they 'oint to se$e#al 'assa"es in the
9ld and Me, Testaments that su''osedly s'eak o) Mohammed. In )a&t this line o)
in(ui#y has a $e#y lon" yet not ,ell-e$ol$ed #e&o#d in the histo#y o) Muslim
'olemi&s a"ainst 8h#istianity. In many #es'e&ts the same &laims that the Muslims
,e#e makin" a"ainst the By*antines in the 11th &entu#y a#e those that a#e bein"
used by Muslims in the 21st. Pittle inno$ation has been int#odu&ed into most o)
these &laims o) '#o'heti& )o#etellin" )o# Mohammed. This is not be&ause o) the
"#eat su&&ess that these Muslim a#"uments ha$e had ,ith those ,ho a#e
kno,led"eable o) the Bible ?indeed these a#"uments tend to se#$e bette# )o#
bolste#in" Muslims in thei# o,n belie)s than in &han"in" anyone else1s@. !athe# it is
be&ause o) the sta"nan&y that has been int#odu&ed into Muslim 'olemi&s on this
'oint. This sta"nan&y e:ists be&ause o) the Muslim t#uism that the Bible ?the To#ah
and the Aos'els@ ,as alte#ed by the .e,s and 8h#istians so as to deny the t#uths o)
Islam that ,ould othe#,ise still be )ound in these te:ts. Thus ,hen the Muslims
)ind $e#ses in these %&#i'tu#es that thei# mo#e &#eati$e theolo"ians &an #e&ast as
'#o'he&ies about Mohammed it be&omes an a#ti&le o) )aith that these
='#o'he&ies= a#e still )ound ?des'ite .e,ishQ8h#istian tinke#in"@ be&ause o)
'#o$idential '#ese#$ation on the 'a#t o) Allah.
/o,e$e# the e))o#ts at #eadin" Mohammed into the Bible that ,e#e made by the
ea#ly Muslim a'olo"ists ,e#e based me#ely u'on a "ene#al i"no#an&e o) the Bibli&al
,#itin"s. Mu&h o) the Muslim &ontention about Bibli&al &o##u'tion by 8h#istians at
least stemmed )#om the #e)usal o) 8h#istians to a"#ee that Mohammed ,as
)o#etold in the 9ld and Me, Testaments. The &laims about the 6a#a&lete the #ide#
o) the &amel ?Isaiah 21ND@ and the '#o'het like Moses ?Deute#onomy 14N14@ &an be
dated as )a# ba&k as the &ali'h al-Mahdi ,ho had a dis&ussion ,ith the Mesto#ian
8atholi&os Timothy about the ="ene#al alte#ation= o) the %&#i'tu#es to &on&eal
#e)e#en&es to Mohammed in D42 AD. A)te# this Muslim ,#ite#s a''ea# to ha$e
de$oted a mu&h "#eate# amount o) time to sea#&hin" the Bibli&al te:ts )o#
#e)e#en&es to Mohammed. A)te# ite#atin" the abo$e 'oints Watt then 'oints out
that des'ite thei# e))o#ts at '#esentin" bette# a#"uments )o# Mohammed1s
a''ea#an&e in the Bible the ea#ly Muslim a'olo"ists ,e#e still ham'e#ed in thei#
e))o#ts by a "ene#al la&k o) bibli&al kno,led"e
=....but as ,as also 'ointed out by Aoldhi*e# e$en the best Muslim s&hola# had
only a $e#y sli"ht a&(uaintan&e ,ith the Bible and they still #etained some o) the
old )ables.=
1
As ,as mentioned in a '#e$ious &ha'te# the 0u#Ian itsel) makes se$e#al
statements that Muslims inte#'#et as #e)e##in" to &o##u'tion o) the a&tual Bibli&al
te:t itsel). This ho,e$e# does not seem to be the t#ue intention o) eithe# the
(u#ani& 'assa"es no# o) the ea#ly &ommentato#s o) the 0u#Ian
GThe &on&lusion o) this e:amination o) 'assa"es is that the 0u#Ian does not 'ut
)o#,a#d any "ene#al $ie, o) the &o##u'tion o) the te:t o) the 9ld and Me,
Testaments. It makes &lea# alle"ations o) the &on&ealment o) 'assa"es. It also
makes the a&&usation o) tah#i) ?F&o##u'tionI o# Falte#ationI@ but by this does not
mean tam'e#in" ,ith the ,#itten te:t ?e:&e't 'e#ha's in &o'yin" it@ but - to
<ud"e )#om the e:am'les - means the em'loyment o) $a#ious t#i&ks in the &ou#se o)
dealin" ,ith Muslims.H
2
Amon" these t#i&ks ,e#e the alte#ation by the s'oken ,o#d ?i.e. mis(uotin"@ and
e$en a&tual &on&ealment o) a te:t usin" the handO By means o) su&h Gt#i&ksH the
ea#ly Muslims belie$ed that the ea#lie# G6eo'les o) the BookH delibe#ately
attem'ted to sideste' the Gob$iousH #e)e#en&es to Mohammed in the 9ld and Me,
Testaments.
>'on e:amination ho,e$e# it is (uite &lea# that Mohammed is not dis&ussed in
these $a#ious 'assa"es and indeed the Bible is silent about him. A look at the
a&tual &onte:t o) these 'assa"es both in the te:t and in the histo#i&al and so&ial
settin"s dis'els the myth that these 'assa"es #e)e# to Mohammed. While any
8h#istian ,ho has s'ent a #easonable amount o) time studyin" the Bible is unlikely
to be s,ayed by the a#"ument that Mohammed is )ound in these 'assa"es it may
still be hel')ul )o# ne, 8h#istians to see the e##o#s in the Muslim &laims )o# these
$e#ses and &an also be o) bene)it to all 8h#istians ,ho deal ,ith Muslims by
hel'in" to systemati&ally dis'el and debunk these &laims in the minds o) the
Muslim )#iends and nei"hbo#s ,ith ,hom ,e inte#a&t. As su&h I '#esent a
dis&ussion o) the most &ommon 9ld and Me, Testament $e#ses that a#e abused by
Muslim 'olemi&ists.
2iblical 4assages That Muslims Misuse to Claim that Mohammed !as
:oretold
/enesis BC%?7
=The s&e't#e shall not de'a#t )#om .udah no# a la,"i$e# )#om bet,een his )eet
until %hiloh &omeJ and unto him shall the "athe#in" o) the 'eo'le be.=
Muslim a'olo"ists &laim that be&ause =.udah= is a /eb#e, name ,hi&h means
='#aise= and be&ause =Mohammed= means =he is to be '#aised= in A#abi& that this
is a '#o'he&y 'ointin" to Mohammed. This inte#'#etation has se$e#al )undamental
)la,s. 7i#st ,e should note a"ain that the name =Mohammed= '#obably did not
o#i"inally e$en mean ='#aised one= ?thou"h it ,as #ede)ined to mean this by late#
A#abi& "#amma#ians@ but had a meanin" &lose# akin to =&hosen one=. It did not take
on any a''a#ent as'e&t as a 'e#sonal name )o# the A#ab '#o'het in A#abi& ,#itin"s
until the )i#st hal) o) the 4th &entu#y AD
3
. Be)o#e this the te#m ,as used as a
titula# des&#i'tion a "ene#al te#m ,hi&h ,as int#odu&ed into the de$elo'in" A#ab
monotheism as the need )o# a messiani&Q'#o'heti& )i"u#e a#ose. I ,ould #e)e# the
#eade# ba&k to the dis&ussion o) this issue in 8ha'te# 5 )o# a )ulle# e:'osition o)
this matte#.
Those Muslims ,ho make the a#"ument )o# this $e#se ho,e$e# miss the )a&t that
it is not >udah ,ho is the ob<e&t o) this '#o'he&y but the one &alled G%hilohH. As
su&h the matte# o) ,hat the names G.udahH and GMohammedH mean in thei#
#es'e&ti$e idioms is i##ele$ant. %hiloh is not so mu&h a name as it is a title o# a
te#m o) des&#i'tion one ,hi&h means Gt#an(uilG it &omes )#om the /eb#e, #oot
,o#d shalah ,hi&h means Gt#an(uil se&u#eH. .esus 8h#ist ,as the )ul)illment o)
this Messiani& title /e ,ho e$en in the midst o) the #a"in" sto#m &ould slee' and
then sim'ly say G6ea&e be stillH and &ause the ,ind and ,a$es to &ease. /e
like,ise bo#e /is bu#den o) s&ou#"in" mo&ke#y and &#u&i)i:ion ,ith #ema#kable
e(uanimity. This so#t o) t#an(uility and se&u#ity &annot #i"htly be said to a''ly to
Mohammed )o# ,hom Islami& t#aditions #e&o#d a li)e &ha#a&te#i*ed by $iolen&e
bloodshed #e$en"e and st#i)e.
7u#the# the &onte:t o) this 'assa"e &lea#ly indi&ates that this '#o'he&y ,as
di#e&ted s'e&i)i&ally to,a#d a des&endant o) Is#aelIs son .udah ,ho ,as the
lite#al ante&edent o) the t#ibe o) .udah. As su&h the#e is no &onte:tual ,a##ant
)o# the alle"o#y that Muslims t#y to s'in into this $e#se. This '#o'he&y sa, the )i#st
'a#t o) its )ul)illment some C00 yea#s a)te# it ,as "i$en ,hen Da$id o) the t#ibe o)
.udah be&ame kin" o) Is#ael thus #e&ei$in" the #oyal 'o,e# and autho#ity
symboli*ed by the te#m =s&e'te#=. .esus ,as o) the t#ibe o) .udah as a des&endant
o) Da$id and it is indeed to /im that the "athe#in" o) the 'eo'le both ,as
?Matthe, BN25 Puke 5N1D .ohn CN2@ and ,ill be in the )utu#e ?!e$elation 21N2B@.
Mohammed o) &ou#se ,as A#ab and not .e,ish and &ould not ha$e been o) the
t#ibe o) .udah the#eby makin" him &om'letely un(uali)ied to )ul)ill this '#o'he&y
in its 'lain and lite#al sense.
Deuteronomy ?1%?5"?1
=The P9!D thy Aod ,ill #aise u' unto thee a 6#o'het )#om the midst o) thee o) thy
b#eth#en like unto meJ unto him shall ye hea#ken....I ,ill #aise them u' a 6#o'het
)#om amon" thei# b#eth#en like unto thee and ,ill 'ut my ,o#ds in his mouthJ
and he shall s'eak unto them all that I shall &ommand him.=
Muslim a'olo"ists &laim that this 'assa"e #e)e#s to Mohammed and su''o#t this by
'ointin" out that the %e'tua"int ?A#eek 9ld Testament@ and the Me, Testament
&itation o) this 'assa"e in A&ts 3N22 la&k the 'h#ase =)#om the midst o) thee=.
Be&ause o) this they say the =b#eth#en= s'oken o) ,e#e Ishmaelites ,ho ,ould
ha$e been distantly #elated to the /eb#e,s by $i#tue o) thei# des&ent )#om
Ab#aham th#ou"h Ishmael. This a#"ument is (uite inade(uate )o# a numbe# o)
#easons. As seen ea#lie# the#e is no #eal #eason to su""est that the %e'tua"intal
te:t-ty'e is #eally olde# than the Maso#eti& te:t-ty'e ?and the#e)o#e =bette#= o#
=mo#e authenti&=@ and "i$en the 'oo# (uality o) the %e'tua"intal t#anslation in
"ene#al it is inade(uate )o# &#iti&i*in" the Maso#eti& te:t. 7u#the# thou"h the#e is
no e:tant &itation o) Deute#onomy 14N15 in the Dead %ea %&#olls Deute#onomy
14N14 is &ited es'e&ially in the so-&alled $estimonia manus&#i't B01D5 ?dated to
the ea#ly 1st &entu#y B8@ and this &itation is o) the Maso#eti& ty'e. This su""ests
that the &itation ,as d#a,n )#om a Maso#eti&-ty'e te:t e:istin" at the latest nea#ly
100 yea#s be)o#e 8h#ist sho,in" at least this mu&h anti(uity )o# the Maso#eti&
#eadin" o) Deute#onomy 14.
7u#the# the assum'tion that the la&k o) =)#om the midst o) thee= must the#e)o#e
mean that the '#o'het s'oken o) in the 'assa"e ,ill a#ise )#om amon" a mo#e
distantly #elated 'eo'le to Is#ael and that this "#ou' ,ould ne&essa#ily be the
Ishmaelites ?as o''osed say to the Midianites o# the Edomites ,ho ,e#e also as
&losely #elated to the Is#aelite line as ,as Ishmael@ a''ea#s to be a &ase o) s'e&ial
'leadin" on the 'a#t o) the Muslim a'olo"ists. This is es'e&ially t#ue ,hen
su##oundin" &onte:tual e$iden&es )#om ,ithin Deute#onomy itsel) indi&ates that
#e"a#dless o) this '#esen&e o# la&k o) =in the midst o) thee= any '#o'het a#isin"
,ithin Is#ael ,ould ne&essa#ily be 97 Is#ael. Else,he#e in Deute#onomy the te:t
s'e&i)i&ally states that the Is#aelites ,e#e ea&h othe#s1 b#eth#en ?3N14@ and d#a,s a
distin&tion bet,een themsel$es as =b#eth#en= and )o#ei"ne#s as =st#an"e#s= ?2BN1B@.
In a 'assa"e ?1DN15@ that has $e#y simila# ,o#din" to that o) Deute#onomy 14N15
Aod tells Is#ael that they a#e to #aise u' kin"s only )#om =amon" thy b#eth#en= and
not )#om amon" st#an"e#s. The histo#y o) Is#ael '#esented in the 9ld Testament
uni)o#mly sho,s that the#e ne$e# ,as e$en one time a kin" o$e# Is#ael and .udah
,ho ,as not Is#aelite. The #easonable and &ommon sense unde#standin" o) =amon"
thy b#eth#en= must be that o) bein" )#om amon" Is#ael he#sel). As 6)ande#
elo(uently 'uts it
=Who at the '#esent day amon" Muslims i) told to summon one o) his =b#eth#en= to
#e&ei$e some im'o#tant 'ost ,ould &on&lude that membe#s o) his o,n )amily
,e#e e:&luded and that he must )ind a man ,hose an&esto#s had hund#eds o)
yea#s be)o#e been kind#ed to his o,n;=
B
The 0u#1an itsel) e$en su""ests that this is t#ue. In the 0u#1an ,e see the sto#ies o)
th#ee '#o'hets ,ho ,e#e sent to th#ee di))e#ent A#abian t#ibesN /ud to the t#ibe o)
1Ad ?Surah DNC5@ %alih to the t#ibe o) Thamud ?DND3@ and %hu1aib to the t#ibe o)
Madyan ?DN45@. Ea&h one o) these th#ee '#o'hets is said to ha$e been =one o) thei#
o,n b#eth#en= and ea&h add#esses his #es'e&ti$e audien&es as =9 my 'eo'leO=. The
0u#1an like,ise o'enly states that '#o'hethood and #e$elation ,e#e "i$en to the
&hild#en o) Is#ael ?Suwar 22N2D B5N1C-1D@. As su&h e$en the (u#ani& unde#standin"
o) ,hat is meant by the te#m =b#eth#en= seems to be that o) one1s o,n 'eo'le not
anothe# "#ou' that may be #elated but mo#e distantly.
Also the#e is no &on&lusi$e e$iden&e that A#abs o# at least most o) them a#e
e$en des&ended )#om Ishmael. We must kee' in mind that the ,o#d =A#ab= is not so
mu&h a s'e&i)i& ethni& name as it is a des&#i'tion. It &omes )#om a &ommon %emiti&
#oot
c
r( ,hi&h has se$e#al meanin"sJ most '#ominent amon" them a#e the ideas o)
ste#ility ?'#obably #elatin" to the dese#t ,astes that these t#ibes inhabited@
duskiness o# &o$e#in" ?i.e. to make somethin" da#k by &o$e#in" it@ and
inte#min"lin" ?lite#ally inte#t,inin" o# b#aidin"@. The Bible itsel) &alls the notion
o) A#abian des&endent )#om Ishmael into (uestion and seems to su""est )o# the
A#abs a mi:ed ba&k"#ound #elated to the last o) the meanin"s )o# the #oot "i$en
abo$e. In .e#emiah &ha'te# 25 #i"ht in the middle o) a list o) $a#ious nations that
,e#e to be <ud"ed by Aod &omes $e#se 2B =And all the kin"s o) A#abia and all the
kin"s o) the min"led 'eo'le that d,ell in the dese#t.= Thus ,e see that A#abia is
intimately &onne&ted ,ith these min"led 'eo'les "#ou's that had inte#ma##ied to
the 'oint that thei# o#i"inal o#i"in &ould not be easily dete#mined.
!ets^ has an inte#estin" dis&ussion about the t#aditional di$ision made by the
an&ient A#abs bet,een the
c
ra( ?t#ue A#abs@ and the musta
c
ri(a ?A#abi&i*ed
"#ou's@ ,hi&h su""ests this min"lin" as ,ell
5
. The#e ,e#e a numbe# o) t#ibes in
both %outh and Mo#th A#abia that ,e#e not &onside#ed to be indi"enous to A#abia
but had mi"#ated the#e and "#adually be&ome inte"#ated as musta
c
ri(a many o)
them &laimin" "enealo"i&al des&ent )#om one o# mo#e 'at#ia#&hs ,ho also a''ea#
in the Bible su&h as A,s ?>*@ Pa,udh ?Pud@ Imli( ?Amalek@ o# A#)akhshadh
?A#'ha:ad@. In addition a#&haeolo"i&al e$iden&e su""ests that the des&endents o)
8ush a son o) /am t#a$eled a&#oss the A#abian 'eninsula du#in" thei# mi"#ation
)#om Meso'otamia to the #e"ion o) Ethio'ia lea$in" "eneti& as ,ell as a#ti)a&tual
#emains a&#oss the ,hole #e"ion
C
. E$iden&e links many t#ibes all o$e# the A#abian
'eninsula to se$e#al o) the sons o) 8ush - %ebah /a$ilah %abta !aamah %heba
Dedan and %abte&ha
D
. The '#esen&e o) names #elatin" to 8ush in o# nea#
Meso'otamia ?=-ish= a %ume#ian &ity and -hu*istan a #e"ion in south,este#n I#an
that is immediately east o) Meso'otamia@ and also a&#oss A#abia into A)#i&a ?e.".
the E"y'tians #e)e##ed to the a#ea o) '#esent-day Ethio'ia and %udan as =-esh= the
/eb#e,s used the te#m =-u,sh= to #e)e# to the same@ also su""est this 8ushite
mi"#ation. Inte#estin"ly the Bible also indi&ates that Moses1 ,i)e ,as a 8ushite. In
Mumbe#s 12N1 it says =And Mi#iam and Aa#on s'ake a"ainst Moses be&ause o) the
Ethio'ian ,oman ,hom he had ma##iedN )o# he had ma##ied an Ethio'ian ,oman.=
The En"lish ,o#d =Ethio'ian= is he#e t#anslated )#om the /eb#e, ,o#d 'uwshiyth
meanin" =8ushite=. 5et ,e kno, )#om ea#lie# in the sto#y o) Moses1 li)e ?E:odus
2N1C-22@ that Moses1 ,i)e ,as the dau"hte# o) =the '#iest o) Midian= named
.eth#oQ!euel Midian bein" a dese#t #e"ion a#ound the Aul) o) A(aba immediately
south o) the T#ans<o#dan. In /abakkuk 3ND Midian and 8ush a#e asso&iated ,ith
ea&h othe# th#ou"h the 'a#allelism o) the $e#se =I sa, the tents o) 8ushan in
a))li&tionN and the &u#tains o) the land o) Midian did t#emble= su""estin" that the
t,o a#e at least some,hat analo"ous. As su&h this ,ould su""est a =8ush= in
no#th,este#n A#abia as ,ell as in Meso'otamia and in easte#n A)#i&a. It seems
likely that the late# %emiti& Midianites ?des&endants )#om Ab#aham@ dis'la&ed the
ea#lie# 8ushiti& inhabitants o) the a#ea that ,ould late# be kno,n as Midian
'e#ha's min"lin" ,ith them and assimilatin" them as seems to ha$e ha''ened
else,he#e in A#abia bet,een 8ushites and the %emiti& t#ibes o) the A#abian
'eninsula.
It is this autho#1s studied dete#mination that a)te# the To,e# o) Babel and the end
o) Mim#od1s ?the son o) 8ush@ #ebellion that at least some o) the 8ushites de'a#ted
)#om thei# o#i"inal d,ellin" 'la&e in %ume# ,he#e Mim#od had built his em'i#e
&#ossin" A#abia and ente#in" into Easte#n A)#i&a ,he#e they ha$e d,elt to this
day. 8a#leton 8oon notes the A)#i&an a''ea#an&e o) many ethni& sto&ks in
%outhe#n and Weste#n A#abia
4
e$iden&e )o# the 8ushite mi"#ation th#ou"h A#abia.
/en&e it is hi"hly unlikely that the A#abs o) Me&&a to ,hom Mohammed is
#e'o#ted to ha$e belon"ed ?s'e&i)i&ally the 0u#aysh t#ibe@ &ould ha$e &lea#ly o#
solely t#a&ed thei# linea"e ba&k to Ishmael. Many i) not most o) them ,ould ha$e
des&ended in la#"e 'a#t )#om eithe# the $a#ious othe# non-Ishmaelite %emiti&
"#ou's that immi"#ated into A#abia at $a#ious 'oints in the 'ast o# )#om the
/amiti& 8ushites o# a mi:tu#e o) both.
This '#o'he&y &lea#ly 'oints to .esus 8h#ist. 7aith)ul men in Is#ael #e&o"ni*ed .esus
as the )ul)illment o) this '#o'he&y. Mote thei# testimony =Then those men ,hen
they had seen the mi#a&le that .esus did said This is o) a t#uth that '#o'het that
should &ome into the ,o#ld.....Many o) the 'eo'le the#e)o#e ,hen they hea#d this
sayin" said 9) a t#uth this is the 6#o'het.= ?.ohn CN1B DNB0@ 7u#the# .esus1 a&tions
and ,o#ds demonst#ated /is )ul)illment o) this '#o'he&y and o))i&e o) that
6#o'het. .ust as the 6#o'het ,as to ha$e the ,o#ds o) Aod 'ut into his mouth so
did .esus. =....as my 7athe# hath tau"ht me I s'eak these thin"s= ?.ohn 4N24@ - =7o#
I ha$e not s'oken o) mysel)J but the 7athe# ,hi&h sent me /e "a$e me a
&ommandment ,hat I should say and ,hat I should s'eak.= ?.ohn 12NB2@ 8h#ist
/imsel) bo#e testimony to ha$in" the ,o#ds o) Aod )#om the 7athe# and )ollo,in"
the 7athe#1s &ommands to s'eak them. And indeed the Po#d also had Aod the
7athe#1s testimony that the 'eo'le should hea#ken unto /im. Du#in" /is
t#ans)i"u#ation the 7athe# s'oke )#om hea$en =This is my belo$ed %on hea# him.=
?Ma#k 2ND@ 8h#ist )#om the t#ibe o) .udah ,as a .e, #aised u' )#om the midst o)
/is b#eth#en. /en&e .esus 8h#ist ,as the &om'lete )ul)illment o) Moses1 '#o'he&y
in Deute#onomy.
Deuteronomy DD%6
GAnd he said The P9!D &ame )#om %inai and #ose u' )#om %ei# unto themJ he
shined )o#th )#om mount 6a#an and he &ame ,ith ten thousands o) saintsN )#om his
#i"ht hand ,ent a )ie#y la, )o# them.H
Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill o)ten 'oint to this $e#se &laimin" that it is a '#o'he&y about
Mohammed. The Muslim e))o#t at eise"etin" Mohammed into the Bible ,ith this
$e#se is one o) the mo#e interesting e:am'les ,e may "i$e. The basis )o# this
belie) is thei# &laim that G6a#anH is a #e)e#en&e to Me&&a and be&ause the#e a#e
&e#tain Muslim t#aditions that de'i&t Mohammed as &a'tu#in" Me&&a ,ith 10000
Muslim )ollo,e#s this $e#se is a '#edi&tion o) that e$ent.
This a'olo"eti& attem't to &ast Deute#onomy 33N2 as a '#o'he&y about Mohammed
sim'ly makes no sense eithe# lo"i&ally o# theolo"i&ally. To be"in ,ith the 'assa"e
is not e$en '#esented in any so#t o) '#o'heti& ,ay. In )a&t it is "i$en in the past
tense it is des&#ibed by Moses as an e$ent ,hi&h had al#eady o&&u##ed. 7u#the#
the $e#se e:'li&itly states that it is the P9!D ,ho &ame )#om mount 6a#an. In the
/eb#e, this is #e)e##in" to 5/W/ makin" this a di#e&t #e)e#en&e to Aod /imsel)
&omin" do,n )#om mount 6a#an in a 'i&tu#e o) anth#o'omo#'hy. >nless Muslims
,ish to e(uate Mohammed WIT/ Aod then they &annot #ead this te:t natu#ally
and still t#y to )ind Mohammed in it.
7u#the# e$iden&es #e)ute the &on<e&tu#e that 6a#an &an be e(uated ,ith Me&&a.
Pookin" ba&k to the o#i"ins o) the e(uation o) 6a#an ,ith Me&&a ,e see that
'#a&ti&ally the only sou#&e )o# this identi)i&ation &omes )#om an in&idental
&omment made by a medie$al Muslim "eo"#a'he# named 5a(ut al-/ama,i. In the
"eo"#a'hi&al ,o#k ,hi&h he )inished in 1224 AD he ,#ote
G7aa#aanN A)te# the ali) the#e is a #aa1 and it ends in a nun. An A#abi&i*ed /eb#e,
,o#d. It is one o) the names )o# Mekkah mentioned in the To#ah. It has been said
that it is a name )o# the mountains o) Mekkah. Ibn Makulan Abu Bak# Mas# Ibn al-
0aasim Ibn 0udaa`ah al-0udaa`i al-7aa#aani al-Iskanda#i said =I ha$e hea#d it is a
#e)e#en&e to the mountains o) 7aa#aan that is to say the mountains o) the /i<aa*.
In the To#ah Aod &ame )#om %inaa1 and da,ned )#om %aa`ii# and be&ame kno,n
)#om 7aa#aan=J they a#e the mountains o) 7ilastiin and it is /is sendin" do,n o)
the In<iil u'on Isa 'ea&e be u'on him and /is #e$ealin" )#om Mount 7aa#aan the
)a&t o) /is sendin" do,n the 0u#1an u'on Muhammad 'ea&e be u'on him. It is said
7aa#aan is the mountain o) MekkahJ 7aa#aan is also a $illa"e in the #e"ion o) %u"hd
one o) the '#o$in&es o) %ama#(and to ,hom Abu Mansuu# Muhammad Ibn Bak# Ibn
Isma`iil al-%ama#(andi al-7aa#aani t#a&es his o#i"ins. This ,as t#ansmitted )#om
Muhammad Ibn al-7adl al-Pa#maani and Mas# Ibn Ahmad al--indi the 0u#1ani&
s&hola# )#om ,hom Abu al-/asan Muhammad Ibn Abd Allah Ibn Muhammad al-
-aa"hidhi al-%ama#(andi t#ansmitted. Abu Abd Allah al-0udaa`i said =7aa#aan and
al-Tu# a#e t,o dist#i&ts in southe#n E"y't.=
2
It is la#"ely u'on the basis o) al-/ama,iIs testimony that Muslims make this
identi)i&ation and the subse(uent a'olo"eti& &laim. Mo, it should be a''a#ent to
the dis&e#nin" #eade# that the#e a#e se$e#al '#oblems ,ith #elyin" on ,hat ,e see
abo$e to t#y to nail do,n somethin" as im'o#tant as a '#o'he&y. Al-/ama,iIs sole
sou#&e is based u'on the hea#say o) one man ,ho says that Gthe mountains o)
7a#anH ?6a#an@
10
,as a name )o# the mountains a#ound Me&&a. Mo e:'lanation is
"i$en as to ,he#e this identi)i&ation &ame )#om o# ,hy one ,ould not lo"i&ally
'la&e 6a#an in o# nea# the %inai 'eninsula ,he#e both Mts. %inai and %ei# also
e:ist. As su&h his statement is hea#say and is not su))i&ient e$iden&e to o$e#tu#n
the uni)o#m &onsensus that "eo"#a'he#s and s&hola#s ha$e held )o# &entu#ies.
7u#the# al-/ama,i notes that this name is =an A#abi&i*ed /eb#e, ,o#d=. The
ob$ious (uestion is =Why ,ould 'rabs lo&ated o$e# 1000 km )#om 6alestine #e)e#
to mountains in thei# hea#tland ,ith names that they had to A#abi&i*e in the )i#st
'la&e;= 9ne ,ould lo"i&ally '#esume that the#e ,ould be no need to =A#abi&i*e=
names )o# landma#ks e:istin" #i"ht in the middle o) the indi"enous A#abian
&i$ili*ation.
9the# '#oblems e:ist as ,ell. Me&&a is a &ity it is neithe# a mountain no# is it a
#e"ion &ontainin" mountains and is a&tually lo&ated in a $alley. Deute#onomy 33N2
states that the P9!D &ame =)#om mount 6a#an= - m
e
har paran. The te#m har &an be
used to des&#ibe eithe# a sin"le 'eak o# a mountainous #e"ion as a ,hole ?su&h as
in Aenesis 4NB ,he#e it is used to des&#ibe the mountains o) A#a#at@. Meithe# o)
these ideas ho,e$e# seem to )it Me&&a. 7u#the# al-/ama,i1s e:'osition is sel)-
&ont#adi&to#y in that he identi)ies all th#ee o) these mountains ?%inai %ei# and
6a#an@ as Gmountains o) 7ilastiinH ?6alestine@ ,hi&h a"ain seems to &ast doubt
u'on his &on&u##ent #e'o#t that 6a#an is Me&&a. As su&h the statement o) al-
/ama,i ,hi&h Muslim a'olo"ism has #ested u'on )o# ,ell-ni"h ei"ht &entu#ies is
a $e#y ,eak )oundation u'on ,hi&h to t#y to &onst#u&t a Bibli&al '#o'he&y about
Mohammed.
Al-/ama,iIs testimony is further ,eakened in that eithe# he o# his sou#&e seems
to be the originator o) the GMe&&a\6a#anH e(uation. E$iden&e )#om anothe# mu&h
mo#e ,ell-kno,n and ,ell-t#a$eled Muslim "eo"#a'he# &ont#adi&ts al-/ama,i1s
testimony indi&atin" that before al-/ama,i the identi)i&ation o) 6a#an ,ith
Me&&a ,as not kno,n. Al-Id#isi anothe# A#abi& "eo"#a'he# ,ho )lou#ished #ou"hly
D0 yea#s be)o#e al-/ama,i '#odu&ed a mu&h mo#e systemati& and in-de'th
"eo"#a'hy o) the Muslim ,o#ld o) his time this one ,#itten a#ound 115B AD. In it
he s'eaks also o) 6a#an ,hi&h he #e)e#s to as G7a#an Ah#unG ?6a#an o) Aa#on@
=This dist#i&t lies B0 miles )#om Al -ul*um and alon" the sea &oast. The &ity o)
7a#an stands at the bottom o) a "ul). It is a small to,n ,he#e &e#tain o) the A#abs
ha$e thei# &am'in" "#ound. 9$e# a"ainst 7a#an is a 'la&e ,he#e the sea has )o#med
a bay and beside it is a mountain o) $e#y ha#d #o&k. The ,ate#s su#"e #ound this
and en&i#&le it and ,hen the ,inds #ise the 'assa"e the#eo) is di))i&ult and no
one &an a&&om'lish it e:&e't ,ith "#eat e))o#t. T#a$ele#s a#e )#e(uently lost
the#e unless Allah sa$e and "ua#d them. A&&o#din" to the &ommon sayin" this is
the sea ,he#ein 6ha#aoh - Allah &u#se himO - ,as d#o,ned.=
11
Al-Id#isiIs identi)i&ation seems little 'lausible i) one t#ies to a''ly it to Me&&a. /e
states that 6a#an ?,hi&h he seems to identi)y as the name )o# both a &ity and a
dist#i&t@ stands at the bottom o) a "ul) and indi&ates that the sea )o#ms a bay ne:t
to the &ity. Me&&a is a#ound 40 km inland )#om the !ed %ea and thus ,ould ha$e
no bay ne:t to it. /e )u#the# states that it is a Gsmall to,nH ,he#e Gthe A#abs ha$e
thei# &am'in" "#oundH. At the time o) his ,#itin" Me&&a ,as &e#tainly not a small
to,n and &e#tainly ,ould not ha$e been #e)e##ed to as a G&am'in" "#oundH by a
MuslimO 7u#the# Al-Id#isi 'ositi$ely nails do,n the lo&ation o) 6a#an in the %inai
'eninsula. /e &omments that the &ommon sayin" ,as that the sea on ,hi&h 6a#an
sat ,as the sea ,he#e 6ha#aoh ,as d#o,ned du#in" the attem't to #e&o$e# his
Is#aelite sla$es du#in" the E:odus. T#adition in all th#ee "#ou's Muslim .e,ish
and 8h#istian has been that this e$ent o&&u##ed in the Aul) o) %ue* ,hi&h is the
,este#n )in"e# o) the !ed %ea that )o#ms a G+H a#ound the %inai 'eninsula. Thus in
his mind as ,ell as the minds o) his #eade#s at the time his #e)e#en&e ,ould
de)initely be to a to,n on the bank o) the Aul) o) %ue*. 7u#the# he states
'#e&isely that 6a#an ,as B0 miles ?in mode#n distan&e units o) &ou#se@ )#om Al-
-ul*um. -ul*um ,as an an&ient to,n on the Aul) o) %ue* that se#$ed sometime as
a )o#t#ess )o# &ont#ollin" the &anals in the #e"ion. -ul*um )inds mention in the
GThousand and 9ne A#abian Mi"htsH sto#ies ,he#e it se#$es as the &astle and
&a'ital )o# the Blue -in" a kin" o) the .inn. A mo#e se#ious identi)i&ation is made
by Bu#ton in his t#anslation and &ommenta#y on that lite#a#y ,o#k ho,e$e#
GThe old name o) %ue*-to,n )#om the A#eek 8lysma ?the shuttin"@ ,hi&h named
the Aul) o) %ue* =%ea o) -ul*um.= The #uins in the sha'e o) a hu"e mound u'on
,hi&h %U1id 6asha built a -iosk-'ala&e lie to the no#th o) the mode#n to,n and
ha$e been noti&ed by me. ?6il"#ima"e Midian et&.@ The !e$. 6#o). %ay&e
e:amined the mound and )#om the !oman #emains )ound in it dete#mined it to be
a )o#t "ua#din" the old mouth o) the 9ld E"y'tian %,eet-,ate# 8anal ,hi&h then
debou&hed nea# the to,n.H
12
Mone o) this is lo&ated e$en #emotely nea# to Me&&a o# the /i<a* but all a#e
lo&ated in the %inai 'eninsula. The identi)yin" in)o#mation seems to &on&lusi$ely
identi)y a site lo&ated at o# nea# the head,ate#s o) the %ue* )in"e# o) the Aul).
E$en thou"h the =7a#an= in (uestion is not the mountain itsel) the identi)i&ation o)
this to'onym still su""ests a lo&ation )o# =7a#an= in the %inai 'eninsula.
This is su''o#ted e$en )u#the# by the testimony o) Ibn -haldun in his "uqaddimah
,#itten in 13DD. In des&#ibin" the "eo"#a'hy o) the #e"ions a#ound the
Medite##anean he said
=T,o othe# seas they say b#an&h o)) )#om the Indian 9&ean. 9ne o) them
b#an&hes o)) ,he#e the Indian 9&ean ends at Bib al-Mandeb. It sta#ts out na##o,
then )lo,s ,idenin" to,a#d the no#th and sli"htly to the ,est until it ends at the
&ity o) al-0ul*um in the )i)th se&tion o) the se&ond *one 1B00 miles )#om its
sta#tin" 'oint. This is the %ea o) al-0ul*um o# %ea o) %ue* ?!ed %ea@. 7#om the !ed
%ea at %ue* to 7ustat is the distan&e o) a th#ee days1 <ou#ney. The !ed %ea is
bo#de#ed on the east by the &oast o) the 5emen the /i<i* and .iddah and then
,he#e it ends by Midyan ?Madyan@ Aila ?Aylah@ and 7a#an. 9n the ,est it is
bo#de#ed by the &oast o) >''e# E"y't 1Aydhib %uakin and Rayla1 ?Rila1@ and then
,he#e it be"ins by the &ount#y o) the Be<a. It ends at al-0ul*um. It ?,ould@ #ea&h
the Medite##anean at al-1A#ish. The distan&e bet,een ?the !ed %ea and the
Medite##anean@ is a si: days1 <ou#ney. Many #ule#s both Muslim and '#e-Islami&
ha$e ,anted to &ut th#ou"h the inte#$enin" te##ito#y ?,ith a &anal@ but this has not
been a&hie$ed....=
13
In this #e)e#en&e to 7a#an Ibn -haldun &lea#ly 'la&es 7a#an in the %inai 'eninsula
at the no#the#n end o) the !ed %ea. 7a#an is asso&iated "eo"#a'hi&ally ,ith Midian
and ,ith Aila ?an&ient Elath mode#n Elat lo&ated at the end o) the Aul) o)
A(aba@. Ibn -haldun is also &a#e)ul to distin"uish bet,een the #e"ion o) 7a#an and
the /i<a* ?,he#e Me&&a is lo&ated@ - the t,o #e"ions a#e ob$iously distin&t.
8lea#ly Ibn -haldun did not )ollo, the identi)i&ation o) 6a#an ,ith Me&&a that ,as
mentioned in al-/ama,i1s ,o#k.
7u#the# inte#nal e$iden&e )#om the Bible itsel) )i#mly 'la&es 6a#an in the %inai
'eninsula. 6a#an is mentioned on a hand)ul o) o&&asions in the 9ld Testament
most o) ,hi&h a#e in&on&lusi$e )o# "i$in" a 'ositi$e lo&ation but a )e, o) ,hi&h
'#o$e $e#y in)o#mati$e. In I -in"s 11N15-14 ,e see a 'a#entheti&al aside detailin"
the es&a'e o) an Edomite #oyal hei# named /adad to E"y't du#in" the time ,hen
Da$id and .oab killed the males o) Edom in a &am'ai"n. They )led to E"y't )o#
'#ote&tion ,ith the 6ha#aoh and in this 'assa"e thei# #oute is said to ha$e been
)#om Midian ?a #e"ion south o) Is#ael a#ound the head,ate#s o) the Aul) o) A(aba
the othe# )in"e# o) the !ed %ea@ to 6a#an and then on to E"y't. Mo, it ,ould
seem to make little sense )o# them to )lee )#om Midian to a 'la&e 1000 km south
then #etu#n by the same #oute
1B
so as to "o to E"y't. /o,e$e# the 'la&ement o)
6a#an nea# the head,ate# o) the Aul) o) %ue* ,ould make 'e#)e&t sense )o# this
'assa"e.
The othe# 'assa"e o) inte#est is Aenesis 21N21 ,hi&h des&#ibes the &i#&umstan&e
o) Ishmael a)te# he and his mothe# /a"a# ,e#e e:'elled )#om Ab#ahamIs
household. This $e#se states that he d,elt in the ,ilde#ness o) 6a#an and that his
mothe# took )o# him a ,i)e )#om the ,omen o) E"y't. This "i$es additional
e$iden&e )o# 'la&in" 6a#an in %inai o$e# to,a#ds E"y't. As /a"a# he#sel) ,as
E"y'tian it ,ould seem natu#al that a)te# he# e:'ulsion she ,ould #etu#n to the
'eo'le o) he# nati$ity and thus ,ould a''#oa&h E"y't. That she took a ,i)e )o#
Ishmael )#om the E"y'tians also su""ests '#o:imity to E"y't as she ?bein" an
e:'elled sla$e ,oman@ ,ould not ha$e had the #esou#&es to send )o# a ,oman in a
land o$e# 1200 km a,ay the distan&e that the 'o'ulated 'a#ts o) E"y't ,ould
ha$e been )#om Me&&a. As su&h the bibli&al testimony ,hi&h tou&hes on the
lo&ation o) 6a#an also &ont#adi&ts the attem't to lo&ate 6a#an at Me&&a.
4salm B5%D#5
=Ai#d thy s,o#d u'on thy thi"h 9 most mi"hty ,ith thy "lo#y and thy ma<esty.
And in thy ma<esty #ide '#os'e#ously be&ause o) t#uth and meekness and
#i"hteousnessJ and thy #i"ht hand shall tea&h thee te##ible thin"s. Thine a##o,s a#e
sha#' in the hea#t o) the kin"1s enemiesJ ,he#eby the 'eo'le )all unde# thee.=
It is &laimed that this a''lies to Mohammed be&ause o) his su''osed status as a
'#o'het and be&ause o) his &on(uests. In )a&t Mohammed is o)ten kno,n in Islam
as =The 6#o'het o) the %,o#d=. /o,e$e# as ,e see this 'assa"e sti'ulates that
the indi$idual mentioned ,as to #ide '#os'e#ously be&ause o) t#uth and meekness
and #i"hteousness. It has been sho,n abo$e that Mohammed ?at least as he is
'#esented in the t#aditions@ ,as &e#tainly M9T a #i"hteous man and that he ,as
not the bea#e# o) t#uth as the )la,ed 0u#1an ,hi&h is att#ibuted to his
inte#media&y indi&ates. Mohammed ,as also not meek be)o#e Aod meekness bein"
the (uality o) bein" submitted to Aod and se#$in" /im )aith)ully. Mohammed
$iolated nume#ous o) Aod1s la,s ?#e'eatedly@ li$ed in sin and ne$e# 'ut his )aith
and t#ust in .esus 8h#ist as his %a$io# ,hi&h is Aod1s &ommand to us ?=..#e'ent ye
and belie$e the "os'el.= - Ma#k 1N15@
7u#the# ,hen this 'assa"e is taken in &onte:t ,e see that it a&tually #e)e#s to
Aod /imsel). 6salm B5NC says =Thy th#one 9 Aod is )o# e$e# and e$e#N the
s&e't#e o) thy kin"dom is a #i"ht s&e't#e.= This #e)e#en&e to Aod in $. C )ollo,s
immediately a)te# the te:t abo$e and is &onte:tually add#essin" the &on(ue#in"
he#o o) $$. 3-5. Mo Muslim ,ould &laim that Mohammed ,as Aod as this ,ould be
blas'hemy to them. /en&e ,hen taken in &onte:t this 'assa"e )ails as an attem't
to 'ut Mohammed in the Bible.
Be&ause o) the messiani&ity o) this 'assa"e the theolo"i&al &onte:t sho,s that the
$i&to#ious #ide# is the Po#d .esus 8h#ist. This is &lea#ly sho,n in /eb#e,s 1N4 =But
unto the %on he saith Thy th#one 9 Aod is )o# e$e# and e$e#N a s&e't#e o)
#i"hteousness is the s&e't#e o) thy kin"dom.= This 'assa"e (uotes 6salm B5NC and
a''lies it to the Po#d .esus 8h#ist. And indeed .esus ,ill #etu#n to ea#th one day
,ith /is s,o#d and shall dest#oy ,i&kedness and ,ill establish /is #ei"n and &a##y
out /is <ud"ment bein" &alled =T/E -IMA 97 -IMA% AMD P9!D 97 P9!D%=
?!e$elation 12N11-1C@. All autho#ity is "i$en to 8h#ist )o# <ud"ment. =And hath
"i$en him autho#ity to e:e&ute <ud"ment also be&ause he is the %on o) man.=
?.ohn 5N2D@ All the nations ,ill be "athe#ed unto /im and on the last day e$en
Mohammed ,ill bo, do,n be)o#e the Po#d .esus 8h#ist and a&kno,led"e that /e is
the Po#dO ?&). 6hili''ians 2N11@
Isaiah 6?%@
=And he sa, a &ha#iot ,ith a &ou'le o) ho#semen a &ha#iot o) asses and a &ha#iot
o) &amelsJ and he hea#kened dili"ently ,ith mu&h heed.=
Muslims ,ill &ontend that this is a '#o'he&y #e)e##in" to the &omin" o) both .esus
8h#ist and Mohammed ,ith Mohammed &omin" a)te# and the#e)o#e b#in"in" a
)ulle# #e$elation )#om Aod. They say this a#"uin" that the &ha#iot o) asses #e)e#s
to 8h#ist1s ente#in" .e#usalem on the ba&k o) a youn" &olt and the &ha#iot o)
&amels #e)e#s to Mohammed be&ause he al,ays #ode a &amel.
/o,e$e# lookin" at the &onte:t o) this $e#se one sees that it is not a '#o'he&y
#elatin" to the &omin" o) anyone. It is 'a#t o) a $ision #elatin" the dest#u&tion o)
Babylon by the 6e#sian em'i#e. The &ha#iot o) asses and &amels is &a##yin"
messen"e#s ,ho s'#ead the ,o#d about the )all o) Babylon as indi&ated in $e#se 2
o) the same &ha'te# =And behold he#e &ometh a &ha#iot o) men ,ith a &ou'le o)
ho#semen. And he ans,e#ed and said Babylon is )allen is )allenJ and all the
"#a$en ima"es o) he# "ods he hath b#oken unto the "#ound.= Mote that $e#se 2
indi&ates that the &ha#iot b#ou"ht the ne,s the si"ni)i&an&e o) ,hi&h is to
announ&e the dest#u&tion o) Babylon by the Medes and 6e#sians not to announ&e
the &omin" o) any '#o'het. Bashea# add#esses the use o) this $e#se in ea#ly Muslim
#eli"ious and a'olo"eti& lite#atu#e
G+e#se 21ND indeed &ontains the key 'h#ase #ende#ed by Ibn Isha( and late# Muslim
s&hola#s as ra'i( al-himar wa ra'i( al-/amalJ $e#se 21N20 s'eaks about the
dest#u&tion o) Babylon. The main '#oblem is that ?/eb#e, !-B@ in 21ND &ould also
be $o&ali*ed in a ,ay that &on$eys the 'lu#al sense I.e. that the ,at&hman ,hi&h
Isaiah o#de#ed to be set sa, G#ide#sH on asses and G#ide#sH on &amels. Meedless to
add in itsel) Isa. 21NC-10 &ould also be taken in a non-a'o&aly'ti& ,ay as a $ision
based on ,hat he hea#d )#om t#a$ele#s o) his o,n time ,ho a##i$ed on asses and
&amels I.e. as a do&umenta#y des&#i'tion o) some a&tual battles o$e# Babylon
e.". bet,een 8y#us ,ho used &amel #ide#s and the %&ythians o) Da#iusI &am' ,ho
,e#e hinde#ed by usin" asses.H
15
Bashea# is in&o##e&t in his su""ested t#anslation o) the ,o#d re'e( as G#ide#sH this
,o#d is mo#e '#o'e#ly unde#stood to #e)e# to &ha#iots and &ha#iot#y in a "ene#al
and &olle&ti$e sense
1C
. 7u#the# it makes sense to t#anslate this ,o#d as =&ha#iot=
#athe# than as =#ide#s= '#esumin" a sin"le &ha#iot 'ulled <ointly by both kinds o)
animals. >ni)o#mly th#ou"hout $$. D and 2 the #ele$ant te#ms a#e in the sin"ula#
su""estin" a sin"le unit #athe# than t,o t#oo's one o) &amel #ide#s and one o)
donkey #ide#s. 7u#the# to the ob<e&tion that &amels and donkeys &ould not be
used to"ethe# to 'ull a &ha#iot ,e should a"ain note that this is a $ision - by its
$e#y natu#e it is meant to be symboli& #athe# than lite#al and the &amels and
asses a#e meant to #e'#esent the Medes and othe# ste''e 'eo'le ?,ho #ode
donkeys in battle@ and the 6e#sians ?,ho used &amels@. Me$e#theless Bashea#
#e&o"ni*es that the $ision in this 'assa"e is to be unde#stood in a no#mal sense - it
#e)e#s to the messen"e#s dis'at&hed in &ha#iots to #e'o#t the )all o) Babylon. The#e
is no #oom in the $e#se )o# #eadin" in the su""estion that it #e)e#s to any so#t o)
=&omin" o) a '#o'het= o# othe# #eli"ious )i"u#e. As Bashea# noted in his a#ti&le
othe# ea#ly Muslim t#aditions &ontain $a#ious sto#ies o) Mohammed as eithe# a
donkey-#ide# o# a &amel-#ide# to em'hasi*e his 'la&e as a '#o'het and man o)
Allah. This 'a#ti&ula# inte#'#etation o) Isaiah 21ND as it is )ound amon" the ea#ly
Muslim s&hola#s be"innin" ,ith ibn Isha( a''ea#s to be based u'on a
mist#anslation o) the /eb#e, o) the 'assa"e #ende#in" G#ide#H )o# ,he#e the
/eb#e, te:t says G&ha#iotH ,hi&h ,ould be (uite easy to do as both ,o#ds em'loy
the same #oot. The im'osition o) G#ide#sH o) &amels and donkeys in 'la&e o)
&ha#iots 'ulled by su&h ,ould then )it (uite easily into the lite#a#y moti) o) ea#ly
Muslim lite#atu#e in ,hi&h #eli"ious leade#s and '#o'hets #ide into im'o#tant
lo&ations on these beasts as a symbol o) thei# autho#ity and '#o'hethood. As su&h
this $e#se is a &lassi& e:am'le o) the Muslim 'loy o) takin" Bibli&al $e#ses
&om'letely out o) &onte:t to make &laims that the Bible su''o#ts thei# theolo"y
,hen in )a&t the Bible does not say anythin" e$en nea# to ,hat they a#e &laimin".
But in a sense it is unde#standable to see ,hy the ea#ly Muslim theolo"ians ,ould
belie$e they had 'otential "#ounds )o# makin" it as they misunde#stood and
mist#anslated the 'assa"e and belie$ed they had #e&o"ni*ed a #e&o#d that &ould be
made to )it ,ith a ty'e o) lite#a#y theme ,ith ,hi&h they ,e#e al#eady )amilia#.
Matthe! D%6
=...!e'ent yeN )o# the kin"dom o) hea$en is at hand.=
Muslims ,ill o)ten &laim that this &all to #e'entan&e made by .ohn the Ba'tist ,as
indi&ati$e o) the &omin" =kin"dom o) hea$en= by ,hi&h they mean the
establishment o) the 'o,e# o) Islam ,ith the 0u#1an as the Pa, o) the kin"dom.
Mote thou"h that .ohn said that the kin"dom o) hea$en ,as =at hand= a te#m
,hi&h indi&ates immedia&y ,hi&h ,ould not seem to be #i"htly a''lied to an
e$ent #e'uted to ha$e o&&u##ed o$e# si: &entu#ies late#. 7u#the# the ,o#ds o)
8h#ist /imsel) &lea#ly indi&ate that the kin"dom o) hea$en ,as al#eady '#esent
lon" be)o#e Mohammed ,as e$e# bo#n.
.esus said =But i) I &ast out de$ils by the %'i#it o) Aod then the kin"dom o) Aod is
&ome unto you.= ?Matthe, 12N24@ 8h#ist &ast out many de$ils du#in" the &ou#se o)
/is ea#thly minist#y and did so in the 'o,e# o) the /oly %'i#it ,ith ,hom /e ,as
anointed ?.ohn 1N32-3B Puke 3N21-22 Ma#k 1N10 Matthe, 3N1C@. The 0u#1an e$en
a&kno,led"es the '#esen&e o) the /oly %'i#it in 8h#ist =We "a$e Moses the Book
and )ollo,ed him u' ,ith a su&&ession o) messen"e#sJ We "a$e .esus the son o)
Ma#y 8lea# ?%i"ns@ and st#en"thened him ,ith the holy s'i#it.= ?Surah 2N4D@ /en&e
8h#ist1s &lea# testimony in Matthe, 12N24 indi&ates that the kin"dom o) hea$en
!as al#eady &ome at the time /e had s'oken /is ,o#ds lon" be)o#e the &omin" o)
Mohammed and Islam.
Pike,ise in Ma#k 2N1 8h#ist told /is dis&i'les =+e#ily I say unto you That the#e be
some o) them that stand he#e ,hi&h shall not taste o) death till they ha$e seen
the kin"dom o) Aod &ome ,ith 'o,e#.= This '#edi&tion ,as then )ul)illed by thei#
,itness o) the $ision o) the t#ans)i"u#ation o) 8h#ist ,ho a''ea#ed to them ,ith
Moses and Eli<ah in the "lo#i)ied state. They sa, in this $ision the "lo#y o) the
)utu#e and 'e#manent kin"dom o) Aod - the )o#etaste o) ,hi&h ,as al#eady '#esent
,ith them.
/en&e ,e see that neithe# the tem'o#al no# the s'i#itual as'e&ts o) the kin"dom
o) Aod &an be in any ,ay #elated to Mohammed o# Islam. The tem'o#al as'e&ts
the 'o,e# o) 8h#ist #esidin" ,ith and in belie$e#s on ea#th had al#eady &ome
nea#ly C00 yea#s be)o#e Mohammed. The )utu#e 'e#manent kin"dom in all its
in)inite "lo#y ,ith belie$e#s in thei# "lo#i)ied 'u#i)ied s'i#itual bodies in no ,ise
#esembles anythin" on ea#th Islami*ed o# othe#,ise.
Mar+ ?%@ and the surrounding erses (also 9u+e D%?Eff" >ohn ?%6@ff)
=And '#ea&hed sayin" The#e &ometh one mi"htie# than I a)te# me the lat&het o)
,hose shoes I am not ,o#thy to stoo' do,n and unloose.=
Muslims ,ill a#"ue that these ,o#ds a#e the ,o#ds o) 8h#ist #e)e##in" to the
&omin" o) Mohammed. 9) &ou#se a sim'le #eadin" o) this $e#se in &onte:t (uite
&lea#ly indi&ates that these ,o#ds ,e#e s'oken by .ohn the Ba'tist as .ohn is
des&#ibed in the $e#se immediately '#io# to this 'assa"e and is &lea#ly sho,n to be
the one ,ho is s'eakin". %imila#ly the 'a#allel 'assa"es .ohn 1N15 Matthe, 3N1-
12 and Puke 3N1C all &lea#ly demonst#ate this ,ithout a doubt. Additionally .ohn
himsel) makes it &lea# that the Po#d .esus ,as the one to ,hom he ,as #e)e##in"
as he testi)ies in .ohn 1N22-30 =The ne:t day .ohn seeth .esus &omin" unto him
and saith Behold the Pamb o) Aod ,hi&h taketh a,ay the sin o) the ,o#ld. This is
he o) ,hom I said A)te# me &ometh a man ,hi&h ,as '#e)e##ed be)o#e meN )o# he
,as be)o#e me.=
Muslims also t#y to &laim that this 'assa"e then &ould still not #e)e# to 8h#ist
sin&e .esus ,as al#eady in the ,o#ld. /o,e$e# .ohn ,as s'eakin" o) 8h#ist &omin"
a)te# him in ministry as the &onte:t o) the 'assa"e sho,s. As the Aos'els bea#
#e&o#d the Po#d did not be"in /is '#ea&hin" minist#y until a)te# .ohn the Ba'tist
had been 'ut in '#ison and ,as not en"a"ed in his o,n '#ea&hin" minist#y any
mo#e ?Ma#k 1N1B Matthe, BN12-1D@. When .ohn identi)ied .esus as the Pamb o)
Aod a 'i&tu#e o) the Messiah .ohnIs dis&i'les le)t his minist#y and <oined
themsel$es to that o) .esus ?.ohn 1N35-3D@ &lea#ly sho,in" that the su&&ession
,hi&h the s&#i'tu#es ha$e in $ie, is ministe#ial not tem'o#al. 7u#the# .ohn 1N2C-
2D &la#i)ies this ,hole matte# (uite ni&ely
G.ohn ans,e#ed them sayin" I ba'ti*e ,ith ,ate# but there standeth one
among you" !hom ye +no! notJ /e it is ,ho &omin" a)te# me is '#e)e##ed be)o#e
me ,hose shoeIs lat&het I am not ,o#thy to unloose.H
The one ,ho .ohn ,as de&la#in" and '#o&laimin" ,as already among them /e
,as '#esent ,ith them in this ,o#ld al#eady at the time o) his '#o&lamationO
9b$iously the notion o) &h#onolo"i&al su&&ession is not in $ie, at all ,ith #e"a#d
to this e$ent. Thus the ,o#ds o) .ohn the Ba'tist (uite &lea#ly indi&ate the Po#d
.esus 8h#ist ?o) ,hom he also said =/e must in&#ease but I must de&#ease= - .ohn
3N30@ not Mohammed.
8laimin" to see Mohammed in this 'assa"e misses the ob$ious Messiani& o$e#tone
o) .ohnFs annun&iation o) .esus as ,ell. When (uestioned by the #e'#esentati$es
o) the 6ha#isees and '#iestly &aste ,ho ,e#e sent to him )#om .e#usalem .ohn
#es'onded to thei# (uestionin" o) his identity by sayin"
G...I am the $oi&e o) one &#yin" in the ,ilde#ness Make st#ai"ht the ,ay o) the
Po#d as said the '#o'het Esaias.H ?.ohn 1N23@
/e#e .ohn (uotes Isaiah B0N3 a''lyin" it to his o,n minist#y o) '#e'a#ation. The
'#e'a#ation )o# ,hat he s'e&i)ied in $$. 22-30 ,hile 'ointin" the 'eo'le to
8h#ist the Messiah. The 0u#Ian itsel) states that 8h#ist is the Messiah ?Surah 3NB5@
and the#e is no #eason to see anyone but 8h#ist bein" announ&ed in these 'assa"es.
>ohn B%6?
=.esus saith unto he# Woman belie$e me the hou# &ometh ,hen ye shall neithe#
in this mountain no# yet at .e#usalem ,o#shi' the 7athe#.=
In this $e#se Muslims su''ose that 8h#ist ,as de&la#in" that '#aye#s ,ould no
lon"e# be made to,a#d .e#usalem but instead to,a#d Me&&a and that this
)o#etold the &omin" o) the Muslim #eli"ion. /o,e$e# as 8h#ist listed no 'la&e to
,hi&h ,o#shi' ,ould be di#e&ted ?and in )a&t es&he,s the ,hole idea o) ,o#shi'
to,a#ds any "eo"#a'hi& 'oint@ the &laim that /e is #e)e##in" to Me&&a is s'u#ious
su''osition based enti#ely on the Muslim desi#e )o# it to be so #athe# than on any
a&tual e$iden&e )#om the te:t.
In )a&t the ,hole 'oint o) this 'assa"e in the Bible is that .esus ,as tellin" this
,oman that t#ue ,o#shi' o) Aod ,ould no lon"e# de'end on a "eo"#a'hi&al )o&us
o) '#aye# and a sin"le lo&ale )o# ,o#shi' ?as it had in the 9ld Testament see e.".
Deut. 12N11 6s. 132N13 Dan. CN10@. Instead ,ith the &omin" o) 8h#ist and the
kin"dom o) Aod ,o#shi' ,ould be t#ue ,o#shi' ,hen it ,as done ,ith a #i"ht
hea#t and #e$e#en&e )o# Aod #e"a#dless o) lo&ation. In $e#se 23-2B o) the same
&ha'te# 8h#ist &ontinued s'eakin" to the ,oman and said =But the hou# &ometh
and no, is ,hen the t#ue ,o#shi''e#s shall ,o#shi' the 7athe# in s'i#it and in
t#uthN )o# the 7athe# seeketh su&h to ,o#shi' him. Aod is a %'i#itN and they that
,o#shi' him must ,o#shi' him in s'i#it and in t#uth.= 8h#ist said =and no, is=. /e
had al#eady abolished ,hat Muslims &all qi(lah the )o&us o) '#aye#s. /en&e /e
&e#tainly did not allude to Me&&a be&omin" qi(lah but abolished the ,hole notion
alto"ethe#. The essential 'oint is that .esus 8h#ist &e#tainly ,as not tellin" this
,oman that the di#e&tion o) '#aye# ,ould be tu#ned to a san&tua#y in the /i<a*.
!athe# /e ,as em'hasi*in" to he# to s'i#itual and 'e#sonal natu#e o) t#ue #eli"ion
that it ,as not an a&t &ente#ed u'on a "eo"#a'hi& lo&ale s'e&i)i& to any one
'a#ti&ula# "#ou' o) 'eo'le but u'on hea#t)elt desi#e to ,o#shi' Aod #e"a#dless o)
lo&ation o# nationality. As a &ity Me&&a is no mo#e im'o#tant than .e#usalem o#
Me, 5o#k o# Pondon o# e$en Mome Alaska )o# that matte#. 7o# one to be
,o#shi''in" Aod in t#uth means to ,o#shi' ,ith a hea#t desi#in" to 'lease /im
,hi&h is attenti$e to /is &ommands and ,hi&h seeks to do ,hat /is Wo#d the
Bible says. Without #e$e#en&e )o# Aod and the Bible t#ue ,o#shi' is an
im'ossibility.
As an im'o#tant aside ,e must unde#stand that Me&&a ,as not e$en the o#i"inal
'oint )o# Muslim qi(lah as has been sho,n )#om a#&haeolo"y and ea#ly
&ontem'o#a#y sou#&e do&uments. The Muslim t#aditions themsel$es indi&ate that
Mohammed &hose .e#usalem as the 'oint o) qi(lah )o# a 1C-month 'e#iod until
Me&&a ,as =#e$ealed= to be the bette# di#e&tion )o# '#aye#
1D
. %u""esti$ely mos(ues
built in a $a#iety o) 'la&es )#om the )i#st t,o &entu#ies o) the Muslim e#a sho,
qi(lah ,hi&h do not )a&e to,a#d Me&&a. T,o ea#ly mos(ues ,e#e in$esti"ated in
I#a( one at Wasit and the othe# at a site nea# Ba"hdad both mos(ues ,e#e built
du#in" the >mayyad dynasty ?CC1-D50 AD@. Both o) these ,e#e o#iented su&h that
the di#e&tion )o# '#aye# ,as 'ointed too )a# no#th )o# the ob<e&t o) thei# qi(lah to
ha$e been Me&&a
14
. The /a<<a< mos(ue at Wasit )a&ed 33f too )a# no#th and the
one nea# Ba"hdad 30f. Instead o) )a&in" to,a#ds Me&&a these mos(ues a''ea# to
)a&e to,a#ds a #e"ion in no#th,este#n A#abia. E$en ea#ly Muslim ,#ite#s note that
the#e ,as a''a#ently some &on)usion as to the di#e&tion in ,hi&h the mos(ue
should 'oint )o# '#aye#s. Al-Baladhu#i #e&o#ds the t#adition that the )i#st mos(ue
built in -u)a a &ity in I#a( )a&ed ,est meanin" it 'ointed to,a#d .e#usalem
?,he#eas a qi(lah to,a#ds Me&&a ,ould )a&e almost due south@
12
. Al-Ma(#i*i
like,ise #e'o#ted in the t#aditions that Ami# ibn al-As the )i#st A#ab "o$e#no# o)
E"y't '#ayed in a mos(ue )a&in" sli"htly south o) east
20
,hi&h a"ain ,ould not be
in the di#e&tion o) Me&&a but to,a#ds the same "ene#al #e"ion in no#th,este#n
A#abia that ,as noted )o# the t,o I#a(i mos(ues. 8#one and 8ook note that this
mos(ue o) al-As ,hi&h 'ointed to a lo&ation too )a# no#th ,as late# #ebuilt du#in"
the "o$e#no#shi' o) 0u##a b. %ha#ik so as to &o##e&t the qi(lah
21
. They also sho,
that the ea#liest e$iden&es )#om tan"ible sou#&es sho,s that the san&tua#y to
,hi&h the $e#y ea#ly Muslims '#ayed ,as too )a# no#th to be lo&ated in the /i<a*
but ,as instead in no#th,este#n A#abia
22
. A"ain these e$iden&es indi&ate a "ene#al
di#e&tion o) qi(lah to,a#ds anothe# site some,he#e in bet,een 6alestine and the
/i<a* #athe# than eithe# .e#usalem o# Me&&a themsel$es. The o#ientations o)
E"y'tian mos(ues ,e#e #e&o#ded by the %y#ia& 'at#isti& ,#ite# .a&ob o) Edessa ?d.
D04 AD@ as )a&in" east to,a#ds the =Ka(ah= o) the =Mah"#aye=
23
e$en thou"h Me&&a
,ould be southeast )#om E"y't. A"ain that ,ould su""est a qi(lah )a&in" to,a#ds
no#th,este#n A#abia but not .e#usalem no# Me&&a. As ,as noted ea#lie# this
'a(ah mi"ht ,ell ha$e been the 'a(ah dedi&ated to Dusha#a ,hi&h ,as lo&ated in
the a#ea o) 6et#a south o) .e#usalem and in A#abia 6et#aea in no#th,este#n
A#abia. The e$iden&es )o# a no#the#ly qi(lah may indi&ate a 'a"an &ente# ,hi&h
be&ame a model )o# the late# Ka(ah situated in Me&&a. Thus at least at the
be"innin" o) the 4th &entu#y the Muslim san&tua#y to ,hi&h '#aye# ,as di#e&ted
seems to ha$e been at some 'oint in no#th,este#n A#abia not Me&&a. 9nly late#
,ith the added '#essu#e to s'e&i)i&ally =A#abi&i*e= the eme#"ent #eli"ion by
#e&astin" its o#i"in in the /i<a* ,as the san&tua#y o) the Muslims shi)ted to the
'a(ah in Me&&a ,hi&h ,as also '#e$iously a '#e-Islami& 'a"an &ente# o) ,o#shi'
and ,hi&h ,as #et#o)itted to se#$e as the &ente# o) Muslim de$otion. /a,tin"
notes that no mos(ues )#om the Dth &entu#y ha$e been )ound ,hi&h 'oint to,a#ds
Me&&a and he )u#the# &on&ludes
=It seems that the Muslim san&tua#y at Me&&a is the #esult o) a so#t o) &om'#omise
bet,een a '#ee:istin" 'a"an san&tua#y and san&tua#y ideas ,hi&h had de$elo'ed
)i#st in a .e,ish milieu. I en$isa"e that Muslim san&tua#y ideas o#i"inated )i#st in
the .e,ish mat#i: as did Islam itsel). At a &e#tain sta"e in the de$elo'ment o) the
ne, #eli"ion the need a#ose to asse#t its inde'enden&e and one o) the most
ob$ious ,ays in ,hi&h this &ould be done ,as by establishin" a s'e&i)i&ally Muslim
san&tua#y. The &hoi&e o) san&tua#y ,ould ha$e been "o$e#ned by al#eady e:istin"
san&tua#y ideas and ,hen a suitable san&tua#y ,as )i:ed u'on these san&tua#y
ideas ,ould themsel$es ha$e been modi)ied to take a&&ount o) the )a&ts o) the
san&tua#y ,hi&h had been &hosen. It seems likely that the Me&&an san&tua#y ,as
&hosen only a)te# the elimination o) othe# 'ossibilities - that in the ea#ly Islami&
'e#iod a numbe# o) 'ossible san&tua#y sites "ained adhe#ents until )inally Me&&a
be&ame established as the Muslim san&tua#y. And it also seems likely that one
#eason )o# the ado'tion o) the Me&&an san&tua#y ,as that it did a''#o:imate to
the san&tua#y ideas ,hi&h had al#eady been )o#med - althou"h they had to be
#e)o#mulated the 'hysi&al )a&ts o) the Me&&an san&tua#y did not mean that
al#eady e:istin" notions and te#minolo"y had to be abandoned.=
2B
Bashea# like,ise notes the &on)usion about the di#e&tion o) qi(lah in $e#y ea#ly
mos(ues
GAdded to the im'o#tant dis&o$e#y o) the t,o-(ibla mos(ue o) BeIe# 9#ah ou#
)indin"s may "i$e a &e#tain su''o#t to To# And#aeIs su""estion o) an ea#ly easte#n
(ibla. /o,e$e# ,e )eel that as )a# as the )i#st &entu#y is &on&e#ned one &annot
s'eak o) Gone o#i"inal (ibla o) IslamH but #athe# o) se$e#al &u##ents in the sea#&h
)o# one. It is also 'lausible to su""est that this sea#&h ,as e$entually de&ided a)te#
Islam a&(ui#ed a &ent#al san&tua#y '#aye# 'la&es and #eli"ious &on&e'ts and
institutions o) its o,n.H
25
In this same a#ti&le
2C
he notes that ea#ly Muslim le:i&o"#a'hi& and tafsir sou#&es
sho,ed a #e&o"nition o) the east as a 'la&e o) both 8h#istian and sola# ,o#shi'
and this di#e&tion ,as $ehemently &ont#adi&ted in the late# Muslim t#aditions
?,he#e the sun#ise ,as asso&iated ,ith the de$il and anti-8h#ist@. E$en des'ite
this the#e a#e de)inite t#a&es o) an easte#ly '#aye# di#e&tion in ea#ly Islam. As
Islam de$elo'ed into a mo#e s'e&i)i&ally A#abi& #eli"ion seen be)o#e in 8ha'te# 5
the di#e&tion o) '#aye# ,as mo$ed south to,a#ds the no,-im'o#tant san&tua#y at
Me&&a. This &han"e in di#e&tion 'a#allels a &han"e in #eli"ious thou"ht as the
Islami& monotheism e$ol$ed. The late# atta&hment o) im'o#tan&e to Me&&a as a
&ulti& &ente# in the A#ab #eli"ion may be due to the #ise and in&o#'o#ation o) Gthe
southH as a sou#&e o) messiani& deli$e#an&e in some st#ands o) Middle Easte#n
#eli"ion &u##ent du#in" the de$elo'ment o) the A#ab monotheism
2D
. Bashea# notes
that Gthe southH ?yaman4 al-yamaniyya@ ,as asso&iated in some st#ains o) .udaism
and 'seudo-8h#istian "nosti&ism ,ith an a'o&aly'ti& messiani& deli$e#e# a sou#&e
,hi&h e$entually be&ame atta&hed to Me&&a. Else,he#e he 'oints out the &odi)ied
Islami& $ie, o) the east as GbadH and the south as G"oodH
GAs )o# t#aditional Islam note has been taken o) the st#on" &onnotation bet,een
&ondemnin" the mash#i( ?eastQsun#ise@ and '#aisin" the south ?yaman@ as the
sou#&e o) belie) ,isdom and deli$e#an&eN an idea ,hi&h has &lea# 'a#allels in
"nosti& 8h#istianity as ,ell as .udaism )#om the 'e#iod o) the 6#o'hets.H
24
%o the e$iden&e )#om the $e#y ea#liest times in Islam sho,s a di#e&tion o) '#aye#
,hi&h ,as o&&asionally to,a#ds .e#usalem ,as o)ten to,a#ds a #e"ion in
no#th,este#n A#abia that may ha$e been the lo&ation o) a 'a"an 'a(ah that
se#$ed as a model )o# the late# 'a(ah in Me&&a o# mo#e "ene#ally to,a#ds =the
east=. /o,e$e# at some 'oint a)te# the )i#st de&ade o) the 4th &entu#y the qi(lah
seems to ha$e been &han"ed to a s'e&i)i&ally A#ab san&tua#y in Me&&a ,hi&h
o#i"inally had been an im'o#tant san&tua#y to /ubal. This &han"e in the di#e&tion
o) '#aye# is #e&o#ded in the 0u#1an in Surah 2N1BB ,hi&h su""ests that this
'a#ti&ula# ayah ,as in&o#'o#ated into the surah at some 'oint late# than SD04 AD
a)te# the death o) .a&ob o) Edessa. What ,e may be seein" he#e is that these may
#e'#esent 'a#t o) the de$elo'ment o) Mohammed as a s'e&i)i&ally A#ab '#o'het as
,as dis&ussed ea#lie# ,ho be&ame atta&hed to the A#ab lands o) the south as a
deli$e#e# and messiani& )i"u#e. Matu#ally a san&tua#y to the south o) the 'oint o)
o#i"ination o) the eme#"ent A#abi& monotheism ?,hi&h ,as in the $i&inity o) %y#ia@
,ould then be&ome asso&iated ,ith this '#o'het ,ho &ame )#om the south ?the
di#e&tion asso&iated ,ith ,isdom and deli$e#an&e@. The san&tua#y o) the "od
/ubal a likely &hoi&e )o# monothei*ation as he ,as o# &ould be made to be the al-
ilah )o# all the A#ab 'eo'les th#ou"hout the 7e#tile 8#es&ent ,ould seem to be the
lo"i&al site )o# the qi(lah o) the no,-monotheisti& ,o#shi' o) al-ilah.
>ohn ?B%?E#?@" 6E and >ohn ?5%6E
=And I ,ill '#ay the 7athe# and he shall "i$e you anothe# 8om)o#te# that he may
abide ,ith you )o# e$e#J E$en the %'i#it o) t#uthJ ,hom the ,o#ld &annot #e&ei$e
be&ause it seeth him not neithe# kno,eth himJ )o# he d,elleth ,ith you and shall
be in you.....But the 8om)o#te# ,hi&h is the /oly Ahost ,hom the 7athe# ,ill
send in my name he shall tea&h you all thin"s and b#in" all thin"s to you#
#ememb#an&e ,hatsoe$e# I ha$e said unto you.=
Muslims &ontend that in this 'assa"e the A#eek para'leton t#anslated as
=8om)o#te#= #e)e#s to the &omin" o) Mohammed ,ho )ul)illed this ,hen he
#e&ei$ed the 0u#1an )#om the an"el Aab#iel ,hom Muslims belie$e is the /oly
%'i#it.
%e$e#al '#oblems a#ise ,ith this inte#'#etation ho,e$e#. 7i#st the 8om)o#te# is
&lea#ly said to be the /oly Ahost. Islam1s belie) that Aab#iel is the /oly %'i#it
,ould seem to su""est that e$en ,ithin the Islami& unde#standin" o) thin"s this
&ould not indi&ate Mohammed. %e&ond the 8om)o#te# is sent in 8h#ist1s name
,hi&h Mohammed &e#tainly did not )ul)ill. Instead Mohammed &ame #e<e&tin"
8h#ist and /is tea&hin"s. Mohammed disbelie$ed that the Po#d .esus 8h#ist is Aod
In&a#nate and that /e died )o# ou# sins and #ose a"ain. Be&ause o) his disbelie)
Mohammed &annot be said to ha$e been sent in 8h#ist1s name in othe# ,o#ds in
8h#ist1s e:'#ess #e'utation and testimony as the %on o) Aod. Thi#d the 8om)o#te#
is said to d,ell not only ,ith us but in us. This &e#tainly does not a''ly to
Mohammed ,ho is not only dead ?and the#e)o#e not !ith us anymo#e@ but also
,as a 'hysi&al bein" in&a'able o) li$in" in us. The /oly %'i#it the thi#d membe# o)
the t#iune Aodhead is Aod1s $e#y %'i#it ,ho d,ells ,ithin sa$ed bo#n-a"ain
8h#istian belie$e#s. The /oly %'i#it seals all t#ue belie$e#s at the moment they
a&&e't 8h#ist as thei# %a$io# ?E'hesians 1N13@ and se#$es amon" othe# thin"s as
thei# &om)o#t and assu#an&e o) sal$ation until the )inal #edem'tion at the Po#d1s
#etu#n ?E'hesians 1N1B BN30@. 7ou#th Mohammed did not =b#in" all thin"s to ou#
#ememb#an&e= that 8h#ist had tau"ht but instead #e<e&ted mu&h o) the tea&hin"s
o) 8h#ist ,ith ,hi&h he did not a"#ee. Thus Mohammed )ails to )it this
(uali)i&ation too.
The ,o#d para'letos is a A#eek ,o#d meanin" =hel'e# &om)o#te# sustaine#
ad$o&ate=. Mohammed &e#tainly did not )it this des&#i'tion. Mohammed sou"ht to
dest#oy those ,ho o''osed him &ont#adi&tin" the notion that he ,as a hel'e# o#
sustaine#. The /oly Ahost &ont#astin"ly seeks to &all all men unto 8h#ist ,o#kin"
in thei# hea#ts &on$i&tin" them o) sin and tu#nin" them to )aith in Aod ?.ohn
1CN4-11@. The /oly Ahost t#uly does hel' and seek to sustain and &om)o#t men.
Mohammed sou"ht only to tu#n 'eo'le ,ith the s,o#d i) they ,ould not submit to
the #ule o) his man-made #eli"ion. Also the 0u#1an denies that any but Allah &an
be an ad$o&ate and the#e)o#e Mohammed &ould not )ul)ill that #ole by Islam1s
o,n tea&hin"s. Also the 8om)o#te# had the #ole o) "lo#i)yin" the Po#d .esus 8h#ist
and to do the ,o#k ,hi&h 8h#ist sent /im to do. =/e shall "lo#i)y meN )o# he shall
#e&ei$e o) mine and shall she, it unto you. All thin"s that the 7athe# hath a#e
mineN the#e)o#e said I that he shall take o) mine and shall she, it unto you.=
?.ohn 1CN1B-15@ Mohammed &e#tainly as ,e noted did not "lo#i)y the Po#d .esus
8h#ist but instead "lo#i)ied himsel) and the )alse "od Allah. Mo# did Mohammed do
the ,o#k o) 8h#ist but instead o''osed the ,o#k o) 8h#ist th#ou"h his denial o) the
deity and #esu##e&tion o) the Po#d .esus.
A )u#the# '#oblem ,ith this attem't to )ind Mohammed at this 'oint is )ound in
anothe# a''a#ent mist#anslation o) the o#i"inal lan"ua"e o) the te:t by ea#ly
Muslim s&hola#s. In his dis&ussion o) Muslim t#eatment o) Bibli&al mate#ials Watt
'oints out a '#oblem ,ith thei# a''li&ation o) para'letos to Mohammed
GIn &ont#ast to this ina&&u#ate #e)e#en&e to the 9ld Testament the#e is a )ai#ly
e:a&t t#anslation o) .ohn 15.23 - 1C.1 in the %i#a o) Ibn Isha( ?d. DC4Q151@. A)te#
the (uotation the#e is a &omment '#esumably by Ibn Isha( and not by his edito#
Ibn /isham to the e))e&t that Muhammad is lin"uisti&ally e(ui$alent to the %y#ia&
MM/MMA and the A#eek B!0PIT%. This &omment seems to '#esu''ose the &on)usion
bet,een 'a#akletos and 'e#iklutos.H
22
The A#eek ,o#d peri'lutos means G#eno,ned '#aisedH. This ,o#d and not
para'letos ,ould be the ,o#d ,hi&h is '#o'e#ly t#anslated to GMohammedH on&e
the ea#ly "#amma#ians be"an to settle on the meanin" o) that name as Gone ,ho is
'#aisedH. 7#om this ,e &an see that this ,hole Muslim a'olo"eti& a#"ument is
based u'on a sim'le &on)usion o) these t,o A#eek ,o#ds amon" ea#ly Muslims. The
Muslims misunde#stood peri'lutos in 'la&e o) para'letos and hen&e belie$ed they
had )ound a 'la&e in the A#eek Me, Testament ,he#e Mohammed ,as )o#etold.
Thus ,e see )#om the 'assa"es abo$e that Muslim a'olo"ists "#as' at st#a,s in
thei# attem'ts to )ind Mohammed in the Bible. By #elyin" on 'assa"es taken out o)
&onte:t and by t#yin" to s(uee*e meanin" into te:ts ,he#e it does not )it Muslims
seek to )alsely authenti&ate Mohammed as a '#o'het sent )#om Aod. While Islam
must #ely on te:tual "ymnasti&s to authenti&ate Mohammed )#om the Bible the
same need not be said )o# the Bibli&al testimony &on&e#nin" the Po#d .esus. .esus
8h#ist ,as the )ul)illment o) do*ens o) e$plicit '#o'he&ies )o# ,hi&h no $e#bal
,#an"lin" is needed. 6#e&ise details o) the li)e and death o) the Messiah '#edi&ted
&entu#ies in ad$an&e ,e#e )ul)illed in the minutest detail by .esus 8h#ist. What
needs to be )u#the# unde#stood is that e$en )o# those '#o'he&ies )o# ,hi&h the
)ul)illment by 8h#ist ,as not ne&essa#ily Gmi#a&ulousG in the sense o) G'#o$idential
timin" o) &i#&umstan&esG the )ul)illments ,e#e instead $e#y delibe#ate a&ts by the
Po#d .esus 8h#ist that ,e#e done intentionally so as to demonst#ate /imsel) to be
the Messiah ,ho )ul)illed the %&#i'tu#es. Thus ,hile it mi"ht not be mi#a&ulous
that 8h#ist ,ould #ide an unb#oken donkey &olt into .e#usalem on 6alm %unday
this ,as done by the Po#d )o# the s'e&i)i& 'u#'ose o) 'ointin" to /imsel) as the
Messiah o) Is#ael ?'e# Re&ha#iah 2N2@ - /e e:'li&itly &laimed this #ole and 'osition.
9) &ou#se many othe# '#o'heti& )ul)illments &e#tain do demonst#ate the hand o)
6#o$iden&e be&ause they in$ol$e e$ents that ,ould ha$e been im'ossible to
)o#esee hund#eds o) yea#s be)o#ehand e:&e't by su'e#natu#al #e$elation and that
,ould ha$e been im'ossible to en"inee# a'a#t )#om 6#o$idential timin".
4rophecies :ulfilled by the Crucifi$ion of >esus Christ
To be"in let us e:amine the many '#o'he&ies that ,e#e )ul)illed by the
e$ents su##oundin" the death o) 8h#ist.
Aenesis 3N15 - =And I ,ill 'ut enmity bet,een thee and the ,oman and
bet,een thy seed and he# seedJ it shall b#uise thy head and thou shalt
b#uise his heel.= - This ,as s'oken to the se#'ent ?%atan@ ,ho had tem'ted
E$e and ,as )ul)illed by the &#u&i)i:ion o) 8h#ist ?see .ohn 12N14 e.".@
,hen 8h#ist the seed o) the ,oman th#ou"h the $i#"in bi#th ,as killed but
#ose a"ain )#om the dead ?b#uisin" o) his heel not a mo#tal ,ound@. In doin"
so /e utte#ly dest#oyed the 'o,e# o) %atan ,ho is no, me#ely a,aitin" his
)inal dest#u&tion ?the b#uisin" o) his head #e'#esentin" mo#tal ,oundin"@.
6salm 22N1 - =My Aod my Aod ,hy hast thou )o#saken me; ,hy a#t thou so
)a# )#om hel'in" me and )#om the ,o#ds o) my #oa#in";= - This ,as )ul)illed
in Matthe, 2DNBC =And about the ninth hou# .esus &#ied ,ith a loud $oi&e
sayin" Eli Eli lama saba&hthani; that is to say My Aod my Aod ,hy hast
thou )o#saken me;= This ,as the &#y o) the 8h#ist as /e ,as se'a#ated )#om
the 7athe# tem'o#a#ily ,hile /e bo#e ou# sins u'on /imsel) at 8al$a#y. Aod
is holy and se'a#ate )#om sin and ,hile bea#in" ou# t#ans"#essions u'on
/imsel) the %on ,as se'a#ated )#om the )ello,shi' o) the 7athe# <ust as
ou# sins se'a#ate us )#om /is )ello,shi'.
6salm 22NC - =But I am a ,o#m and no manJ a #e'#oa&h o) men and
des'ised o) the 'eo'le.= - This ,as )ul)illed ,hen 8h#ist ,as mo&ked and
des'ised by the $a#ious "#ou's o) 'eo'le ,hile /e hun" on the &#oss ?%ee
Matthe, 2DN32-BB@. %omethin" to &onside# )u#the# about this $e#se is the
allusion that is seems to make '#o'heti&ally to 8h#ist1s bloody sa&#i)i&e u'on
the &#oss. The /eb#e, ,o#d t#anslated as =,o#m= in this $e#se is towla
,hi&h is t#anslated in the Bible as both =,o#m= and also as =s&a#let= o#
=&#imson=. The =,o#m= in (uestion is the s&a#let ,o#m a s'e&ies o) ,o#m
)ound in the an&ient Mea# East the d#ied bodies o) ,hi&h ,e#e used to
'#odu&e the s&a#let dyes that ,e#e hi"hly '#i*ed )o# dyein" &lothin" and
othe# )ab#i&s. The s&a#let &olo# o) the ,o#m is also a ,onde#)ul ty'e o) the
blood that 8h#ist shed. Mo##is says this about the ty'olo"y o) this '#o'he&y
=When the )emale o) the s&a#let ,o#m s'e&ies ,as #eady to "i$e bi#th
to he# youn" she ,ould atta&h he# body to the t#unk o) a t#ee )i:in"
he#sel) so )i#mly and 'e#manently that she ,ould ne$e# lea$e a"ain.
The e""s de'osited beneath he# body ,e#e thus '#ote&ted until the
la#$ae ,e#e hat&hed and able to ente# thei# o,n li)e &y&le. As the
mothe# died the &#imson )luid stained he# body and the su##oundin"
,ood. 7#om the dead bodies o) su&h )emale s&a#let ,o#ms the
&omme#&ial s&a#let dyes o) anti(uity ,e#e e:t#a&ted. What a 'i&tu#e
this "i$es o) 8h#ist dyin" on the t#ee sheddin" his '#e&ious blood
that he mi"ht 1b#in" many sons unto "lo#y1 ?/b# 2N10@O /e died )o# us
that ,e mi"ht li$e th#ou"h himO 6sa 22NC des&#ibes su&h a ,o#m and
"i$es us this 'i&tu#e o) 8h#ist. ?&). Isa 1N14@=
30
As su&h this '#o'he&y seems to be t,o-)old. It not only '#edi&ts the
mo&kin" and #idi&ule and dehumani*ation ,hi&h .esus1 enemies ,ould hea'
u'on /im as /e died but it also '#o$ides a &lea# 'i&tu#e o) /is bloody
sa&#i)i&e u'on a ,ooden &#oss a =t#ee=.
6salm 22ND-4 - =All they that see me lau"h me to s&o#nN they shoot out the
li' they shake the head sayin" /e t#usted on the P9!D that he ,ould
deli$e# himN let him deli$e# him seein" he deli"hted in him.= - This ,as also
)ul)illed in Matthe, 2DNB2-B3 as the &hie) '#iests s&#ibes and elde#s
mo&ked /im.
6salm 22N1C - =7o# do"s ha$e &om'assed meN the assembly o) the ,i&ked
ha$e en&losed meN they 'ie#&ed my hands and my )eet.= - This ,as )ul)illed
th#ou"h the &#u&i)i:ion o) 8h#ist ,hi&h in$ol$ed the d#i$in" o) nails th#ou"h
the ,#ists and ankles o) the $i&tim to hold them u' on the &#oss a )o#m o)
e:e&ution that did not e$en e:ist in the an&ient Mea# East in Da$id1s day.
%ee also .ohn 20N2D ,he#e .esus &ommands the dis&i'le Thomas to tou&h
the nail '#ints in his hands as '#oo) that /e #eally ,as #isen bodily.
6salm 22N14 - =They 'a#t my "a#ments amon" them and &ast lots u'on my
$estu#e.= - This '#o'he&y ,as )ul)illed ,hen the soldie#s ,ho had &#u&i)ied
8h#ist did indeed 'a#t his "a#ments amon" them and &ast lots )o# his &loak.
?%ee Matthe, 2DN35@
6salm 31N5 - =Into thine hand I &ommit my s'i#itN thou hast #edeemed 9
P9!D Aod o) t#uth.= - As Aod 8h#ist ,as the only man to ,alk this ea#th
,ho &ould $olunta#ily &ommit o# "i$e u' /is s'i#it. =Mo man taketh it )#om
me but I lay it do,n o) mysel). I ha$e 'o,e# to lay it do,n and I ha$e
'o,e# to take it a"ain. This &ommandment ha$e I #e&ei$ed o) my 7athe#=
?.ohn 10N14@. 8h#ist indeed did "i$e u' /is s'i#it at the time o) /is &hoosin"
on the &#oss in .ohn 12N30. /e did not die be&ause o) /is ,ounds /e died
be&ause /e &hose to at that moment.
6salm 3BN20 - =/e kee'eth all his bonesN not one o) them is b#oken.= - This
,as )ul)illed by 8h#ist1s e:'i#ation on the &#oss in .ohn 12N30. Be&ause o)
this he ,as al#eady dead ,hen the soldie#s &ame to b#eak the le"s o) those
on the &#osses so that they ,ould die )aste#. As /e ,as al#eady dead they
did not b#eak his le"s ?.ohn 12N33@ and this is e:'lained as the )ul)illment
o) this '#o'he&y ?.ohn 12N3C@. Inte#estin"ly this also hea#kens ba&k to the
6asso$e# lamb o) E:odus 12NBC ,hi&h ,as a ty'e o) the &omin" 8h#ist. Mo
bone o) the 6asso$e# lamb ,as to be b#oken and this ,as )ul)illed by 8h#ist
not ha$in" any o) /is bones b#oken as /e ,as sa&#i)i&ed )o# the sins o)
mankind.
6salm 35N11 - =7alse ,itnesses did #ise u'J they laid to my &ha#"e thin"s that
I kne, not.= - This ,as )ul)illed ,ith the b#in"in" o) )alse ,itnesses to lie
about .esus 8h#ist du#in" the t#ials be)o#e the %anhed#in. ?%ee Ma#k 1BN5C@
6salm 34N11 - =My lo$e#s and my )#iends stand aloo) )#om my so#eJ and my
kinsmen stand a)a# o)).= - This ha''ened in Puke 23NB2 ,he#e 8h#ist1s
a&(uaintan&es and #elati$es stood a)a# o)) )#om /im beholdin" /im instead
o) &omin" nea# to /im du#in" /is a"ony on the &#oss.
6salm B1N2 - =5ea mine o,n )amilia# )#iend in ,hom I t#usted ,hi&h did
eat o) my b#ead hath li)ted u' his heel a"ainst me.= - This '#o'he&y ,as
)ul)illed by the bet#ayal o) the Po#d by .udas. .udas had t#a$eled ,ith 8h#ist
)o# th#ee yea#s had been one o) the t,el$e inne#most &om'anions o) the
Po#d. /e had eaten b#ead ,ith 8h#ist as ,as e:'li&itly stated in .ohn 13N2C.
5et th#ou"h all this he bet#ayed the Po#d .esus 8h#ist o$e# to /is enemies.
6salm C2N3 - =I am ,ea#y o) my &#yin"J my th#oat is d#iedN mine eyes )ail
,hile I ,ait )o# my Aod.= - This '#o'he&y o) thi#st ,as )ul)illed ,hen the
Po#d ,aitin" )o# the time ,hen /e should "i$e u' the "host and )inish the
,o#k /is 7athe# sent )o# /im to do said =I thi#st= in .ohn 12N24.
6salm C2N12 - =Thou hast kno,n my #e'#oa&h and my shame and my
dishonou#N mine ad$e#sa#ies a#e all be)o#e thee.= - This ,as )ul)illed in
Matthe, 2DN24-22 ,hen the Po#d ,as mo&ked and #idi&uled and b#ou"ht to
shame be)o#e the &oun&il and the soldie#s.
6salm C2N21 - =They "a$e me also "all )o# my meatJ and in my thi#st they
"a$e me $ine"a# to d#ink.= - In .ohn 12N22 the onlooke#s "a$e .esus 8h#ist
$ine"a# to d#ink.
6salm 102N25 - =I be&ame also a #e'#oa&h unto themN ,hen they looked u'on
me they shaked thei# heads.= - This &ame to 'ass in Matthe, 2DN32-B0 ,hen
the mo&ke#s a#e des&#ibes as =,a""in" thei# heads= at 8h#ist.
Isaiah 50NC - =I "a$e my ba&k to the smite#s and my &heeks to them that
'lu&ked o)) the hai#N I hid not my )a&e )#om shame and s'ittin".= - In
Matthe, 2DN2C the Bible #e&o#ds that 6ilate had .esus s&ou#"ed and in
$e#se 30 .esus ,as s'at u'on and beaten.
Isaiah 53N3 - =/e is des'ised and #e<e&ted o) menJ a man o) so##o,s and
a&(uainted ,ith "#ie)N and ,e hid as it ,e#e ou# )a&es )#om himJ he ,as
des'ised and ,e esteemed him not.= - These ,o#ds ,e#e lite#ally )ul)illed
in Ma#k 15N22-32 ,hen 8h#ist ,as #e$iled #e<e&ted and des'ised by those
,ho 'assed by ,he#e /e ,as &#u&i)ied and indeed by the t,o thie$es ,ho
hun" ne:t to /im. In a sense this '#o'he&y is still bein" )ul)illed today by
those ,ho des'ise mo&k and #e<e&t the Po#d .esus 8h#ist and /is )#ee "i)t
o) sal$ation.
Isaiah 53NB-C - =%u#ely he hath bo#ne ou# "#ie)s and &a##ied ou# so##o,sN yet
,e did esteem him st#i&ken smitten o) Aod and a))li&ted. But he ,as
,ounded )o# ou# t#ans"#essions he ,as b#uised )o# ou# ini(uitiesN the
&hastisement o) ou# 'ea&e ,as u'on himJ and ,ith his st#i'es a#e ,e
healed. All ,e like shee' ha$e "one ast#ayJ ,e ha$e tu#ned e$e#y one to his
o,n ,ayJ and the Po#d hath laid on him the ini(uity o) us all.= - This &ame
to 'ass ,hen .esus ,as s&ou#"ed by 6ilate be)o#e bein" &#u&i)ied ?Matthe,
2DN2C Ma#k 15N15 .ohn 12N1@. 6ete# e:'ounds on this )ul)illment in I 6ete#
2N2B =Who his o,n sel) ba#e ou# sins in his o,n body on the t#ee that ,e
bein" dead to sins should li$e unto #i"hteousnessN by ,hose st#i'es ye ,e#e
healed.= This &lea#ly illust#ates 'e#ha's the most &ent#al do&t#ine o) the
8h#istian )aithN that o) the $i&a#ious atonement o) .esus 8h#ist. 8h#ist died
)o# us and took the ,#ath o) Aod a"ainst ou# sins u'on /imsel). Th#ou"h /is
death ,hen ,e t#ust on /im in )aith ,e #e&ei$e /is o,n #i"hteousness
im'uted to us and a#e "i$en ete#nal li)e. Thus th#ou"h /is death ,e a#e
healed o) ou# s'i#itual deadness and a#e )#eed )#om the bu#den o) ou# o,n
ini(uities.
Isaiah 53ND - =/e ,as o''#essed and he ,as a))li&ted yet he o'ened not his
mouthN he is b#ou"ht as a lamb to the slau"hte# and as a shee' be)o#e he#
shea#e#s is dumb so he o'eneth not his mouth.= - When .esus ,as
(uestioned be)o#e 6ilate in Matthe, 2DN13-1B /e =ans,e#ed him to ne$e# a
,o#d.= In Puke 23N2 .esus ,as also (uestioned by /e#od ,he#e it is
#e&o#ded =he ans,e#ed him nothin".= .esus by /is silen&e be)o#e these
o))i&ials ,ho ,ielded a&tual 'oliti&al 'o,e# )ul)illed this '#o'he&y. .esus
,as also he#alded by .ohn the Ba'tist in .ohn 1N22 =Behold the Pamb o)
Aod ,hi&h taketh a,ay the sin o) the ,o#ld.= .ohn #e&o"ni*ed 8h#ist1s #ole
as the )inal ultimate sa&#i)i&e ,hi&h ,as to be made )o# the sins o) the
,hole ,o#ld. 9nly Aod the %on .esus 8h#ist &ould be a 'e#)e&t sinless
o))e#in" to '#o'itiate /is o,n ,#ath and &o$e# and t#uly ,ash a,ay sins
)#om a lo,ly sinne#. 8h#ist thus ,as the )ul)illment o) the ty'olo"i&al
'i&tu#e "i$en by the 6asso$e# lamb ,hi&h ,as slau"hte#ed to a$e#t Aod1s
,#ath ?see E:odus 12N1-30@.
Isaiah 53N2 - =And he made his "#a$e ,ith the ,i&ked and ,ith the #i&h in
his deathJ be&ause he had done no $iolen&e neithe# ,as any de&eit in his
mouth.= - This &ame to 'ass ,hen .esus1 body ,as "i$en to the #i&h man
.ose'h o) A#imathea and ,as lain in the se'ul&he# o,ned by this man.
Thus /e ,as lain in a #i&h man1s tomb.
Isaiah 53N12 - =The#e)o#e ,ill I di$ide him a 'o#tion ,ith the "#eat and he
shall di$ide the s'oil ,ith the st#on"J be&ause he hath 'ou#ed out his soul
unto deathN and he ,as numbe#ed ,ith the t#ans"#esso#sJ and he ba#e the
sin o) man and made inte#&ession )o# the t#ans"#esso#s.= - Ma#k 15N2D-24
#e&o#ds the )ul)illment o) this '#o'he&y in that 8h#ist ,as &#u&i)ied bet,een
t,o thie$es hen&e that /e ,as numbe#ed ?o# #e&koned to be ,ith@ those
'a#ti&ula# t#ans"#esso#s. Also 8h#ist made inte#&ession )o# the t#ans"#esso#s
,ho &#u&i)ied /im ,hen on the &#oss /e '#ayed to the 7athe# =7athe#
)o#"i$e themJ )o# they kno, not ,hat they do.= ?Puke 23N3B@
Daniel 2N25-2C - =-no, the#e)o#e and unde#stand that )#om the "oin" )o#th
o) the &ommandment to #esto#e and to build .e#usalem unto the Messiah the
6#in&e shall be se$en ,eeks and th#ees&o#e and t,o ,eeksN the st#eet shall
be built a"ain and the ,all e$en in t#oublous times. And a)te# th#ees&o#e
and t,o ,eeks shall Messiah be &ut o)) but not )o# himsel)...= - This
'#o'he&y o) Daniel "a$e the e:a&t date o) 8h#ist1s death. The '#o'heti&
'h#aseolo"y =,eek= #e)e#s to a 'e#iod o) se$en yea#s
31
and yea#s by
'#o'heti& #e&konin" ?su&h as used in both Aenesis be)o#e the 7lood and in
!e$elation@ a#e 3C0 days not the 3C5.25 days o) ou# side#eal &alenda#.
Thus the th#ees&o#e and t,o ,eeks 'lus the )i#st se$en ,eeks ?,hi&h ,ould
be C2 'e#iods o) se$en yea#s ea&h o# B43 yea#s o) 3C0 days ea&h e(ualin"
BDC side#eal yea#s@ be"innin" at the date o) the #ebuildin" o) .e#usalem
,hi&h ,as in BBC B8 ,ould "i$e a date )o# the death o) 8h#ist a#ound 30
AD. 7#om histo#i&al #e&o#ds ,e &an su#mise that 8h#ist ,as bo#n in eithe# in
5 o# B B8 ?as this about the time that /e#od died ,hi&h is said to ha$e
o&&u##ed not lon" a)te# 8h#ist1s bi#th@. 8h#ist be"an /is minist#y at the a"e
o) 30 yea#s ,hi&h ,as the a"e at ,hi&h a .e,ish '#iest &ould be"in his
minist#y and he ministe#ed )o# #ou"hly th#ee and a hal) yea#s so /e ,ould
ha$e died at the a"e o) 33 on o# $e#y &lose to 30 AD. /en&e Daniel1s
'#o'he&y "i$en o$e# )i$e &entu#ies be)o#e the death o) 8h#ist "a$e the
e:a&t yea# in ,hi&h the Po#d ,as &#u&i)ied and #ose a"ain )#om the deadO
Re&ha#iah 11N12-13 - =And I said unto them I) ye think "ood "i$e me my
'#i&eJ and i) not )o#ebea#. %o they ,ei"hed )o# my '#i&e thi#ty 'ie&es o)
sil$e#. And the P9!D said unto me 8ast it unto the 'otte#N a "oodly '#i&e
that I ,as '#ised at o) them. And I took the thi#ty 'ie&es o) sil$e# and &ast
them to the 'otte# in the house o) the P9!D.H - This )o#etold the bet#ayal o)
the Po#d by .udas )o# thi#ty 'ie&es o) sil$e# the '#i&e ,hi&h the &hie)
'#iests 'aid to him to &ommit his ,i&ked deed ?%ee Matthe, 2CN15@. The
latte# 'a#t ,as )ul)illed in Matthe, 2DN3-D ,hen .udas a)te# #eali*in" the
ma"nitude o) his e##o# and )illed ,ith #emo#se &ast the thi#ty 'ie&es o)
sil$e# he had #e&ei$ed ba&k to the &hie) '#iests in the Tem'le ,hi&h ,as
the house o) the Po#d. They then used this money to 'u#&hase the 'otte#1s
)ield.
Re&ha#iah 12N10 - =And I ,ill 'ou# u'on the house o) Da$id and u'on the
inhabitants o) .e#usalem the s'i#it o) "#a&e and o) su''li&ationsN and they
shall look u'on me ,hom they ha$e 'ie#&ed and they shall mou#n )o# him
as one mou#neth )o# his only son and shall be in bitte#ness )o# him as one
that is in bitte#ness )o# his )i#stbo#n.= - This '#o'he&y ,as )ul)illed
'#e$eniently in Puke 23N2D ,hi&h #e&o#ds that =a "#eat &om'any o) 'eo'le
and o) ,omen ,hi&h also be,ailed and lamented him= ,ho had indeed
been 'ie#&ed u'on the &#oss.
Re&ha#iah 13ND - A,ake 9 s,o#d a"ainst my she'he#d and a"ainst the man
that is my )ello, saith the P9!D o) hostsN smite the she'he#d and the
shee' shall be s&atte#edN and I ,ill tu#n mine hand u'on the little ones.= -
This '#o'he&y ,as doubly )ul)illed. .esus des&#ibed as the %he'he#d and
Bisho' o) ou# souls in I 6ete# 2N25 ,as indeed smitten ,hen /e ,as
&#u&i)ied. Pike,ise <ust as .esus )o#etold to /is dis&i'les in Matthe, 2CN31
that they ,ould be s&atte#ed ?(uotin" Re&ha#iah 13ND@ the ni"ht o) /is
&#u&i)i:ion so they ,e#e ,hen in Ma#k 1BN50 =they all )o#sook him and
)led.=
*ther 4rophecies :ulfilled by Christ
In addition to these the li)e and 'e#son o) .esus 8h#ist )ul)illed othe# '#o'he&ies
"i$en in the 9ld Testament.
8h#ist1s $i#"in bi#th - Isaiah DN1B
32
- =The#e)o#e the Po#d himsel) ,ill "i$e you
a si"nN Behold the $i#"in shall &on&ei$e and bea# a %on and shall &all his
name Immanuel.= - The bi#th o) 8h#ist )ul)illed this ,hen by the Ma#y1s o,n
testimony to he# $i#"inity /e ,as bo#n o) he#. Puke 1N2D des&#ibes Ma#y as a
$i#"in and Ma#y he#sel) stated in Puke 1N3B =/o, shall this be seein" I
kno, not a man;=. 5et she &on&ei$ed by the /oly Ahost and "a$e bi#th to
the Messiah .esus 8h#ist <ust as Isaiah DN1B said ,ould ha''en and this is a
si"n to all ,ho #ead and hea# o) it that Aod1s Wo#d is t#ue and testi)ies to
the uni(ue status o) 8h#ist as the Aod-man Aod In&a#nate ,ithout the sin
natu#e 'assed do,n )#om "ene#ation to "ene#ation o) man. As an aside the
/eb#e, ,o#d t#anslated as $i#"in in Isaiah DN1B is almah ,hi&h #e)e#s to
somethin" $eiled '#ote&ted and is al,ays used to des&#ibe a $i#"inal youn"
,oman. Pike,ise in the Me, Testament $i#"in is t#anslated )#om the A#eek
,o#d parthenos ,hi&h also lite#ally means =se&luded '#ote&ted $eiled and
set a'a#t= and des&#ibes a ,oman ,ho has been '#ote&ted )#om the
attentions o) a man. The biolo"i&al te#m 'a#theno"enesis &omes )#om the
same ,o#d and #e)e#s to the #e'#odu&tion o) &e#tain sin"le-&elled s'e&ies
,ithout se:ual inte#a&tion i.e. =$i#"in bi#ths=.
The Messiah to be Bo#n in Bethlehem - Mi&ah 5N2
33
- =But thou Beth-lehem
E'h#atah thou"h thou be little amon" the thousands o) .udah yet out o)
thee shall he &ome )o#th unto me that is to be #ule# in Is#aelJ ,hose "oin"s
)o#th ha$e been )#om old )#om e$e#lastin".= - In this 'assa"e it ,as
)o#etold that the )utu#e kin" o) Is#ael the Messiah ,ho ,ould one day
establish /is #ei"n and sa$e /is 'eo'le ,ould &ome )#om Bethlehem. And
indeed .esus 8h#ist ,as bo#n in Bethlehem and ,as o) the linea"e o) Da$id
,hi&h s'#an" )#om Bethlehem. 8h#ist &ame to b#in" men into the kin"dom o)
Aod and /e ,ill one day #etu#n and establish /is #ule#shi' o$e# Is#ael and
sa$e /is 'eo'le. =And so all Is#ael shall be sa$edN as it is ,#itten The#e shall
&ome out o) %ion the Deli$e#e# and shall tu#n a,ay un"odliness )#om
.a&ob.= ?!omans 11N2C@ Be)o#e 8h#ist &ould sa$e /is 'eo'le thou"h /e had
to die )o# them and be&ome thei# sin-sa&#i)i&e the Pamb ,ho took the
,#ath o) Aod u'on /imsel) in thei# 'la&e. /is blood ,as shed )o# all
mankind Is#ael in&luded and Is#ael ,ill one day tu#n and a&&e't /im as
thei# %a$io#.
/e#od1s %lau"hte# o) the 8hild#en o) Bethlehem - .e#emiah 31N15 - =Thus
saith the P9!DJ A $oi&e ,as hea#d in !amah lamentation and bitte#
,ee'in"J !ahel ,ee'in" )o# he# &hild#en #e)used to be &om)o#ted )o# he#
&hild#en be&ause they ,e#e not.= - This 'assa"e )#om .e#emiah in its
&onte:t des&#ibes the ,ee'in" o) the ,omen o) the t#ibe o) Ben<amin ,hen
thei# &hild#en ,e#e taken )#om them and de'o#ted to Babylon a)te# .udah
,as &on(ue#ed by the Babylonians. The histo#i&al ba&k"#ound behind this
&onte:t is that !amah ,as a to,n about 5 miles )#om .e#usalem ,hi&h ,as
also nea# to Bethlehem o) the t#ibe o) .udah. When .udah ,as &on(ue#ed by
the Babylonians !amah se#$ed as a sta"in" 'oint )o# the &a#a$ans takin" the
.e,ish &a'ti$es a,ay to Babylon. Thus the ,omen o) .udah lamented thei#
lost &hild#en at this 'la&e and a#e 'e#soni)ied by !ahel ?!a&hel@ ,ho ,as
one o) the ,i$es o) .a&ob and the mothe# o) Ben<amin ,hose des&endents
,e#e still asso&iated ,ith the to,n and #e"ion at the time o) .e#emiah1s
,#itin". This ,ee'in" and lamentin" )o# thei# lost &hild#en also se#$ed as a
ty'e ,hi&h )o#esa, a '#o'heti& e$ent )ul)illed in the &i#&umstan&es
su##oundin" the bi#th o) 8h#ist. As Matthe, 2N1C-14 #e&o#ds -in" /e#od sa,
that his #oyal autho#ity had been )launted by the ,ise men ,ho &ame to
,o#shi' the 8h#ist. /e ,as an"#y o$e# this and ,as also t#oubled at the
ne,s that anothe# -in" ,as bo#n ?Matthe, 2N3@. /e#od )elt that the 8h#ist
&hild ,ould be a th#eat to his 'etty dominion and the#e)o#e dete#mined to
kill the &hild .esus be)o#e /e &ould "#o, u' and be&ome a th#eat. As a
#esult o) this /e#od o#de#ed all male &hild#en unde# the a"e o) t,o yea#s to
be slau"hte#ed in all the a#ea a#ound Bethlehem ,hi&h ,ould in&lude
.e#usalem and !amah. As one &ould #easonably unde#stand this ,ould
&ause "#eat so##o, )o# the ,omen ,hose &hild#en had <ust been mu#de#ed.
Thus this e$ent )ul)illed the '#o'he&y utte#ed by .e#emiah o$e# )i$e
&entu#ies be)o#e that had de'i&ted an e$ent that ,as to be asso&iated ,ith
the Messiah.
The 7li"ht o) .esus1 7amily to E"y't - /osea 11N1 - =When Is#ael ,as a &hild
then I lo$ed him and &alled my son out o) E"y't.= - This '#o'heti& 'assa"e
,as a&&ounted ,hen u'on bein" ,a#ned in a d#eam o) the dan"e#
im'endin" )#om /e#od1s 'u#"e .ose'h took Ma#y and the 8h#ist &hild and
)led to E"y't ?Matthe, 2N13-15@. Matthe, s'e&i)i&ally mentions that this
e$ent ,as to set u' the )ul)illment o) the '#o'he&y in $e#se 15. And indeed
the '#o'he&y that Aod1s %on ,as to be &alled out o) E"y't ,as )ul)illed
,hen a)te# /e#od1s death Aod &alled .ose'h to b#in" Ma#y and .esus ba&k
to .udea )#om out o) E"y't ?Matthe, 2N12-23@.
This '#o'he&y is )#e(uently &hallen"ed by .e,ish Ganti-missiona#iesH ?and by
Muslims ,ho 'a##ot them@ as bein" taken "#ossly out o) &onte:t sin&e /osea
11N1 s'e&i)i&ally #e)e#s to Is#ael. /o,e$e# this line o) #easonin" belies a
&e#tain amount o) un)amilia#ity o) the &#iti&s ,ith thei# o,n .e,ish
t#aditions. As Alenn Mille# ably demonst#ates Matthe,Is a''li&ation o)
/osea 11N1 to .esus is (uite ,ithin the t#aditional style o) bibli&al e:e"esis
used by .e,ish #abbis and theolo"ians du#in" this 'e#iod in time
3B
. Pike,ise
%ailhame# in)o#ms us that /oseaIs statement is an e:am'le o) the '#o'heti&
,#itin"s se#$in" as &ommenta#y on the 6entateu&h. In this instan&e /osea is
em'loyin" a &om'ositional st#ate"y d#a,in" di#e&tly )#om the '#o'heti&
$ision o) Balaam in Mumbe#s 2B ,hi&h then links the messiani& ho'es o)
Is#ael di#e&tly ,ith the 'ast deli$e#an&e o) the e:odus )#om E"y't.
Matthe,Fs use o) this 'assa"e is a )ine e:am'le o) .e,ish e:e"esis
unde#standin" the late# ,#itin"s to be &ommenta#y and e:'ansion on the
6entateu&h and a''lyin" the '#omise o) deli$e#an&e )#om /osea 11N1 itsel)
based on the ea#lie# deli$e#an&e o) the e:odus to a#"ue )o# 8h#ist as the
Messiah ,ho ,ill "i$e a )utu#e deli$e#an&e o) the same style
35
.
.esus1 Aalilean minist#y - Isaiah 2N1-2 - =Me$e#theless the dimness shall not
be su&h as ,as in he# $e:ation ,hen at the )i#st he li"htly a))li&ted the land
o) Rebulon and the land o) Ma'htali and a)te#,a#d did not "#ie$ously a))li&t
he# by the ,ay o) the sea beyond .o#dan in Aalilee o) the nations. The
'eo'le that ,alked in da#kness ha$e seen a "#eat li"htN they than d,ell in
the land o) the shado, o) death u'on them hath the li"ht shined.= - This
'assa"e )o#etold that the minist#y o) the then-&omin" Messiah ,ould be in
the #e"ion o) Aalilee a dist#i&t in no#the#n Is#ael nea# the %ea o) Aalilee
and beyond the .o#dan e:tendin" to,a#d ,hat ,as &alled De&a'olis du#in"
!oman times. This ,as #ou"hly the #e"ion en&om'assed in the lands "i$en to
the t#ibes o) Rebulon and Ma'htali ,hen .oshua di$ided 8anaan amon" the
Is#aelites a)te# thei# ent#y into the 6#omised Pand. Indeed Aalilee ,as the
a#ea ,he#e most o) 8h#ist1s minist#y ,as &a##ied out othe# than in
.e#usalem itsel). The Po#d only 'assed th#ou"h %ama#ia and s'ent
&om'a#ati$ely little time in .udaea in the south othe# than the time he
s'ent in .e#usalem and its immediate en$i#ons. .esus said in .ohn 2N5 =As
lon" as I am in the ,o#ld I am the li"ht o) the ,o#ld.= Indeed the li"ht o)
8h#ist shone in Aalilee enli"htenin" the 'eo'le ,ho had ,alked in da#kness
in Rebulon and Ma'htali.
.esus De&la#ed by Aod the 7athe# to be %on o) Aod - 6salm 2ND - =I ,ill
de&la#e the de&#eeN the P9!D hath said unto me Thou a#t my %onJ this day
ha$e I be"otten thee.= - This '#o'he&y ,as )ul)illed ,hen Aod the 7athe#
s'oke as .esus ,as t#ans)i"u#ed on the mountain as ,itnessed by 6ete#
.ames and .ohn. =..This is my belo$ed %on in ,hom I am ,ell 'leasedJ
hea# ye him.= ?Matthe, 1DN5 see also Matthe, 3N1D@. 8h#ist ,as de&la#ed
by the 7athe# to be /is %on demonst#atin" 8h#ist1s )ull deity.
.esus %'oke in 6a#ables - 6salm D4N2-B - =I ,ill o'en my mouth in a 'a#ableN
I ,ill utte# da#k sayin"s o) oldN Whi&h ,e ha$e hea#d and kno,n and ou#
)athe#s ha$e told us. We ,ill not hide them )#om thei# &hild#en she,in" to
the "ene#ation to &ome the '#aises o) the P9!D and his st#en"th and his
,onde#)ul ,o#ks that he hath done.= - This ,as )ul)illed in the ,ay that
.esus '#ea&hed to the multitudes. /e tau"ht in 'a#ables ,hi&h ,e#e not
me#ely sto#ies desi"ned to elu&idate 'oints o# demonst#ate '#a&ti&al
a''li&ations but had the s'e&i)i& 'u#'ose o) &on&ealin" t#uth )#om the
unbelie$in" ?Matthe, 13N10-1C@. Those ,ho o''osed 8h#ist and did not
belie$e in /im &ould not unde#stand the ,o#ds that /e s'oke. =7o#
,hosoe$e# hath to him shall be "i$en and he shall ha$e mo#e abundan&eJ
but ,hosoe$e# hath notJ )#om him shall be taken a,ay e$en that he hath.=
?Matthe, 13N12@ To those ,ho had )aith kno,led"e and unde#standin" ,e#e
added in abundan&e but to those ,ho did not ha$e )aith in 8h#ist the t#uth
that they had hea#d )#om /im ,as lost &om'letely on them. This 'a#allels
the 'assa"e in I 8o#inthians 2N12-1B ,hi&h tells us that a s'i#itual ?sa$ed
belie$in"@ 'e#son &an unde#stand and lea#n )#om Aod1s Wo#d ,hile a natu#al
?lost unsa$ed unbelie$in"@ 'e#son &annot #e&ei$e o# unde#stand ,hat the
Bible says. .esus1 tea&hin" in 'a#ables )ul)illed the '#o'he&y in the 6salms
as is 'ointed out e:'li&itly in Matthe, 13N3B-35@.
The bibli&al testimony )#om the /eb#e, s&#i'tu#es is (uite &lea#. .esus 8h#ist ,as
the uni(ue )ul)illment o) do*ens o) '#o'he&ies "i$en by Aod. The odds o) one
sin"le 'e#son )ul)illin" ea&h and e$e#y one o) these '#o'he&ies as .esus has done
is lite#ally so ast#onomi&ally #emote as to be absolutely im'ossible. 5et /e did.
While Muslim a'olo"ists ha$e to s&#abble )o# &on$oluted e:'lanations to t#y to )ind
Mohammed in the Bibli&al #e&o#d .esus 8h#ist is (uite &lea#ly sho,n to ha$e been
'#edi&ted as the Messiah ,ho ,as to &ome )o# Is#ael and )o# the ,hole ,o#ld.
End Motes
?1@ - W.M. Watt GDe$elo'ment o) the Muslim Attitude to the BibleH Early Islam3
+ollected %rticles '. 43
?2@ - Ibid. '. D4
?3@ - 5.D. Me$o and .. -o#en +rossroads to Islam '. 2C5
?B@ - 8.A. 6)ande# "i.anul *aqq3 $he 5alance of $ruth '. 230
?5@ - %ee .. !ets^ $he %ra(s in %ntiquity3 $heir *istory from the %ssyrians to the
Umayyads ''. 31-B0
?C@ - ..7. Wal$oo#d and !.B. Ru&k $he 5i(le Knowledge +ommentary '. B3
?D@ - B. 8oo'e# %fter the !lood th#ou"hout A''endi: 2
?4@ - 8. 8oon $he 8aces of "an ''. 42-43
?2@ - 5a(ut al-/ama,i "u/am al-5uldan +ol. 3 '.43B
?10@ - 7a#an in A#abi& is analo"ous to 6a#an. In /eb#e, both the G'H and the G)G
a#e #e'#esented by the lette# G6eG. The '#onun&iation o) this lette# de'ends u'on
the '#esen&e o# la&k o) the Da"esh Pene ,ithin the lette#. I) it la&ked the Da"esh
as it ,ould in un'ointed /eb#e, s&#i'ts then it ,ould indi&ate the G)H 'honeme.
7u#the# A#abi& does not ha$e the ='= 'honeme e:&e't in &e#tain loan ,o#ds. In
A#abi& be&ause the ='= is &han"ed to =)= 6a#an in /eb#e, be&omes =7a#an=. We
&an see this 'henomenon o&&u##in" also in 5a(utIs 'assa"e ,ith the #eadin" o)
6alestine as =7ilistiin=.
?11@ - Al-Id#isi Cu.hat al-"ushtaq fi I'htiraq al-%faq '. 2J )#om A. Pe %t#an"e
6alestine under the "oslems '. BB0
?12@ - $he 5oo' of the $housand Cights and a Cight t#ans. !.7. Bu#ton +ols. 5-C
the DC2th Mi"ht '. 2DD5
?13@ - Ibn -haldun "uqqadimah t#ans. 7. !osenthal 8h. 1 ''. 51-52
?1B@ - It is unlikely that any es&a'e su&h as that #e&o#ded he#e ,ould ha$e in$ol$ed
a sea #oute to E"y't. The !ed %ea ,as histo#i&ally kno,n )o# its t#ea&he#ous
,ate#s and the#e ,e#e no 'o#ts on the easte#n ?A#abian@ &oast o) the !ed %ea
bet,een Elath in the )a# no#th and 5emen in the )a# south du#in" this time. Thus
i) 6a#an ,as o# ,as nea# Me&&a thei# #oute to E"y't ,ould ha$e to ha$e been to
Me&&a by land and then ba&k e:a&tly the ,ay they &ame to "et to E"y't '#o'e#J
o# else t#a$el many hund#eds o) miles )u#the# south to 5emen obtain shi''in" ba&k
to the A)#i&an side o) the !ed %ea and then t#a$el many hund#eds o) miles ba&k
Mo#th to the E"y'tian &a'ital in the Mile delta. Meithe# o'tion seems e$en
#emotely likely.
?15@ - %. Bashea# G!idin" Beasts on Di$ine MissionsN An E:amination o) the Ass and
8amel T#aditionsH Studies in Early Islamic $radition 8h. 5 ''. B2-B3J o#i"inally
in 2ournal of Semitic Studies +ol. BC Mo. 1 ?%'#in" 1221@ ''. 3D-D5
?1C@ - %ee W. White $heological -ord(oo' of the &ld $estament +ol. 2 eds. !.P.
/a##is A.P. A#&he# and B.-. Waltke '. 4BD
?1D@ - E." Ibn %a1d Kita( al-ta(aqat al-'a(ir +ol. 1 ''. 243-24B
?14@ - 6. 8#one and M. 8ook *agarism3 $he "a'ing of the "uslim -orld '. 23
?12@ - Al-Baladhu#i Kita( !utuh al-5uldan ed. M... de Aoe<e '. 2DC
?20@ - Ta(i al-Din al-Ma(#i*i al-"awaFi. wa al-iFti(ar fi dhi'r al-'hitat wa al-
athar +ol. B '. C
?21@ - 8#one and 8ook o'. &it. '. 2B
?22@ - Ibid. '. 23
?23@ - %ee W. W#i"ht +atalog of Syriac "anuscripts '. C0B
?2B@ - A. /a,tin" =The 9#i"ins o) the Muslim %an&tua#y at Me&&a= Studies in the
!irst +entury of Islamic Society ed. A./.A. .uynboll ''. 2D-24
?25@ - %. Bashea# G0ibla Musha##i(a and Ea#ly Muslim 6#aye# in 8hu#&hesH Studies
in Early Islamic $radition 8h. C '. 242J o#i"inally in $he "uslim -orld +ol. 41
?1221@ ''. 2CD-242
?2C@ - Ibid. '. 241
?2D@ - %. Bashea# G5emen in Ea#ly IslamN An E:amination o) Mon-T#ibal T#aditionsH
Studies in Early Islamic $radition 8h. 1 '. 3C0J o#i"inally in %ra(ica +ol. 3C
?1242@ ''. 32D-3C1
?24@ - %. Bashea# G0ibla Musha##i(a and Ea#ly Muslim 6#aye# in 8hu#&hesH Studies
in Early Islamic $radition 8h. C '. 2D2J o#i"inally in $he "uslim -orld +ol. 41
?1221@ ''. 2CD-242
?22@ - Watt o'. &it. '.42
?30@ - /. Mo##is 5i(lical 5asis for "odern Science '. D3
?31@ - As Mille# notes this identi)i&ation o) =,eeks= as a )i"u#ati$e te#m )o# se$en-
yea# 'e#iods is a&tually ,ell-attested in .e,ish lite#atu#e des'ite ,hat mode#n
.e,ish =anti-missiona#ies= mi"ht say. %ee Mille#1s essay at htt'NQQ,,,.&h#istian-
thinktank.&omQ(D0,eeks.html
?32@ - 7o# a mo#e in-de'th e:amination o) this 'assa"e as a Messiani& '#edi&to# o)
8h#ist see htt'NQQ,,,.studytoans,e#.netQdo&t#ineQalmah.html
?33@ - 7o# a )ulle# study o) this 'assa"e as Messiani& see
htt'NQQ,,,.studytoans,e#.netQ<udaismQmi&ah5n2.html
?3B@ - %ee htt'NQQ,,,.&h#istian-thinktank.&omQbaduseot.html
?35@ - ../. %ailhame# GThe Messiah and the /eb#e, BibleG 2ournal of the
Evangelical $heological Society +ol. BB Mo. 1 ?Ma#&h 2001@ ''. 1C-1D
Myth ED
Islam is a 6ea&e)ul !eli"ion
=Et erat longe4 mea quidem sentential4 qui imperium credat esse gravius aut
sta(ilius vi quod fit4 quam illud quod amicitia adiungitur.= ?=A man is $e#y ,#on"
at least in my o'inion ,ho belie$es that 'o,e# is st#on"e# and mo#e du#able ,hen
im'osed by )o#&e than ,hen '#o&u#ed by )#iendshi'.=@
- Te#en&e $he 5rothers
+iolen&e 7#om the 0u#1an
What Muslim %&hola#s o) the 0u#1an %ay About +iolen&e
+iolen&e 7#om the Ahadith
/isto#i&al Muslim +iolen&e To,a#ds >nbelie$e#s
The +iolen&e o) Islam in the Mode#n E#a
The 8ont#ast o) Bible 8h#istianity
%ome Wo#ds About the 8#usades
7#om a so&iolo"i&al stand'oint this is 'e#ha's T/E most ,idely '#o'a"ated myth
about Islam. 7o# de&ades Islam has 'ut a&#oss to Weste#ne#s a 'ea&e)ul lo$in"
)#ont. This )alse $ie, o) Islam has been s'#ead all the mo#e a""#essi$ely sin&e the
te##o#ist atta&ks o) %e'tembe# 11 2001. Muslim leade#s in the >nited %tates and
othe# Weste#n nations had to 'ush thei# e))o#ts at hidin" Islam1s t#ue natu#e into
hi"h "ea# t#yin" to &ounte#balan&e the im'a&t that ,as made by the si"ht o)
6alestinians and othe# Muslims ?some in this $e#y nation@ &hee#in" and &eleb#atin"
the dest#u&tion o) the Wo#ld T#ade 8ente# and the 6enta"on. >n)o#tunately many
theolo"i&ally libe#al and &om'#omisin" 'eo'le in most o) the mainline 8h#istian
denominations ha$e "one #i"ht alon" ,ith these attem'ts at ,hite,ashin" Islam1s
ima"e eithe# out o) blind i"no#an&e o# unthinkin" sym'athy )o# Mohammed1s
#eli"ion. E$en in many t#aditionally &onse#$ati$e 6#otestant &hu#&hes 'asto#s ha$e
in$ited )alse tea&he#s )#om Islam to '#esent that #eli"ion to thei# &on"#e"ants and
the ima"e "i$en is in$a#iably that o) a 'ea&e)ul lo$in" tende#-hea#ted )aith ,hose
membe#s a#e absolutely a''alled at the $iolen&e &ommitted by =a )e, )#in"e
#adi&als=.
I ha$e 'e#sonally ,itnessed this so#t o) bald-)a&ed lyin" done in the name o) Islam.
9n Mo$embe# 11 2001 I attended a 'anel '#esentation on the &am'us o) the
>ni$e#sity o) Mo#th 8a#olina in 8ha'el /ill du#in" ,hi&h the se$e#al 'anel
membe#s ea&h had the o''o#tunity to take 15 minutes and "i$e thei# thou"hts on
the e$ents and #es'onses to the %e'tembe# 11 atta&ks. 9ne o) the s'eake#s ,as a
Muslim imam )#om a lo&al mos(ue in Du#ham. Matu#ally he took t,i&e as mu&h
time as ,as allotted )o# him and did not e$en add#ess the to'i& o) dis&ussion.
Instead he s'ent 30 minutes #antin" and #a$in" about ho, 'ea&e)ul and lo$in"
Islam ,as and ho, Islam #es'e&ts 'eo'le o) othe# #eli"ions. This lyin" de&ei$e#
e$en ,ent so )a# as to say that he ,ould be mo#ally obli"ated to sto' a 'e#son
)#om de)a&in" o# $andali*in" a 8h#istian &hu#&h. In sho#t his enti#e diat#ibe ,as
one "iant lie yet mu&h o) the ?mostly le)tist@ &#o,d ate u' e$e#y ,o#d o) it like it
,as "os'el t#uth. This #es'onse demonst#ated the des'e#ate need )o# edu&ation
about Islam in this nation. Mot edu&ation in Islam but edu&ation about Islam so
that the ma<o#ity o) the 'o'ulation in Weste#n so&ieties ,ho kno, little to nothin"
about the #eli"ion &an lea#n the t#uth about it instead o) bein" )ed su"a#-&oated
lies )#om Islami& leade#s and '#o'a"andists. 6eo'le in the West need to kno, that
the ima"e o) Islam as a $iolent intole#ant ,i&ked #eli"ion is in )a&t t#ue and
"#o,in" mo#e so e$e#y day.
%o to ask the (uestion )#anklyN Is Islam 'ea&e)ul o# $iolent; To ans,e# e(ually as
)#anklyN It is $iolent. It is a #eli"ion ,hi&h ,as bo#n out o) $iolen&e '#o'a"ated
th#ou"h $iolen&e and ,hi&h is still a&&ustomed to $iolen&e e$en today. This &an
&lea#ly be seen by e:aminin" the tea&hin"s and #e&o#d o) Islam. These a#e the t,o
'#ima#y means by ,hi&h to <ud"e the &ha#a&te# o) a #eli"ion on some (uestion. 5ou
look at the established #e&o"ni*ed 'lainly unde#stood tea&hin"s o) that #eli"ion
)#om its holy te:ts and then you look at the manne# and methodolo"y by ,hi&h
those most )aith)ul to that #eli"ion &a##y out thei# obedien&e to thei# belie)
system. %o let us a''ly this test to the Muslim )aith.
Thou"h $iolen&e to,a#ds those o) othe# )aiths is &e#tainly not unkno,n amon"
othe# o) the ,o#ld1s #eli"ions Islam "oes )u#the# than the othe# #eli"ious systems o)
the ,o#ld in that its holy te:ts &ommand and &ommend #eli"iously-moti$ated
$iolen&e a"ainst unbelie$e#s. It is not <ust a matte# o) tole#atin" it o# o) tu#nin" a
blind eye. !athe# the 0u#1an and the ahadith su''o#t and en&ou#a"e the )aith)ul
to '#ess $iolent /ihad a"ainst non-Muslims.
Violence :rom the Qur'an
What does Islam tea&h as )a# as $iolen&e is &on&e#ned; Pookin" at the 0u#1an ,e
see that (uite a lot is said about this sub<e&t. Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill o)ten 'oint to
Surah 2N120-123 as '#oo) that Islam tea&hes only de)ensi$e ,a#)a#e but es&he,s
o))ense.
=7i"ht in the &ause o) Allah those ,ho )i"ht you but do not t#ans"#ess limitsJ )o#
Allah lo$eth not t#ans"#esso#s. And slay them ,he#e$e# ye &at&h them and tu#n
them out )#om ,he#e they ha$e Tu#ned you outJ )o# tumult and o''#ession a#e
,o#se than slau"hte#J but )i"ht them not at the %a&#ed Mos(ue unless they )i#st
)i"ht you the#eJ but i) they )i"ht you slay them. %u&h is the #e,a#d o) those ,ho
su''#ess )aith. But i) they &ease Allah is 9)t-)o#"i$in" Most Me#&i)ul. And )i"ht
them on until the#e is no mo#e Tumult o# o''#ession and the#e '#e$ail <usti&e and
)aith in AllahJ but i) they &ease Pet the#e be no hostility e:&e't to those ,ho
'#a&ti&e o''#ession.=
These $e#ses it is said admonish Muslims only to )i"ht a"ainst those ,ho o''#ess
o# 'e#se&ute Muslims and only until the o))ende#s ha$e sto''ed o''#essin"
Muslims. /o,e$e# the#e is a &at&h to all this. The 0u#1an also tea&hes )o# Muslims
to ente# into e:ile in lands ,he#e Islam is not the dominant )o#&e and to sti# u'
t#ouble so that this 'e#se&ution ,ill &ome as the nati$es in those lands '#ote&t the
inte"#ity o) thei# so$e#ei"nty and &i$ili*ation.
=Those ,ho belie$ed and ado'ted e:ile and )ou"ht )o# the 7aith ,ith thei#
'#o'e#ty and thei# 'e#sons in the &ause o) Allah as ,ell as those ,ho "a$e them
asylum and aid- these a#e all )#iends and '#ote&to#s one o) anothe#. As to those
,ho belie$ed but &ame not into e:ile ye o,e no duty o) '#ote&tion to them until
they &ome into e:ileJ but i) they seek you# aid in #eli"ion it is you# duty to hel'
them e:&e't a"ainst a 'eo'le ,ith ,hom ye ha$e a t#eaty o) mutual allian&e. And
#emembe# Allah seeth all that ye do. The >nbelie$e#s a#e '#ote&to#s one o)
anothe#N >nless ye do this '#ote&t ea&h othe# the#e ,ould be tumult and
o''#ession on ea#th and "#eat mis&hie).= ?%u#ah 4ND2-D3@
In this 'assa"e =ado'ted e:ile= is t#anslated )#om the #oot )o#m h/r ,hi&h has as
its '#ima#y meanin" the ideas o) &ontainment o# &on)inement and &an &a##y the
&onnotation o) bein" (ua#antined o# &om'a#tmentali*ed. The s'e&i)i& &onte:t
#e)e#s to those Muslims ?kno,n as muha/irun@ ,ho had le)t Me&&a du#in" the ea#ly
'a#t o) Mohammed1s minist#y ,hen the Muslims ,e#e &omin" unde# 'e#se&ution
and )led to Medina. The#e they <oined ,ith Medinan belie$e#s ?ansari@ e$entually
"athe#in" enou"h 'o,e# to be able to &on(ue# Me&&a. This e:ile ho,e$e# doesn1t
ha$e to be in a )#iendly land. These $e#ses &an be unde#stood th#ou"h an e:tended
a''li&ation to be en&ou#a"in" Muslims to ado't e:ile in a )o#ei"n land and
$olunta#ily &on)ine themsel$es in a non-Muslim so&iety. Then es&he, assimilatin"
into the &ultu#e and ,ay o) li)e o) the host &ount#y and instead a"itate )o# Islam.
When o''osition a#ises they <oin to"ethe# and "i$e aid and )i"ht )o# Allah a"ainst
the unbelie$e#s sin&e voil, 'e#se&ution has a#isenO /en&e ,hat is touted as a
de)ensi$e do&t#ine is in #eality &a##ied out in an o))ensi$e manne#.
This inte#'#etation is not me#ely theo#eti&al. We &an in )a&t see it bein" a''lied
today in Eu#o'ean &ount#ies that ha$e be&ome the hosts to la#"e numbe#s o)
Muslim immi"#ants )#om Mo#th A)#i&a Tu#key and the Indian sub&ontinent. It is
&ommon )o# Muslims in these &ount#ies to &ause t#ouble ,hethe# th#ou"h &#ime o#
th#ou"h mo#e o#"ani*ed )o#ms o) diso#de# and they ,ill not assimilate to the
&ultu#al no#ms and modes o) thei# host &ount#ies. When the Eu#o'eans de)end
themsel$es o# e$en &#iti&i*e ,hat is bein" done by these ="uests= the Muslims use
this as an e:&use to &laim 'e#se&ution and #es'ond $iolently o)ten su''o#ted by
thei# )ello, Muslims in the Islami& ,o#ld. %,eden has seen an e'idemi& o) se:ual
assaults u'on nati$e-bo#n %,edish ,omen in ,hat is bein" &alled the =#a'e <ihad=
yet the )ault )o# this beha$io# al,ays seems to be blamed on the %,edes
themsel$es )o# thei# =#a&ism= and =Islamo'hobia=. In 7#an&e in the ,inte# o) 2005
t,o Muslim &#iminals ,ho ,e#e )leein" )#om the 'oli&e took #e)u"e in an ele&t#i&al
substation and ,e#e ele&t#o&uted. The &ount#y ,as subse(uently ,#a&ked by
,eeks o) #iots and a#son by its la#"e Muslim 'o'ulation be&ause the deaths o)
these t,o youths ,e#e =ob$iously= the )ault o) the #a&ist Islamo'hobi& 7#en&h
'oli&e )o# t#yin" to b#in" them to <usti&e and not the )ault o) the Muslim )u"iti$es
themsel$es )o# &ommittin" &#imes. In B#itain the Bisho' o) !o&heste# &om'lained
that &e#tain a#eas in B#itish &ities ,e#e $i#tual =no "o= *ones )o# non-Muslims. 7o#
'ointin" this out the bisho' has #e&ei$ed nume#ous death th#eats and Muslim
&ommentato#s issue di#e thinly-$eiled th#eats o) =,hat mi"ht ha''en= i) B#itish
so&iety &ontinues to be so #a&ist and Islamo'hobi&. Most #e&ently in Ae#many a
Mo#o&&an immi"#ant attem'ted to #ob a 20-yea# old Ae#man and ,as killed ,hen
the Ae#man ?#i"htly@ de)ended himsel). As a #esult Muslims in Ae#many ha$e used
this o''o#tunity to &ondemn the #a&ist Islamo'hobi& Ae#man so&iety and to
th#eaten $iolen&e and #iotin" #athe# than &ondemnin" one o) thei# o,n ,ho
attem'ted to &ommit a $iolent &#ime. These a#e <ust )ou# e:am'les o) a mu&h
,ide# 'atte#n o) beha$io# e:hibited by Muslim immi"#ants to Eu#o'ean &ount#ies -
)ailu#e to assimilate the )o#mation o) #eli"ious en&la$es that a#e a&ti$ely hostile
to the su##oundin" nati$e 'o'ulations &#iminality and ,el)a#e e:'loitation
)ollo,ed by th#eatened o# a&tual $iolen&e and &i$il st#i)e ,hen the Muslims a#e
=o))ended= by the nati$e Eu#o'eans a&tually de)endin" themsel$es. This is all
shielded by &#ies o) =#a&ism= and =Islamo'hobia= that a#e desi"ned to "ene#ate
sym'athy and the )ea# o) la,suits o# le"al '#ose&ution by le)t-leanin" "o$e#nments
a"ainst those ,ho &hallen"e this state o) a))ai#s.
In addition to this #oundabout method the#e a#e nume#ous othe# mo#e st#ai"ht-
)o#,a#d 'assa"es in the 0u#1an that e:ho#t the )ollo,e#s o) Mohammed to ,a#N
=But ,hen the )o#bidden months a#e 'ast then )i"ht and slay the 6a"ans ,he#e$e#
ye )ind them and sei*e them belea"ue# them and lie in ,ait )o# them in e$e#y
st#ata"em ?o) ,a#@J but i) they #e'ent and establish #e"ula# '#aye#s and '#a&ti&e
#e"ula# &ha#ity then o'en the ,ay )o# themN )o# Allah is 9)t-)o#"i$in" Most
Me#&i)ul.= ?Surah 2N5@
This 'assa"e is )ound in a 'o#tion o) the 0u#1an dealin" ,ith the makin" and
b#eakin" o) t#eaties ,ith 'a"ans ?i.e. unbelie$e#s@. In &onte:t it is &ondoned )o#
Muslims to b#eak t#eaties ,ith 'a"ans i) it is to thei# ad$anta"e to do so unless
those 'a"ans ha$e been &om'letely )aith)ul in the dis&ha#"e o) thei# t#eaty
obli"ations. But a)te# the te#ms o) the t#eaty a#e met ?the )o#bidden months a#e
'ast@ Muslims a#e &ommanded to make ,a#. The histo#i&al &onte:t is that in
an&ient times both in A#abia and else,he#e t#eaties ,e#e most o)ten made )o#
s'e&i)i& 'e#iods o) time. Du#in" that time 'e#iod both 'a#ties ,e#e e:'e&ted to be
&om'letely )aith)ul in the dis&ha#"e o) thei# obli"ations unde# the te#ms o) the
t#eaty. A)te# the t#eaty te#m had ended all bets ,e#e o)). A#ou's that had been
allies )o# a 'e#iod o) time mi"ht then tu#n on ea&h othe# in the most $i&ious
manne# a)te# the t#eaty time ended ,ithout any loss o) hono# )o# eithe# side. In
ou# &onte:t the 0u#1an tells Muslims that 'a"an o# unbelie$in" "#ou's ,ith ,hom
they do not &u##ently ha$e a t#eaty a#e o'en to the '#ose&ution o) o))ensi$e ,a#.
The 'a#ti&ula# t#eaty that lies at the hea#t o) this 'assa"e ,as me#ely tem'o#a#y
lastin" )ou# months and ,as inte#'#eted as ,e ,ill see by late# Islami& s&hola#s
as nulli)yin" any othe# t#eaties bet,een Muslims and in)idels - ,hi&h ,ould
essentially mean that M9 t#eaties a#e no, to be &onside#ed bindin". Indeed as &an
be seen th#ou"h the Islami& notion o) hudna #adi&al Muslims do not )eel
themsel$es bound to #es'e&t any 'a&t ,hi&h they mi"ht si"n ,ith non-Muslims and
,ill b#eak su&h a"#eements as soon as they )eel it is to thei# ad$anta"e to do so.
Pike,ise in Surah 2ND3 Mohammed is &ommanded to '#ess ha#d ,a# a"ainst
unbelie$e#s
=9 6#o'hetO st#i$e ha#d a"ainst the >nbelie$e#s and the /y'o&#ites and be )i#m
a"ainst them. Thei# abode is /ell- an e$il #e)u"e indeed.=
Also
=9 ye ,ho belie$eO 7i"ht those o) the disbelie$e#s ,ho a#e nea# to you and let
them )ind ha#shness in you and kno, that Allah is ,ith those ,ho kee' thei# duty
?unto /im@. = ?Surah 2N123 6i&kthal t#anslation@
=7i"ht those ,ho belie$e not in Allah no# the Past Day no# hold that )o#bidden
,hi&h hath been )o#bidden by Allah and /is Messen"e# no# a&kno,led"e the
#eli"ion o) T#uth ?e$en i) they a#e@ o) the 6eo'le o) the Book until they 'ay the
.i*ya ,ith ,illin" submission and )eel themsel$es subdued.= ?Surah 2N22@
Ea&h o) these $e#ses in &onte:t is dealin" ,ith ,a"in" o))ensi$e ,a# a"ainst
unbelie$e#s )o# the 'u#'ose o) s'#eadin" Islam. As ,ith the '#e$ious $e#ses ,hi&h
,e sa, Muslims ,ill o)ten t#y to &laim that these $e#ses '#omote de)ensi$e
,a#)a#e only and that o))ensi$e ,a# to '#o'a"ate Islam is not (u#ani&al. They say
this in the ho'es that thei# audien&e most likely non-Muslims ,ill not be
&on$e#sant in the 0u#1an and hen&e ,ill be una,a#e o) the &onte:tual
en$i#onment in ,hi&h these $e#ses a''ea# no# ,ith the histo#y o) inte#'#etation
'e#tainin" to these $e#ses. A st#ai"ht-)o#,a#d #eadin" o) the a''#o'#iate suwar
and su##oundin" 'assa"es usin" a little &ommon sense ,ill &onte:tually
demonst#ate the o))ensi$e natu#e o) these $e#ses to the unbiased #eade#.
-hat Muslim Scholars of the Qur'an Say 'bout Violence
/o,e$e# many Muslim a'olo"ists still attem't to a#"ue that these $e#ses in the
0u#1an a#e bein" taken out o) &onte:t. Be&ause o) this &laim ,e should in$esti"ate
,hat o#thodo: Muslim e:'osito#s and s&hola#s ha$e to say on this as thei# ,o#ds
,e#e mu&h less inhibited by &on&e#ns )o# '#esentin" Islam in a 'ositi$e li"ht to
Weste#n audien&es. 9ne o) the ea#liest "#eat Muslim le"al s&hola#s Al-Taba#i ?434-
223@ e:'lained that Surah 2N5 &ommanded the death o) in)idels i) they ,ould not
emb#a&e Islam lest they should ente# Me&&a
1
. Mu&h late# Al-Mahili ?d. 1B4C@ also
"i$es a &lea# indi&ation o) unde#standin" Surah 2N5 o))ensi$ely and a""#essi$ely
=The &ha'te# o) !e'entan&e ,as #e$ealed to #aise the le$el o) se&u#ity ,hi&h the
in)idels en<oyed be&ause Muhammad had ea#lie# made a &o$enant ,ith them not to
kill them. A)te# that this $e#se ,as "i$en ?2N5@ in o#de# to )#ee Aod and
Muhammad )#om any &o$enant ,ith the in)idels. It "i$es them )ou# months in
,hi&h they ,ill be '#ote&ted but by the end o) the )ou# months ?the end o) the
"#a&e 'e#iod@ the o#de# &omesN -ill the in)idels ,he#e$e# you )ind them. 8a'tu#e
them besie"e them in thei# &astles and )o#t#esses until they a#e )o#&ed to a&&e't
Islam o# be killed.=
2
Anothe# o) the most histo#i&ally in)luential Muslim <u#ists and (u#ani& e:e"etes al-
Baida,i ?d. 124C@ "i$es a )ai#ly ty'i&al unde#standin" o) the do&t#ine &ommentin"
on Surah 2N22
=7i"ht .e,s and 8h#istians be&ause they $iolated the o#i"in o) thei# )aith and they
do not belie$e in the #eli"ion o) the t#uth ?Islam@ ,hi&h ab#o"ated all othe#
#eli"ions. 7i"ht them until they 'ay the 'oll-ta: ?Ri*iya ta:@ ,ith submission and
humiliation.=
3
The Islami& 'hiloso'he# and histo#ian Ibn -haldun ?1332-1B0C@ ,ho ,as a <u#ist o)
the Maliki le"al s&hool a))i#med the duty o) Islam to "ain 'o,e# o$e# othe# nations
,hen he stated
=In the Muslim &ommunity the holy ,a# is a #eli"ious duty be&ause o) the
uni$e#salism o) the Muslim mission and ?the obli"ation to@ &on$e#t e$e#ybody to
Islam eithe# by 'e#suasion o# by )o#&e. The#e)o#e &ali'hate and #oyal autho#ity a#e
united in Islam so that the 'e#son in &ha#"e &an de$ote the a$ailable st#en"th to
both o) them at the same.=
B
9the# note,o#thy Islami& <u#ists and 'hiloso'he#s '#omoted the same o))ensi$e
st#ate"y )o# /ihad. Ibn -athi# ?1301-13D3@ &ommented that Surah 2N5 seen abo$e
ab#o"ated any &o$enant ,hi&h mi"ht ha$e been made bet,een Muslims and
in)idels and that it sti'ulated that Muslims )i"ht the in)idels any,he#e on ea#th
e:&e't )o# ,ithin =the sa&#ed a#ea= ?i.e. the haram o) Me&&a@
5
. Ibn /a*m ?22B-
10CB@ '#o$ides some inte#estin" &ommenta#y &on&e#nin" the so-&alled =tole#an&e=
$e#se Surah 2N25C ?=Pet the#e be no &om'ulsion in #eli"ion....=@ ,hen he
demonst#ates the t#ue 'u#'ose o) the ayah
=The '#o'het Muhammad did not a&&e't )#om the A#ab heathens less than Islam o#
the s,o#d. This is &om'ulsion o) )aith. Mo &om'ulsion in )aith ?o# #eli"ion@ a''lies
only to 8h#istians o# .e,s be&ause they a#e not to be )o#&ed to emb#a&e the
#eli"ion. They ha$e the o'tion eithe# to emb#a&e Islam the s,o#d o# to 'ay the
'oll-ta:. In this &ase they &an kee' thei# o,n )aith. It ,as t#uly said on the
autho#ity o) the a'ostle o) Aod that the#e is no &om'ulsion in the )aith.=
C
Thus &om'ulsion &e#tainly ,as to be a''lied to any non-Muslims ,ho ,e#e not
8h#istians o# .e,s. These latte# t,o "#ou's ,e#e "i$en the thi#d a''a#ently non-
&om'ulsi$e &hoi&e o) submittin" to 'ay the /i.yah 'oll-ta: and li$e out thei# li$es
as a 'e#manent unde#&lass. This =non-&om'ulsion= a''lies only to lands outside the
A#abian 'eninsula. 7o# the 'eninsula itsel) the t#aditions sti'ulate that no t,o
#eli"ions &ould e:ist the#e only Islam alone
D
.
9the# medie$al s&hola#s a##i$ed at the same "ene#al &on&lusions about /ihad that
a#e d#a,n )#om the 0u#1an. The Mo#th A)#i&an <u#ist al-0ay#a,ani ?d. 22C o) the
Maliki s&hool@ d#a,in" ins'i#ation )#om 2N22 ,#ote
=2ihad is a '#e&e't o) Di$ine institution. Its 'e#)o#man&e by &e#tain indi$iduals may
dis'ense othe#s )#om it. We Malikis maintain that it is '#e)e#able not to be"in
hostilities ,ith the enemy be)o#e ha$in" in$ited the latte# to emb#a&e the #eli"ion
o) Allah e:&e't ,he#e the enemy atta&ks )i#st. They ha$e the alte#nati$e o) eithe#
&on$e#tin" to Islam o# 'ayin" the 'oll ta: ?/i.ya@ sho#t o) ,hi&h ,a# ,ill be
de&la#ed a"ainst them.=
4
Al-Ma,a#di ?2D2-1054@ a s&hola# o) the %ha)i1i <u#idi&al t#adition said
=The mushri'un o) Da# al-/a#b ?the a#ena o) battle@ a#e o) t,o ty'esN 7i#st those
,hom the &all o) Islam has #ea&hed but they ha$e #e)used it and ha$e taken u'
a#ms. The ami# o) the a#my has the o'tion o) )i"htin" them....%e&ond those ,hom
the in$itation to Islam has not #ea&hed althou"h su&h 'e#sons a#e )e, no,adays
sin&e Allah has made mani)est the &all o) his Messen"e#....It is )o#bidden to be"in
an atta&k be)o#e e:'lainin" the in$itation to Islam to them in)o#min" them o) the
mi#a&les o) the 6#o'het and makin" 'lain the '#oo)s so as to en&ou#a"e a&&e'tan&e
on thei# 'a#tJ i) they still #e)use to a&&e't a)te# this ,a# is ,a"ed a"ainst them
and they a#e t#eated as those ,hom the &all has #ea&hed....=
2
The *idayah the &lassi&al manual o) la, )o# the /ana)ite le"al t#adition '#e'a#ed
by al-Ma#"hinani ?1152-112D@ says this about /ihad d#a,in" a"ain u'on the
&ommand to im'ose /i.yah in 2N22 as it #elates to the =th#ee &hoi&es= #ule ?&on$e#t
submit o# die@
=It is not la,)ul to make ,a# u'on any 'eo'le ,ho ha$e ne$e# be)o#e been &alled
to the )aith ,ithout '#e$iously #e(ui#in" them to emb#a&e it be&ause the 6#o'het
so inst#u&ted his &ommande#s di#e&tin" them to &all the in)idels to the )aith and
also be&ause the 'eo'le ,ill hen&e 'e#&ei$e that they a#e atta&ked )o# the sake o)
#eli"ion and not )o# the sake o) takin" thei# '#o'e#ty o# makin" sla$es o) thei#
&hild#en and on this &onside#ation it is 'ossible that they may be indu&ed to a"#ee
to the &all in o#de# to sa$e themsel$es )#om the t#oubles o) ,a#....I) the in)idels
u'on #e&ei$in" the &all neithe# &onsent to it no# a"#ee to 'ay &a'itation ta: it is
then in&umbent on the Muslims to &all u'on Aod )o# assistan&e and to make ,a#
u'on them be&ause Aod is the assistant o) those ,ho se#$e /im and the dest#oye#
o) /is enemies the in)idels and it is ne&essa#y to im'lo#e /is aid u'on e$e#y
o&&asionJ the 6#o'het mo#eo$e# &ommands us so to do.=
10
6ete#s '#o$ides the $ie, o) Ibn Taymiyya ?12C3-1324@ the /anbalite <u#ist ,ho as
,ill be seen in the ne:t &ha'te# ,as inst#umental in establishin" the e:t#emely
)undamentalist inte#'#etation o) the 0u#1an and the t#aditions ,hi&h sti)led Islami&
intelle&tual endea$o#s sta#tin" in the 13th &entu#y. Taymiyya ,#ote about /ihad
=%in&e la,)ul ,a#)a#e is essentially <ihad and sin&e its aim is that the #eli"ion is
AodIs enti#ely and AodIs ,o#d is u''e#most the#e)o#e a&&o#din" to all Muslims
those ,ho stand in the ,ay o) this aim must be )ou"ht. As )o# those ,ho &annot
o))e# #esistan&e o# &annot )i"ht su&h as ,omen &hild#en monks old 'eo'le the
blind handi&a''ed and thei# likes they shall not be killed unless they a&tually
)i"ht ,ith ,o#ds ?e.". by '#o'a"anda@ and a&ts ?e.". by s'yin" o# othe#,ise
assistin" in the ,a#)a#e@.=
11
As ,e &an see '#ominent Islami& s&hola#s o) anti(uity )#om ea&h o) the )ou# ma<o#
s&hools o) <u#is'#uden&e in histo#i&al Islam ?e$en the =libe#al= /ana)ites@ &lea#ly
unde#stood the (u#ani& in<un&tion to holy ,a#. E$en al-Aha**ali ?1054-1111@ a %u)i
?,ho is yet &onside#ed =o#thodo:= by %unni Islam@ and the#e)o#e a #e'#esentati$e o)
the mysti&al ?and su''osedly 'ea&e)ul@ side o) Islam su''o#ted doin" ,hate$e# it
takes to &on(ue# and subdue =in)idels=
=....one must "o on <ihad ?i.e. ,a#like #a**ias o# #aids@ at least on&e a yea#...one
may use a &ata'ult a"ainst them ,hen they a#e in a )o#t#ess e$en i) amon" them
a#e ,omen and &hild#en. 9ne may set )i#e to them andQo# d#o,n them....I) a
'e#son o) the Ahl al--itab is ensla$ed his ma##ia"e is automati&ally #e$oked. A
,oman and he# &hild taken into sla$e#y should not be se'a#ated....9ne may &ut
do,n thei# t#ees....9ne must dest#oy thei# useless books. .ihadists may take as
booty ,hate$e# they de&ide....they may steal as mu&h )ood as they need....=
12
Mode#n Muslim s&hola#s histo#ians and e:e"etes ha$e taken simila# stan&es on
/ihad. Al-Buti #e$eals )o# us the )ollo,in"
=The $e#se ?2N5@ does not lea$e any #oom in the mind to &on<e&tu#e about ,hat is
&alled de)ensi$e ,a#. This $e#se asse#ts that /oly Wa# ,hi&h is demanded in
islami& la, is not defensie !ar ?as the Weste#n students o) Islam ,ould like to
tell us@ be&ause it &ould le"itimately be an o))ensi$e ,a#. That is the a'e: and
most hono#able o) all /oly ,a#s=
13
/e like,ise states
=5ou may ,onde# no,N Whe#e is the ,isdom o) )o#&in" in)idels and thei# asso&iates
to emb#a&e islam; /o, &ould the mind set o) the t,entieth &entu#y unde#stand
su&h matte#s; The ans,e# isN We ,onde# ,he#e the ,isdom is ,hen the state
)o#&es an indi$idual to be sub<u"ated to its system and 'hiloso'hy des'ite the
)#eedom he 'ossesses; /o, &an it be #easonable )o# the state to ha$e the #i"ht to
sub<u"ate its &iti*ens to the la,s '#in&i'les and o#dinan&es it ena&ts ,hile the
&#eato# o) all does not ha$e the #i"ht to sub<u"ate them to /is autho#ity and to
&on$e#t them )#om e$e#y &#eed o# )aith to /is #eli"ion;=
1B
And in )u#the# #e)utation o) the =de)ensi$e ,a#= theo#y
=This is the &on&e't ,hi&h '#o)essional e:'e#ts o) thou"ht attem't to &on&eal )#om
the eyes o) muslims by &laimin" that anythin" that is #elated to a holy ,a# in
islami& la, is only based on de)ensi$e ,a#)a#e to #e'el an atta&k....It is no se&#et
that the #eason behind this de&e'tion is the "#eat )ea# ,hi&h dominates )o#ei"n
&ount#ies ?East and West alike@ that the idea o) /oly Wa# )o# the &ause o) Aod
,ould be #e$i$ed in the hea#ts o) muslims then &e#tainly the &olla'se o) Eu#o'ean
&ultu#e ,ill be a&&om'lished. The mind set o) the Eu#o'ean man has matu#ed to
emb#a&e islam as soon as he hea#s an honest messa"e '#esented. /o, mu&h mo#e
,ill it be a&&e'ted i) this messa"e is )ollo,ed by a /oly Wa#;=
15
/en&e al-Buti is (uite honest about the )a&t that the 0u#1an &ommands o))ensi$e
/ihad )o# the 'u#'ose o) &on$e#tin" in)idels to Islam. 9the# mode#n Islami& s&hola#s
a"#ee. In e:e"etin" Surah 2N22 ,hi&h &ommands the layin" o) the /i.yah onto the
in)idels -han states
=Allah #e$ealed in %u#a Ba#a1at ?!e'entan&e IZ@ the o#de# to dis&a#d ?all@
obli"ations ?&o$enants et&@ and &ommanded the Muslims to )i"ht a"ainst all the
'a"ans as ,ell as a"ainst the 'eo'le o) the s&#i'tu#es ?.e,s and 8h#istians@ i) they
do not emb#a&e Islam till they 'ay the .i*ya ?a ta: le$ied on the .e,s and
8h#istians ,ho do not emb#a&e Islam and a#e unde# the '#ote&tion o) an Islami&
"o$e#nment@ ,ith ,illin" submission and )eel themsel$es subdued ?as it is #e$ealed
in the $e#se 2N22@. %o they ?Muslims@ ,e#e not 'e#mitted to abandon =the )i"htin"=
a"ainst them ?6a"ans .e,s and 8h#istians@ and to #e&on&ile ,ith them and to
sus'end hostilities a"ainst them )o# an unlimited 'e#iod ,hile they a#e st#on" and
ha$e the ability to )i"ht a"ainst them.
=%o at )i#st the )i"htin" ,as )o#bidden then it ,as 'e#mitted and a)te# that it ,as
made obli"ato#y....=
1C
Thus the tea&hin" is that Muslims a#e to )i"ht ,hen they ha$e su))i&ient st#en"th
to ,in and that this )i"ht is obli"ato#y. When Muslims a#e not st#on" enou"h to
)i"ht thei# enemies they a#e to lie lo, until su&h a time as they &an )i"ht
a&&o#din" to anothe# '#ominent mode#n Muslim s&hola#. 0uotin" as-%uyuti as-
%aleh ,#ote
=The &ommand to )i"ht the in)idels ,as delayed until the Muslims be&ome st#on"
but ,hen they ,e#e ,eak they ,e#e &ommanded to endu#e and be 'atient.=
1D
Essentially Muslim 'ea&e)ulness all too o)ten ,ould be a de&e'tion that ,as
,aitin" to be unmasked the moment the Muslims )elt themsel$es st#on" enou"h to
#isk ,a"in" ,a#. %aleh "oes on to &ite Ra#kashi in a )ootnote sayin"
=Allah the most hi"h and ,ise #e$ealed to Mohammad in his ,eak &ondition ,hat
suited the situation be&ause o) his me#&y to him and his )ollo,e#s. 7o# i) /e "a$e
them the &ommand to )i"ht ,hile they ,e#e ,eak it ,ould ha$e been emba##assin"
and most di))i&ult but ,hen the most hi"h made Islam $i&to#ious /e &ommanded
him ,ith ,hat suited the situation that is askin" the 'eo'le o) the Book to
be&ome Muslims o# to 'ay the le$ied ta: and the in)idels to be&ome Muslims o#
)a&e death. These t,o o'tions to )i"ht o# to ha$e 'ea&e #etu#n a&&o#din" to the
st#en"th o# the ,eakness o) the Muslims.=
14
%audi s&hola# al-Amin like,ise 'oints to the 0u#1an )o# the <usti)i&ation o) o))ensi$e
holy ,a#
=Aod had made it &lea# to us that ?,e should@ &all )o# a&&e'tan&e o) Islam )i#st
then ,a"e ,a#. It is not admissible to ,a"e ,a# be)o#e e:tendin" the in$itation to
emb#a&e islam )i#st as the 0u#1an says. 1We $e#ily sent ou# messen"e# ,ith &lea#
'#oo)s and #e$ealed to them the s&#i'tu#e and the balan&e that mankind may
obse#$e #i"ht measu#e and he #e$ealed i#on ,he#ein is mi"hty 'o,e# and uses )o#
mankind and that Allah ?Aod@ may kno, him ,ho hel's /im and his messen"e#s
1Allah is st#on" Almi"hty1 ?%u#ah I#on 5DN25@.=
12
This is es'e&ially in)o#mati$e )o# those ,ho may #emembe# that in the a)te#math
o) the 11 %e'tembe# te##o#ist atta&ks %audi #eli"ious and 'oliti&al leade#s in the
'#o&ess o) e:tendin" thei# &ondolen&es to 6#esident Bush also e:tended an
in$itation to him to &on$e#t to Islam ,hi&h ,as a &lea# a''li&ation o) the '#in&i'le
sho,n abo$e. Abdul-7attah #eite#ated this ,hen he ,#ote
=Islami& la, demands that be)o#e Muslims sta#t )i"htin" in)idels ?unbelie$e#s@ they
)i#st deli$e# the messa"e o) Islam to them. It ,as '#o$en that the '#o'het ne$e#
)ou"ht 'eo'le be)o#e he &alled them to emb#a&e Islam )i#st. /e used to &ommand
his "ene#als to do so also.=
20
To the e:tent that 9sama bin Paden and al-0aeda ,e#e ,#on" in thei# atta&ks on
2-11 and in othe# te##o#ist atta&ks be)o#e then in the $ie, o) #adi&al
)undamentalist Muslims it ,as in that they had not )i#st issued the standa#d &all
)o# the enemy to emb#a&e Islam )i#st be)o#e the )oe ,as )ou"ht.
0utb in a &ha'te# entitled =.ihaad in the 8ause o) Aod= says this about those ,ho
belie$e that /ihad is to be a de)ensi$e ,a# only
=They a#e i"no#ant o) the natu#e o) Islam and o) its )un&tion and that it has a #i"ht
to take the initiati$e )o# human )#eedom....Thus ,he#e$e# an Islami& &ommunity
e:ists ,hi&h is a &on&#ete e:am'le o) the Di$inely-o#dained system o) li)e it has a
Aod-"i$en #i"ht to ste' )o#,a#d and take &ont#ol o) the 'oliti&al autho#ity so that
it may establish the Di$ine system on ea#th ,hile it lea$es the matte# o) belie) to
indi$idual &ons&ien&e.=
21
Thus ,hile toutin" =)#eedom o) indi$idual &ons&ien&e= 0utb seems to be
es'ousin" the #i"ht o) the =Islami& &ommunity= to take &ont#ol o) 'oliti&al
autho#ity '#esumably e$en i) that autho#ity is the "o$e#nment o) a )o#ei"n &ount#y
in ,hi&h Muslims #eside ,hi&h ,ould hea#ken ba&k to ,hat ,as seen ea#lie# ,ith
Surah 4ND2-D3. 0utb1s ,hole &ha'te# &onsists o) his a#"uments that Islam has a
=#i"ht= to ,a"e /ihad to o$e#th#o, so&ial and 'oliti&al systems ,hi&h a#e not in
a&&o#d ,ith Islami& la, so that 'eo'le a#e then =)#ee to se#$e Aod= meanin" that
the#e ,ill be no &om'etito#s to Islam and hen&e 'eo'le ,ill &hoose Islam.
Matu#ally 'eo'le ,ho a#e al#eady Muslims but ,ho li$e in )o#ei"n &ount#ies ,he#e
Islam is not the la, o) the land a#e &onside#ed doubly in need o) =libe#ation= by
ha$in" the non-Muslims systems unde# ,hi&h they li$e o$e#th#o,n and #e'la&ed by
Islam. /en&e he 'e#$e#sely att#ibutes the te#m =)#eedom= to a state o) a))ai#s
,he#e &on(ue#ed 'eo'les a#e "i$en the &hoi&e o) eithe# &on$e#tin" to Islam li$in"
as se&ond-&lass &iti*ens o# dyin". 0utb it should be noted ,as e:e&uted by
E"y't1s Masse# "o$e#nment )o# attem'tin" to o$e#th#o, the se&ula# #e"ime.
That Muslims some =,eak= and li$in" in )o#ei"n lands and othe#s =st#on"= and li$in"
in Da# es-%alaam should hel' ea&h othe# to o$e#th#o, these )o#ei"n systems ,hi&h
=o''#ess= Muslims is seen in >smani1s &omment on 4ND3
=Bet,een a -a)i# and a Muslim neithe# the#e is #eal &om#adeshi' no# they &an
inhe#it ea&h othe#. 9) &ou#se the -a)i# is the &om#ade and hei# o) a -a)i#
?>nbelie$e#@. In )a&t all the >nbelie$e#s in enmity a"ainst you a#e one. Whe#e$e#
they ,ill )ind the Muslims ,eak they ,ill tease and 'e#se&ute them. %o i) the
Muslims ,ill not su''o#t and hel' ea&h othe# o# the ,eak Muslims ,ill not t#y to
b#in" themsel$es unde# the su''o#t and '#ote&tion o) the )#ee Muslims a "#eat
7itna and &o##u'tion ,ill s'#ead i.e. the ,eak Muslims shall not be se&u#e and
thei# Eman ,ill be in dan"e# too.=
22
7attah adds
=Islam has a''#o$ed ,a# so that the Wo#d o) Aod be&omes su'#eme. This is ,a# )o#
the &ause o) Aod ?/oly Wa#@. Muhammad the#e)o#e sent his ambassado#s to ei"ht
kin"s and '#in&es in the nei"hbo#hood o) the A#ab 6eninsula to &all them to
emb#a&e islam. They #e<e&ted his &all. Thus it be&ame in&umbent on the Muslims
to )i"ht them.=
23
In )a&t i) unbelie$e#s #esist the =&all to Islam= then they themsel$es a#e
#es'onsible )o# the ,a#s ,hi&h Islam is then #e(ui#ed to )i"ht a"ainst them at
least in the eyes o) Islami& )undamentalism. Tibi himsel) a $oi&e a"ainst Islamism
and )o# #e)o#mation ,ithin Islam des&#ibes the t#aditional unde#standin" o)
,a#)a#e and autho#ity in Islam
=At its &o#e Islam is a #eli"ious mission to all humanity. Muslims a#e #eli"iously
obli"ed to disseminate the Islami& )aith th#ou"hout the ,o#ld. GWe ha$e sent you
)o#th to all mankindH ?0. 3BN24@. I) non-Muslims submit to &on$e#sion o#
sub<u"ation this &all ?da#wa@ &an be 'u#sued 'ea&e)ully. I) they do not Muslims
a#e obli"ed to ,a"e ,a# a"ainst them. In Islam 'ea&e #e(ui#es that non-Muslims
submit to the &all o) Islam eithe# by &on$e#tin" o# by a&&e'tin" the status o) a
#eli"ious mino#ity ?dhimmi@ and 'ayin" the im'osed 'oll ta: /i.ya. Wo#ld 'ea&e
the )inal sta"e o) the da#wa is #ea&hed only ,ith the &on$e#sion o# submission o)
all mankind to Islam....Muslims belie$e that e:'ansion th#ou"h ,a# is not
a""#ession but a )ul)illment o) the 0u#Iani& &ommand to s'#ead Islam as a ,ay to
'ea&e. The #eso#t to )o#&e to disseminate Islam is not ,a# ?har(@ a ,o#d that is
used only to des&#ibe the use o) )o#&e by non-Muslims. Islami& ,a#s a#e not huru(
?the 'lu#al o) har(@ but #athe# futuhat a&ts o) Go'enin"H the ,o#ld to Islam and
e:'#essin" Islami& <ihad. !elations bet,een dar al-Islam the home o) 'ea&e and
dar al-har( the ,o#ld o) unbelie$e#s ne$e#theless take 'la&e in a state o) ,a#
a&&o#din" to the 0u#Ian and to the autho#itati$e &ommenta#ies o) Islami& <u#ists.
>nbelie$e#s ,ho stand in the ,ay &#eatin" obsta&les )o# the da#wa a#e blamed
)o# this state o) ,a# )o# the da#wa &an be 'u#sued 'ea&e)ully i) othe#s submit to
it. In othe# ,o#ds those ,ho #esist Islam &ause ,a#s and a#e #es'onsible )o# them.
9nly ,hen Muslim 'o,e# is ,eak is Gtem'o#a#y t#u&eH ?hudna@ allo,ed ?Islami&
<u#ists di))e# on the de)inition o) Gtem'o#a#yH@.=
2B
Mode#n Islami& autho#ities )#om the Indian sub&ontinent stand ,ith thei# b#eth#en
on this issue. 7a*lu# !ahman notes the abundant dis&ussion o) /ihad in the 0u#1an
and #e<e&ts the mode#n inte#'#etation o) /ihad as de)ensi$e ,a# only
25
. 6i#*ada
like,ise states about the natu#e o) Islami& /ihad
=The #easons stated in the $e#se )o# ,a"in" a ,a# a"ainst the 'eo'le o) the Book
&lea#ly sho, that it is not )o# a de)ensi$e ,a# the &ommand )o# a de)ensi$e ,a#
,as "i$en mu&h ea#lie#....The )a&t is that it is not &o##e&t to limit <ihad ,ithin the
&i#&le o) de)ensi$e ,a# no# is it &o##e&t to te#m it ,hat is today &alled 1an
a""#essi$e ,a#1 be&ause <ihad is not a ,a# that is )ou"ht )o# &on(ue#in" land
national '#e<udi&es mate#ial "ains and )alse ideolo"ies it is )ou"ht )o# the noble
'u#'ose o) )#eein" the sla$es o) Aod )#om the lo#dshi' o) the )alse "ods to end
a""#ession and ty#anny and to "i$e them a 'u#e and $i#tuous atmos'he#e. This ,a#
is synonymous ,ith the a&t o) su#"e#y o) the #otten 'a#t o) the body to '#o$ide
healthy li)e to humanity.=
2C
Maududi as ,ell #e<e&ts attem'ts to make a distin&tion bet,een o))ensi$e and
de)ensi$e /ihad and $ie,s /ihad as the means by ,hi&h to o$e#th#o,n all non-
Islami& systems and #e'la&e them ,ith submission to Allah. %'eakin" o) Islam as a
=#e$olutiona#y )o#&e= he says
=The di$ision o) Islami& .ihad into =o))ensi$e= and =de)ensi$e= is not 'e#missible.
Islami& .ihad is both o))ensi$e and de)ensi$e at one and the same time. It is
o))ensi$e be&ause the Muslim 'a#ty atta&ks the #ule o) an o''osin" ideolo"y and it
is de)ensi$e be&ause the Muslim 6a#ty is &onst#ained to &a'tu#e state 'o,e# in
o#de# to '#ote&t the '#in&i'les o) Islam in s'a&e-time )o#&es.=
2D
/en&e =de)ense= is de)ined as dest#oyin" any system not in a"#eement ,ith Islam.
>nde# this ideolo"y =de)ense= then be&omes not <ust an o'tion but an a&t o)
'iety. Mu1mani demonst#ates this #ede)inition in his <usti)i&ation o) /ihad as a noble
and s'otless a&t
=7i"htin" a''a#ently a &#uel a&t ,as sho#n o) all so#did moti$es and #aised to su&h
le$el o) san&tity and saintliness that this mani)estation o) the de$il in man ,as
sublimed into a 'ious a&t o) hi"hest "odliness. It ,as no, to aim at '#ote&tin" the
,eak and o''#essed a"ainst the hi"hhandedness o) the st#on" and &#uel.=
24
Mu1mani then &ites a numbe# o) (u#ani& $e#ses su&h as Suwar 5N32 CN32 and 2N22
in su''o#t o) his statement. =6#ote&tin" the ,eak and o''#essed= means )#eein"
them )#om the &ont#ol o) non-Islami& 'oliti&al and 'hiloso'hi&al systems - ,ithout
bothe#in" to )ind out i) they desi#e to be =)#eed= o) &ou#se. /e )u#the# e:alts the
=san&tity= o) holy ,a#
=.ihad o# the holy ,a# ,as e:alted into an a&t o) 'iety not only in #es'e&t o) its
ultimate aim but also in its e:te#nal as'e&t....In sho#t ,as that on&e #e)le&ted
the at#o&ious and ba#ba#i& side o) human natu#e ,as no, tu#ned th#ou"h the
tea&hin"s o) Islam into an institution )o# the "lo#i)i&ation o) Allah establishment
o) 'ea&e su''#ession o) tu#bulen&e and '#ote&tion o) the o''#esses. What ,as
mo#e it ,as &ondu&ted as a se#$i&e at a mos(ue o# &hu#&h ,ith '#aises o) Allah on
the li's o) the de$otees.=
22
Be&ause it is the duty o) "ood Muslims to =libe#ate= the #est o) the ,o#ld )#om the
ty#anny and o''#ession o) thei# nati$e non-Islami& 'oliti&al #eli"ious and
'hiloso'hi&al systems mu&h is said by the &ommentato#s to this end. Da#yabadi
&ommentin" on Surah 2N123 says this about )i"htin" in)idels ,ho a#e nea#by
=i.e. the nei"hbou#in" 'a"an states )o# they &laim you# &a#e in the )i#st 'la&e and
thei# reclamation ou"ht to be endea$ou#ed )i#st.=
30
%imila#ly Rahee# &ites the medie$al &ommentato# Ibn -athi# to e:'lain that Surah
2N123 &ommands Muslims to kee' )i"htin" ,hoe$e# ne:t bo#de#s '#e$iously
&on(ue#ed te##ito#ies and notes that Ibn -athi# "a$e this as the e:'lanation )o#
,hy the Islami& )aith s'#ead to su&h an e:tent as it did
31
.
+iolen&e is also the '#es&#ibed su""estion )o# dealin" ,ith =hy'o&#ites= - those
membe#s o) the Islami& &ommunity ,ho a#e insu))i&iently Islami& in thei# a''#oa&h
to the #eli"ion. Surah 2ND3 seen abo$e is sometimes inte#'#eted by &ommentato#s
as sayin" that the st#i$in" a"ainst hy'o&#ites is to be done th#ou"h ,o#ds and
a#"uments ?thou"h the st#i$in" a"ainst unbelie$e#s still #e(ui#es the s,o#d@.
Da#yabadi )o# instan&e '#esents this inte#'#etation o) 2ND3
32
. This inte#'#etation
ho,e$e# is by no means uni$e#sal. Rahee# notes that ,hile some an&ient
&ommentato#s su&h as Ibn -athi# inte#'#eted 2ND3 mo#e 'ea&e)ully othe#s did
not. /e &ites not only Ibn 1Abbas as sayin" that this $e#se #e(ui#es )i"htin" ,ith the
s,o#d a"ainst unbelie$e#s but also 1Ali as sayin" that this $e#se &alls )o# the use o)
the s,o#d a"ainst hy'o&#ites
33
. >smani says that the s,o#d may be used a"ainst
hy'o&#ites i) thei# hy'o&#isy be&omes ='ubli& &lea#ly=
3B
. 6i#*ada says about 2ND3
=That isJ Mo, no (ua#te#s should be sho,n to the hy'o&#ites but they should be
dealt ,ith st#i&tly and )i#mly and i) ne&essa#y )o#&e should be used a"ainst them
to the e:tent that may be #e(ui#ed.=
35
Essentially ,hate$e# )o#&e is deemed ne&essa#y to indu&e Muslims ,ho a#e
insu))i&iently 'ious to "et ,ith the '#o"#am may be used to &oe#&e them into
#eli"ious 'iety and at least out,a#d &on)o#mity ,ith the st#i&tu#es o) the sharia
la,.
In #elation to ,hat ,as seen abo$e about the im'e#ati$e to s'#ead holy ,a# so as
to =libe#ate= non-Muslim lands )#om thei# non-Muslim &ultu#es and 'oliti&al
systems )o# those =6eo'le o) the Book= ,ho #e)use to &ome a#ound on&e they a#e
&on(ue#ed Islam sti'ulates a set o) &oe#&i$e measu#es desi"ned to indu&e
&on(ue#ed non-Muslims ?&alled dhimmiyyun o# dhimmis@ to &on$e#t to Islam. Mo#e
,ill be said in the ne:t &ha'te# about the institution o) dhimmitude itsel) but ,e
should note at this 'oint the &ommandment o) Surah 2N22 to )i"ht non-Muslims
until they ='ay the .i*ya ,ith ,illin" submission and )eel themsel$es subdued.=
The /i.yah is a 'oll ta: ?o)ten &ou'led ,ith a land ta: &alled the 'hara/@ le$ied on
all able-bodied non-Muslim males in lands &on(ue#ed by Islam. The 'u#'ose o) this
ta: aside )#om "ene#atin" #e$enue )o# the Islami& state is to em'hasi*e to
dhimmis thei# se&ond-&lass status and sub<u"ation to the Islami& #eli"io-'oliti&al
system. 6ayin" the /i.yah is not o'tional - #e)usin" to do so ,ould #esult in death
o# e:'ulsion )#om thei# o,n land. >smani notes this in his &ommenta#y on 2N22
=The 6olytheists and Idolato#s ,e#e '#ima#ily aimed to be totally e:te#minated
)#om the soil o) A#abia but so )a# as the .e,s and 8h#istians ,e#e &on&e#ned the
main 'oli&y in the be"innin" ,as to shatte# thei# 'o,e# a"ainst Islam and its
e:'ansion. %o 'e#mission ,as "#anted that i) they a&&e'ted obedien&e and 'aid
.i*yah they &ould li$e in the Islami& state and thei# li)e and '#o'e#ty shall be sa)e.
I) they did not a&&e't obedien&e they ,ould be dealt ,ith like the 6olytheists i.e.
they ,ould also be e:iled o# slain be&ause they do not also belie$e in Aod and the
Messen"e# as must.=
3C
As ,e ,ill see in the )ollo,in" &ha'te# a&&e'tan&e o) the te#ms o) dhimma ,hi&h
in&lude the submission and 'ayment o) the /i.yah did not in '#a&ti&e al,ays
"ua#antee the sa)ety o) li)e o# '#o'e#ty ,hi&h >smani su""ests it did. %ha)i
like,ise notes that the /i.yah is essentially a 'ayment o) '#ote&tion a so#t o)
medie$al Ma)ioso-style e:to#tion
=Pite#ally /i.yah means #etu#n o# #e&om'ense. In the te#minolo"y o) the %ha#i1ah
it #e)e#s to the amount o) money taken )#om disbelie$e#s in lieu o) killin".=
3D
The /i.yah is meant to sho, the dhimmis that they a#e in)e#io# that thei# stubbo#n
insisten&e on #etainin" thei# old ,ays 'la&es them in a 'osition o) submission and
sla$e#y to the Islami& system. An,e# Ali e:'lains this to us in his &omments on
2N22
=The 2i.yah is &om'ensation )o# '#ote&tion and se&u#ity o) the non-belie$e#s o) the
Islami& %tate. It is a symbol )o# subo#dination to the Islami& %tate. The ,o#d %nn
;adin i.e. 'ay by thei# hands Kt#anslated as =,ith ,illin" submission= in 5usu) Ali1s
t#anslation abo$eL means that they should 'ay it o) thei# o,n as a subo#dinate and
the ,o#ds -ahum Sagheroon mean that they should not ha$e su'e#io#ity o$e# the
landJ the su'e#io#ity should be )o# belie$e#s ,ho a#e $i&e-#e"ents o) Allah on
ea#th.
=7u#the# the idea unde#lyin" 2i.yah is that ea&h yea# they must think that to 'ay
)o# #emainin" on the ,#on" instead o) "ettin" on the %t#ai"ht 6ath and 'ayin" the
'oo# #ate is a&tually a most un)o#tunate &om'le: in ,hi&h they a#e in$ol$ed.=
34
/en&e /i.yah ='#o$es= to the in)idel the in)e#io#ity o) his o,n belie) system and at
the same time =en&ou#a"es= him to &on$e#t to Islam. Maududi #eite#ates this in his
&omment on this ayah ,hen he notes that the /i.yah se#$es to #emind .e,s and
8h#istians o) thei# submission and the ='#i&e o) )ollo,in" the ,ays o) e##o#.=
32

The e:am'les "i$en abo$e a#e only a $e#y small sam'lin" o) ,hat &ould be said
,ith #e"a#d to both the histo#i&al and mode#n o#thodo: Muslim 'ositions on holy
,a# and the )o#&e)ul sub<u"ation o) non-Muslims. As ,e &an see the <usti)i&ation is
o)ten d#a,n di#e&tly )#om those $e#ses that ,e#e (uoted abo$e and that a#e said
to be =de)ensi$e only= o# =taken out o) &onte:t= by Muslim a'olo"ists. .e))#ey
obse#$ed
=It is o) &ou#se easy to #aise the ob<e&tion that a .ihad in the old sense is
im'ossible o) #eali*ation in the mode#n ,o#ld )o# Islam is )a# too badly di$ided )o#
anythin" like a "ene#al .ihad to be &ontem'lated and )a# too ,eak in te&hni&al
e(ui'ment )o# a .ihad to be su&&ess)ul e$en i) sta#ted. This does not dis'ose o) the
)a&t ho,e$e# that the ea#lie# &on&e'tion o) .ihad has le)t a de'osit in Muslim
thinkin" that is still to be #e&koned ,ith in the 'oliti&al #elations o) the Weste#n
,o#ld ,ith Islam.=
B0
Thus it should &e#tainly be seen that o))ensi$e ,a# )o# the s'e&i)i& 'u#'ose o)
s'#eadin" the Islami& #eli"ion is $e#y mu&h a (u#ani& '#a&ti&e. While the a'olo"ists
tell us that /ihad is =de)ensi$e= thei# o,n s&hola#s 'ast and '#esent #e)ute this lie.
Violence :rom the Ahadith
The 0u#1an is not the only sou#&e )o# this /ihad do&t#ine ho,e$e#. The ahadith also
say mu&h about ,a"in" o))ensi$e ,a# a"ainst the in)idel. 2ihad is touted as the
se&ond best deed ,hi&h &ould be 'e#)o#med in Islam ne:t only to belie$in" in
Allah and his '#o'het Mohammed and bette# e$en than 'e#)o#min" the ha//
B1
. To
those ,ho 'a#ti&i'ate in /ihad &omes eithe# the s'oils o) ,a# i) he li$es o# 'a#adise
i) he is killed.
=The 6#o'het said =The 'e#son ,ho 'a#ti&i'ates in ?/oly battles@ in Allah1s &ause
and nothin" &om'els him to do so e:&e't belie) in Allah and /is A'ostles ,ill be
#e&om'ensed by Allah eithe# ,ith a #e,a#d o# booty ?i) he su#$i$es@ o# ,ill be
admitted to 6a#adise ?i) he is killed in the battle as a ma#ty#@.=
B2
9the# 'o#tions o) the ahadith also &on)i#m the #i"hts o) <ihadis to the s'oils o)
those they kill in holy ,a#
B3
and thei# automati& ent#y into 'a#adise i) they die as
ma#ty#s in the &ause o) Allah
BB
. 6a#ti&i'ation in holy ,a# ea#ns Muslims many
bene)its and blessin"s )#om Allah o# so the ,#itin"s tea&h. 7o# instan&e
Mohammed is #e'o#ted to ha$e said
=/e ,ho kee's a ho#se 'osted on the enemies1 )#ontie# in Allah1s 'ath then
mana"es himsel) ?to )eed it@ ,ith its )odde# ,ith his o,n hand ,ill ea#n a $i#tue
)o# e$e#y "#ain ?he )eeds it@.=
B5
!i"ht a)te# this 'assa"e it is then tau"ht that a man ,ho 'a#ti&i'ates in /ihad only
)o# so lon" as the time s'ent bet,een t,o milkin"s o) a she-&amel ?I don1t kno,
mu&h about &amels but the t#aditions su""est that this is only a sin"le day1s ,o#th
o) dayli"ht
BC
@ still is entitled to 'a#adise be&ause o) the blessedness o) his endea$o#
BD
. The t#adition also tea&hes that a man ,ho dies in holy ,a# has the #i"ht to
inte#&ede be)o#e Allah in 'a#adise )o# the ent#y o) se$enty othe# 'e#sons )#om
amon" his )#iends and )amily ,hi&h Allah then is #e(ui#ed to allo, into 'a#adise
B4
.
It 'ays to ha$e )#iends a''a#entlyO
The im'o#tan&e o) holy ,a# in Islami& tea&hin" takes '#e&eden&e o$e# othe#
#eli"ious a&ti$ities as ,ell. Mohammed tau"ht that a&tin" as a soldie# o) Allah is as
"ood as i) one 'e#'etually =obse#$es )asts= and =stands in de$otion= e$e#y ni"ht
B2
.
While Islami& tea&he#s in the West ,ill 'lay u' the Muslim duty o) .a'at the "i$in"
o) alms to the 'oo# the ahadith tea&h that "i$in" o) you# ,ealth to su''o#t /ihad
ea#ns you e$en "#eate# #e,a#ds. The t#adition states based u'on an inte#'#etation
o) Surah 2N2C1
=/e ,ho su''lies '#o$isions ?to mu<ahids@ in Allah1s 'ath and stays at home is
entitled to se$en hund#ed di#hams )o# ea&h di#ham ?s'ent in Allah1s &ause@ and he
,ho himsel) )i"hts in Allah1s 'ath and s'ends ?money@ )o# the same &ause is
entitled to "et )o# e$e#y di#ham ?the #e,a#d o)@ se$enty thousand dina#s.=
50
6e#ha's one o) the most de&isi$e statements in all the ahadith ,hi&h sho,s the
d#i$in" )o#&e behind the e:'ansion o) Islam to be "#eed and not any so#t o)
=se#$i&e= to a deity is this
=1>bada b. %amit ?Allah be 'leased ,ith him@ is #e'o#ted to ha$e said that in the
be"innin" the /oly 6#o'het ?'ea&e and blessin"s o) Allah be u'on him@ ,ould
'#omise to "i)t one-)ou#th o) s'oils ?to Mu<ahids@ and one-thi#d o) booty on
#e'at#iation.?noteN =This in$ol$es the idea o) holdin" a 'o#tion o) the booty until
the enti#e &am'ai"n is &on&luded so as to en&ou#a"e the mu/ahedeen to &ontinue
)i"htin" to the end this is ,hat #e'at#iation means=@
51
E$en mo#e blunt is the t#adition that says
=/e ,ho kills ?a 'e#son in <ihad@ is entitled to his belon"in"s.=
52
Want somethin" that a non-belie$e# has; .ust "et out you# s,o#d ?o# A--BD@ ,a"e
/ihad and take itO Me$e#mind those la,s o) Aod like =..thou shalt not kill....thou
shalt no steal....thou shalt not &o$et...= ?E:odus 20N13151D@
/en&e it should be seen and unde#stood that the in&lination o) the tea&hin"s )#om
the Muslim #eli"ious te:ts is to,a#d $iolen&e and the '#o'a"ation o) the Islami&
#eli"ion by ,a# and the enti&ement o) booty and ete#nal &a#nal 'a#adise. Pet us
no, e:amine Islam1s '#a&ti&e o) $iolen&e both histo#i&ally and in a &ontem'o#a#y
settin".
0istorical Muslim Violence To!ard 8nbelieers
The toll in human li)e ,hi&h Islam has ,#ou"ht th#ou"hout histo#y has been $e#y
"#eat. A&&o#din" to the t#aditional histo#i&al a&&ounts the '#e$iously mentioned
8ali'h >ma# I attained to the leade#shi' o) the Islami& 8ali'hate in C3B AD t,o
yea#s a)te# the death o) Mohammed. In his sho#t time as 8ali'h so the t#aditional
histo#y says he sent out Islami& a#mies )o# the &on(uest o) %y#ia ?C3C AD@ I#a(
?C3D AD@ 6alestine and the T#ans<o#dan ?C34 AD@ E"y't ?CB2 AD@ and 6e#sia ?CB2
AD@. >ma# ,as so b#utal and des'oti& in his #etaliation a"ainst the 6e#sians
?mode#n day I#anians@ )o# o''osin" Islam1s s'#ead that to this day I#an1s %hi1ites
,ill &eleb#ate the anni$e#sa#y o) his death ,ith "#eat )esti$ities. A)te# >ma#
Muslim a#mies &ontinued the ,a#s o) &on(uest and &on$e#sion ,est,a#d a&#oss
Mo#th A)#i&a ,he#e they dest#oyed By*antine 'o,e# be)o#e '#o&eedin" into %'ain
and de)eatin" the +isi"othi& kin"doms. Muslim e:'ansion into Eu#o'e ,as only
)inally halted by 8ha#les Ma#tel and his 7#anks at the Battle o) 6oitie#s in D32 AD
but it ,as to be &entu#ies be)o#e the non-Muslim 'eo'les o) the Ibe#ian 'eninsula
,e#e &om'letely libe#ated )#om the yoke o) Islami& bonda"e.
In the east Muslim e:'ansion &ontinued into 8ent#al Asia and India. The Muslim
&on(uest o) India ,as simila#ly b#utal to those &on(uests in the West in its
dest#u&tion o) the indi"enous &i$ili*ation and sub<u"ation o) the nati$e Indians.
=7#om the time Muslims sta#ted a##i$in" a#ound D12 AD the histo#y o) India
be&omes a lon" monotonous se#ies o) mu#de#s massa&#es s'oliations and
dest#u&tions. It is as usual in the name o) 1a holy ,a#1 o) thei# )aith o) thei# sole
Aod that the ba#ba#ians ha$e dest#oyed &i$ili*ations ,i'ed out enti#e
#a&es.....Mahmoud Aha*ni ,as an ea#ly e:am'le o) Muslim #uthlessness bu#nin" in
1014 the tem'les o) Mathu#a #a*in" -anau< to the "#ound and dest#oyin" the
)amous tem'le o) %omnath sa&#ed to all /indus. /is su&&esso#s ,e#e as #uthless as
Aha*niN 103 tem'les in the holy &ity o) Bena#as ,e#e #a*ed to the "#ound its
ma#$elous tem'les dest#oyed its ma"ni)i&ent 'ala&es ,#e&ked.=
53
India ,as #e'eatedly sub<e&ted to ,a$e a)te# ,a$e a)te# ,a$e o) Muslim in$ade#s
,ho ,ould make a '#a&ti&e o) killin" o# #a'in" anyone in si"ht and bu#nin" do,n
anythin" they &ould not make o)) ,ith in thei# 'a&ks. The Muslims o) India and
6akistan ?,hi&h is t#aditionally an Indian &ultu#al a#ea@ a#e des&endants o) those
Indians ,ho &on$e#ted to a$oid the massa&#es and the #eli"ion ta: im'osed by thei#
Muslim o$e#lo#ds.
Dese#$in" o) s'e&ial mention is one se&t o) Islam ,hose le"a&y li$es on today in
name i) not in )a&t ,hi&h has "i$en to the En"lish lan"ua"e its ,o#d )o# &allous
amo#al mu#de#e#sN The Assassins. The Assassins ,e#e a )a&tion de#i$ed )#om to the
Ismailite se&t o) Islam. 7ounded in 1020 this "#ou' ke't mu&h o) the Middle East in
)ea# ,ith thei# da#in" &old-blooded assassinations o) all kinds o) 'e#sona"es e$en
u' to the &ali'hs themsel$es. This "#ou' belie$ed that killin" ,as a #eli"ious duty
and ,ould o)ten assassinate leade#s they )elt to be too ,eak o# too &om'#omisin"
to &ontinue the s'#ead o) Islam. Mu&h o) thei# e))o#t ,as also di#e&ted a"ainst
7#ankish and By*antine 8h#istians in the Middle East. The name )o# this "#ou'
de#i$es )#om hashish ,hi&h they ,ould o)ten smoke so as to indu&e e&stati& states
in '#e'a#ation )o# thei# killin"s. This "#ou' ,as ultimately dest#oyed by the Mon"ol
in$ade# /ula"u -han ,ho #a*ed thei# mountainto' )o#t#ess o) Alamut in 125C
5B
.
In the late# middle a"es the e:'ansion o) Islam by /ihad ,as &a##ied )o#,a#d by
the 9ttoman Tu#kish em'i#e. The Tu#ks o$e# the &ou#se o) th#ee &entu#ies
'ushed thei# ,ay out o) Asia Mino# and into the Balkans en&i#&lin" and )inally
&on(ue#in" 8onstantino'le in 1B53. Thei# &on(uest o) 8onstantino'le the lone
#emainin" bastion ,hi&h had ,ithstood thei# assaults in the Balkans ,as one o)
the utmost b#utality and $i&iousness. When the ,alls o) the &ity ,e#e )inally
b#ea&hed by Tu#kish &annon the )e, de)ende#s ,e#e o$e#,helmed as the %ultan1s
t#oo's 'ou#ed into the &ity. 7o# th#ee days the t#oo's ,e#e "i$en )#ee #ei"n to
mu#de# #a'e and 'illa"e ,hi&h they did ,ith "usto. Men ,omen &hild#en -
youn" and old alike - ,ho "athe#ed in &hu#&hes in that da#k hou# to '#ay )o#
deli$e#an&e ,e#e me#&ilessly &ut do,n by the Muslim in$ade#s ,he#e they knelt.
The /a"ia %o'hia the 8hu#&h o) /oly Wisdom the "#eatest ,o#k o) #eli"ious
a#&hite&tu#e in Weste#n 8h#istendom ,as de)iled and &on$e#ted to a mos(ue. An
enti#e #a&e o) 'eo'le an enti#e &i$ili*ation ,e#e sa$a"ed and the #emnants
b#ou"ht into a sla$e#y that ,as to last )o# &entu#ies. !un&iman #e&o#ds the death-
knell o) the Easte#n Em'i#e as su&h
=9n May the t,enty-ninth 1B53 a &i$ili*ation ,as ,i'ed out i##e$o&ably. It had
le)t a "lo#ious le"a&y in lea#nin" and in a#tJ it had #aised ,hole &ount#ies )#om
ba#ba#ism and had "i$en #e)inement to othe#sJ its st#en"th and its intelli"en&e )o#
&entu#ies had been the '#ote&tion o) 8h#istendom. 7o# ele$en &entu#ies
8onstantino'le had been the &ent#e o) the ,o#ld o) li"ht. The (ui&k b#illian&e the
inte#est and the aestheti&ism o) the A#eek the '#oud stability and the
administ#ati$e &om'eten&e o) the !oman the t#ans&endental intensity o) the
8h#istian )#om the East ,elded to"ethe# into a )luid sensiti$e mass ,e#e no, 'ut
to slee'. 8onstantino'le ,as be&ome the seat o) b#utal )o#&e o) i"no#an&e o)
ma"ni)i&ent tastelessness.=
55
A)te# this the Tu#ks mo$ed )u#the# u' into the Balkans and 8ent#al Eu#o'e until
)inally bein" tu#ned ba&k at the "ates o) +ienna in 1C43. Du#in" thei# time o)
domination o$e# the Balkan 'eo'les the Tu#ks laid many hea$y o''#essions u'on
these &on(ue#ed 'eo'les. 9ne 'a#ti&ula#ly des'i&able '#a&ti&e kno,n as
devsirme ,as that o) takin" =in)idel= &hild#en )#om thei# 'a#ents as sla$es. 9n&e
e$e#y )i$e yea#s the Tu#ks ,ould take e$e#y 9#thodo: and 8atholi& &hild they
&ould "et thei# hands on )#om amon" the un&on$e#ted Balkan 'eo'les and b#in"
them as sla$es to the %ultan. The "i#ls usually ,e#e destined to se#$e as
&on&ubines in the ha#ems o) Tu#kish leade#s. The boys ,e#e )o#&ibly &on$e#ted to
Islam and then tho#ou"hly indo&t#inated in Muslim )anati&ism and Tu#kish
nationalism. A)te# thei# =edu&ation= ,as )inished these ,e#e then hi"hly t#ained in
the a#ts o) ,a# and made into ,a##io#-sla$es kno,n as /anissaries. The .anissa#ies
se#$ed as the %ultan1s 'oli&e )o#&e and milita#y elite th#ou"hout the 9ttoman
Em'i#e many o) them en)o#&in" his de&#ees ba&k in the $e#y homelands )#om
,hi&h they had been stolen
5C
.
Muslim nastiness to,a#ds the &on(ue#ed 'eo'les o) the Balkans still 'lays a #ole in
the 'oliti&s o) that #e"ion today. The Albanians and Bosnians a#e both Muslim
"#ou's ,hose an&esto#s o#i"inally &on$e#ted to a$oid the &hild-&ons&#i'tion and
#eli"ion ta:. The %e#bs and 8#oats hate the Bosnians and Albanians ,ith a 'assion
be&ause o) the histo#i&al le"a&y o) the at#o&ities that the Tu#kish o$e#lo#ds
'e#'et#ated a"ainst thei# %la$i& unde#lin"s. The enmity today bet,een the A#eeks
and Tu#ks de#i$es )#om the b#utality o) Muslim #ule in A#ee&e and the ba#ba#ity o)
the Tu#kish attem'ts to 'ut do,n the A#eek ,a# )o# inde'enden&e ?1421-142D@.
The Violence of Islam in the Modern Era
Muslim at#o&ities a"ainst non-Muslim &on(ue#ed 'o'ulations ha$e &ontinued into
the mode#n e#a. In 142B %ultan Abdul /amid II instituted a 'o"#om a"ainst
9#thodo: A#menians ,ho #e)used to abide by a massi$e in&#ease in ta:es that the
Tu#kish "o$e#nment le$ied u'on them. Bet,een 142B-142C bet,een 100-150000
A#menians ,e#e killed by eithe# the s,o#d o# sta#$ation in a "ene#al massa&#e
o#de#ed by the %ultan in ,hat is kno,n as the %assoun Massa&#e and many mo#e
,e#e d#i$en into e:ile o# es&a'ed only by &on$e#tin" to Islam
5D
. An atta&k u'on
the 9ttoman Bank by A#menian #esisto#s to the %ultan1s "eno&idal atta&ks ?an
atta&k ,hi&h ,as desi"ned to b#in" Weste#n attention to the A#menians1 'li"ht@
,as de)used and this ,as used as an e:&use to mu#de# anothe# 4000 A#menians in
Istanbul in a "ene#al slau"hte#. 5et a"ain bet,een 1215-1214 the Tu#ks &a##ied
out "eno&ide a"ainst the A#menians. 7amilies ,e#e to#n a'a#t the men bein"
taken out and shot and the ,omen and &hild#en )o#&ed to ma#&h until they died o)
e:haustion o# sta#$ation
54
. In this time a (ua#te# o) a million A#menians ,e#e able
to es&a'e to !ussia ,hile anothe# 200000 sa$ed themsel$es by &on$e#tin" to
Islam. /o,e$e# the best estimates say that mo#e than one and a hal) million
A#menians ,e#e killed by this Muslim at#o&ity. Tu#kish A#menia &eased to e:ist.
The A#eeks ha$e also su))e#ed holo&aust at the hands o) Muslims. In an e))o#t to
&om'lete the Islami*ation o) Tu#kish dominions e))o#ts to dest#oy o# d#i$e out the
mostly 9#thodo: A#eek 'o'ulations ,e#e be"un in 1213. That yea# 1C000 A#eeks
,e#e mu#de#ed in Easte#n Th#a&e ?on the Eu#o'ean side o) the Da#danelles@. In
121B A#eeks ,e#e o#de#ed to $a&ate the &ity o) 6e#"amum and ,e#e massa&#ed
in E#yth#ea and 6ho&aia. That same yea# B00000 A#eeks died )#om
malnou#ishment and mist#eatment in )o#&ed-labo# battalions and 120000 A#eeks
,e#e d#i$en )#om thei# homes in Easte#n Th#a&e )leein" as #e)u"ees to the
-in"dom o) A#ee&e. In 121D 23000 A#eeks ,e#e de'o#ted )#om 8ydoniae and in
1214 anothe# 4000 A#eek )amilies ,e#e e:'elled )#om south,este#n Asia Mino#. In
1222 300000 mo#e A#eeks ,e#e )o#&ed out o) Easte#n Th#a&e and at %my#na
150000 A#eeks and A#menians ,e#e massa&#ed by Tu#kish )o#&es
52
. It is im'o#tant
to kee' in mind that all o) these a#eas mentionedN Easte#n Th#a&e the Ionian isles
and south,este#n Asia Mino# ,e#e all t#aditionally A#eek &ultu#al a#eas datin"
ba&k to the My&enaean 'e#iod o$e# 1000 yea#s be)o#e 8h#ist. The Islami*ation o)
these a#eas by the #emo$al o) the A#eeks &an be &lea#ly seen as an a&t o) /ihad
the &on(uest o) te##ito#y )o# Islam. This 'oli&y o) "eno&ide &ontinued all the ,ay
u' to the )all o) the 9ttoman Tu#kish sultanate ?,hi&h du#in" the Wa# issued an
a&ti$e &all )o# /ihad a"ainst the Allies@ at the end o) 1222. 7u#the# e$en the
se&ula# 5oun" Tu#k #e"ime ,hi&h #e'la&ed the %ultanate e$entually su&&umbed to
'#essu#es to #einstitute the Islami& #eli"ion at an o))i&ial le$el in Tu#key. A)te#
Wo#ld Wa# II the se&ula# #e"ime =#esumed the tea&hin" o) Islami& #eli"ion in the
'ubli& s&hools o'ened state s&hools )o# the t#ainin" o) #eli"ious )un&tiona#ies and
taken su&h measu#es )o# the '#omotion o) #eli"ion as 'uttin" #eli"ious '#o"#ams on
the state #adio=
C0
. Tu#kish a""#ession a"ainst the A#eeks ,as dis'layed on&e a"ain
in 12DB ,hen Tu#key in$aded 8y'#us and ,a"ed ,a# on the A#eeks ,ho ,e#e
ostensibly Tu#key1s MAT9 ally.
2ihad is still ali$e and ,ell today and is not <ust the '#o$in&e o) a )e, militant
#adi&als. The )o#&ible ad$an&ement o) Islam &ou'led ,ith a &ont#i$ed hat#ed )o#
the Weste#n ,o#ld a''eals to the hea#ts and minds o) millions o) disa))e&ted
Muslims ,o#ld,ide many o) them youn" and ea"e# to "i$e thei# li$es in the &ause
o) Allah. Many ,ell-edu&ated Muslims in the Middle East and in the West ha$e
taken hold o) the intelle&tual &ause o) Islamism and su''o#t this /ihad
,holehea#tedly. Witness the e:ultation o) Muslims ,o#ld,ide at the dest#u&tion o)
the Wo#ld T#ade 8ente# to,e#s...not only in 6alestinian 6akistani and E"y'tian
$illa"es and slums but also in mo#e ,ell-to-do Mo#th A)#i&an nei"hbo#hoods in
7#an&e and on many &olle"e &am'uses in Mo#th Ame#i&a.
The )ields o) battle ,he#e #adi&al Islam is insti"atin" t#ouble #an"e all a&#oss the
"lobe. In Mindanao the la#"e southe#n island o) the 6hili''ine &hain Muslims a#e
mu#de#in" !oman 8atholi&s and 8h#istians in an e))o#t to establish an Islami& state
on the island. %'ea#headed by the te##o#ist o#"ani*ation Abu %ayya) 7ili'ino
Muslims ha$e ,a"ed a te##o#ist ,a# o) shootin"s and bombin"s a"ainst both &i$ilian
and milita#y ta#"ets. 7o# e:am'le one su&h atta&k ,as made a"ainst a sho''in"
mall in Manila on 2 9&tobe# 200D in ,hi&h ei"ht 'eo'le ,e#e killed. Abu %ayya)
has also en"a"ed in assassinations a"ainst 7ili'ino leade#s ,ho o''ose thei#
mo$ement. 9n 13 Mo$embe# 200D a bomb killed Wahab Akba# a membe# o) the
7ili'ino 8on"#ess and )o#me# Muslim #adi&al ,ho tu#ned )#om $iolen&e and be"an
to lead the &ha#"e a"ainst Abu %ayya)1s $iolen&e. In all o$e# B00 &i$ilians ha$e
been killed by Muslim te##o#ist $iolen&e in the 6hili''ines sin&e 2000
C1
.
Anothe# 'la&e ,he#e Muslim te##o#ists ha$e been usin" $iolen&e to kill in)idels and
establish a se'a#atist state is in Thailand. %in&e the be"innin" o) the &on&e#ted
e))o#t by Muslims in the southe#n '#o$in&es to b#eak a,ay thousands ha$e been
killed in the $iolen&e. The $iolen&e ho,e$e# is distu#bin" be&ause it does not <ust
&onsist o) atta&ks on the Thai milita#y o# e$en sim'le indis&#iminate bombin"s
?thou"h those ha''en as ,ell
C2
@. In Thailand Muslim te##o#ists ha$e made a 'oint
o) kidna''in" and mu#de#in" &i$ilians ,ho a#e o) the ,#on" #eli"ion - '#ima#ily
Buddhists. 7o# instan&e on 2B .uly 200D t,o elde#ly Thais #idin" on a moto#&y&le
,e#e sto''ed by a#med "unmen doused ,ith ben*ene and lit on )i#e
C3
. The
mu#de# o) &i$ilians by Muslim =se'a#atists= in Thailand is &ommon'la&e and the
'#e$ious e:am'le is only one o) hund#eds that &ould be "i$en. Many Muslims ,ho
,o#k ,ith o# )o# the Thai "o$e#nment su))e# as ,ell in&ludin" one Muslim man
,ho ,as &#u&i)ied by the te##o#ists ,hile his t,o Buddhist &om'anions ,e#e
=me#ely= beheaded.
Indonesia lon" $ie,ed as a =mode#ate= and =tole#ant= Muslim &ount#y has seen
Islami& e:t#emist be&ome mo#e '#e$alent as ,ell. Indonesia ,as the &ount#y ,he#e
the in)amous Bali bombin"s o&&u##ed an atta&k di#e&ted a"ainst the &ount#y1s
'#emie# tou#ist &ente# on 12 9&tobe# 2002. In the atta&k 202 'eo'le ,e#e killed
in&ludin" 1CB Aust#alian and othe# )o#ei"n $a&atione#s. Bali ,as also the site o) a
se&ond less deadly atta&k on 12 9&tobe# 2005. The atta&ks ,e#e 'a#t o) an
on"oin" &am'ai"n o) $iolen&e by .emaah Islamiyah an Islami& te##o# "#ou' in
Indonesia. In addition to these hi"h '#o)ile bombin"s Indonesia has also seen a
st#in" o) $iolent atta&ks a"ainst the 8h#istian mino#ity in the &ount#y - atta&ks that
ha$e in&luded the #a'e mu#de# and beheadin"s o) 8h#istian s&hool"i#ls. In East
Timo# a &ount#y ,hi&h obtained its inde'enden&e )#om 6o#tu"al in 12D5 only to be
in$aded and o&&u'ied by Muslim Indonesia late# that same yea# Muslim militias
mu#de#ed and dis'la&ed hund#eds o) thousands o) !oman 8atholi&s be)o#e the >M
inte#$ened ,ith Aust#alian t#oo's.
6akistani mu/ahedeen and te##o# bombe#s seek to )o#&e the Indians out o) -ashmi#
and unite that '#o$in&e ,ith 6akistan and ha$e killed tens o) thousands in a
&am'ai"n o) $iolen&e that has lasted )o# de&ades. +iolen&e by Muslims is also
endemi& ,ithin India '#o'e#
CB
and many Indians ha$e been killed by bombin"s. In
12BD a)te# the s'littin" o) the Indian sub&ontinent bet,een Muslim 6akistan and
/indu India Muslims instituted a #ei"n o) te##o# a"ainst 8h#istian /indu and
Buddhist mino#ities in East 6akistan ?no, Ban"ladesh@. 6eo'le ,e#e killed
'#o'e#ty ,as &on)is&ated #e)u"ees le)t 'enniless and /indu ,omen ,e#e taken
and "i$en to Muslim men )o# the 'u#'oses o) 'oly"amy. The ,i&kedness o) the
Muslim a&tions led one Indian obse#$e# %.-. Bhatta&ha#yya to in$ent an a&#onym
)o# Islam - =Intole#an&e %lau"hte# Poot A#son and Molestation=. In 1250 hal) a
million mo#e /indus ,e#e but&he#ed and in 12D1 du#in" Ban"ladesh1s ,a# )o#
inde'enden&e )#om 6akistan 6akistani soldie#s mu#de#ed bet,een 1.25 and 3
million /indus and othe# #eli"ious mino#ities
C5
.
Th#ou"hout the Middle East 8h#istians and othe#s o) all kinds o) #eli"ions a#e
'e#se&uted and killed. In 1241 Muslim )anati&s #ioted in 8ai#o a"ainst the 8o'ti&
8h#istian 'o'ulation mu#de#in" o$e# 100 'eo'le. 8o'ts in E"y't su))e# )#om a
&ontinual &am'ai"n o) systemati& dis&#imination o''#ession and $iolen&e by the
Muslim ma<o#ity. The Assy#ian 8h#istian 'o'ulation in I#a( endu#es daily $iolen&e
and 'e#se&ution )#om Islami& e:t#emists. In a#eas &ont#olled by the 6alestinian
Autho#ity the Islami& te##o#ist o#"ani*ations su&h as 7atah and Islami& .ihad
&ontinue to 'e#'et#ate a systemati& &am'ai"n o) o''#ession and mu#de# a"ainst
the d,indlin" 8h#istian 'o'ulation o) Bethlehem and othe# to,ns s&atte#ed a&#oss
the West Bank and the Aa*a %t#i'. A)te# "ainin" &om'lete &ont#ol o) I#an the
Islamist #e$olutiona#ies unde# the Ayatollah -homeini in 1241 be"an the systemati&
o''#ession o) I#an1s Ba1hai mino#ity mu#de#in" them and takin" thei# '#o'e#ty.
6#esently %udanese Muslims a#e ,a"in" a ,a# o) /ihad a"ainst 8h#istians and
animists in the southe#n 'a#t o) that &ount#y killin" thousands and takin"
thousands as sla$es ,ho a#e then sold to the A#ab Muslims o) the no#th. %udan ,as
also the lo&ation o) the #e&ent =Teddy Bea# .ihad= in ,hi&h thousands o) %udanese
Muslims #ioted and &alled )o# the e:e&ution o) a B#itish tea&he# in %udan - all )o#
the &#ime o) allo,in" some little &hild#en to name a teddy bea# a)te# Mohammed
CC
.
In Mau#itania o$e# D0000 =A)#o-Mau#itanians= ha$e been mu#de#ed o# e:'elled by
Islamist #adi&als ,ho ha$e instituted sharia la, in that nation
CD
and Mau#itania
has the hi"hest 'e#&enta"e o) its 'o'ulation li$in" in sla$e#y o) any nation on ea#th
?&lose to 30T@
C4
. Indeed a&&o#din" to one sou#&e ,ith ,hom Bales s'oke
Mau#itania is des&#ibed as an =auste#e almost medie$al nation 'o,e#ed by Islam
#i$en by #a&ial hat#ed and )layed by d#ou"ht=
C2
. Else,he#e in A)#i&a Muslims in
no#the#n Mi"e#ia &ontinue thei# e))o#t to establish sharia Islami& la, o$e# non-
Muslims. In Al"e#ia thousands ha$e died in an on-"oin" insu#"en&y by Muslim
)undamentalists a"ainst the se&ula# "o$e#nment.
9) &ou#se the#e is also the &ontinual intifada ,hi&h the 6alestinians &ontinue to
&a##y out. Thousands o) Is#aelis ha$e been killed o# maimed th#ou"h &o,a#dly
6alestinian te##o# bombin"s. Many o) these bombs ha$e been s'e&i)i&ally ta#"eted
at &hild#en as ha$e #i)le and mo#ta# atta&ks on s&hools and homes in Is#ael.
6e#ha's the most noto#ious A#ab &#ime a"ainst Is#ael ,as the mu#de# o) ele$en
Is#aeli athletes taken hosta"e by 7atah te##o#ists ?5assi# A#a)at1s te##o#
o#"ani*ation@ at the 12D2 9lym'i&s in M_ni&h Ae#many. Muslim /ihad has also
laun&hed )i$e ,a#s a"ainst Is#ael that ha$e all )ailed to d#i$e the .e,s )#om the
/oly Pand.
These e:am'les o) Islami& beha$io# to,a#ds =in)idels= e$en to this day only
&onstitutes a small 'e#&enta"e o) ,hat &ould be said about Islami& $iolen&e a"ainst
non-Muslims. It seems e$ident that e$e#y 'la&e in ,hi&h Muslims make u' a
si"ni)i&ant 'o#tion o) the 'o'ulation e))o#ts a#e made to sub<u"ate o# d#i$e out
non-Muslims. The &on&lusion '#etty mu&h has to be made that Islam is most
&e#tainly M9T the 'ea&e)ul tole#ant lo$in" #eli"ion ,hi&h its a'olo"ists &laimed it
is. Mo#e on the =tole#an&e= o) Islam ,ill be seen in the ne:t &ha'te#.
6lease note ,hat is ,#itten abo$e should not be &onst#ued to say that e$e#y
Muslim is a $iolent indi$idual. Many Muslims a#e indeed 'ea&e)ul 'eo'le ,ho "et
alon" ,ell in non-Muslim so&ieties. I ha$e kno,n se$e#al Muslims ,ith ,hom I ha$e
,o#ked ?but ,ho 'e#ha's did not take the Islami& )aith $e#y se#iously@ and ,ho
,e#e de&ent kind indi$iduals. %till the #e&o#d o) Islam itsel) as a #eli"io-'oliti&al
system on $iolen&e and )o#&ible &on$e#sion is '#a&ti&ally un#i$aled in shee#
ma"nitude e$en by Eu#o'ean medie$al state-#eli"ionism ,ith all o) its
in(uisitions &on(uistado#s and &ounte#-#e)o#mations. The '#oblem is not
'#esented by indi$idual Muslims themsel$es but by the Islami& system and
es'e&ially its 'o,e# to b#ain,ash im'#essionable 'eo'le into a st#u&tu#e ,hi&h
,hen a''lied lite#ally en&ou#a"es them into $iolen&e and hat#ed. Those Muslims
,ho take thei# #eli"ious at its most lite#al ha$e demonst#ated time and a"ain that
they do not seek 'ea&e)ul &oe:isten&e but instead to 'ut the (u#ani& in<un&tions
to $iolen&e and sub<u"ation into '#a&ti&e. This sho,s us that the '#oblem is ,ith
Islam itsel) as a system o) thou"ht and a&tion. E$en ,hen $iolen&e is not a
'#a&ti&al o'tion o#thodo: Muslims still seek the sub<u"ation o) o''osin" belie)
systems. As a )o#me# Muslim tells us
=Mot e$e#y Muslim ,ould a"#ee that /ihad #e(ui#es s'illin" the blood o) in)idels but
the st#u""le )o# the $i&to#y o) Islam is a )a&to# in the li)e o) e$e#y )aith)ul
Muslim.=
D0
9ne is )o#&ed to ,onde# ,hen Muslims ,ill be"in to 'ut into '#a&ti&e that $e#se in
the 0u#1an ,hi&h thei# a'olo"ists lo$e to (uote =Pet the#e be no &om'ulsion in
#eli"ion...= ?Surah 2N25C@
The Contrast of 2ible Christianity
9)ten )oes o) Bible 8h#istianity and a'olo"ists )o# Islam ,ill attem't to #ebut
&#iti&ism o) Islam1s $iolent natu#e by t#yin" to tu#n the =$iolen&e a#"ument= ba&k
onto 8h#istianity. They ,ill 'oint to $a#ious 'assa"es in the 9ld Testament ,hi&h
ad$o&ate $iolen&e 'a#ti&ula#ly those in$ol$ed ,ith the establishment o) Is#ael in
the land o) 8anaan. What these 'eo'le do not unde#stand is that these 'a#ti&ula#
'assa"es ,hile inst#u&ti$e in a )i"u#ati$e sense to today1s 8h#istians in the desi#e
o) Aod )o# /is &hild#en to kee' themsel$es holy and )#ee )#om ,#on" in)luen&es
a#e not di#e&tly a''li&able to 8h#istians today as ,e do not li$e in the same
dis'ensation as that o) an&ient Is#ael. A dis'ensation is sim'ly a 'a#ti&ula# time
)#ame in ,hi&h Aod deals ,ith man in a 'a#ti&ula# ,ay. In the 9ld Testament
se$e#al dis'ensations a#e seen as Aod '#o"#essi$ely #e$eals /imsel) to man.
E$entually Aod be"ins to deal ,ith man th#ou"h the nation o) Is#ael ,hom /e
&alled out )#om amon" all nations. It ,as to Is#ael that the $iolent 'assa"es in the
9ld Testament ,e#e di#e&ted be&ause Is#ael ,as to be a theo&#ati& nation ,hi&h
also had to deal with the practical realities of often-hostile neigh(oring states in
the dangerous world of the ancient Cear East ,ith all this ,ould natu#ally
im'ly
D1
. Aod dealt ,ith man di))e#ently in the Me, Testament. Instead o) <ust
dealin" ,ith Is#ael as a nation Aod deals ,ith 'eo'le )#om all nations and is
&allin" /is &hu#&hes out )#om amon" e$e#y nation on ea#th.
=Whe#e)o#e #emembe# that ye bein" in time 'ast Aentiles in the )lesh ,ho a#e
&alled >n&i#&um&ision by that ,hi&h is &alled 8i#&um&ision in the )lesh made by
handsJ That at that time ye ,e#e ,ithout 8h#ist bein" aliens )#om the
&ommon,ealth o) Is#ael and st#an"e#s )#om the &o$enants o) '#omise ha$in" no
ho'e and ,ithout Aod in the ,o#ldN But no, in 8h#ist .esus ye ,ho sometimes
,e#e )a# o)) a#e made ni"h by the blood o) 8h#ist. 7o# he is ou# 'ea&e ,ho hath
made both one and hath b#oken do,n the middle ,all o) 'a#tition bet,een us...=
?E'hesians 2N11-1B@
My 'u#'ose )o# this b#ie) lesson in do&t#ine is to demonst#ate that a #i"ht
unde#standin" o) the Bible ,ill in&lude the unde#standin" that many 'assa"es in
the 9ld Testament dealin" ,ith the &e#emonial la,s '#iestly #ites and 'oliti&al
<ud"ments in an&ient Is#ael a#e inst#u&ti$e )o# tea&hin" "ene#al '#in&i'les o)
holiness to 8h#istians today but a#e not meant to be a''lied directly o# literally
in the li$es o) 8h#istians - s'e&i)i&ally (ecause 8h#istians in this dis'ensation a#e
not Is#ael. In )a&t many o) the =&e#emonial= la,s "i$en to Is#ael ,e#e dida&ti& in
natu#e. They ,e#e meant to tea&h and '#e'a#e Is#ael to #e&ei$e he# Messiah and
they )ound thei# )ul)illment in 8h#ist ,hen /e &ame to ea#th. With this )ul)illment
these la,s no lon"e# a#e bindin" on belie$e#s and t#yin" to hold onto them ,ould
a&tually &onstitute a reFection o) the sa&#i)i&e made by 8h#ist. This is the
"ene#ally unde#stood 'osition o) ,hat a#e te#med =&onse#$ati$e= =e$an"eli&al= o#
=)undamentalist= 8h#istians - those ,ho take the Bible lite#ally and attem't to li$e
by it. While the 9ld Testament may &ontain a numbe# o) 'assa"es de'i&tin"
$iolen&e and &allin" )o# the dest#u&tion o) the 8anaanites o# Amalekites these a#e
not and ha$e not been &onside#ed no#mati$e )o# 8h#istian belie$e#s to )ollo,.
%eein" that 8h#istians today a#e not &alled by the Bible to d#i$e out the
unbelie$e#s and 'ut them to the s,o#d ,hat then is the attitude ,hi&h 8h#istians
ou"ht to take;
=7o# ,e ,#estle not a"ainst )lesh and blood but a"ainst '#in&i'alities a"ainst
'o,e#s a"ainst the #ule#s o) the da#kness o) this ,o#ld a"ainst s'i#itual
,i&kedness in hi"h 'la&es.= ?E'hesians CN12@
=7o# thou"h ,e ,alk in the )lesh ,e do not ,a# a)te# the )leshN ?7o# the ,ea'ons
o) ou# ,a#)a#e a#e not &a#nal but mi"hty th#ou"h Aod to the 'ullin" do,n o)
st#on"holds.@= ?II 8o#inthians 10N3-B@
These 'assa"es both illust#ate that a 8h#istian1s st#u""le is ,ith the s'i#itual )o#&es
o) e$il. 9u# ,a#)a#e is )ou"ht on the s'i#itual 'lane a"ainst the ma&hinations o)
%atan and his demons. It is )ou"ht ,ith '#aye# and su''li&ation. It is )ou"ht by
,itnessin" and '#ea&hin" the t#uth to lost sinne#s in this dyin" ,o#ld. It is )ou"ht
by li$in" #i"htly and '#esentin" a 'u#e testimony o) "#a&e)ul Aod-hono#in" li$in"
to the ,o#ld at la#"e se#$in" as a #e'#oo) to those ,ho li$e in sin. A Bible
8h#istian may be in$ol$ed in 'oliti&s may ha$e to )i"ht in a ,a# i) &alled u'on by
his nation may ha$e to e$en se#$e on a <u#y and &hoose to #e&ommend the death
'enalty )o# a $i&ious &#iminal ,ho has b#oken a la, ,o#thy o) death. But the Bible
8h#istian ,ill not use )o#&e o# &oe#&ion to s'#ead the Aos'el and ,in souls.
What is the beha$io# then o) a Bible 8h#istian li$in" by the Bible; They ,ill
,itness. They may hand out t#a&ts. They may e$en make a lost 'e#son )eel
un&om)o#table by talkin" about Aod o# standin" u' and doin" #i"ht o# #e)usin" to
do ,#on". They may $ote a"ainst a &andidate ,ho su''o#ts abo#tion and &am'ai"n
)o# that 'e#son1s o''onent. But they ,ill not use )o#&e to s'#ead the Aos'el.
/isto#y bea#s this out as t#uth.
=Ah= the s&o))e# mi"ht say =What about the &#usades o# the in(uisitions o# the
&on(uistado#s and the sub<u"ations o) nati$es all o$e# the ,o#ld o# e$en ,hat
about the abo#tion &lini& $iolen&e;O= The sim'le ans,e# is that not a sin"le one o)
these has the least bit to do ,ith Bible-belie$in" 8h#istianity. Abo$e it ,as sho,n
that Islam is a $iolent #eli"ion (ecause o) the tea&hin"s o) the 0u#1an and the
ahadith. The Muslims ,ho 'e#'et#ate the a&ts o) $iolen&e and te##o#ism ,hi&h I
ha$e 'ointed out a#e those ,ho take these te:ts the most lite#ally ,ho t#y the
most s&#u'ulously to li$e by them. I) ,e ,ish to e:amine ,hethe# 8h#istians ,ho
take this same "ene#al a''#oa&h to the Bible a#e "uilty o) the &#imes att#ibuted to
=8h#istianity= then it is ne&essa#y to look at thei# beha$io# as they li$e thei# li$es.
Do )undamentalist o# e$an"eli&al 8h#istians &ommit te##o#ist bombin"s; Mo. Do
they shoot in)idels and ,a"e holy ,a#; Mo. Do they seek to o''#ess non-8h#istians
and sub<u"ate them; Mo. A 8h#istian bein" t#ue to the tea&hin"s and testimony o)
.esus 8h#ist sim'ly does not do these so#ts o) thin"s. As I said at the be"innin" o)
this &ha'te# you ha$e to look at ,hat the holy books o) a #eli"ion a&tually say
and see ho, the =t#ue belie$e#s= a''ly them to best unde#stand the &ha#a&te# o) a
#eli"ion. Am I en"a"in" in s'e&ial 'leadin" in in$entin" sel)-se#$in" de)initions to
"et my o,n side o)) the hook; Mo I am me#ely a''lyin" the same standa#d to those
'#o)essin" to be 8h#istians as I did to Muslims - ,hat does the holy book say and
,hat do its most lite#al adhe#ents do ,ith it;
%o ,hat o) the many at#o&ities &ommitted in the name o) =8h#istianity=; %im'ly
'ut those ,ho 'e#'et#ated them ,e#e not 8h#istians. Mot only in a&tion but also
in theolo"y the #eli"ious "#ou's that ,e#e #es'onsible )o# the 8#usades the
in(uisitions the ,it&h-bu#nin"s the 'e#se&utions o) =he#eti&s= ,e#e not 8h#istian
- #e"a#dless o) the )a&t that they &laimed the name. Any #eli"ious "#ou' ,hi&h
denies that sal$ation &omes by "#a&e alone th#ou"h )aith in the Po#d .esus 8h#ist
and ,hi&h belie$es in the e))i&a&y o) the mass o# o) &on)ession to "#ant me#it to
the soul and ,hi&h seek to #e'la&e the lo&al assembly o) belie$e#s ,ith a
"eo"#a'hi&al hie#a#&hy o) bisho's a#&hbisho's &a#dinals met#o'olitans and
'o'es is theolo"i&ally o''osed to the Bible and is the#e)o#e not Bibli&al
8h#istianity. 7a# )#om hono#in" and li$in" by the Bible the leade#s o) these
#eli"ious o#"ani*ations a&tually sou"ht to kee' the Bible )#om the &ommon 'eo'le.
The )a&t that they s'#ead thei# )aiths by )i#e and s,o#d 8#usade and in(uisition
only se#$es to sho, that the )#uit they bo#e ,as not that ,hi&h .esus desi#ed )o#
8h#istians to b#in" )o#th. These "#ou's may ha$e &ommitted $iolen&e es'e&ially
du#in" the Middle A"es but this $iolen&e does not pertain to 5i(le +hristianity and
&annot honestly be laid at the )eet o) Bible-belie$in" )undamental o# e$an"eli&al
8h#istians.
Some -ords 'bout the Crusades
Me$e#theless at this 'oint ,e need to dis&uss the 8#usades in some detail )o#
thou"h they ,e#e not t#uly a 8h#istian a))ai# they are an im'o#tant se#ies e$ent a
kno,led"e o) ,hi&h is ne&essa#y )o# unde#standin" the histo#y o) inte#a&tion
bet,een Islam and =8h#istendom=. The 8#usades ,e#e a se#ies o) milita#y
e:'editions by medie$al Eu#o'eans into the Middle East and ha$e be&ome an
ob<e&t o) )i:ation in the mind o) Islam. They a#e the lens th#ou"h ,hi&h Muslims
ha$e &ome to $ie, '#a&ti&ally all o) thei# dealin"s ,ith the West. The 8#usades
un)o#tunately ha$e also be&ome some,hat mytholo"i*ed by Muslims ,ho #ein$ent
histo#y to )it thei# o,n '#o'a"andisti& 'u#'oses. Muslims ,ill t#y to 'oint to the
8#usades as an e:am'le o) =8h#istian= e$il and as a <usti)i&ation )o# thei# o,n
/ihad but as ,e ha$e seen abo$e the#e ,as nothin" s&#i'tu#al about the 8#usades
- they did not o&&u# be&ause o) de$otion to bibli&al #eli"ion.
Mo, let us deal ,ith the se#ious de)i&ien&ies in the Muslim unde#standin" o) the
8#usades. Thou"h it is no, in $o"ue amon" Muslims to 'o#t#ay the 8#usades as
sa$a"e o))ensi$es a"ainst 'ea&e-lo$in" Muslim 'eo'le in the Middle East this $ie,
is histo#i&ally ina&&u#ate. Indeed until a#ound the middle o) the 12th &entu#y the
9ttoman Em'i#e1s o))i&ial 'osition tau"ht to all 9ttoman students in the s&hools
,as that the 8#usades ,e#e a "#eat $i&to#y and t#ium'h )o# Islam ,hi&h had
de)eated and e:'elled mino# ba#ba#ian in&u#sions )#om the ,est. The Muslims o)
the Middle East ,e#e ha#dly ='ea&e-lo$in"=. Indeed lest ,e )o#"et the $e#y #eason
,hy the Middle East ,as in the hands o) the Muslims in the )i#st 'la&e ,as be&ause
o) a se#ies o) o))ensi$e #eli"ious ,a#s ,a"ed by Muslims a"ainst the $a#ious
8h#istian 'eo'les o) Asia Mino# 6alestine and Mo#th A)#i&a.
It is ne&essa#y to unde#stand that )a&t i) ,e a#e to unde#stand ,hy the 8#usades
o&&u##ed in the )i#st 'la&e. The 8#usades )i#st and )o#emost ,e#e defensie ,a#s.
They ,e#e not )ou"ht by an e:'ansionisti& im'e#ialisti& 8h#istendom but #athe#
by a 8h#istendom that ,as at that time sh#inkin" bein" slo,ly but su#ely
o$e#,helmed by the ad$an&in" Islami& em'i#es. As Thomas Madden has ,#itten
=Mo, 'ut this do,n in you# notebook be&ause it ,ill be on the testN The &#usades
,e#e in e$e#y ,ay a defensive war. They ,e#e the West1s belated #es'onse to the
Muslim &on(uest o) )ully t,o-thi#ds o) the 8h#istian ,o#ld. While the A#abs ,e#e
busy in the se$enth th#ou"h the tenth &entu#ies ,innin" an o'ulent and
so'histi&ated em'i#e Eu#o'e ,as de)endin" itsel) a"ainst outside in$ade#s and
then di""in" out )#om the mess they le)t behind. 9nly in the ele$enth &entu#y ,e#e
Eu#o'eans able to take mu&h noti&e o) the East. The e$ent that led to the &#usades
,as the Tu#kish &on(uest o) most o) 8h#istian Asia Mino# ?mode#n Tu#key@. The
8h#istian em'e#o# in 8onstantino'le )a&ed ,ith the loss o) hal) o) his em'i#e
a''ealed )o# hel' to the #ude but ene#"eti& Eu#o'eans. /e "ot it. Mo#e than he
,anted in )a&t.
6o'e >#ban II &alled the 7i#st 8#usade in 1025. Des'ite mode#n laments about
medie$al &olonialism the &#usade1s #eal 'u#'ose ,as to tu#n ba&k Muslim
&on(uests and #esto#e )o#me#ly 8h#istian lands to 8h#istian &ont#ol. The enti#e
histo#y o) the &#usades is one o) Weste#n #ea&tion to Muslim ad$an&es. The
&#usades ,e#e no mo#e o))ensi$e than ,as the Ame#i&an in$asion o) Mo#mandy. As
it ha''ened the 7i#st 8#usade ,as ama*in"ly almost mi#a&ulously su&&ess)ul. The
&#usade#s ma#&hed hund#eds o) miles dee' into enemy te##ito#y and #e&a'tu#ed
not only the lost &ities o) Mi&aea and Antio&h but in 1022 .e#usalem itsel).=
D2
The 8#usades ,e#e a #es'onse to Muslim a""#ession. I) the Muslims had not ,a"ed
o))ensi$e ,a# and &ontinued in thei# 'lans to &on(ue# the kno,n ,o#ld the
8#usades ,ould ne$e# ha$e ha''ened. In a sense blame )o# the 8#usades lies at
the )eet o) the Muslims themsel$es. It is doubt)ul la&kin" the im'etus '#o$ided by
Em'e#o# Ale:ius1 a''eal and 6o'e >#ban1s o#ation that it ,ould e$e# ha$e
o&&u##ed to the 'etty )eudal nobles o) Weste#n Eu#o'e to e$en "o ad$entu#in"
thousands o) miles a,ay )#om home in the )i#st 'la&e. And ,hat o) the Muslim
&ontention that the Bible ,as someho, an im'etus )o# the 8#usade#s to "o
'illa"in" a&#oss the Pe$ant; Well the#e is no #eal e$iden&e that the 8#usade#s o#
those &allin" )o# &#usade #elied on the Bible as <usti)i&ation. 7o# e:am'le ,hen ,e
look at the a&tual te:t
D3
o) 6o'e >#ban II1s &all )o# &#usade at the 8oun&il o)
8le#mont in 1025 ,e see e:a&tly th#ee #e)e#en&es to 'assa"es )#om the BibleN t,o
o) them )#om the Aos'el o) Matthe, one o) them )#om the Aos'el o) Puke and
none o) them in any ,ay used in the a&tual &all to &#usade - all a#e used to #e'#o$e
the =8h#istians= )o# bein" blind and &a#eless. The#e is nothin" ,hi&h in any ,ay
su""ests that >#ban 'ointed to the Bible to <usti)y o# en&ou#a"e the &#usadin".
Instead he lays out the 'oliti&al situation as it e:isted at that time and ,a#ns
that unless the Muslim a""#ession is sto''ed mo#e =8h#istians= ,ill be &on(ue#ed
and ensla$ed.
Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill 'oint to the ba#ba#i& beha$io# o) the 8#usade#s ,hen they
took .e#usalem in 1022. And ,ell they ou"ht )o# these Eu#o'ean ,a#lo#ds ,e#e
most de)initely ba#ba#i&. But so ,e#e the Muslims. It is &ommon )o# Muslims to
asse#t that ,hen the Muslim a#my #e&on(ue#ed the &ities ,hi&h the 8#usade#s had
taken that they did not ha#m the &i$ilian 'o'ulation. This &laim is most &e#tainly
not t#ue. The Muslims ,e#e <ust as sa$a"e and b#utal in the )i"htin" du#in" the
8#usades as ,e#e the 8#usade#s. 7o# instan&e ,hen the Muslims #etook Antio&h
they slau"hte#ed 1C000 'eo'le in the st#eets and sold anothe# 100000 into
sla$e#y. Pike,ise ,hen the 8#usade# "a##ison at 8aesa#ia 2000 men su##ende#ed
to the Muslims on the s,o#n '#omise that they ,ould be s'a#ed the Muslims b#oke
thei# '#omise and instead e:e&uted them all. Indeed one o) the se#ies o) e$ents
that lead to the 8#usades and likely made the ,este#ne#s amenable to aidin"
By*antium in the )i#st 'la&e ,as the malt#eatment and mu#de# o) Eu#o'ean
'il"#ims to sites in the /oly Pand in the 10D0s. 7o# these a'olo"ists to &laim that
the Muslims #etook te##ito#y ,ithout ha#min" anyone and thei# a''a#ent attem'ts
to 'o#t#ay Islam as a s'otless and 'u#e $i&tim in the ta,d#y a))ai# o) the 8#usades
is astoundin" in its menda&ity. Islam bea#s as mu&h &om'li&ity in the $iolen&e o)
the 8#usades as the Eu#o'eans do both in te#ms o) methodolo"y and in #oot &ause.
Indeed Islam1s ma#&h a&#oss the Middle East and Mo#th A)#i&a in the &entu#ies
'#e&edin" the 8#usades ,as d#en&hed in the blood o) thousands 'ossibly millions
o) nati$e 'eo'les ,ho ,e#e slau"hte#ed and 'illa"ed as the A#abs made thei# ,ay
)#om E"y't to %'ain in the 4th &entu#y. .ust as the 8#usade#s bea# "#eat #e'#oa&h
and #es'onsibility )o# thei# &ondu&t so do the Muslims.
This 'oint about the histo#i& Muslim b#utality and $iolen&e as they e:'anded out
)#om the Pe$ant in the 4th &entu#y and on,a#d is im'o#tant to #emembe#. The#e is
a "ood and st#on" a#"ument to be made that the e:am'le o) Islam1s beha$io# in
,a# and e:'ansion ,as ,hat tau"ht the medie$al Eu#o'eans about holy ,a#. In
othe# ,o#ds Islam ,as the s&hoolmaste# in #eli"iously moti$ated $iolen&e and the
Eu#o'eans the 'u'ils abso#bin" the lesson )#om the maste#s. .a&(ues Ellul a
s&hola# ,ho has studied the theolo"ies o) both 8h#istianity and Islam has noted
the im'etus ,hi&h Islami& =holy ,a#= "a$e to the #ise o) this &on&e't in medie$al
Eu#o'e. As 'a#t o) a mo#e "ene#al a#"ument &on&e#nin" the in)luen&e ,hi&h Muslim
theolo"y and 'hiloso'hy had on the Weste#n state&#a)t and #eli"ion in the ea#ly
medie$al 'e#iod Ellul notes the )ollo,in" about the #ise o) the =holy ,a#= &on&e't
in 8h#istendom
=In tandem ,ith this "#eat im'o#tan&e o) the 'oliti&al 'o,e# the#e is o) &ou#se
the im'o#tan&e and "lo#i)i&ation o) ,a# as a means o) s'#eadin" the )aith. %u&h
,a# is a duty )o# all Muslims. Islam has to be&ome uni$e#sal. The t#ue )aith not the
'o,e# has to be taken to e$e#y 'eo'le by e$e#y means in&ludin" by milita#y
)o#&e. This makes the 'oliti&al 'o,e# im'o#tant )o# it is ,a#like by natu#e. The
t,o thin"s a#e &losely #elated. The 'oliti&al head ,a"es ,a# on behal) o) the )aith.
/e is thus the #eli"ious head and as the sole #e'#esentati$e o) Aod he must )i"ht
to e:tend Islam. This eno#mous im'o#tan&e o) ,a# has been totally oblite#ated
today in intelle&tual &i#&les that admi#e Islam and ,ant to take it a)#esh as a
model. Wa# is inhe#ent in Islam. It is ins&#ibed in its tea&hin". It is a )a&t o) its
&i$ili*ation and also a #eli"ious )a&tJ the t,o &annot be se'a#ated. It is &ohe#ent
,ith its &on&e'tion o) the Dha# al ah#b that the ,hole ,o#ld is destined to
be&ome Muslim by A#ab &on(uests. The '#oo) o) all this is not <ust theolo"i&alJ it is
histo#i&alN ha#dly has the Islami& )aith been '#ea&hed ,hen an immediate milita#y
&on(uest be"ins. 7#om C32 to C51 in the t,enty yea#s a)te# the death o) the
'#o'het ,e ha$e a li"htnin" ,a# o) &on(uest ,ith the in$asion o) E"y't and
8y#enai&a to the ,est A#abia in the &ente# A#menia %y#ia and 6e#sia to the east.
In the )ollo,in" &entu#y all Mo#th A)#i&a and %'ain a#e taken o$e# alon" ,ith India
and Tu#key to the east. The &on(uests a#e not a&hie$ed by san&tity but by ,a#.
7o# th#ee &entu#ies 8h#istianity s'#ead by '#ea&hin" kindliness e:am'le
mo#ality and en&ou#a"ement o) the 'oo#. When the em'i#e be&ame 8h#istian ,a#
,as ha#dly tole#ated by the 8h#istians. E$en ,hen ,a"ed by a 8h#istian em'e#o# it
,as a dubious business and ,as assessed un)a$o#ably. It ,as o)ten &ondemned.
8h#istians ,e#e a&&used o) unde#minin" the 'oliti&al )o#&e and milita#y mi"ht o)
the em'i#e )#om ,ithin. In '#a&ti&e 8h#istians ,ould #emain &#iti&al o) ,a# until
the )lamboyant ima"e o) the holy ,a# &ame on the s&ene. In othe# ,o#ds no
matte# ,hat at#o&ities ha$e been &ommitted in ,a#s ,a"ed by so-&alled 8h#istian
nations ,a# has al,ays been in essential &ont#adi&tion to the "os'el. 8h#istians
ha$e al,ays been mo#e o# less a,a#e o) this. They ha$e <ud"ed ,a# and (uestioned
it.
In Islam on the &ont#a#y ,a# ,as al,ays <ust and &onstituted a sa&#ed duty. The
,a# that ,as meant to &on$e#t in)idels ,as <ust and le"itimate )o# as Muslim
thinkin" #e'eats Islam is the only #eli"ion that &on)o#ms 'e#)e&tly to natu#e. In a
natu#al state ,e ,ould all be Muslims. I) ,e a#e not it is be&ause ,e ha$e been
led ast#ay and di$e#ted )#om the t#ue )aith. In makin" ,a# to )o#&e 'eo'le to
be&ome Muslims the )aith)ul a#e b#in"in" them ba&k to thei# t#ue natu#e. 0.E.D.
7u#the#mo#e a ,a# o) this kind is a <ihad a holy ,a#. Pet us make no mistake the
,o#d <ihad has t,o &om'lementa#y senses. It may denote a s'i#itual ,a# that is
mo#al and in,a#d. Muslims ha$e to ,a"e this ,a# ,ithin themsel$es in the )i"ht
a"ainst demons and e$il )o#&es in the e))o#t to a&hie$e bette# obedien&e to Aod1s
,ill in the st#u""le )o# 'e#)e&t submission. But at the same time and in a ,holly
&onsistent ,ay the <ihad is also the ,a# a"ainst e:te#nal demons. To s'#ead the
)aith it is ne&essa#y to dest#oy )alse #eli"ions. This ,a# then is al,ays a #eli"ious
,a# a holy ,a#.=
DB
/en&e he #e&o"ni*es that the Aos'el o) 8h#ist and ,a# a#e not &om'lementa#y
and Ellul #i"htly notes that t#ue 8h#istians ha$e al,ays been at least ske'ti&al
about ,a# e$en ,hile #e&o"ni*in" that a le"itimate need on the 'a#t o) the state
may e:ist )o# a#med &on)li&t. 8on$e#sely he also obse#$es that the tea&hin"s o)
Islam a#e ,holly &onsistent ,ith a 'e#'etual ,a# state. The &on&e't o) =holy ,a#=
in medie$al Eu#o'e #ose as a #esult o) the in)luen&e o) Islami& 'hiloso'hi&al and
theolo"i&al ideas and )#om the di#e&t e:am'le o) the Muslims themsel$es ,hose
dealin"s in Mo#th A)#i&a and %'ain ,e#e #eadily obse#$able to the 8h#istendom o)
the day.
Mone o) this should be inte#'#eted as seekin" to <usti)y the 8#usade#s in thei#
,a#)a#e o# thei# at#o&ities - indeed the 8#usade#s indul"ed in many "#eat e$ils
,hen they &ondu&ted thei# ,a#s in the Pe$ant. The 'oint still needs to be
unde#stood ho,e$e# that ,ithout the in'ut o) Muslim a""#ession Muslim
at#o&ities and Muslim theolo"i&alQ'hiloso'hi&al ideas the 8#usades ,ould not
likely ha$e o&&u##ed.
Anothe# e##o# in thinkin" ,hi&h non-8h#istians o)ten make and ,hi&h needs to be
add#essed is thisN The#e is not no# has the#e e$e# been su&h a thin" as a =8h#istian
nation=. Mo nation has e$e# been "o$e#ned solely ?o# e$en '#in&i'ally@ by the
di&tates o) the Bible no# has any nation e$e# been made u' solely o# e$en ,ith a
la#"e ma<o#ity o) t#uly Bible-belie$in" bo#n-a"ain 8h#istians. Ai$en the im'li&ations
o) ,hat the Bible has to say as )a# as &ommandin" 8h#istians to be submissi$e to
the la,s o) thei# #es'e&ti$e ea#thly nations insomu&h as they &an do so ,ithout
$iolatin" %&#i'tu#e and &ons&ien&e ?see !omans 13N1-D I 6ete# 2N11-1D@ and that
8h#istians a#e to be =in the ,o#ld but not o) the ,o#ld= ?see .ohn 1DN15-1C@ it
must be unde#stood that 8h#istians &annot 'a#take o) )o#&in" thei# autho#ity
eithe# 'oliti&al o# #eli"ious u'on the unbelie$in" ,o#ld beyond those #ealms ?su&h
as $otin" in demo&#ati& nations@ in ,hi&h they a#e la,)ully allo,ed a $oi&e alon"
,ith e$e#yone else.
As su&h sin&e the#e is no su&h thin" as a =8h#istian nation= it is not a $alid
a#"ument to t#y to blame 8h#istianity )o# the beha$io# o) Weste#n nations su&h as
the >nited %tates A#eat B#itain o# othe# &ount#ies that many in the Thi#d Wo#ld
usually #e)e# to as =8h#istian=. E$en a &u#so#y "lan&e at the la,s and '#a&ti&es o)
Weste#n nations 'ast and '#esent sho,s that these ,e#e not =8h#istian= in the
sense o) abidin" by the st#i&t di&tates o) the Bible e$en i) these nations did ha$e
la#"e o# in)luential 8h#istian elements in thei# so&ieties. Muslims e## "#eatly in
t#yin" to a''ly thei# unde#standin" o) the ummah to the Weste#n situation. In
Muslim lands Islam is su''osed to )o#m the &om'lete sum total o) all the
&ommunity and so&iety. E$e#ythin" is to #e$ol$e a#ound Islam and Islam is to
establish the sole deen the ,ay o) li$in" in a nation #uled by the #eli"ion o)
Mohammed. Muslims a''ly this to the West and the#e)o#e &ome to the e##oneous
&on&lusion that be&ause the >nited %tates e:ti#'ated and (ua#antined the Mati$e
Ame#i&ans o# be&ause B#itain sold small'o:-laden blankets to the Moha,ks o#
be&ause the Dut&h t#eated the nati$es in thei# Asian holdin" &#uelly that all o)
these &#imes &an be laid at the )eet o) +hristianity #athe# than <ust indi$idual
nations o# 'eo'le. This is an in$alid a#"ument be&ause 8h#istianity as tau"ht in
the Bible is a '#i$ate and 'e#sonal #elationshi' bet,een man and his Make#. The#e
is no - &an be no - 8h#istian ummah to ,hi&h a nation1s a&tions &an be att#ibuted.
While that &on&e't may be att#ibutable e$en to a'ostate state #eli"ionism ?,hi&h
tea&hes its o,n $e#sion o) ummah th#ou"h its belie) that all 'eo'le in a #e"ion a#e
submitted to the hie#a#&hi&al #eli"ious autho#ities and belon" to the =state
&hu#&h=@ it &annot be att#ibuted to 'eo'le ,ho a#e bein" )aith)ul to the Bible
,hi&h is the $e#y de)inition o) a =Bible-belie$in" 8h#istian=.
In &losin" ,hen ,e &ont#ast Islam and 8h#istianity ,e see that the )o#me# belie)
system '#omotes $iolen&e ,hile the latte# does not. The di))e#en&e lies in the
holy books and othe# #eli"ious te:ts used by the t,o systems. The 0u#1an and the
ahadith '#o$ide am'le and st#ai"ht)o#,a#d <usti)i&ation )o# $iolen&e a"ainst
unbelie$e#s. In &ont#ast to this the Bible b#in"s a messa"e o) 'ea&e. 9nly those
,ho t#y to take the Bibli&al messa"e out o) &onte:t and t,ist the s&#i'tu#es ,ill
see in it a =<usti)i&ation= )o# $iolen&e a"ainst non-belie$e#s.
End Motes
?1@ - Al-Taba#i 2ami al-(ayan an tawil ay al-1uran &ommentin" on 2N5
?2@ - Al-Mahalli $afsir al-2alalayn &ommentin" on 2N5
?3@ - Al-Baida,i %srar ut-tan.il wa %srar ut-tawil &ommentin" on 2N22
?B@ - Ibn -haldun %l-"uqaddimah t#ans. 7. !osenthal ab#". and ed. M... Da,ood
Bk. 1 8h. 3.31 '. 143
?5@ - Ibn -athi# $afsir al-1uran al-%.im &ommentin" on 2N5
?C@ - Ibn /a*m %l-!isal fi al-"ilal wa al-Cihal +ol. 4 &ommentin" on 2N25C
?D@ - "uwatta o) Malik Bk. B5 %e&t.5 Mo. 14 ,he#e Mohammed is #e'o#ted to
ha$e said this and then tu#ned out the .e,s o) -hayba# and )o#&ed them to
emi"#ate see also Sahih "uslim Bk. 12 Mo. B3CC
?4@ - Ibn Abi Rayd al-0ay#a,ani 9a 8isala3 Epitre sur les elements du dogme et de
la loi dIslam selon le rite mali'ite T#ans. Ed. P. Be#&he# '. 1C5
?2@ - Al-Ma,a#di %l-ah'am as-Sultaniyyah '.C0
?10@ - %l-*idayah +ol. 2 '. 1B0
?11@ - !. 6ete#s 2ihad in +lassical and "odern Islam '. B2
?12@ - Al-Aha**ali Kita( al--agi. fi fiqh madha( al-imam al-Safii ''. 14C 120-
121
?13@ - M.%.!. Al-Buti $he 2urisprudence of the 5iography ''. 323-32B
?1B@ - Ibid. ''. 2CC-2CD
?15@ - Ibid. ''. 2CC
?1C@ - Sahih 5u'hari t#ans. M.M. -han +ol. 1 '. ::$i
?1D@ - %. as-%aleh "a(aheth !i Ulum al-1uran '. 2C2 &itin" As-%uyuti1s Itqan fi-
ulum al-quran
?14@ - Ibid. note on '. 2D0
?12@ - M. al-Amin $he "ethodology of Islamic 9aw '. 1D
?20@ - A. Abdul-7attah $he Spirit of the Islamic 8eligion '. 34B
?21@ - %. 0utb "ilestones '. DC
?22@ - A.%.A. >smani $afseer e-Usmani3 $he Co(le 1uran +ol. 1 '. 411
?23@ - Abdul-7attah o'. &it. '. 342
?2B@ - B. Tibi =Wa# and 6ea&e in Islam= $he Ethics of -ar and 6eace3 8eligious
and Secular 6erspectives ed. T. Ma#din ''. 122-131
?25@ - 7. !ahman Islam '. 3D
?2C@ - %. 6i#*ada )awatul 1uran t#ans. A.-. %haikh +ol. 1 ''. C1B-C15
&ommentin" on 2N22
?2D@ - %ee %.A.A. Maududi 2ihad in Islam '. 13
?24@ - A.%. Mu1mani Sirat-un-Ca(i t#ans. M.T.B. Budayani +ol. 2 '. 240
?22@ - Ibid. ''. 241-242
?30@ - M.A.M. Da#yabadi $afsir-ul-1uran +ol. 2 '. 2D2
?31@ - %.I. Rahee# $afsir Ishraq %l-"aani3 5eing a 1uintessence of 1uranic
+ommentaries +ol. 5 '. 1BD
?32@ - Da#yabadi o'. &it. ''. 2B4-2B2
?33@ - Rahee# o'. &it. ''. 20-21
?3B@ - >smani o'. &it. '. 4CD
?35@ - 6i#*ada o'. &it. '. CB5
?3C@ - >smani o'. &it. '. 43D
?3D@ - M.M.M. %ha)i "aariful 1uran +ol. B '. 3C3 &ommentin" on 2N22
?34@ - %.A. Ali 1uran3 $he !undamental 9aw of *uman 9ife +ol. C '. 532
?32@ - %.A.A. Maududi "eaning of the 1uran +ol. B '. 14C
?B0@ - A. .e))#ey =The 6oliti&al Im'o#tan&e o) Islam= 2ournal of Cear Eastern
Studies +ol. 1 ?12B2@ '. 344
?B1@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. 2 Mo. 25
?B2@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. 2 Mo. 35
?B3@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 53 Mos. 3C2-3D0
?BB@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 53 Mo. 34CJ +ol. 2 Bk. 23 Mo. 555
?B5@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2D21
?BC@ - Sahih 5u'hari +ol. D Bk. C2 Mo. 513
?BD@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2D22
?B4@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2D22
?B2@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2D5B
?50@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2DC1J see also Sahih "uslim Bk. 20
Mos. BC32 and BC1BJ Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 53 Mo. 352 and +ol. B Bk. 5C
Mo. 432
?51@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2452
?52@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. B Bk. 2B Mo. 2434
?53@ - A. Danielou *istoire de lInde '. 222
?5B@ - %.M. 7ishe# $he "iddle East4 % *istory '. 104
?55@ - %. !un&iman 5y.antine +ivili.ation '. 2B0
?5C@ - %ee A. Aood,in $he 2anissaries ''. 32-53 )o# an in-de'th look at the
'#a&ti&e o) devsirme by the 9ttomans.
?5D@ - M.D. Bed#ossyan $he !irst 7enocide of the DPth +entury '. 34J see ''. 34-
5B )o# do&umenta#y e$iden&es o) the 'e#se&ution as )ound in '#ima#y sou#&es )#om
the time
?54@ - 8... Walke# %rmenia3 Survival of a Cation ''. 202-203
?52@ - !.E. Bu#ns -rath of %llah 8ha'. B th#ou"hout
?C0@ - 6.M. %ie"el $he "ee' and the "ilitant '. 2B2
?C1@ - 8./. 8onde =B00 killed by te##o#ism in 6hili''ines sin&e 2000 #e'o#t says=
Inte#national /e#ald T#ibune 30 .uly 200D
?C2@ - %ee M. Won"-Anan =Bomb kills C ,ounds 25 in Thai Muslim south= !eute#s
Me,s %e#$i&e B De&embe# 200DJ also =Bomb blasts in Thailand1s #esti$e south kills
1 ,ounds 12= The %ta# 9nline ?Malaysia@ 1 9&tobe# 200D
?C3@ - =Thai Muslim #ebels kill B in #oad ambushes= !eute#s Me,s %e#$i&e 2B .une
200D
?CB@ - %ee e.". =At least 10 la,ye#s dead as blasts shake Indian &ou#thouses=
.e#usalem 6ost 23 Mo$embe# 200DJ and =A#my de'loyed a)te# 8al&utta #iot= BB8
Me,s 9nline 21 Mo$embe# 200D
?C5@ - %ee -. 8haudhu#i 7enocide in 5angladesh. 8haudhu#i #e'o#ts one estimate
o) th#ee million 'eo'le killed and t,o hund#ed thousand ,omen #a'ed by 6akistani
soldie#s du#in" the 12D1 ,a# ?'. 1C3@ and "i$es a detailed thou"h in&om'lete
listin" o) deaths in Ban"ladesh totalin" to a little o$e# 1.25 million ?''. 122-202@
?CC@ - =Thousands in %udan 8all )o# B#itish Teddy Bea# Tea&he#1s E:e&ution= 7o:
Me,s 30 Mo$embe# 200D
?CD@ - -. Bales )isposa(le 6eople3 Cew Slavery in the 7lo(al Economy ''. 42-20
?C4@ - Ibid. ''. 40-41J Bales 8h. 3 ''. 40-120 details the )a&t o) Mau#itanian
sla$e#y ,hi&h is all the ,hile =o))i&ially= denied by the A#ab-Moo#ish "o$e#nment
and #ulin" &lass. 6e#$e#sely the sla$es in Mau#itania a#e o)ten #e)e##ed to as
=Bilals= a)te# the bla&k A)#i&an sla$e ?Bilal@ that Mohammed )#eed and ,ho be&ame
the )i#st mue**in in the ea#ly Muslim &ommunity a&&o#din" to the t#aditions.
?C2@ - Ibid. ''. 20-21
?D0@ - M. 5ousse) %merica4 &il4 and the Islamic "ind '. CB
?D1@ - Indeed as Mille# 'oints out the &ommon $ie, that Aod1s &ommandment to
Is#ael &on&e#nin" the 8anaaniites ,as to =kill them all and let Aod so#t them out= is
not a&tually a&&u#ate. Thou"h a )e, $e#ses a''ea# ha#sh in thei# 'h#aseolo"y the
a&tual &ondu&t o) the &ommand ,hen $ie,ed systemati&ally )#om %&#i'tu#e and in
histo#i&al &onte:t ,as mu&h mo#e lenient than ,ould ha$e been obse#$ed )#om
most othe# an&ient Mea# Easte#n 'eo'les. %ee htt'NQQ,,,.&h#istian-
thinktank.&omQ(amo#ite.html. /e summa#i*es by sayin" =7a# )#om bein" the
1"eno&ide o) an inno&ent 'eo'le )o# land-hun"#y Is#aelites1 it ,as instead the 1)i#m
yet <ust--and e$en a little me#&i)ul to the masses--#emo$al o) a 'eo'le )#om a t#a&t
o) land mostly th#ou"h mi"#ation.1
?D2@ - T.7. Madden =8#usade 6#o'a"anda= Mational !e$ie, 9nline 2 Mo$embe#
2001
?D3@ - %ee htt'NQQ,,,.)o#dham.eduQhalsallQsou#&eQu#ban2-)ul&he#.html
?DB@ - .. Ellul $he Su(version of +hristianity ''. 100-101
Myth E4
Islam is a Tole#ant !eli"ion
G5es I am a .e, and ,hen the an&esto#s o) the !i"ht /onou#able "entleman ,e#e
b#utal sa$a"es in an unkno,n island mine ,e#e '#iests in the tem'le o) %olomon.H
-Ben<amin Dis#aeli on the )loo# o) 6a#liament in #e'ly to I#ish M6 Daniel 918onnell
7#eedom o) 8ons&ien&e - The Ame#i&an E:am'le
Islami& Intole#an&e o) 9''osin" +ie,s
Islami& Intole#an&e To,a#ds 9the# !eli"ions
Does the West 9,n Islam )o# its %&ienti)i& /e#ita"e;
Dhimmitude
!a&ism in Islam
Islami& Im'e#ialism
Islam >be# Alles By Any Means Me&essa#y
Islam as a 8ont#ol 8ult
When ,e use the ,o#d =tole#an&e= ,hat do ,e mean; The#e a#e many di))e#ent
ideas out the#e but )o# the 'u#'oses o) this ,o#k I shall sim'ly use the standa#d
de)inition "i$en in the di&tiona#y. =Tole#ate= as de)ined by the Webste#1s Me,
8olle"iate Di&tiona#y is =To su))e# to be o# to be done ,ithout '#ohibition o#
hind#an&eJ to allo, o# 'e#mit by not '#e$entin".= Thus tole#an&e essentially
means that ,hile you may not a"#ee ,ith somethin" you do not hinde# this
=somethin"= )#om bein" '#a&ti&ed said tau"ht et&. Tole#an&e &e#tainly does not
mean that one a"#ees ,ith e$e#ythin" he o# she hea#s o# that they must promote
e$e#y $ie,'oint. 7#om the 'e#s'e&ti$e o) the to'i& at hand =tole#an&e= me#ely
means not hinde#in" anothe# 'e#son )#om '#a&ti&in" a di))e#ent #eli"ious )aith than
you# o,n o# sayin" somethin" ,ith ,hi&h you disa"#ee.
:reedom of Conscience # The 'merican E$ample
The >nited %tates o) Ame#i&a has a lon" ?thou"h &e#tainly not 'e#)e&t@ histo#y o)
#eli"ious tole#ation and )#eedom. This nation has been a ha$en )o# those ,ho ha$e
sou"ht to es&a'e #eli"ious 'e#se&ution s'e&i)i&ally be&ause ,e '#a&ti&e tole#an&e.
Ame#i&a does not hinde# a 'e#son )#om )ollo,in" thei# #eli"ious &ons&ien&e. I)
someone ,ants to be a 0uake# Ba'tist Mo#mon 8atholi& .e, /indu Muslim o#
anythin" else unde# the sun they a#e )#ee to do so. 7u#the# Ame#i&a ,as built
u'on this )oundation o) #eli"ious tole#ation because o) its 8h#istian he#ita"e.
%e'a#ation o) &hu#&h and state #i"htly unde#stood as bein" a ba##ie# to the
inte#min"lin" o) e&&lesiasti&al and se&ula# autho#ity ?i.e. no state &hu#&h@ ,as
pioneered by Ame#i&an Ba'tists and thei# Eu#o'ean ante&edents su&h as the
Waldensians and Anaba'tists. The &olonial Ba'tist .ohn Peland ,as inst#umental in
se&u#in" Ame#i&an #eli"ious )#eedom by 'e#suadin" .ames Madison to in&lude the
lan"ua"e that be&ame the 1st amendment o) the Bill o) !i"hts into the
8onstitution. Indeed Peland and othe# &olonial Ba'tist thinke#s ,e#e '#a&ti&ally
the )i#st to be ,illin" to "o (eyond me#e tole#ation as it ,as unde#stood in thei#
day and ado't a $ie, o) &om'lete #eli"ious )#eedom ,hi&h ,ould a&&o#d ,ith our
unde#standin" o) =tole#ation= today
=Ao$e#nment should '#ote&t e$e#y man in thinkin" and s'eakin" )#eely and see
that one does not abuse anothe#. The libe#ty I &ontend )o# is mo#e than
tole#ation. The $e#y idea o) tole#ation is des'i&ableJ it su''oses that some ha$e a
'#e-eminen&e abo$e the #est to "#ant indul"en&eJ ,he#eas all should be e(ually
)#ee .e,s Tu#ks 6a"ans and 8h#istians.=
1
The builde#s o) this nation both 8h#istian and not #i"htly unde#stood ?as the Bible
tea&hes@ that the#e &annot be )o#&e used in #eli"ious &on$e#sion and #eli"ious
'#a&ti&e
=7o# thou"h ,e ,alk in the )lesh ,e do not ,a# a)te# the )leshN ?7o# the ,ea'ons
o) ou# ,a#)a#e a#e not &a#nal but mi"hty th#ou"h Aod to the 'ullin" do,n o)
st#on"holds.@= ?II 8o#inthians 10N3-B@
Matte#s o) ete#nity o) the sal$ation o) souls a#e to be dealt ,ith th#ou"h s'i#itual
means ?'#aye# ,itnessin" a "ood testimony@ not by &a#nal and "o$e#nmental
means.
Pike,ise thou"h Ame#i&a has had a &he&ke#ed histo#y o) tole#an&e to,a#d #a&ial
di))e#en&es this nation is no, mo#e &olo#blind than it has been at anytime be)o#e.
!a&e means less to )e,e# 'eo'le than it e$e# has. In )a&t #a&ism is a '#oblem that
is 'e#'etuated mo#e by those &laimin" to )i"ht it su&h as the MAA86 and the
%outhe#n 6o$e#ty Pa, 8ente# than it is )#om the t#aditional ?and dyin"@ #a&ist
"#ou's like the -u -lu: -lan and it allies. Ethni& mino#ities today &an "et a <ob
buy a house "o to s&hool and li$e in 'ea&e and sa)ety almost any,he#e they
&hoose ,ith a $e#y )e, ?thou"h hi"hly 'ubli&i*ed@ e:&e'tions to this ne, o#de#. In
sho#t Ame#i&a is demonst#atin" tole#an&e to,a#ds this so#t o) di))e#en&e that o)
#a&e and &ultu#e as ,ell.
At this 'oint I ,ould like to add#ess some mis&on&e'tions held by those ,ho ha$e
imbibed too mu&h do&t#inai#e ='oliti&al &o##e&tness=. Tole#an&e does not mean
that one ne$e# disa"#ees ,ith a #eli"ion o# a $ie,'oint ne$e# a#"ues a"ainst o#
&hallen"es ,hat anothe# belie$es. My #eason )o# in&ludin" this '#o$iso is that many
'eo'le ,ho #ead this book ,ill see my &#iti&isms o) Islam and automati&ally &ome
to the seemin"ly '#e-'#o"#ammed &on&lusion that I am bein" =intole#ant=.
/o,e$e# I am not. I am not seekin" to '#e$ent o# hinde# Muslims )#om '#a&ti&in"
thei# #eli"ion o# belie$in" ,hat they ,ant o# a&tin" as they see )it ?'#o$ided they
#emain ,ithin the bounds o) the la, and human de&en&y@. I am me#ely en"a"in" in
that most Ame#i&an o) a&ti$itiesN &hallen"in" and &#iti&i*in" that ,ith ,hi&h I
disa"#ee.
Islamic Intolerance of *pposing Vie!s
%o then the (uestion to be asked is thisN Is Islam a tole#ant #eli"ion; And o)
&ou#se the ans,e# must be an em'hati& noO In )a&t Islam is &ha#a&te#i*ed by a
hi"h de"#ee o) intole#an&e both to inte#nal dissent and e:te#nal &hallen"e. As I
said abo$e &hallen"in" and &#iti&i*in" ,hat ,e disa"#ee ,ith is as Ame#i&an as
a''le 'ie and Pittle Pea"ue ball "ames. It is ,hat this &ount#y ,as built u'on.
Islam takes a diamet#i&ally o''osite stan&e. In most &ount#ies ,ith a Muslim
ma<o#ity e$en =mode#ate= nations like E"y't Malaysia o# Indonesia )#eedom o)
thou"ht and e:'#ession a#e se$e#ely &u#tailed.
%audi A#abia ,ith its absolute ban on any #eli"ion besides Islam and its #i"o#ous
su''#ession o) &#iti&s o) the /ouse o) %a1ud is a ty'i&al e:am'le o) the so#t o)
intole#an&e to,a#ds )#ee thou"ht and #eli"ious e:'#ession )ound in most Muslim
nations. In 6akistan '#otesto#s "et blud"eoned o$e# the head....,hen they1#e not
doin" the blud"eonin" themsel$es. In I#an dissente#s )#om the %hi1ite Muslim
theo&#a&y a#e usually <ailed ,hi''ed o# e:e&uted. 9ne need only to #emembe#
the death ,a##ant 'la&ed on the head o) %alman !ushdie )o# ,#itin" a book &#iti&al
o) Islam $he Satanic Verses. The $e#y title o) that book o))ended Muslim
sensibilities by #emindin" them that Mohammed 'enned ,hat a#e &alled =the
%atani& $e#ses=. These ,e#e $e#ses that he su''osedly ,#ote ,hile unde# the
in)luen&e o) %atan &ondonin" that "#eatest o) sins in Islam shir' - asso&iatin"
othe# "ods ,ith Allah ?these $e#ses ,e#e late# #et#a&ted@.
The#e seems to be an inhe#ent tenden&y in Islam that in)luen&es its )ollo,e#s a,ay
)#om the tole#ation o) o''osition that is #e(ui#ed )o# the #es'e&t o) 'oliti&al and
so&ial )#eedoms and &onsensual "o$e#nment. In )a&t only one nation ,ith a Muslim
ma<o#ity in the Middle East (uali)ies as ha$in" a t#uly indi"enous demo&#ati&ally-
ele&ted "o$e#nment ,ith )#eedoms '#ote&ted by the #ule o) la, this bein" Tu#key.
Tu#key1s demo&#ati& system o#i"inated th#ou"h the e))o#ts o) Musta)a -emal
Atatu#k and the 5oun" Tu#ks mo$ement ,ho set Tu#key on a 'u#'ose)ul ?thou"h
only 'a#tly su&&ess)ul@ se&ula# 'ath ,hi&h sou"ht to &ons&iously imitate the West
a)te# the )all o) the %ultanate in 1222. Tu#key1s demo&#a&y is 'otentially $e#y
unstable ho,e$e# due to the &onstant tension bet,een the se&ula# milita#y
establishment and the in&#easin" in)luen&e o) )undamentalist Islami& 'a#ties in the
"o$e#nment. 7u#the# Tu#key is somethin" o) an anomaly ,ithin the Muslim ,o#ld.
I#a( and A)"hanistan ha$e at least )o# no, demo&#ati& systems that ,e#e
int#odu&ed th#ou"h Ame#i&an in$asion and ouste# o) the '#e$ious "o$e#nments but
it is di))i&ult to ima"ine that thei# demo&#a&ies ,ould #emain stable )o# $e#y lon"
,ithout &onstant Ame#i&an and Weste#n butt#essin". 9utside o) the Middle East
only Indonesia ,ould ha$e a "o$e#nmental system e$en &lose to en&om'assin"
Weste#n standa#ds o) 'oliti&al )#eedom and the #es'e&t )o# the #ule o) la, and
Indonesia1s "o$e#nment is also be&omin" in&#easin"ly Islami*ed. Des'otism as seen
in Pibya %y#ia %udan and )o#me#ly in I#a( and mona#&hy as seen in %audi A#abia
.o#dan and -u,ait a#e the no#ms )o# the Muslim ,o#ld.
The e:'lanations )o# Muslim intole#an&e &an stem sim'ly )#om the mo#e medie$al
as'e&t o) Middle Easte#n &ultu#e. Islami& t#adition and &ultu#e as ,e ,ill see a
little late# a#e basi&ally the "#a)tin" o) Dth &entu#y A#abian &ultu#al no#ms onto
the &i$ili*ations that )ell into its "#as'. +ie,ed in this li"ht the#e should be little
su#'#ise to us that many Islami& '#a&ti&es and as'e&ts o) sharia la, ,ould a''ea#
in the $e#y least ba#ba#i& to Weste#n eyes. A)te# all Eu#o'e did a,ay ,ith many
o) the same '#a&ti&es &entu#ies a"o. Pike,ise no autho#ita#ian system is likely to
endo#se the a&&e'tan&e o# tole#ation o) o''osition. 9ne &ould ha#dly e:'e&t
di&tato#shi's like those )ound in %y#ia o# Pibya to a&t di))e#ently than mode#n
des'ots like %talin o# /itle# o# medie$al des'ots o) all nationalities.
But this ty'e o) intole#an&e does not <ust hold t#ue )o# Middle Easte#n nations.
A)te# all e$en Muslims in the >nited %tates and the West ,ho ha$e li$ed he#e )o#
yea#s and ha$e ?su''osedly@ imbibed Weste#n $alues and ideas o)ten still seem
o''osed to tole#atin" those ,ith ,hom they disa"#ee. Muslim a'olo"ists )o#
instan&e ,ill attem't to make the 0u#1an =hands-o))= as )a# as bein" a to'i& o)
&#iti&ism o# debate ,hile at the same time attem'tin" to sub<e&t the Bible to
&#iti&al s&#utiny. This so#t o) one-sidedness this un,illin"ness to en"a"e in a )#ee
and o'en dis&ussion is inimi&al to Weste#n notions o) &#iti&ism and debate but )its
#i"ht into the Muslim ,o#ld1s intole#an&e o) o''osition a ,o#ld in ,hi&h &#iti&i*in"
the 0u#1an most o)ten leads to death o# dis)i"u#ement. The a&tions o) Muslims a#e
&onside#ed o))-limits )o# &#iti&ism e$en the most heinous o) beha$io#. This holds
t#ue e$en )o# =mode#ate and Weste#ni*ed= Muslims. 8olumnist Don 7ede# #e'o#ted
that ,hen the imam o) the /a*#at-I-Abubak# %adi( mos(ue in Me, 5o#k 8ity
denoun&ed the Wo#ld T#ade 8ente# te##o# atta&k hal) o) the &on"#e"ation "ot u'
and ,alked out
2
. Thus it ,ould seem that hal) o) this Ame#i&ani*ed &on"#e"ation
a''#o$ed o) the mu#de# o) o$e# 3000 &i$ilian non-&ombatants enou"h so to #e)use
to listen to the &#iti&ism o) that mu#de#ous a&t )#om thei# o,n #eli"ious leade#. It
is not unusual )o# the autho#s o) 'ubli&ations and ,ebsites &#iti&al o) Islam to
#e&ei$e death th#eats and hate)ul ad hominem messa"es e$en in the >nited
%tates. .ose'h 7a#ah and othe#s asso&iated ,ith the online ne,s sou#&e
-orldCet)aily and its asso&iated '#inted ma"a*ine -histle(lower ha$e #e&ei$ed
nume#ous death th#eats be&ause o) links and a#ti&les they ha$e #an e:'osin" the
da#ke# side o) Islam. -orldCet)aily1s ad$e#tise#s ha$e also been the ta#"ets o) a
&am'ai"n o) intimidation )#om sel)-identi)ied Muslims. Pike,ise D#. !obe#t Mo#ey
an e$an"eli&al 8h#istian a'olo"ist ,ho has ,#itten se$e#al books about Islam has
)ound himsel) to be the ta#"et o) both $e#bal ha#assment and attem'ted 'hysi&al
atta&ks on his 'e#son as a #esult o) some o) the ideas that he has 'ut )o#th in his
books that ,e#e &#iti&al o) Islam. These atta&ks ha$e been #e'o#ted in both 8anada
and the >nited %tates.
Islamic Intolerance To!ards *ther ,eligions
It should not be su#'#isin" then that a system o) thou"ht ,hi&h dis&ou#a"es and
su''#esses dissent ,ill also su''#ess and 'e#se&ute othe# #eli"ions. As anyone ,ho
has been 'ayin" attention to the histo#y o) the Middle East both mode#n and
medie$al &an see Islam is a '#ime 'e#se&uto# o) othe# #eli"ions es'e&ially
8h#istianity and .udaism. In many Muslim &ount#ies e$en so-&alled =mode#ate=
nations like %audi A#abia #enoun&in" Islam is a &a'ital &#ime and othe# #eli"ions
besides Islam a#e )o#&ed unde#"#ound unable to ,o#shi' o# '#a&ti&e thei# )aiths
o'enly )o# )ea# o) 'e#se&ution by the "o$e#nment. !eli"ions othe# than Islam a#e
)o#mally su''#essed by the "o$e#nments o) most Muslim nations. 7o# instan&e in
%udan 8h#istians and animists in the southe#n Da#)u# #e"ion a#e ensla$ed and sold
no#th by Muslim ?mostly A#ab@ #adi&als and this "oes on ,ith the kno,led"e and
'#omotion o) the %udanese "o$e#nment. I#an #outinely ha#asses <ails and e$en
e:e&utes 8h#istian 'asto#s and those ,ho &on$e#t )#om Islam. In A#ab a#eas o) the
West Bank 6alestinian Muslims ha$e not only &a##ied out atta&ks on Is#aeli .e,s
but ha$e also been systemati&ally d#i$in" out indi"enous A#ab 8h#istians and ha$e
dese&#ated sites held sa&#ed by both 8h#istians and .e,s. It is little ,onde# that
Muslim nations #outinely to' all the lists o) inte#national human #i"hts abuse#s.
E$en ,ithout o))i&ial "o$e#nment san&tion Islami& 'e#se&ution o) 8h#istians is
,ides'#ead all a&#oss the Middle East. 8h#istians a#e #outinely the ta#"et o) te##o#
&am'ai"ns in nations su&h as 6akistan Indonesia Al"e#ia and I#an. 9)ten the
$iolen&e #esults in out#i"ht mu#de# one e:am'le bein" the "unnin" do,n o) 1D
'eo'le in a 6#otestant &on"#e"ation in 6akistan by th#ee Islami& )anati&s on 24
9&tobe# 2001
3
. Many othe# e:am'les &an be sho,n su&h as the mu#de# o) the
Aos'el missiona#y Ma#tin Bu#nham in Mindanao in the 6hili''ines by the Muslim
te##o#ist o#"ani*ation Abu %ayya). The 'ast '#ose&ution o) se$e#al 6akistani
8h#istians unde# anti-blas'hemy la,s ?,hi&h &a##y the death senten&e@ also se#$e
to illust#ate Islami& intole#an&e and )ea# o) #eli"ious &om'etition. Pike,ise the
8o'ts o) E"y't ha$e unde#"one ?and &ontinue to unde#"o@ systemati& abuse not
only at the hands o) #adi&al Islamist "#ou's in E"y't but also by thei# o,n
"o$e#nment. Islam has an endemi& '#oblem ,ith $iolen&e as ,as demonst#ated in
the '#e$ious &ha'te# ,hi&h stems in la#"e 'a#t )#om that #eli"ion1s intole#an&e o)
&om'etition. Islam it ,ould seem )ea#s any so#t o) dissent o# &hallen"e.
Islam1s intole#an&e is hi"hli"hted e$en mo#e ,hen one &onside#s that nations ,ith a
6#otestant o# Ba'tist 8h#istian he#ita"e demonst#ate a diamet#i&ally o''osite
attitude to,a#ds #eli"ious )#eedom. In the >nited %tates B#itain 8anada
Aust#alia Me, Realand the Methe#lands and othe# nations ,ith 8h#istian
he#ita"es 'eo'le a#e )#ee to &hoose thei# #eli"ion ?o# la&k the#eo)@ ,ithout
"o$e#nment #et#ibution o# 'o'ula# $iolen&e. Muslims in Ame#i&a e$en in the ,ake
o) the %e'tembe# 11 atta&ks ha$e little to )ea# in the ,ay o) 'e#se&ution o#
$iolen&e. Des'ite the intense '#o$o&ation that #adi&al Islam made a"ainst Ame#i&a
,ith the te##o# atta&ks the#e ,as little mo#e than a hand)ul o) s&atte#ed #e'#isals
a"ainst Muslims in Ame#i&a mostly )#om indi$iduals ,ho ,e#e less than mentally
stable to be"in ,ith. The Ame#i&an "o$e#nment has "one to "#eat len"ths to
'#e$ent and dis&ou#a"e atta&ks u'on A#abs and Muslims. 9ne &an easily ima"ine
ho, this ,ould M9T be the &ase i) the #oles ,e#e #e$e#sed and Ame#i&ans had
hi<a&ked and &#ashed ai#'lanes into a )e, buildin"s in say Islamabad o# 8ai#o and
killed thousands o) &i$ilians.
What must be unde#stood is that this Islami& intole#an&e )o# othe# #eli"ions and
,ays o) li)e is not a #e&ent abe##ation as e$en a &u#so#y study o) histo#y ,ould
sho,. We must unde#stand that the militant and $iolent intole#an&e demonst#ated
by o#thodo: Islam is not a '#odu&t o) Islam1s e:&lusi$ist &laims per se. Indeed
Bible-belie$in" 8h#istianity makes e:a&tly the same so#t o) &laims )o# itsel) as the
,ay to sal$ation
=.esus saith unto him I am the ,ay the t#uth and the li)eN no man &ometh unto
the 7athe# but by me.= ?.ohn 1BNC@
5et ,e do not see Bible-belie$in" 8h#istians "unnin" do,n membe#s o) othe#
#eli"ions o# bombin" the houses o) ,o#shi' o) othe# )aiths. Instead o) bein" me#ely
a matte# o) e:&lusi$ity Islam1s o)ten $iolent intole#an&e stems )#om its in"#ained
attitude o) su'e#io#ity o$e# those ,ho a#e not Muslim. T#aditional Islami& tea&hin"
on the sub<e&t o) =in)idels= de'i&ts those ,ho #e)use to a&&e't Islam as de)i&ient
unintelli"ent and mo#ally bank#u't be&ause o) thei# #e)usal to a&kno,led"e the
=ob$ious= su'e#io#ity o) the Islami& deen ?,ay o) #eli"ion@ and &on$e#t. This
attitude o) su'e#io#ity ho,e$e# is &on)#onted by the ob$ious in)e#io#ity o) Muslim
'o,e# and '#esti"e in the ,o#ld today. /untin"ton sums u' the matte# (uite
su&&in&tly ,hen he ,#ites
GThe unde#lyin" '#oblem )o# the West is not Islami& )undamentalism. It is Islam a
di))e#ent &i$ili*ation ,hose 'eo'le a#e &on$in&ed o) the su'e#io#ity o) thei# &ultu#e
and a#e obsessed ,ith the in)e#io#ity o) thei# 'o,e#.H
B
This 'osition is inimi&al to the ideal &onditions that o#thodo: Muslims belie$e
should e:ist. Islam as the )inal #e$elation o) Allah to mankind should natu#ally be
su'e#io# to all othe# systems and should #i"htly e:e#&ise maste#y o$e# them all ?so
the )undamentalist Muslim belie$es@ until these &an be e:ti#'ated and Islam #ules
as the sole deen on ea#th. Be&ause Islam is a &ombined #eli"io-'oliti&al system its
&laims )o# e:&lusi$ity ,ill natu#ally &#oss o$e# into the e:e#&ise o) state 'o,e# to
en)o#&e #eli"ious di&tates mu&h as the 'o'es used se&ula# '#in&es to en)o#&e 'a'al
de&#ees du#in" the Middle A"es. /o,e$e# Muslims )o# the 'ast )e, &entu#ies ha$e
su))e#ed the hea#tb#eak o) seein" thei# on&e dominant 'osition #emo$ed by
=8h#istian= Eu#o'eans ,ho ad$an&ed )a# beyond the Islami& ,o#ld in the s&ien&es
the a#ts and milita#y 'o,e#. This in)e#io# 'osition &ou'led ,ith the in"#ained
belie) in thei# o,n natu#al and #i"ht)ul su'e#io#ity has se#$ed to #adi&ali*e many
Muslims to,a#ds a $e#y $iolent )o#m o) Islami& t#aditionalism. It is intole#able to
the o#thodo: Muslim mind that any non-Muslims should e:e#&ise any so#t o)
su'e#io# 'osition o$e# them and yet this is e:a&tly ,hat has ha''ened. It be"an
,hen the $a#ious Eu#o'ean 'o,e#s sta#ted to 'ush Islam ba&k out o) Eu#o'e and
#e&laim thei# )o#me# te##ito#ies. It &ontinued ,hen the Eu#o'eans took ad$anta"e
o) the #elati$e ba&k,a#dness o) Muslim lands to end the s&ou#"e o) Muslim 'i#a&y
in the Medite##anean and "ained as&endan&y o$e# these )o#me# 'i#ate 'o,e#s. It
#ea&hed its a'e: ,ith the 'ie&emeal sub<u"ation and 'a#tition o) the )o#me#
9ttoman Em'i#e amon" the $a#ious &olonial 'o,e#s. It is still )elt today th#ou"h
the e&onomi&ally and milita#ily dominant 'osition o) the >nited %tates and othe#
Weste#n 'o,e#s in the ,o#ld today. In sho#t the Muslim e"o his sense o) sel)-
,o#th as it is e:ists th#ou"h his domination o$e# the in)idels has been
disa''ointed and &on)uted by the '#esent 'osition in ,hi&h Muslim lands e:ist. In
the s'a&e o) a )e, &entu#ies the Islami& ,o#ld ,ent )#om bein" 'oised to literally
&on(ue# the kno,n ,o#ld to bein" an ummah ,hose combined "#oss domesti&
'#odu&tion is only #ou"hly B0T that o) the >nited %tates alone.
7o# many Muslims 'e#ha's )o# most the ,ay to alte# the in)e#io# status in ,hi&h
they )ind themsel$es vis-V-vis the 8h#istian West is to #etu#n to an ideali*ed 'ast
,hen the 0u#1an ,as )ollo,ed 'e#)e&tly and Islam #uled. 7o# some Muslims this is
attained by 'u#"in" the Muslim ,o#ld o) all )o#ei"n in)luen&es inte#<e&ted by the
in)idels and by #etu#nin" to the milita#y ad$an&ement o) Islam the /ihad
belie$ed to be the ,ill o) Allah. 7o# most Muslims it sim'ly means to t#y to
ad$an&e Islam by any means ,hethe# th#ou"h '#o'a"anda subte#)u"e o# e$en
the milita#y i) absolutely ne&essa#y. Indeed most Muslims a#e =)undamentalist= in
the sense that they hold to a st#i&t inte#'#etation o) the 0u#1an. The di))e#en&e
bet,een the militant and the 'ea&eable Muslim is simila# to that bet,een the
#e$olutiona#y and the demo&#ati& so&ialistN one is ,illin" to use e$en $iolen&e to
a&hie$e the ultimate end ,hile the othe# &ontents him o# he#sel) ,ith =,o#kin"
,ithin the system= to #eali*e the "oal o) Islami*ation and b#in"in" the ,o#ld into
Da# es-%alaam.
This te##ible sense o) in)e#io#ity be)o#e the unbelie$e#s is &ou'led ,ith the innate
)undamentalism o) Islami& li)e and theolo"y ,hi&h has "#i''ed the #eli"ion sin&e
the 13th &entu#y ,hen the mo$ement to #etu#n to the ideali*ed Dth &entu#y
settin" o) the 0u#1an and the ahadith be"an. In its ea#ly &entu#ies Islam ,as
&ha#a&te#i*ed i) not by #eli"ious tole#ation than at least by an o'enness to
inno$ati$e dis&o$e#y and s&ien&e ,hi&h "ene#ally &auses a &i$ili*ation to ad$an&e
ahead o) its #i$als. Thus the Islami& nations ad$an&ed )a# ahead o) the 'etty
8atholi& Eu#o'ean states bein" <ustly #eno,ned )o# thei# ad$an&es in )ields su&h
as o'ti&s mathemati&s medi&ine &hemist#y ast#onomy and 'oliti&al 'hiloso'hy
5
.
Indeed in its "olden a"e #ou"hly e:tendin" )#om D50-1200 AD the ,o#ld o) Islam
,as '#obably the leadin" s&ienti)i& and intelle&tual 'o,e# on ea#th. Pite#atu#e
s&ien&e medi&ine and othe# )ields o) intelle&tual endea$o# )lo,e#ed in &ente#s o)
lea#nin" like Ba"hdad Me#$ Bukha#a 8ai#o and A#enada
C
. Des'ite the
ste#eoty'es about Islam held by many today the#e ,as a time ,hen the Islami&
,o#ld ,as the leade# in s&ien&e and s&hola#shi'.
/o,e$e# be"innin" in the 13th &entu#y this attitude o) in(ui#y ,as "#adually
#e'la&ed by the '#esent attitude o) anti-inno$ation and so&ietal #e"#ession in
la#"e 'a#t due to the in)luen&e o) the Damas&ene theolo"ian Ibn Taymiyya ?12C3-
1324 AD@. The son o) a theolo"ian o) the /anbalite s&hool ?the st#i&test o) the )ou#
ma<o# s&hools o) Islami& la,@ Ibn Taymiyya '#o$ed e$en mo#e #ea&tiona#y and his
hat#ed o) all he#eti&s ?e$en Muslims ,ho disa"#eed ,ith st#i&t o#thodo:y su&h as
Ismailis and %hi1ites@ &aused him to ad$an&e an e:t#eme 'osition a"ainst inno$ation
o) any kind &ou'led ,ith an ad$o&a&y o) a #etu#n to the st#i&t inte#'#etation o)
the 0u#1an. The '#oblem )o# the Islami& intelle&tual s&ene ho,e$e# ,as that
'#a&ti&ally all o) the Muslim intelli"entsia ,ho &ont#ibuted to the '#esti"e and
leadin" 'osition o) Islami& a#ts and lette#s ,e#e e:a&tly the so#t o) 'eo'le ,ho Ibn
Taymiyya sou"ht to su''#ess - =he#eti&s= and 'hiloso'he#s ,hose inno$ations and
s'e&ulations o)ten #an &ounte# to the o#thodo: t#aditions. This so#t o) #etu#n to the
Dth &entu#y has been )o# all '#a&ti&al 'u#'oses the 'osition tau"ht uni)o#mly
th#ou"hout )undamentalist Islam sin&e Ibn Taymiyya. +a#ious #e$i$al mo$ements
su&h as the Wahhabi mo$ement and the %udanese Mahdism ha$e se#$ed to #etain
this st#i&t and unyieldin" inte#'#etation o) the 0u#1an ,ith its &on&omitant
intole#an&e and hat#ed )o# all non-Muslims
D
. This theolo"i&al &#ystalli*ation
&ou'led ,ith the dest#u&tion by the Mon"ols o) many im'o#tant Islami& &ultu#al
&ente#s in 8ent#al Asia 6e#sia and e$en in I#a( &ont#ibuted to the de&ay o)
Islami& lea#nin". /en&e ,hile the a#ts and s&ien&es may ha$e ad$an&ed in the
ea#ly Islami& Em'i#e ?<ust as they ha$e in '#a&ti&ally e$e#y othe# &i$ili*ation e$en
Eu#o'e du#in" the GDa#kH A"es@ this s'i#it o) in(ui#y and in$esti"ation ,as &ut o))
by the #ise o) st#i&tly-a''lied Islam &ausin" the Muslim ,o#ld to "#adually )all
)u#the# and )u#the# behind the mo#e )#a&tu#ed but also mo#e $i"o#ous and in(ui#in"
Eu#o'eans. As /itti has 'ut it
=The Islami& &#eati$e s'a#k had )aded a,ay &entu#ies be)o#e the ad$ent o) the
Tu#ks. The &om'lete $i&to#y o) s&holasti& theolo"y be"innin" ,ith the thi#teenth
&entu#y the as&endan&y o) the o#thodo: and the mysti&s in the s'i#itual #ealm the
de&ay o) the s&ienti)i& s'i#it and the '#e$alen&e o) un&#iti&al #e$e#en&e )o# the
'ast and adhe#en&e to t#adition militated a"ainst s&hola#ly in$esti"ation and
'#odu&ti$ity. The )ette#s ,hi&h bound A#ab intelle&t did not be"in to loosen until
the ea#ly nineteenth &entu#y unde# the im'a&t o) the West.=
4
.
9) &ou#se e$en be)o#e Ibn /anbal the#e ,e#e elements ,ithin the Islami& #ealm
,ho ,e#e hostile to any Gin)idelH lea#nin". Muslims ha$e at $a#ious times sou"ht to
dest#oy any kno,led"e o# lea#nin" that did not &on)o#m to Islam1s ,ay o) thinkin".
While the dest#u&tion o) the A#eat Pib#a#y o) Ale:and#ia &annot '#o'e#ly be laid at
the )eet o) Islam ?a&tually it ,as dealt the de&isi$e blo, a&&identally by .ulius
8aesa#Is in$adin" a#my si: &entu#ies ea#lie#@ this does not e:one#ate Islam )#om
&ul'ability ,ith #e"a#ds to the dest#u&tion o) Gin)idelH kno,led"e. The &lassi&al
Muslim histo#ian Ibn -haldun ?1332-1325 AD@ mentions the dest#u&tion o) the
6e#sian state lib#a#y that o&&u##ed ,ith the &a'tu#e o) the &a'ital 8tesi'hon in
C3D AD
=>ma# ,#ote Kto the lo&al Muslim &ommande# ,ho had #e(uested 'e#mission to
dist#ibute these books to his t#oo's as bootyL N FTh#o, them into the ,ate#. I) ,hat
they &ontain is #i"ht "uidan&e Aod has "i$en us bette# "uidan&e. I) it is e##o# Aod
has '#ote&ted us a"ainst it.I=
2
/a##is notes the de&line o) lib#a#ies as a "ene#al institution in the Muslim ,o#ld
sta#tin" a#ound 1100 AD and ,hen %aladin &on(ue#ed E"y't )#om the %hi1ite
7atimid dynasty in 11C2 he o#de#ed enti#e lib#a#ies dest#oyed o# dist#ibuted
amon" the t#oo's as booty
10
. %imila# at#o&ities a"ainst lea#nin" ,e#e &ommitted by
Muslim in$ade#s ,ho dest#oyed the %ansk#it &olle"e at +ishalde$ Au<a#at India in
112C AD and by those ,ho le$eled the Buddhist &ente# o) edu&ation at Malanda in
1200 AD dest#oyin" "#eat #e'osito#ies o) lea#nin" at both sites. >'on the )all o)
8onstantino'le to the Tu#ks in 1B53 a la#"e numbe# o) books ,e#e dest#oyed
some only bein" sa$ed on&e the Tu#ks #eali*ed that they ,e#e $aluable and &ould
be sold
11
.
Does the -est *!e Islam for its Scientific 0eritage3
Muslim a'olo"ists o) &ou#se a#"ue that Islam has al,ays been )#iendly to s&ien&e
and lea#nin" and ,ill maintain that it ,as Muslim '#ese#$ation o) an&ient
kno,led"e and the ad$an&es added to it by Muslim s&hola#shi' ,hi&h enabled
Eu#o'e to es&a'e )#om the GDa#k A"esH and &ome to the )o#e)#ont in s&ien&e and
te&hnolo"y. Without the Muslim '#ese#$ation and t#ansmission o) the an&ient
lea#nin" o) the A#eeks the#e ,ould ha$e been no !enaissan&e no Enli"htenment
no mode#nity. While 8h#istian Eu#o'e ,as ,allo,in" in i"no#an&e and su'e#stition
the Muslim ,o#ld ,as #ea&hin" astoundin" ne, hei"hts in buildin" u'on the
)oundation o) an&ient kno,led"e and ,isdom. At least one &ommentato# has "one
so )a# as to &laim that =All mode#n dis&o$e#ies ,e#e by Muslim s&ientists=
12
. Then
by some astoundin"ly bad tu#n o) )ate e$il Eu#o'eans stole all o) this kno,led"e
and s&ien&e ,hen thei# 8#usade#s and reconqistadores d#o$e the Moo#s out o)
%'ain and dest#oyed the "#eat Muslim &ente#s o) lea#nin" in A#anada.
9) &ou#se the t#uth o) the matte# is di))e#ent )#om the sto#y told by the
a'olo"ists. While it is t#ue that the A#abs inhe#ited mu&h o) the an&ient lite#atu#e
and lea#nin" ,hen they &ame into 'ossession o) the East ?,hi&h they '#ese#$ed
mainly in A#abi& t#anslations and &ommenta#ies on these ,o#ks@ ne$e#theless the
)undamental assum'tions made in the su""estion that Islam ,as Eu#o'eIs last best
ho'e )o# &i$ili*ation a#e un)ounded. It is in )a&t not t#ue that lea#nin"
disa''ea#ed )#om Eu#o'e bet,een the )all o) the ,este#n 'a#t o) the !oman
Em'i#e and the !enaissan&e. All a&#oss ,este#n Eu#o'e but es'e&ially in I#eland
and the %&ottish &oast monaste#ies )ull o) monks ea&h ,ith a s&#i'to#ium
)e$e#ishly &o'ied manus&#i'ts o) e$e#ythin" that they &ould lay thei# hands on
13
.
The Patin ,#ite#s both e&&lesiasti& and se&ula# ,e#e ,idely kno,n th#ou"hout
the 'e#iod - 8i&e#o /o#a&e 6liny and +i#"il as ,ell as Au"ustine Te#tullian
Isido#e and .e#ome. Boethius the last &lassi&al 'hiloso'he# in the West ,as ,ell
kno,n and ,idely #ead. E$en A#eek ,o#ks ,e#e t#ansmitted and studied by
edu&ated Eu#o'eans in the Middle A"es. In the East the By*antine Em'i#e ,hi&h
mana"ed to su#$i$e its ,este#n &ounte#'a#t by a millennium ne$e# lost the ,o#ks
o) the A#eek 'hiloso'he#s #heto#i&ians and s&ientists
1B
. These ,o#ks e:e#ted mo#e
in)luen&e u'on the Muslim East than the Muslim t#ansmission o) te:ts e:e#ted on
Eu#o'e. These ,#itin"s su&h as those o) 6lato A#istotle and 6tolemy )ilte#ed into
Italy th#ou"h the A#eek &onta&ts in %i&ily and 8alab#ia as ,ell as )ilte#in" into
7#an&e th#ou"h the %'anish Muslim states. The 12th &entu#y sa, an in)lu: o) A#eek
te:ts into Italy that ,e#e t#anslated into Patin and )#om the#e s'#ead to the #est o)
the &ontinent
15
. When By*antium )ell to the Tu#ks in 1B53 amon" the #e)u"ees
es&a'in" to the West ,e#e nume#ous A#eek s&hola#s ,ho set u' sho' in Italy and
b#ou"ht thei# kno,led"e o) A#eek and thei# manus&#i'ts ?many o) the ,o#ks bein"
ne, to the West@ in that lan"ua"e ,ith them
1C
. This ,ould se#$e as lea$en )o#
'#o'a"atin" the !enaissan&e in Italy. /a##is in)o#ms us that o) the A#eek &lassi&s
kno,n to us today #ou"hly D5T o) them a#e kno,n th#ou"h By*antine &o'ies
1D
.
Thus it should be seen that the Islami& ,o#ld ,hile '#ese#$in" many o) the A#eek
,o#ks in A#abi& ?some o) ,hi&h did &ome into Eu#o'e th#ou"h Moo#ish %'ain@ ,as
not as #es'onsible )o# the &onse#$ation and ad$an&ement o) &i$ili*ation in Medie$al
Eu#o'e as Muslim a'olo"ists ,ould ha$e us to belie$e. Eu#o'e had othe# sou#&es )o#
#e-obtainin" the lea#nin" o) the an&ients and a$idly 'u#sued them.
Pike,ise the 'i&tu#e o) Medie$al Eu#o'e as a 'la&e de$oid o) s&ien&e and thou"ht
is also misleadin". The myth o) the so-&alled GDa#k A"esH in Eu#o'e ,as la#"ely
in$ented by ske'ti&s in the 14th and 12th &entu#ies to t#y to &ast a ne"ati$e li"ht
on 8h#istianityJ to &ont#ast the #eli"ion-addled su'e#stitious Da#k A"es ,ith the
)#eethinkin" #ationalism o) the !enaissan&e and Enli"htenment 'e#iods - a so#t o)
=se&ula# mytholo"y= in$ented to '#o$ide a )oundation on ,hi&h to build an
humanisti& $ie, o) histo#y. /o,e$e# Eu#o'e in the Medie$al 'e#iod had its sha#e
o) 'hiloso'he#s and its (uota o) s&ienti)i& in$esti"ation. Pet us #emembe# that the
e#a bet,een Boethius and Peona#do da +in&i "a$e us 'hiloso'he#s like E#i"ena
William o) 9&kham and !o"e# Ba&on. This ,as the e#a o) s&hola#s su&h as
6et#a#&h autho#s like Dante and lo"i&ians su&h as Abaila#d. While the A#ab Em'i#e
,as ad$an&in" in the studies o) ast#onomy and o'ti&s medie$al Eu#o'e ,as
'#o"#essin" in the study o) a#&hite&tu#e en"inee#in" and 'hysi&s - 'a#ti&ula#ly
ballisti&s and me&hani&s - to ,hi&h they o,ed the Muslims no debt. Eu#o'eans
'#odu&ed ,o#ks o) me&hani&al int#i&a&y and indust#ial utility that )a# outst#i''ed
anythin" the Islami& ,o#ld &ould o# ,ould '#odu&e du#in" the Middle A"es
14
. They
,e#e Eu#o'eans not Muslims ,ho de$elo'ed the te&hni(ues )o# na$i"ation and
the methods o) shi'buildin" and sailin" that enabled t#ue $oya"es o) o&eani&
dis&o$e#y. Du#in" this 'e#iod the "#ound,o#k o) the s&ienti)i& method and
em'i#i&al natu#alism ,e#e bein" laid in Eu#o'e that blossomed in the s&ienti)i&
#e$olution that s,e't the enti#e ,o#ld - ,ith Eu#o'e not the Muslim ,o#ld as its
,ell-s'#in".
And ,hat o) the lea#nin" and s&hola#shi' in the A#ab ,o#ld that they inhe#ited
)#om the A#eek East ,hi&h they had &on(ue#ed; E$en in this ,e see that it ,as
not so mu&h the Muslims themsel$es ,ho '#ese#$ed the an&ient lea#nin" as it ,as
thei# 8h#istian and 'a"an sub<e&ts. /e#eti&al s&hola#s and tea&he#s )leein" the
By*antine Em'i#e es'e&ially du#in" the #ule o) the &#uel ?and some ,ould say
insane@ Em'e#o# 6ho&as made thei# homes in the East - some stayin" in
t#aditionally tole#ant &ente#s su&h as the &ity o) /a##an ?in >''e# Meso'otamia@
and some "oin" on to the &ou#t o) the %assanids in 6e#sia. When the A#abs &ame
into 'ossession o) the enti#e Mea# East these s&hola#s be&ame sub<e&ts o) the A#ab
Em'i#e. It ,as they - these Mesto#ians and Mono'hysites and Meo-6latonists - ,ho
'e#)o#med the bulk o) the ,o#k o) t#anslatin" t#ansmittin" and '#ese#$in" mu&h
o) the &o#'us o) the A#eek 'hiloso'hi&al and s&ienti)i& ,#itin"s
12
. It ,as be&ause o)
them that A#istotle and 6lato ,e#e a$ailable )o# Muslim &ommente#s to analy*e
and it ,as th#ou"h them that the A#eek "eo"#a'he#s tau"ht thei# A#ab
des&endants. 7#om the Dth to the 13th &entu#y &ente#s o) s&hola#shi' su&h as
/a##an 'e#)o#med this task until the '#o"#essi$e ha#denin" that e$entually
&#ystalli*ed in Ibn Taymiyya1s #i"id o#thodo:y &hoked o)) the inno$ation and the
s'i#it o) dis&o$e#y endin" both the s&ien&e and the inno$ati$e thinkin" about the
an&ient ,o#ks that led to the s&ien&e.
The 'u#'ose o) this is not to deny the &ont#ibutions that Muslim thinke#s and
s&hola#s made in the ea#ly 'a#t o) the Middle A"es - thou"h let us not )o#"et that
these s&hola#s ,e#e o)ten GMuslimH in name only bein" sus'e&ted as he#eti&s o#
in)idels e$en in thei# o,n times. Me$e#theless the &ont#ibutions o) A$i&enna and
A$e##oes and thei# &om'at#iots dese#$e thei# <ust #e&o"nition. 5et Weste#n
&i$ili*ation o,es little debt to the Muslim ,o#ld des'ite ,hat Muslim su'#ema&ists
mi"ht &laim. The Muslim ,o#ld in )a&t ,as &hoked o)) )#om &ontinuin" in its o,n
ad$an&ement by the #i"id a''li&ation o) the 0u#Ian to all a#eas o) li)e by the
Islami& )undamentalism o) Ibn Taymiyya and his ideolo"i&al des&endants.
!e"a#dless o) any a#"uments one mi"ht ,ish to make about ,ho t#ansmitted ,hat
manus&#i't ,he#e this Weste#n mode o) thinkin" ,as ,holly )o#ei"n to the
)undamentalist Islami& ,o#ld as it e:isted a)te# the 13th &entu#y. IslamIs
intole#an&e o) inno$ation and non-(u#ani& lea#nin" sti)led thei# &i$ili*ation
b#in"in" about the $e#y &onditions that so many Muslims lament today.
To &ont#ast the #etu#n to the '#ima&y o) the 8h#istian s&#i'tu#es in the West
?th#ou"h the !e)o#mation and the Ba'tist mo$ements@ ,ent hand-in-hand ,ith a
sense o) ,onde# about the ,o#ld a#ound us leadin" to a &on&omitant a&&ele#ation
o) s&ienti)i& and te&hnolo"i&al ad$an&ement. Men in Eu#o'e and late# e$e#y 'la&e
,he#e Weste#n &i$ili*ation s'#ead ,anted to Gthink AodIs thou"hts a)te# /imH so
that thei# #eli"ious and s&ienti)i& im'ulses ,o#ked to"ethe# to a&hie$e s'e&ta&ula#
#esults in a #elati$ely sho#t time )#ame. As i#oni& as it may seem to those stee'ed
in the e##oneous $ie,s about #eli"ion '#o'ounded by the se&ula# mytholo"y
mentioned abo$e 8h#istendom both be)o#e and es'e&ially a)te# the !e)o#mation
has been imbued ,ith a d#i$e to lo"i& and #ational in$esti"ation o) the sub<e&ts to
,hi&h it has been a''lied. E$en 8h#istian )undamentalism su''osedly obs&u#antist
and =anti-s&ien&e= has been &onsistently tin"ed ,ith a d#i$e )o# lo"i&al o#de# and
the &on&e#n )o# )a&tuality in its a''#oa&h to the Bible theolo"y and se&ula#
sub<e&ts a d#i$e ,hi&h sometimes bo#de#s on be&omin" s&ientism
20
.
Dhimmitude
Many a'olo"ists ,ill de)end Islam a"ainst the &ha#"e o) intole#an&e by 'ointin" to
the Gtole#an&eH e:hibited by the Muslims du#in" the Middle A"es. When Islami&
&i$ili*ation ,as at its hei"ht so the myth is s'un Islam ,as ,onde#)ully tole#ant
and o'en-minded to,a#ds othe# #eli"ions. While it is t#ue that du#in" this 'e#iod
Islam mo#e o)ten than not #e)#ained )#om massa&#in" dissente#s and #i$als ?,hi&h is
o)ten mo#e than &an be said )o# the Eu#o'ean state #eli"ionism o) the day@ to say
that Muslims ,e#e eithe# tole#ant o# o'en-minded is an untidy )alsehood. Du#in"
this e#a .e,s and 8h#istians li$in" in Muslim lands ,e#e #edu&ed to the 'osition o)
dhimmis. Dhimmitude entailed allo,in" non-Muslims to #emain non-Muslim so lon"
as &e#tain st#in"ent #ules ,e#e adhe#ed to #ules that ,e#e desi"ned to humiliate
the dhimmis and to =demonst#ate= the su'e#io#ity o) Islam o$e# the #eli"ions o) the
&on(ue#ed 'eo'les. Dhimmis ,e#e not allo,ed to en"a"e in any out,a#d sho, o)
thei# #eli"ion su&h as #in"in" &hu#&h bells '#ayin" o# #eadin" thei# %&#i'tu#es in
'ubli& no# ,e#e they allo,ed to dis'ute #eli"ious matte#s ,ith a Muslim. They
,e#e also not allo,ed to build any #eli"ious buildin"s su&h as &hu#&hes o#
syna"o"ues no# &ould they #e'ai# those al#eady e:istin" that ,o#e do,n ,ith a"e.
They ,e#e most o)ten #edu&ed to a 'osition o) e&onomi& '#i$ation and nea#-
sla$e#y. Dhimmis had to ,ea# distin&ti$e &lothin" that ma#ked them as &lea#ly non-
Muslim. 7u#the# the distin&ti$e &lothin" ,as o)ten meant to humiliate the
,ea#e#s. At $a#ious times .e,s and 8h#istians ,ould be &om'elled to ,ea# bad"es
in the sha'es o) a'es and 'i"s d#a,n )#om the (u#ani& des&#i'tion o) unbelie$e#s
as these animals ?Suwar 2NC5 5NC0 DN1CC@.
8ou'led ,ith this 'osition o) dhimmitude ,as the #e(ui#ement )o# non-Muslims to
'ay the /i.yah the #eli"ion ta:. This ,as a ta: le$ied s'e&i)i&ally u'on non-
Muslims usually 8h#istians and .e,s ,hi&h ,as the only li)e-'#ese#$in"
alte#nati$e to out#i"ht &on$e#sion to Islam. The /i.yah ,as desi"ned to =en&ou#a"e=
sub<e&t 'o'ulations to &on$e#t to Islam sin&e &on$e#sion meant bein" #elie$ed o) a
hea$y )inan&ial bu#den. 7u#the# the /i.yah as ,ell as othe# )inan&ial bu#dens
u'on dhimmi 'o'ulations ?su&h as the 'hara/ o# land ta:@ ,e#e t#aditionally
su''o#ted by Muslim theolo"ians th#ou"h a''eal to $a#ious 'assa"es o) the 0u#1an
su&h as Surah 2N22 one o) the most ob$ious 'assa"es in the 0u#1an &ommandin"
Muslims to make ,a# a"ainst non-Muslims and to )o#&e them into submission
21
?and
one ,hi&h a'olo"ists )o# Islam today ,ill #outinely say is =bein" taken out o)
&onte:t= by those ,ho 'oint to it as e$iden&e o) Muslim intole#an&e thou"h the
Islami& theolo"ians in &entu#ies 'ast ,ould disa"#ee@. Bet,een the bu#dens o)
dhimmitude and /i.yah it is little ,onde# that Islam ,hi&h has #ema#kably little
su&&ess makin" &on$e#ts ,ithout &oe#&ion &ame to hold the almost &om'lete
mono'oly on Middle Easte#n #eli"ion that ,e see it ha$in" today. Indeed /itti
notes that until the time o) the Abbasid &ali'hate ?sta#tin" in D50 AD@ the bulk o)
the Mea# Easte#n 'o'ulation #emained un&on$e#ted and it ,as es'e&ially due to
the intole#ant 'oli&ies o) the &ali'hs /a#un al-!ashid al-Mu,atakkil and othe#s
,hi&h in&luded )o#&ed &on$e#sions in(uisitions and the e:e&ution o) some ,ho
maintained thei# #eli"ions that Islam "ained a si"ni)i&ant 'o#tion o) the 'o'ulation
in the &on(ue#ed #e"ions
22
. /itti notes that the &onditions o) dhimmitude &e#tainly
&ont#ibuted to the Islami*ation o) the sub<e&t 'o'ulations as ,ell. To say that
these &onditions the #eli"ion ta: and en)o#&ed se&ond-&lass &iti*en#y a#e
=tole#ant= ,ould be a "#oss misuse o) that te#m )o# '#o'a"andisti& 'u#'oses. Those
,ho make the &laim o) Muslim tole#an&e ,ould seem to eithe# be i"no#ant o) these
details o# else they a#e t#yin" to s,ee' them unde# the #u".
In he# e:&ellent ,o#k on this sub<e&t $he )himmi3 2ews and +hristians Under
Islam Bat 5e1o# #e'#odu&es do*ens o) '#ima#y #e)e#en&e do&uments that detail the
dhimmitude 'henomenon )i#sthand. 7#om these do&uments it &an easily be seen
that the mytholo"i&al tole#ation e:tended by the Muslims du#in" the 'e#iod o)
thei# as&endan&y e:&e't 'e#ha's )o# #a#e isolated o&&asions is almost &om'lete
)i&tion in$ented by mode#n a'olo"ists )o# Islam. Pet us no, look at a )e, o) these
)i#sthand a&&ounts o) Islami& =tole#ation=.
Ibn an-Ma((ash a 1Bth &entu#y E"y'tian #eli"ious tea&he# #e&ounted some o) the
o'inions o) ea#ly Muslim theolo"ians
=8/>!8/E% - It is #elated a&&o#din" to the t#adition that the 6#o'het made this
de&la#ationN 1Mo &hu#&hes a#e to be built in Muslim lands and those that ,ill ha$e
)allen into #uin shall not be #e'ai#ed.1 Anothe# hadit is also (uoted in his nameN 1Mo
&hu#&hes unde# Islam.1
>ma# b. al--hattab ?may Allah bless himO@ &ommanded that e$e#y &hu#&h that did
not e:ist be)o#e the #ise o) Islam ,as to be demolished and he )o#bade the buildin"
o) ne, ones. /e also &ommanded that no &#oss ,as to be $isible outside a &hu#&h
othe#,ise it &ould be b#oken o$e# the head o) him ,ho &a##ied it.
>#,at b. Ma< "a$e o#de#s to dest#oy all the &hu#&hes o) %an1a ?5emen@. This is the
la, o) the ulama o) Islam.
>ma# b. Abd al-A*i* ,ent e$en )u#the# than this and "a$e o#de#s to lea$e neithe#
&hu#&hes no# &ha'els standin" any,he#e be they an&ient o# #e&ent. It is
&ustoma#y says /asan al-Bas#i to dest#oy the old and the ne, &hu#&hes in any
&ount#y.
>ma# b. Abd al-A*i* also issued de&#ees '#ohibitin" 8h#istians to #aise thei# $oi&es
,hile &hantin" in thei# &hu#&hes )o# these a#e the most distaste)ul hymns to the
Most /i"h. Mo#eo$e# he '#ohibited them )#om #e'ai#in" those 'a#ts o) thei# 'la&es
o) ,o#shi' ,hi&h )ell into #uin. 8on&e#nin" the latte# 'oint the#e a#e t,o o'inions.
I) they #esu#)a&e them on the outside says al-Istakha#i then they must be
'#e$ented )#om doin" so but i) they me#ely #esto#e the inside the 'o#tion that is
on thei# side then this &an be tole#ated. /o,e$e# Allah is all-kno,in".=
23
Al-Ma##akushi a Muslim histo#ian o) the Almohad #ei"n in Mo#th A)#i&a #e&ounts
the )ollo,in" in his histo#y
=To,a#d the end o) his #ei"n Abu 5usu) o#de#ed the .e,ish inhabitants o) the
Ma"h#eb to make themsel$es &ons'i&uous amon" the #est o) the 'o'ulation by
assumin" a s'e&ial atti#e &onsistin" o) da#k blue "a#ments the slee$es o) ,hi&h
,e#e so ,ide as to #ea&h to thei# )eet and - instead o) a tu#ban - to han" o$e# the
ea#s a &a' ,hose )o#m ,as so ill-&on&ei$ed as to be easily mistaken )o# a 'a&k-
saddle. This a''a#el be&ame the &ostume o) all the .e,s o) the Ma"h#eb and
#emained obli"ato#y until the end o) the '#in&e1s #ei"n and the be"innin" o) that o)
his son Abu Abd Allah KAbu Muhammed Abd Allah al-Adil the .ust 122B-122DL. The
latte# made a &on&ession only a)te# a''eals o) all kinds had been made by the
.e,s ,ho had ent#eated all those ,hom they thou"ht mi"ht be hel')ul to
inte#&ede on thei# behal). Abu Abd Allah obli"ed them to ,ea# yello, "a#ments
and tu#bans the $e#y &ostume they still ,ea# in the '#esent yea# C12 K122BL. Abu
5usu)1s mis"i$in"s as to the sin&e#ity o) thei# &on$e#sion to Islam '#om'ted him to
take this measu#e and im'ose u'on them a s'e&i)i& d#ess. 1I) I ,e#e su#e1 said he
1that they had #eally be&ome Muslims I ,ould let them assimilate th#ou"h
ma##ia"e and othe# meansJ on the othe# hand had I e$iden&e that they had
#emained in)idels I ,ould ha$e them massa&#ed #edu&e thei# &hild#en to sla$e#y
and &on)is&ate thei# belon"in"s )o# the bene)it o) the belie$e#s.1=
2B
A 'a#ti&ula#ly sad e:am'le o) the t#eatment o) the .e,s in Mo#o&&o du#in" the
12th &entu#y is )ound in /ale$y1s a#&hi$es detailin" in 'a#ti&ula# the Muslim
&ontem't )o# .e,ish ,omanhood
=Meedless to say it is '#ima#ily the ,o#kin" &lasses and the 'etty sho'kee'e#s ,ho
a#e the most e:'osed to the a#bit#a#y measu#es o) the autho#ities. The .e,ish
&#a)tsman ,ho b#in"s his ,o#k to the Mo#o&&an o))i&ial is 'aid ,ith blo,s o) a sta))
i) he is not satis)ied ,ith hal) the '#i&e o#i"inally a"#eed u'on. The hea$iest tasks
a#e &ontinuously im'osed u'on the ,o#kin" 'o'ulation ,omen and &hild#en not
e:&e'ted. While #oamin" th#ou"h the ba*aa# in the A#ab (ua#te# I sa, lon" lines
o) youn" .e,ish "i#ls ba#eheaded and ba#e)ooted ,o#kin" in the manu)a&tu#e o)
milita#y uni)o#ms ea#nin" but 10 o# 15 &entimes 'e# day. But the bodily su))e#in"s
a#e nothin" &om'a#ed to the mo#al $e:ations to ,hi&h these sensiti$e and modest
&#eatu#es a#e &onstantly e:'osed. In a &ount#y ,he#e no de&ent ,oman should be
seen in the st#eet ,ithout a $eil these .e,ish ,omen and "i#ls a#e obli"ed to ,o#k
un$eiled in the middle o) the ba*aa# and the#eby e:hibit themsel$es to the
im'udent sta#es o) the A#ab &#o,ds.
=A Muslim himsel) admitted to me that this humiliatin" e:'osu#e has no othe#
'u#'ose than to )o#&e these .e,ish ,omen to &on$e#t as the only means o)
es&a'in" )#om su&h intole#able t#eatment. Indeed must not thei# s'i#it be
e:&e'tionally noble in o#de# to ,ithstand su&h a li)e o) mise#y and untold
su))e#in" ,hen &on$e#sion &an o))e# them the most '#e&ious ad$anta"es )#eedom
,ealth and hono#s;
=The 'etty sho'kee'e#s in the Mellah a#e not t#eated any bette# )o# #etail
t#ansa&tions a#e o)ten the &ause o) a#"uments bet,een A#abs and .e,s )#om
,hi&h the )o#me# a#e &e#tain in ad$an&e to t#ium'h. A Muslim ,ho buys some
&ommodity )#om a .e,ish sho' &omes ba&k some hou#s late# a&&usin" the $endo#
o) ha$in" &heated him on the ,ei"ht o# (uantity. %in&e on the one hand the
testimony o) a .e, is ,o#thless and on the othe# hand it is im'ossible to )ind
A#ab ,itnesses in the Mellah the Muslim1s ,o#d is taken and the "hetto o$e#see#
?muhtasi(@ sees no ha#m in 'unishin" the '#esumed o))ende# ,ith a #ound o)
th#ashes )#om his sta)) ,hi&h lea$es him un&ons&ious on the "#ound o# maimed )o#
the #est o) his li)e. With my o,n eyes I sa, a "#eat numbe# o) these $i&tims
mostly but&he#s ,oe)ully d#a""in" themsel$es alon" the "#ound unable to ,alk
u'#i"ht thei# ba&ks ho##ibly ha&ked to 'ie&es and lookin" like one "a'in" ,ound.
Bla&k de&ayed )lesh hun" at thei# ankles and thei# )eet &#ooked and s,ollen by
the $iolent blo,s ended in a hideous blue bliste# ,hi&h hid the at#o&ious #emains
o) toenails that had been smashed by the sta)). It ,as hideous and hea#tb#eakin"
to see and yet these ,ounds ,e#e al#eady ten o# )i)teen days old. What had the
state o) these ,#et&hed 'eo'le been on the day ,hen this t#eatment had been
in)li&ted u'on them;
=%ometimes the &#uelest 'unishments a#e meted out on these 'oo# .e,s ,ithout
the sli"htest '#ete:t i) only to #emind them that they ha$e maste#s ,ho &an do
,hat they ,ant ,ith them. The main idea o) the Mo#o&&an autho#ities is that the
.e, must not unde#take no# initiate a &omme#&ial t#ansa&tion ,ithout thei#
mediation the aim o) ,hi&h ob$iously is to #e&ei$e a handsome &ommission.
8onse(uently thei# an"e# kno,s no bounds ,hen su&h an o''o#tunity es&a'es
thei# "#eediness.=
25
Many many mo#e e:am'les and ,o#se &ould be #e&ounted. Indeed )#om )i#st-
hand a&&ounts o) the t#eatment o) .e,s and 8h#istians in Muslim lands th#ou"hout
most o) the histo#y o) Islam a 'i&tu#e is 'ainted that is )a# di))e#ent )#om ou#
unde#standin" o) tole#ation. The histo#y o) Muslim dealin"s ,ith the dhimmis is one
o) o''#ession #andom massa&#es a$a#i&ious "#eed and 'lunde# e:to#tion unde#
the th#eat o) 'e#se&ution #a'e systemati& de"#adation and sla$e#y.
7a# )#om bein" abe##ations )#om =t#ue= Islam this so#t o) t#eatment o) sub<e&t
'o'ulations has been theolo"i&ally sustained sin&e the $e#y be"innin" o) Islam. The
#eason )o# this is )ound in the 'e&ulia# Muslim t#ium'halism inhe#ent in Islami&
theolo"y. Islam tea&hes that it is the )inal #e$elation o) Allah to mankind ,hi&h in
and o) itsel) is not su'e#)i&ially aty'i&al )#om othe# #eli"ions. /o,e$e# Islam also
tea&hes that sin&e Islam is the )inal #e$elation those ,ho #e)use to a&&e't Islam
a#e ob$iously mo#ally and intelle&tually in)e#io# and thus should be sub<e&t to the
Islami& ummah. This sub<e&tion is a&hie$ed th#ou"h the dhimma t#eaty ,he#eby
&on(ue#ed 'eo'les ,ho #e)use to &on$e#t to Islam a#e &oe#&ed into a"#eein" to the
dhimmi &onditions detailed abo$e. 7o# a dhimmi to attem't to #ise abo$e these
&onditions e$en &entu#ies a)te# they ,e#e o#i"inally im'osed is &onside#ed a
$iolation o) the =t#eaty= and thus "#ounds )o# 'unishment. 7u#the# this t#eaty o)
dhimma is &onside#ed to be &onditional sub<e&t to the dis'osition o) Muslim
#ule#s. /en&e the dhimmi 'o'ulations &ould not and &annot )eel se&u#e e$en in
the su''osed tole#ation e:tended by Muslim #ule#s as this tole#ation may be
#e$oked at any time. As ,ell the dhimma t#eaty '#o$ided no '#a&ti&al '#ote&tion
a"ainst the Muslim masses in $a#ious &ount#ies ,ho ,ould 'e#iodi&ally en"a"e in
'o'ula# massa&#es o) .e,s and 8h#istians i) it ,e#e 'e#&ei$ed by them that the
dhimmis ,e#e in any ,ay bein" less than absolutely submissi$e to the ummah.
Mu&h is said today o) the =humiliation= and the =an"e#= ,hi&h a#e )elt by the =A#ab
st#eet=. What ,e must unde#stand ho,e$e# is that this 'a#ti&ula# b#and o)
humiliation )elt by the Muslims today #esults )#om thei# inability to e:e#t
humiliation u'on othe#s. It ,as noted abo$e that o#thodo: Islam demands the
as&endan&y o) Islam o$e# all othe# systems and #eli"ions. This in&ludes #etainin"
inde)initely the maste#y o$e# the dhimmis ,ho li$e in lands that ha$e at some
'oint o# anothe# been &on(ue#ed by Islam. Essentially Islam demands the #i"ht to
&ontinue to e:e#&ise ,hat it &onside#s to be its natu#al maste#y o$e# these sub<e&t
'o'ulations. 7u#the# Islam must ?it is )elt@ be abo$e the non-Muslim #eli"ions o)
the ,o#ld ,hethe# 8h#istianity .udaism /induism o# othe#. 7o# non-Muslims to
e:e#&ise dominion o$e# Muslims and )o# them to be able to su&&ess)ully #esist
Islami*ation is intole#able to the )undamentalist Muslim mind. /en&e this is the
&ause o) the =humiliation= and =an"e#= ,hi&h the Muslims )eel ,hen '#esented ,ith
a =A#eat %atan= ,ho ,ill not bend to the Muslim ,ill but instead a&ts in ,ays that
a#e o)ten in&onsistent ,ith the desi#es o) Muslims.
The )o&al 'oint o) this 'e#&ei$ed Muslim humiliation is the nation o) Is#ael. As has
been and ,ill be sho,n else,he#e anti-%emitism has been histo#i&ally endemi& in
Islam an ea#ly hadith #e&o#ds that in the day o) <ud"ment e$en the stones ,ill
&#y out to the Muslims to tattle on .e,s ,ho hide behind them so that they may be
e:te#minated by the Muslims
2C
. 7u#the# the .e,s ha$e been sin&e the &on(uests
o) the A#ab Em'i#e a sub<e&t dhimmi 'eo'le thus by =t#eaty= destined )o#
subo#dinate status in 'e#'etuity. The nation o) Is#ael as a )#ee .e,ish state on soil
on&e o,ned by the ummah is a "#a$e a))#ont to the sensibilities o) nea#ly all
Muslims. Is#ael #e'#esents a #e$e#sal )o# Islam ,hi&h &annot be tole#ated hen&e
the )i$e ,a#s that Is#ael1s Muslim A#ab nei"hbo#s ha$e )ou"ht to t#y and annihilate
he# and the seemin"ly 'e#'etual intifada ,a"ed a"ainst he#. The dhimma ,hi&h
e:isted )o# the 'u#'ose o) se&u#in" the dominan&e o) the in$adin" Muslims o$e# a
&on(ue#ed #e"ion has been b#oken and thus the .e,s o) Is#ael as #ebels a"ainst
the dhimma a#e &onside#ed by o#thodo: Islami& la, to be )ai# "ame )o# any and
all #etaliations. /en&e the Muslim obsession ,ith the tiny nation o) Is#ael ,hi&h
mysti)ies so many Weste#ne#s lies in the )a&t that Is#ael #e'#esents
'sy&holo"i&ally one o) the ,o#st in&u#sions o) dhimmi )#eedom to e$e# int#ude
itsel) into the ummah.
,acism in Islam
Islam is also a #eli"ion ,hi&h is at least &ondu&i$e to #a&ism. As seen abo$e Muslim
anti-%emitism is ,ell kno,n. Islam has essentially )ou"ht )i$e ,a#s seekin" to
annihilate the nation o) Is#ael and )ailed )i$e times. Muslim leade#s both in the
Middle East and in the West #outinely denoun&e .e,s and =Rionists= and a#e (uite
,ell kno,n )o# makin" )antasti&al &laims a"ainst .e,s. 7o# instan&e in an
inte#$ie, "i$en to an A#ab ne,s'a'e# <ust days a)te# the %e'tembe# 11 atta&ks
the E"y'tian imam %heik Muhammad Aemeaha made &laims that .e,ish do&to#s in
Me, 5o#k ,e#e 'oisonin" Muslim babies and that the .e,s and Is#ael ,e#e
#es'onsible )o# the Wo#ld T#ade 8ente# te##o#ism
2D
. What is e$en mo#e ama*in"
than the &laims that a#e made is that millions o) Muslims all a&#oss the ,o#ld
beliee these ,ithout e$iden&e and ,ithout thinkin" sim'ly be&ause they a#e
made a"ainst .e,s and Is#ael. The $ie, that the .e,s ble, u' the Wo#ld T#ade
8ente# is e$en the o))i&ial 'osition o) the %y#ian "o$e#nment. The 6rotocols of the
Elders of :ion a )#audulent do&ument )o#"ed by the !ussian 8*a#1s se&#et 'oli&e in
the 12th &entu#y and 'u#'o#tin" to be a t#ans&#i't o) a se&#et meetin" o) .e,ish
,o#ld leade#s in ,hi&h they lay out thei# 'lans )o# ,o#ld &on(uest th#ou"h
subte#)u"e #emains an ideolo"i&al )o#&e in the Muslim ,o#ld "i$in" many a
'#etended <usti)i&ation )o# .e,-hat#ed. Indeed E"y'tian state tele$ision #an a
multi-'a#t se#ies '#omotin" the 6rotocols in 2003. When the Is#aelis &a'tu#ed
t#ied and e:e&uted the Ma*i ,a# &#iminal Adol) Ei&hmann in 12C2 the %audi
A#abian '#ess hailed Ei&hmann as a =ma#ty# ,ho besto,ed a t#ue blessin" on
humanity= and ,ho had =the hono# o) killin" si: million .e,s=.
5et ,hile &eleb#atin" the e:te#mination o) .e,s du#in" Wo#ld Wa# II /olo&aust
denial at the same time #emains in $o"ue in A#ab and Muslim &i#&les both in the
Middle East and in the West. Take )o# e:am'le the #e&ent &on)e#en&e o) Islami&
#adi&als hosted in I#an in ,hi&h the Gs&ienti)i& e$iden&es about the /olo&aust ,e#e
e:aminedH
GI#an ,hose '#esident has denied the /olo&aust said %unday it ,ould hold a
&on)e#en&e to e:amine the s&ienti)i& e$iden&e &on&e#nin" Ma*i Ae#many1s
e:te#mination o) C million .e,s.
/a#d-line I#anian 6#esident Mahmoud Ahmadine<ad has #e&ently '#o$oked "lobal
&ondemnation )o# sayin" the /olo&aust is a =myth= and &allin" )o# Is#ael to be
,i'ed )#om the )a&e o) the ea#th.H
24
As i) the )i#st-hand a&&ount o) the libe#ations o) the &am's and the 'i&tu#es taken
by Allied soldie#s as ,ell as the &on)essions o) many Ae#mans ,ho ,e#e
themsel$es in$ol$ed in that indust#iali*ed mu#de# is not =s&ienti)i&= enou"h '#oo)O
This so#t o) histo#i&al #e$isionism is not limited to &#a*ed 'sy&ho'aths in =Islami&
!e'ubli&s= o$e#seas ho,e$e#. The s'i#itual leade# o) one o) the la#"est %hiite
mos(ues in Me, 5o#k 8ity has o'enly (uestioned
22
the e:tent o) the /olo&aust
&allin" it =e:a""e#ated= ,hi&h "ene#ally se#$es as a 'olite Muslim eu'hemism )o#
=didnIt #eally ha''en=. These Muslims leade#s at home and ab#oad a#e me#ely
takin" thei# 'lays )#om the book that the Meo-Ma*is ha$e been 'eddlin" )o#
de&ades. Be&ause o) this a))inity it is the#e)o#e not su#'#isin" that the only "#ou's
in Ame#i&a "i$in" a''#e&iable su''o#t to 9sama bin Paden and Muslim te##o#ists in
the ,ake o) the %e'tembe# 11 atta&ks ?aside )#om the $a#ious #e)le:i$ely anti-
Ame#i&an le)tists and Ame#i&an Muslims themsel$es@ a#e the #a&ist hate "#ou's
su&h as A#yan Mations and othe#s like it. This makes sense as these "#ou's sha#e
,ith mu&h o) Islam a #abid hat#ed )o# the .e,ish 'eo'le.
Indeed #adi&al Islam has a so#did histo#y o) &onso#tin" ,ith the Ma*is. In the t,o
de&ades '#e&edin" the ,a# the Muslim B#othe#hood a /ihad o#"ani*ation )ounded
in E"y't by /assan al-Banna )o#"ed the anti-%emiti& ideolo"i&al unde#'innin"s that
e$entually led this o#"ani*ation to allian&e ,ith the Ma*is. Aoin" beyond the
t#aditional disdain )o# .e,s ?,hi&h ,as a''lied also to the lo&al 8h#istians as ,ell@
the B#othe#hood made an a&ti$e 'oint o) o''osin" the sometime Rionist-su''o#ti$e
'oli&ies o) the B#itish "o$e#nment and $iolently o''osed the immi"#ation o) .e,s
ba&k to the /oly Pand. This 'a#ti&ula# )o#m o) anti-%emitism ,as &ou'led ,ith the
ideali*ation o) the death o) ma#ty#dom by al-Banna
30
.
8losely allied ,ith the B#othe#hood ,as the "#and Mu)ti o) .e#usalem Amin al-
/usseini the hi"hest Muslim #eli"ious autho#ity in 6alestine. The Mu)ti ,as almost
sin"le-handedly #es'onsible )o# the #adi&al tu#n that 6alestinian A#abs took to,a#ds
militant Islam and to,a#ds the $o&i)e#ous anti-%emitism e:'ounded by the
B#othe#hood. /e insti"ated the =A#ab !e$olt= o) 123C in ,hi&h his su''o#te#s
#uthlessly 'ut do,n #i$al ?and mo#e mode#ate@ A#ab )a&tions as ,ell as the
mino#ity 8h#istian 'o'ulations institutin" st#i&t sharia amon" the 6alestinian
Muslims on 'ain o) death. This anti-%emitism thou"h ,as not ,holly nati$e. As
ea#ly as 1233 the Mu)ti had sou"ht out the su''o#t o) the Ma*i #e"ime in Ae#many.
/o,e$e# the only su''o#t he #e&ei$ed ,as ideolo"i&al until 123D ,hen the
Islamist mo$ement be"an to #e&ei$e "ene#ous "i)ts o) )undin" and ,ea'ons )#om
the Ma*is su''o#t ,hi&h the Mu)ti himsel) a&kno,led"ed to be a dete#minati$e
)a&to# in his late# =su&&ess=
31
. The Mu)ti o'enly &ollabo#ated ,ith the Ma*is
th#ou"hout the ,a# met ,ith hi"h Ma*i o))i&ials on se$e#al o&&asions du#in" the
,a# and ,as kno,n to be a &lose )#iend o) /ein#i&h /immle#. A)te# the
dest#u&tion o) the Ma*i state he )led to E"y't ,he#e he ,as "i$en shelte# ,ithin
the B#othe#hood and e$en made al-Banna1s 'e#sonal #e'#esentati$e and the
su'e#$iso# o$e# the B#othe#hood1s a&ti$ities in 6alestine. This '#o-Ma*i attitude
#emains as $o&i)e#ous in some 'a#ts o) the Muslim ,o#ld today as it did in those
da#k de&ades. As Be#na#d Pe,is has noted in many 'la&es a '#o-Ma*i 'ast ,as a
ma#k o) #e&o"nition not shame
32
. E$en today "ein Kampf #emains one o) the
best-sellin" ,o#ks in many Muslim &ount#ies.
Anti-%emitism is not the only as'e&t o) A#abQMuslim #a&ism. Islam &ontains a "#ain
o) #a&ism a"ainst bla&ks as ,ell. Althou"h the t#aditions su''osedly state that
Mohammed in his last se#mon '#o&laimed a su#'#isin"ly '#o"#essi$e messa"e o)
#a&ial tole#ation the histo#y o) Islam sin&e then has &ont#adi&ted this. Surah
3N10C-10D indi&ates that on the day o) <ud"ment be)o#e Allah those ,ith ,hite
)a&es ,ill #e&ei$e Allah1s me#&y ,hile those ,ith bla&k )a&es ,ill #e&ei$e
damnation.
=9n the day ,hen ?some@ )a&es shall tu#n ,hite and ?some@ )a&es shall tu#n bla&kJ
then as to those ,hose )a&es tu#n bla&kN Did you disbelie$e a)te# you# belie$in";
Taste the#e)o#e the &hastisement be&ause you disbelie$ed. And as to those ,hose
)a&es tu#n ,hite they shall be in Allah1s me#&yJ in it they shall-abide.= ?%haki#
t#anslation@
Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill &laim that these &olo# #e)e#en&es a#e to those ,hose )a&es
,ill be =lit u' ,ith= ,hite and =in the "loom o)= bla&k but the lite#al #eadin" o) the
A#abi& does not su''o#t this #e$ision. Indeed "i$en the histo#i& t#eatment that the
A#ab Muslims ha$e meted out to da#ke#-skinned 'eo'les es'e&ially bla&k A)#i&ans
the #a&ial inte#'#etation o) these ayat is (uite unde#standable. 7u#the# al-
0ay#a,ani ?d. 2CC AD@ a noted ea#ly Muslim <u#ist o) the Malikite s&hool stated
that it is 'e#missible ?thou"h not mandated@ to kill a ,hite non-A#ab enemy ,ho is
taken '#isone#
33
. This 'ointed statement at least im'lies that this ,as '#obably
e:'e&ted o# at least ,as not $ie,ed as im'#o'e# in the &ases o) non-,hite non-
A#ab '#isone#s. 7u#the# in the ,o#k o) Abu 5usu) ?d. D24 AD@ a "#adation is "i$en
o) the t#eatment to be meted out to &on(ue#ed 'eo'les not only on the basis o)
the status o) thei# #eli"ion but also o) thei# #a&e
3B
. /e makes the 'oint o) sayin"
that the#e ,e#e &e#tain #a&es ,ith ,hom the A#abs ,ould not min"le o# ma##y
e$en ,he#e this se'a#ation is not en)o#&ed on #eli"ious "#ounds ?i.e. the
'o'ulations had &on$e#ted to Islam@.
This attitude &omes )#om the Islami& t#aditions. In the bio"#a'hy o) Mohammed
those ,ho a#e bla&k a#e 'i&tu#ed as bein" hy'o&#ites ha$in" hea#ts slo, to a&&e't
the t#uth and as e$en bein" enemies o) Islam.
=I ha$e hea#d that it ,as o) him that the a'ostle said 1Whoe$e# ,ants to see %atan
let him take a look at Mabtal b. al-/a#ithO1 /e ,as a stu#dy bla&k man ,ith lon"
)lo,in" hai# in)lamed eyes and da#k #uddy &heeks. /e used to &ome and talk to
the a'ostle and listen to him and then &a##y ,hat he had said to the hy'o&#ites. It
,as he ,ho saidN 1Muhammad is all ea#sN i) anyone tells him anythin" he belie$es
it.1 Aod sent do,n &on&e#nin" himJ 1And o) them a#e those ,ho annoy the '#o'het
and say he is all ea#s. %ayN Aood ea#s )o# you. /e belie$es in Aod and t#usts the
belie$e#s and is a me#&y )o# those o) you ,ho belie$eJ and those ,ho annoy the
a'ostle o) Aod )o# them the#e is a 'ain)ul 'unishment K2NC1L.
=A man o) B. al-1A<lan told me that he ,as told that Aab#iel &ame to the a'ostle
and said 1The#e &omes to sit ,ith you a bla&k man ,ith lon" )lo,in" hai# #uddy
&heeks and in)lamed eyes like t,o &o''e# 'ots. /is hea#t is mo#e "#oss than a
donkey1sJ he &a##ies you# ,o#ds to the hy'o&#ites so be,a#e o) him.1 This so they
say ,as the des&#i'tion o) Mabtal.=
35
And
=It is you# )olly to )i"ht the A'ostle )o# Allah1s a#my is bound to dis"#a&e you. We
b#ou"ht them to the 'it. /ell ,as thei# meetin" 'la&e. We &olle&ted them the#e
bla&k sla$es men o) no des&ent.=
3C
The t#aditional mate#ial also <usti)ies this #a&ism to,a#ds bla&ks usin" the sto#y o)
Moah1s &u#se o) /am in a ,ay nea#ly identi&al to ho, late# so-&alled 8h#istians
,ould t,ist the Aenesis a&&ount to <usti)y the ensla$ement o) bla&ks.
=....%hem b. Moah ,as the )athe# o) the A#abs the 6e#sians and the A#eeksJ /am
,as the )athe# o) the Bla&ks and .a'heth ,as the )athe# o) the Tu#ks and o) Ao"
and Ma"o" ,ho a#e &ousins o) the Tu#ks....When he a,oke )#om his slee' he kne,
,hat /am had done as ,ell as ,hat %hem and .a'heth had done. /e said 18u#sed
is 8anaan b. /am. %la$es ,ill they be to his b#othe#sO1 Then he said 1May Aod my
Po#d bless %hem and may /am be a sla$e to his t,o b#othe#s. May Aod #e(uite
.a'heth and let him ali"ht at the d,ellin" 'la&es o) %hem and May /am be a sla$e
to them.1=
3D

=..../am be"at all those ,ho a#e bla&k and &u#ly-hai#ed ,hile .a'heth be"at all
those ,ho a#e )ull-)a&ed ,ith small eyes and %hem be"at e$e#yone ,ho is
handsome o) )a&e ,ith beauti)ul hai#. Moah '#ayed that the hai# o) /am1s
des&endants ,ould not "#o, beyond thei# ea#s and that ,he#e$e# his des&endants
met the &hild#en o) %hem the latte# ,ould ensla$e them.=
34
In many ,ays Islam itsel) is $ie,ed as a ma#k o) A#ab su'e#io#ity o$e# the othe#
'eo'les o) the ,o#ld e$en othe# Islami& "#ou's. Al-Taba#i notes the s'e&ial and
su'e#io# 'la&e that the A#abs held in Islami& t#adition
=A#abs a#e the most noble 'eo'le in linea"e the most '#ominent and the best in
deeds. We ,e#e the )i#st to #es'ond to the &all o) the 6#o'het. We a#e Allah1s
hel'e#s and the $i*ie#s o) /is Messen"e#. We )i"ht 'eo'le until they belie$e in
Allah. /e ,ho belie$es in Allah and /is Messen"e# has '#ote&ted his li)e and
'ossessions )#om us. As )o# one ,ho disbelie$es ,e ,ill )i"ht him )o#e$e# in Allah1s
8ause. -illin" him is a small matte# to us.=
32
This '#e<udi&e and t#ium'halism has been '#e$alent e$en in the mode#n ,o#ld and
)ound mu&h &u##en&y in the A#ab nationalist mo$ement be"innin" in the last
&entu#y. Islami& s&hola# al-Ba**a* stated
=Islam althou"h it is a uni$e#sal #eli"ion suitable )o# all 'eo'les and has in )a&t
been disseminated amon" many nations and #a&es is undoubtedly a #eli"ion
#e$ealed )i#st to the A#abs themsel$es In this sense it is thei# o,n s'e&ial
#eli"ion. The 6#o'het is )#om them the -o#an is in thei# lan"ua"eJ Islam #etained
many o) thei# '#e$ious &ustoms ado'tin" and 'olishin" the best o) them....These
"#a&ious $e#ses and many othe#s both Me&&an and Medinese &on)i#m that Islam is
the #eli"ion o) the A#abs be)o#e bein" a uni$e#sal #eli"ion. This does not &ont#adi&t
othe# $e#ses su&h as $e#se 10D o) su#at al-Anbiya ?ZZI@N 1We ha$e sent thee only in
me#&y to mankind1 be&ause it is '#o$ed histo#i&ally that the sendin" o) the
6#o'het to the A#abs #e$i$ed the A#ab nation in its enti#ety and #esu##e&ted it. This
#esu##e&tion ,as at the time bene)i&ial to all the inhabited uni$e#se. The A#abs
,e#e the '#o'a"ato#s o) Islam and the sa$io#s o) the ,o#ld )#om the #ei"nin"
o''#ession and )#om the absolute i"no#an&e ,hi&h ,as then su'#emeJ they ,e#e
as Austa$e Pebon said the most me#&i)ul &on(ue#o#s that the ,o#ld has kno,n.=
B0
/en&e the A#abs ,e#e the ones &hosen to b#in" the =bene)it= o) Islam to the
i"no#ant masses o) the ,o#ld mu&h the same as the 12th &entu#y Eu#o'ean man
may ha$e )elt it his im'e#ati$e to b#in" &i$ili*ation to the =sa$a"es=. Islam yet
#emained ho,e$e# )i#st and )o#emost an institution o) A#ab su'e#io#ity e$en
des'ite the b#othe#hood o) non-A#ab Muslims the A#abs bein" a so#t o) =)i#st
amon" e(uals=. The '#ima&y o) the A#abs in Islami& matte#s has been #eite#ated by
al--a,akibi ,ho also in<e&ts a &e#tain amount o) #a&ial o$e#tone into his
e:altation o) the A#ab 'eo'le
=The 'eninsula is the 'la&e ,he#e the li"ht o) Islam o#i"inated. It &ontains the
e:alted -aaba. In it is )ound the 6#o'het1s Mos(ue and the holy "#ound o) his
house 'ul'it and "#a$e.....9) all &ount#ies it is most )#ee o) #a&ial #eli"ious o#
se&ta#ian inte#mi:tu#e.....The habit o) #eli"ion has be&ome in"#ained in them
be&ause #eli"ion is mo#e &om'atible ,ith thei# so&ial &ustoms than ,ith those o)
othe#s....9) all Muslims the 'eninsula A#abs a#e the best able to bea# ha#dshi's in
o#de# to attain thei# aims and to unde#take t#a$el and #esiden&e ab#oad be&ause
they ha$e not su&&umbed to the se#$ile habits o) lu:u#y. The 'eninsula A#abs
'#ese#$e bette# than all othe# 'eo'les thei# #a&e and &ustomsJ )o# thou"h they
min"le ,ith othe#s they do not mi: ,ith them...The lan"ua"e o) the A#abs is the
lan"ua"e &ommon to all the Muslims ,ho numbe# 300 million souls...The A#abs a#e
o) all nations the most suitable to be an autho#ity in #eli"ion and an e:am'le to
the MuslimsJ the othe# nations ha$e )ollo,ed thei# "uidan&e at the sta#t and ,ill
not #e)use to )ollo, them no,.=
B1
The A#abs in thei# #esu#"ent nationalism <ust as in the days ,hen they )i#st
attained to em'i#e a#e the $an"ua#d o) the Islami& mo$ement the elite &ad#e
about ,hom Islam #i"htly #e$ol$es ,ho ha$e ke't themsel$es most 'u#e and a#e
most )it to "uide the othe# Muslim 'eo'les in the #i"ht ,ay. >n)o#tunately as ,ith
any attitude like this no matte# ho, bene$olent it 'u#'o#ts its headshi' to be the
'#in&i'le &an easily &#oss o$e# into mo#e male$olent a#enas o) #a&ial and &ultu#al
su'e#io#ity. These attitudes a#e o)ten demonst#ated in a '#a&ti&al ,ay in A#ab
Muslim attitudes to,a#ds non-A#abi& Muslims es'e&ially those o) %outh Asia.
Muslims in India ,hose skins a#e "ene#ally da#ke# than those o) A#abs )#om the
Middle East a#e &onside#ed to be =se&ond-&lass= Muslims as I ha$e been told by
se$e#al Indians ,ith ,hom I ha$e been a&(uainted o$e# the yea#s. Muslims o) the
Middle East o)ten still #e"a#d bla&k 'eo'le as sla$es
B2
. Moti&e that 'h#ase =still
#e"a#d=. Muslim A#abs ,e#e the #eason the bla&k A)#i&an sla$e t#ade e$e# be"an in
the )i#st 'la&e be&ause they '#o$ided a ma#ket )o# A)#i&an t#ibes to sell &a'tu#ed
'#isone#s o) ,a# as sla$es. This be"an &entu#ies be)o#e Eu#o'eans be&ame in$ol$ed
in the t#ade. It is estimated that 2.3 million bla&k A)#i&ans ,e#e taken a&#oss the
%aha#a dese#t to se#$e as sla$es in the Muslim Em'i#e
B3
. 9) these many died )#om
e:haustion and thi#st in the lon" t#ek to Medite##anean &oast those ,ho &ould not
make the t#i' on thei# t,o )eet o)ten ,e#e sim'ly beheaded on the s'ot so that
they ,ould not hold u' the &a#a$an. This e(uals in $olume both li$in" and dead
the T#ans-Atlanti& sla$e t#ade )o# ,hi&h Eu#o'eans and Ame#i&ans ,e#e so #i"htly
&#iti&i*ed. The sla$es bein" taken today in %udan by A#ab Muslims a#e bla&k
A)#i&ans as ,ell mostly )#om the 8h#istian and animist Miloti& t#ibes o) the %outh
su&h as the Dinka 'eo'les. Mohammed himsel) ke't bla&k 'eo'le as sla$es
BB

#e)e##ed to bla&k A)#i&ans as =#aisin-heads=
B5
and one bla&k man ,as e$en sin"led
out by Mohammed and his &om'anions and des&#ibed as =the most hate)ul man
amon" the &#eation o) Allah= and as ha$in" a hand like the teat o) a "oat?;@
BC
. E$en
today a &ommon te#m used in %audi A#abia )o# =bla&k= is the te#m a(d the ,o#d
)o# a se#$ant o# sla$e. This so#t o) #a&ism has an im'a&t on the "eo'oliti&al s&ene
today. As Adam PeBo# notes ,hile the Muslim ,o#ld th#ou"h the o#"an o) the
9#"ani*ation o) the Islami& 8on)e#en&e ?9I8@ #outinely 'ushes )o# all kinds o)
=human #i"hts abuse= #esolutions a"ainst Is#ael in the >M any attem't to b#in"
%udan to <usti&e )o# its malt#eatment o) its bla&k A)#i&an 'o'ulation - ,hi&h
in&ludes a si*eable %unni Muslim 'o'ulation that also su))e#s ensla$ement #a'e
and ha$in" its $illa"es bu#ned do,n by A#ab #aide#s ,ho &all them a(id =sla$e= and
.ur'a =di#ty bla&k= - a#e sti)led
BD
.
9) &ou#se bla&ks ,e#e not the only ones ,ho ha$e su))e#ed )#om ensla$ement by
Muslims. Mon-A#ab ,hites )#om Eu#o'e ,e#e also the ta#"et o) e:tensi$e - thou"h
no, la#"ely )o#"otten - sla$e-takin" by Muslim &o#sai#s o'e#atin" out o) the
Ba#ba#y %tates in Mo#th A)#i&a. Da$is des&#ibes in "#eat detail the situation ,hi&h
e:isted all alon" the &oastlands o) Eu#o'e du#in" the 1Cth - 14th &entu#ies
B4
. Du#in"
this time 'e#iod "#ou's o) Muslim &o#sai#s o'e#atin" ,ith the ta&it autho#i*ation
o) the Tu#kish "o$e#nment ,ould &ondu&t 'illa"in" and ensla$ement #aids all
a#ound 8h#istian Eu#o'e e$en as )a# no#th as En"land and I#eland. In la#"e #aids
thousands o) Eu#o'eans ,e#e taken as sla$es at one time #esultin" in hund#eds o)
thousands o) 8h#istian Eu#o'ean sla$es labo#in" )o# Muslim maste#s a&#oss Mo#th
A)#i&a in any 'a#ti&ula# yea#. In all likelihood millions o) Eu#o'eans ,e#e lost to
the Muslim sla$e system du#in" these th#ee &entu#ies.
Islamic Imperialism
9ne o) the most &ommon &om'laints made in the Muslim ,o#ld is that o) Ame#i&an
o# Weste#n =im'e#ialism=. The 'e#$asi$eness o) Ame#i&an &ultu#e attitudes and
ideas has allo,ed ou# ,ay o) li)e to 'enet#ate e$en behind the I#on 8#es&ent. 8ell
'hones M&Donalds and a host o) othe# Weste#n inno$ations a#e no, &ommon'la&e
in &ities all a&#oss the Middle East and it is e$en #e'o#ted that the most 'o'ula#
Ame#i&an tele$ision sho, in many Muslim &ount#ies is 5aywatch. But ,ith this
te&hnolo"y and &ultu#e ha$e &ome othe# in)luen&es alien to t#aditional Muslim
&i$ili*ation in)luen&es su&h as ,omen1s #i"hts #eli"ious and 'oliti&al )#eedom and
Weste#n-style se&ula#ism. These in)luen&es o)ten lead to &ha#"es o) =im'e#ialism=
)#om t#aditionalist Muslim #eli"ious leade#s be&ause they th#eaten to alte# the ,ay
o) li)e in many nations. This 'henomenon &ou'led ,ith the dis'a#ity o) ,ealth
bet,een the West and the Muslim ,o#ld makes it $e#y easy and tem'tin" )o#
leade#s in Muslim nations to in&ite and 'lay u'on en$y )ea# and an"e# amon"
thei# 'o'ulations. As a #esult =im'e#ialism= has "#o,n to be&ome the '#ima#y lens
th#ou"h ,hi&h the Muslim ,o#ld $ie,s its #elationshi' ,ith the West. E$e#y ,oe is
to be blamed on the in)idel Weste#ne#s ?es'e&ially the Ame#i&ans@ be&ause they
a#e #i&he# and they su''o#t Is#ael and they a#e 8h#istian ?su''osedly@ et&. et&.
ad nauseum.
But ,hat about Muslim im'e#ialism; While Weste#n im'e#ialism in the Middle East
is no, '#etty mu&h a )i"ment o) the ima"inations o) mullahs li$in" a hund#ed yea#s
in the 'ast Muslim im'e#ialism still th#i$es today <ust as it has sin&e Islam1s
in&e'tion. As ,as seen ea#lie# Islam ,as and is a #eli"ion s'#ead '#ima#ily by the
s,o#d. The ,o#ld a&&o#din" to Islam is di$ided into t,o #e"ionsN )ar es-Salaam and
)ar al-*ar( the house o) 'ea&e and submission to Islam and the house o) ,a#
#es'e&ti$ely. Islam is a #eli"ion and a &ultu#e built u'on im'e#ialism and
e:'ansionism.
Islami& &ultu#e is basi&ally the im'osition o) Dth &entu#y A#abian &ultu#e onto a
,hole host o) &on(ue#ed 'eo'les all a&#oss the Middle East and else,he#e. Pookin"
a&#oss the Muslim ,o#ld one )inds nations and ethni&ities that did M9T ado't Islam
o) thei# o,n $olition but instead did so be&ause o) &on(uest and )o#&e. The
6e#sians ,e#e not o#i"inally a Muslim 'eo'le but ,e#e &on(ue#ed by Islam.
Meithe# ,e#e the Be#be#s -u#ds A*e#bai<anis %y#ians o# bla&k West A)#i&ans ,ho
,e#e )o#&ibly &on$e#ted. In )a&t the A#abs ,e#e not o#i"inally Muslims o) &ou#se
until the )i#st A#ab &on(ue#o#s and thei# su&&esso#s s'#ead Islam th#ou"hout the
A#abian 'eninsula by the s,o#d. /en&e the #eli"ion o) o$e# a billion 'eo'le in the
,o#ld ,as b#ou"ht to thei# an&esto#s la#"ely by the )o#&e o) a#ms. 7u#the# as ,as
noted ea#lie# the la,s o) the sharia a#e little mo#e than the t#ans'lantation o)
$a#ious A#abian &ustoms and t#aditions datin" )#om the time o) the A#ab takeo$e#s
o) %y#ia-6alestine and 6e#sia &ou'led ,ith the indi"enous ?and still ba#ba#i& by
mode#n standa#ds@ la,s '#esent in the By*antine East at the time o) the A#ab
Em'i#e1s #ise su&h as the .ustinian 8ode. The $eil the (ur'ha and othe# )a&ial
&o$e#in"s )o# ,omen stem )#om this A#abian so&iety. %o do the Islami& attitudes
to,a#d ,omen that $i#tually #e(ui#e ,omen to be a&&om'anied by male #elati$es
,hen in 'ubli& ?&ommon in many Middle Easte#n &ount#ies@ '#e$ent them )#om
d#i$in" ?%audi A#abia and othe#s@ and kee' them )#om #e&ei$in" an e(ual sha#e o)
inhe#itan&e ?(u#ani& la, but &omes )#om A#ab &ultu#e in the Dth &entu#y@. The
e:e&ution o) la,s and 'unishment o) &#iminals is also distin&tly A#abian in
methodolo"y. The &uttin" o)) o) hands )o# the)t e:e&ution )o# many seemin"ly
mino# &#imes et&. stem )#om the ha#sh li)e o) dese#t nomads ,he#e )o#&e had to
'#e$ail to kee' the #o,die# elements in line and to '#ese#$e indi$idual '#o'e#ty.
Mai'aul ,hose e:'e#tise ,as "a#ne#ed by e:tensi$e t#a$el and inte#a&tion ,ith
Muslims in thei# home &ount#ies sums u' the 'osition o) Islam as A#ab im'e#ialism
(uite su&&in&tly
=Islam is in its o#i"ins an A#ab #eli"ion. E$e#yone not an A#ab ,ho is a Muslim is a
&on$e#t. Islam is not sim'ly a matte# o) &ons&ien&e o# '#i$ate belie). It makes
im'e#ial demands. A &on$e#t1s ,o#ld$ie, alte#s. /is holy 'la&es a#e in A#ab landsJ
his sa&#ed lan"ua"e is A#abi&. /is idea o) histo#y alte#s. /e #e<e&ts his o,nJ he
be&omes ,hethe# he likes it o# not a 'a#t o) the A#ab sto#y. The &on$e#t has to
tu#n a,ay )#om e$e#ythin" that is his. The distu#ban&e )o# so&ieties is immense
and e$en a)te# a thousand yea#s &an #emain un#esol$edJ the tu#nin" a,ay has to be
done a"ain and a"ain. 6eo'le de$elo' )antasies about ,ho and ,hat they a#eJ and
in the Islam o) the &on$e#ted &ount#ies the#e is an element o) neu#osis and
nihilism. These &ount#ies &an be easily set on the boil.=
B2
!e$e#en&e )o# the A#abs in 'a#ti&ula# as a s'e&ial 'eo'le endo,ed ,ith the #i"ht to
lead the Islami& ummah &omes 'a#t and 'a#&el ,ith the #etu#n to the old-
)ashioned Islam sou"ht by the latte#-day #e$i$al mo$ements. Raman notes the d#i$e
amon" Indian Muslims ?in&ludin" ,hat ,ould no, be 6akistan@ du#in" the
#e$i$alist mo$ements o) the 12th and ea#ly 20th &entu#ies to,a#ds ado'tin" the
use o) the A#abi& lan"ua"e A#abi& d#ess A#abi& &ustoms and so )o#th
50
. The
A#abi& lan"ua"e ,as $ie,ed as the sou#&e o) Gauthenti&H #eli"ious autho#ity and
the A#abs ,e#e studied and ideali*ed as the 'eo'le s'e&ially o#dained to lead
Islam. A#ab nationalism ,as )#o,ned u'on be&ause it ,as $ie,ed as a #enun&iation
o) the s'e&ial s'i#itual leade#shi' "i$en to the A#abs in the )a&e o) Weste#n-style
nationalisti& thou"ht - in othe# ,o#ds not be&ause it ,as A#ab but be&ause it ,as
a mimi&#y o) a Weste#n 'hiloso'hy o) nationalism. /itti has noted that in its ea#ly
yea#s the#e ,as an e:tensi$e '#o&ess o) =A#abi*ation= in Islam in ,hi&h non-A#ab
&on$e#ts )#om amon" the &on(ue#ed nations ,e#e en&ou#a"ed to imitate the
A#abs
51
. Mon-A#ab &on$e#ts ,e#e #ele"ated ea#ly on to a se&onda#y so&ial status as
mawlani =&lients= ,ho had to be )itted into the so&ial system th#ou"h asso&iation
,ith A#ab t#ibes o# indi$iduals
52
. These &lients #anked abo$e sla$es and dhimmis
but ,e#e still in)e#io# to the t#ue A#abs a situation ,hi&h e:isted until the mass o)
&on$e#ts #ea&hed a &#iti&al 'oint at ,hi&h they ,e#e able to )o#&e a &han"e to this
system. E$en a)te# this as the mode#n #e-asse#tions o) A#ab su'e#io#ity and 'u#ity
sho, the hold o) A#abi& im'e#ialism u'on the &on(ue#ed 'eo'les #emains st#on".
The ad$an&ement o) Islami& im'e#ialism led to the in$asions o) Eu#o'e by the
Moo#s and late# the Tu#ks. India also su))e#ed the b#unt o) Muslim in$asions )#om
the ,est and ,as &ont#olled by Muslim Mo"huls )o# se$e#al &entu#ies a )a&t ,hi&h
still e:&ites #esentment to this day. Islam #ea&hed to the !ussian ste''es at the
hei"ht o) its e:'ansion be)o#e bein" d#i$en ba&k by the %la$s. The Muslim en&la$es
in Bosnia and Albania a#e #eminde#s to this day o) Muslim Tu#kish im'e#ialism in
the Balkans these bein" %la$i& Eu#o'eans ,ho &on$e#ted to Islam be&ause o)
'e#se&ution )o#&e and the 'e#suasion o) bein" )#ee )#om 'ayin" the #eli"ion ta:
im'osed on non-Muslims. In te#ms o) b#utality and out#i"ht $iolen&e Islami&
im'e#ialism #anks #i"ht u' the#e ,ith the %'anish &on(uest o) the Ame#i&as and the
.a'anese &on(uest o) 8hina and -o#ea in the 20th &entu#y.
This im'e#ialism is still "oin" on today. Islam is still t#yin" to &on(ue# ne, te##ito#y
and b#in" it into )ar es-Salaam ,hethe# by s,o#d o# by money. Muslim #adi&als
#e"ula#ly te##o# bomb ta#"ets in Indian -ashmi# in an e))o#t to )o#&e the Indians out
and unite that #e"ion ,ith 6akistan. Muslims in Mi"e#ia a#e im'osin" sharia la, in
many no#the#n states in that &ount#y in $iolation o) Mi"e#ian la, and im'ose this
on the many non-Muslims in those states. Muslim )anati&s a#e o'e#atin" a "ue#illa
,a# in the 6hili''ines ,ith the stated aim o) settin" u' a Muslim state in
Mindanao. In southe#n Thailand Islami& #adi&als a#e 'e#'etuatin" a te##o#
&am'ai"n o) bombs and beheadin"s a"ainst the Buddhist ma<o#ity in an e))o#t to
&a#$e out an Islami& state. Moneta#y bounties a#e o))e#ed to 'eo'le in %outh A)#i&a
)o# &on$e#sions to Islam. E$en in the West Muslim leade#s at $a#ious times ha$e
stated thei# "oal o) b#in"in" Eu#o'e and Ame#i&a into the )old o) )ar es-Salaam
and mu&h Muslim lite#atu#e em'hasi*es the e$entual &on(uest o) the West ?and
the #est o) the ,o#ld@ )o# Islam. An e:am'le is the '#edi&tion by Maududi
=The 'o,e#s that a#e today ali"ned ,ith the anti-Islam &am' ,ill b#eak a,ay one
by one and me#"e in the &am' o) Islam. And the time ,ill &ome ,hen &ommunism
,ill be unde# st#ess )o# its su#$i$al in Mos&o, itsel)J and &a'italist demo&#a&y ,ill
be in a des'e#ate 'li"ht to de)end itsel) in Washin"ton and Me, 5o#k e$en.
Mate#ialisti& atheism ,ill )ind its 'osition untenable e$en in the uni$e#sities o)
Pondon and 6a#is. !a&ialism and Mationalism ,ill )ind no de$otees e$en amon" the
B#ahmins and the Ae#mans. And the '#esent e'o&h ,ill be &ommemo#ated in
histo#y as an eye-,ash that the adhe#ents o) su&h a uni$e#sal and ,o#ld-&on(ue#in"
'o,e# as Islam had been #edu&ed to the )olly o) t#emblin" in the )a&e o) sti&ks and
#o'es ,hen they held the sta)) o) Moses ?the Di$ine Wand@ unde# thei# a#m.=
53
Daniel 6i'es a noted e:'e#t in the a#eas o) Middle Easte#n 'oliti&s &ultu#e and
the Islami& #eli"ion has ,#itten #e&ently on this to'i& "i$in" nume#ous e:am'les
o) ho, e$en =mode#ate= Islami& "#ou's in Ame#i&a su&h as the $a#ious Muslim
%tudent Asso&iations and the Ame#i&an Muslim 8oun&il identi)y ,ith the ultimate
"oal o) =Islami*in"= the >nited %tates o) Ame#i&a
5B
. /e dis&usses the $a#ious ,ays
that Muslims in Ame#i&a a#e o)ten e:'e&ted to )ollo, in #ea&hin" this "oal non-
$iolently due to the e:t#emely small 'e#&enta"e o) the Ame#i&an 'o'ulation
&u##ently made u' o) Muslims. These in&lude en&ou#a"in" immi"#ation to the
>nited %tates )#om Muslim nations en&ou#a"in" a&&e'tan&e o) and the s'#eadin"
o) in)o#mation about Islami& '#a&ti&es and #eli"ion and silen&in" dissente#s a"ainst
Islam th#ou"h le"al a&tion. All a#e be&omin" distu#bin"ly mo#e &ommon'la&e in
Ame#i&a.
This last e))o#t es'e&ially is be&omin" (uite '#e$alent as Muslims lea#n to =,o#k=
the Ame#i&an le"al system to thei# ad$anta"e. The =le"al <ihad= as it is kno,
in$ol$es the th#eat and e$en the )ilin" o) la,suits a"ainst indi$iduals o# "#ou's
,ho hinde# the e))o#ts o) Muslim "#ou's to &a##y out thei# 'lans. The 'u#'ose o)
&ou#se is to silen&e &#iti&s es'e&ially those ,ho 'oint out the in&on$enient )a&ts
about the ties that leade#s in se$e#al Ame#i&an Islami& o#"ani*ations ha$e to
te##o#ist "#ou's
55
. +ity 2ournal1s .udith Mille# details the e))o#ts that Muslim
o#"ani*ations in the >nited %tates make to silen&e &#iti&s th#ou"h the use o) bo"us
libel la,suits
5C
. 7o#tunately this ta&ti& is '#o$in" less e))e&ti$e in the >nited
%tates ,he#e anti-%PA66 la,s ?=%t#ate"i& Pa,suits A"ainst 6ubli& 6a#ti&i'ation= -
la,suits ,hose only 'u#'ose is to '#e$ent someone )#om 'ubli&ly usin" thei# #i"hts@
a#e bein" used to se&u#e the )#eedom o) s'ee&h o) those ,ho &#iti&i*e Islam and
Muslim o#"ani*ations. >n)o#tunately )o# &#iti&s o) Islam else,he#e in the West the
)#eedom-#est#i&ti$e la,s o) the mo#e so&ialisti& and 'oliti&ally-&o##e&t nations
allo,s Muslims to '#ose&ute those ,ho &#iti&i*e Islam. 7o# e:am'le "acleans
ma"a*ine a 8anadian <ou#nal )a&es a &ha#"e o) =human #i"hts abuse= lod"ed
a"ainst it by the 8anadian Islami& 8on"#ess as a #esult o) an edito#ial by Ma#k %teyn
,hi&h ,as o''osed to Islam
5D
. >nlike in the >nited %tates ,he#e =human #i"hts
&ommissions= a#e ?)o# the time bein" at least@ la#"ely toothless $e#y #eal
san&tions &ould 'ossibly be im'osed u'on "acleans and %teyn - all )o# the &#ime o)
e:e#&i*in" thei# )#eedom o) s'ee&h in a manne# disa''#o$ed by Muslims.
Islam 8ber 'lles by 'ny Means ;ecessary
6a#t and 'a#&el ,ith all o) these a#e the many in)lated &laims made &on&e#nin" the
numbe# o) Muslims #esidin" in Weste#n nations. 7o# yea#s it has been an a#ti&le o)
)aith amon" Ame#i&an Muslim leade#s that Islam has o$e# D million )ollo,e#s in the
>nited %tates. This la#"e numbe# is desi"ned to "i$e Muslims additional &lout ,ith
Ame#i&an 'oliti&al and &ultu#al leade#s. /o,e$e# this numbe# is $astly o$e#-
in)lated. An a#ti&le in the Me, 5o#k 6ost #e'o#ted that t,o '#ominent s&ienti)i&
'ollin" "#ou's usin" data )#om #e&ent 'olls ea&h #e'o#ted numbe#s a#ound 1.4
million
54
. The same a#ti&le also #e$eals that the Ame#i&an Muslim 8oun&il 'ut
'#essu#e on #esea#&he# 7a#eed Mu1man to "#ossly in)late the )i"u#e )o# the Muslim
'o'ulation in a 'oll he ,as takin" )o# them and that Mu1man ,as )i#ed ,hen he
#e)used to do so.
!elated to these in)lated 'o'ulation )i"u#es a#e the &laims that Muslims ,ill make
about e$e#-a&&ele#atin" numbe#s o) Weste#ne#s ,ho su''osedly &on$e#t to Islam.
/o,e$e# these numbe#s a#e also e:a""e#ated and &a##y little #eal $alidity. Many
Weste#n &on$e#ts be&ome disen&hanted ,ith Islam be&ause o) the &ool #e&e'tion
they #e&ei$e )#om =bo#n Muslims= the la&k o) t#ue 'iety they obse#$e in Muslim
immi"#ants to the West and )amily '#essu#e a"ainst IslamJ and #e$e#t ba&k to thei#
bi#th #eli"ions
52
. Also it is o)ten ty'i&al in Muslim a'olo"eti& &i#&les to '#omote
the =band,a"on= a#"ument that Weste#ne#s a#e &on$e#tin" to Islam in la#"e
numbe#s by manu)a&tu#in" =&on$e#sion sto#ies= desi"ned to in)luen&e 'eo'le
to,a#ds Islam. I ha$e seen this 'e#sonally. At one time I ,as a membe# o) an
Islami& e-mail messa"e boa#d based in E"y't ,hi&h #e"ula#ly sent out sto#ies o) this
ty'e. In$a#iably the indi$idual ,ho had =&on$e#ted= ,ould ha$e a ste#eoty'i&ally
An"lo-%a:on name &laim to be an Ame#i&an ?o# less &ommonly a 8anadian
En"lishman o# Aust#alian@ yet ,ould a''ea# to ha$e almost no skills in the En"lish
lan"ua"e. The lette#s "a$e all the a''ea#an&e o) ha$in" been ,#itten by someone
,ith no &ommand o) En"lish ,hatsoe$e#J "#amma# 'un&tuation $e#b
&on<u"ations ad$e#bs - all used ,#on"ly. 9ne &an easily su#mise that eithe# all the
illite#ates o) the Weste#n ,o#ld ,e#e &on$e#tin" to Islam o# else the lette#s ,e#e
bein" )aked by *ealous ?but &a#eless@ Middle Easte#ne#s.
Also )allin" unde# this '#a&ti&e o) lyin" )o# the sake o) Islam a#e the )alse &laims o)
'e#se&ution a"ainst Muslims and the in$ention o) sto#ies about &#imes a"ainst
Muslims that ha$e the t,o-)old 'u#'ose o) #allyin" the )aith)ul and o) "ene#atin"
sym'athy )o# Islam and )o# Muslims. 7o# instan&e many Muslims in Ame#i&a
'e#'etuate the myth that Muslims ha$e )a&ed te##ible 'e#se&ution in the >nited
%tates a)te# the te##o#ist atta&ks o) 2-11. The a&tual )a&ts sho, that instead o)
bein" a 'andemi& the in&iden&e o) t#ue hate &#imes a"ainst Muslims in the >nited
%tates has a&tually dropped by C4T sin&e 2-11
C0
. 7u#the# most o) the so-&alled
=hate &#imes= used by Muslim o#"ani*ations to t#um'et thei# yea#ly &om'laints
about ho, =Islamo'hobi&= Ame#i&an so&iety is a#e $i&timless and only be&ome
=hate &#imes= by "#eat st#et&hes o) the ima"ination. Indeed as !obe#t %'en&e# has
'ointed out
C1
in 200C .e,s su))e#ed #ou"hly )i$e times as many a&ts o) #eli"iously
moti$ated $iolen&e as did Muslims.
The same so#t o) t#um'ed-u' &laims a#e )ound inte#nationally as ,ell es'e&ially
,hen Is#ael is in$ol$ed. It is &ommon'la&e )o# Muslims to 'lay the $i&tim &a#d by
&laimin" =o''#ession= ,hen the Is#aelis #es'ond to Muslim $iolen&e di#e&ted a"ainst
the .e,ish state. 9ne o) the most ,ell kno,n &ases o) this in$ol$ed little
Mohammed al-Du#ah. Al-Du#ah a 12-yea# old 6alestinian boy ,as $ideota'ed on
30 %e'tembe# 2000 by <ou#nalists )#om !rance D du#in" the 6alestinian intifada
s&#eamin" and &#yin" as he hid behind his )athe# du#in" a "un battle bet,een the
Is#aeli De)ense 7o#&es and 6alestinian te##o#ists. The boy ,as shot and killed and
the 7#en&h '#ess )ollo,ed by Muslim &ommentato#s a#ound the ,o#ld (ui&kly
s'#ead the sto#y that it ,as the Is#aeli a#my that had killed him. Al-Du#a instantly
be&ame an i&oni& symbol o) the Is#aeli =o&&u'ation= and =o''#ession= o) the 'ea&e-
lo$in" 6alestinian 'eo'le. A)te# a se#ies o) a''eals a 7#en&h &ou#t sa, e$iden&e
that su""ested that the al-Du#ah ta'e had been do&to#ed by !rance-D
C2
. 7u#the#
e$iden&e )#om an inde'endent ballisti&s e:'e#t demonst#ated that al-Du#ah &ould
not ha$e been killed by Is#aeli "un)i#e
C3
. The ,hole a))ai# ,as a setu' desi"ned to
'lay to 'eo'le1s sym'athy )o# the 6alestinians in the )a&e o) =mu#de#ous Is#aeli
a""#ession=.
These a#e e:am'les o) a '#a&ti&e kno,n as taqiyya ,hi&h essentially means to lie
)o# the sake o) Islam. The intention is to de&ei$e unbelie$e#s about Islam )o# the
e:'li&it 'u#'ose o) assua"in" doubts and &on&e#ns about Islam and en&ou#a"in"
&on$e#sion. $aqiyya unde#lies the ,hole "amut o) Muslim '#o'a"anda that is
disseminated in the West )#om the &laim that Islam '#omotes e(ual #i"hts )o#
,omen to the attem'ts to in)late the 'e#&ei$ed numbe# o) Muslims. All a#e
desi"ned to d#a, 'eo'le to Islam by hook o# by &#ook. The e:am'le "i$en in
8ha'te# D o) the Du#ham imam ,ho ,ent so )a# as to &laim that he ,ould be
&om'elled by his #eli"ion to '#e$ent a $andal )#om dest#oyin" the '#o'e#ty o) a
&hu#&h o# syna"o"ue is a ty'i&al e:am'le o) taqiyya. It ,as said in a 'ubli& )o#um
)o# the e:'#ess 'u#'ose o) "i$in" an a''ea#an&e to the Islami& #eli"ion ,hi&h does
not #e)le&t #eality. 8e#tainly as has been seen the histo#i&al attitude o) Muslims
to,a#d &hu#&hes and syna"o"ues has not been to '#ote&t them )#om $andalism
<ust the o''osite is in )a&t the &ase. But the lie ,as told in a 'ubli& )o#um so as to
'#esent Islam in a 'ositi$e and tole#ant li"ht ,hi&h ,ill a''eal to Weste#ne#s
,hi&h ,ill &ause them to belie$e that the ima"e o) Islam as an intole#ant and
$iolent #eli"ion a#e <ust myths &#eated by Islam1s enemies to de)ame the T#ue
7aith.
This so#t o) san&ti)ied dishonesty is also <usti)ied in the minds o) many Muslims on
the basis o) the belie) that anyone ,ho o''oses Islam is lyin". 7o# many Muslims it
is absolutely in&on&ei$able that anyone &ould e$e# #e<e&t Islam on lo"i&al o#
#ational "#ounds the#e)o#e to &laim to do so indi&ates a )ailin" in intelli"en&e o#
mo#ality on the 'a#t o) the in)idel. %&huon (uite insi"ht)ully illuminates us to the
attitude o) the Muslim mind
=The intelle&tual - and the#eby the #ational - )oundation o) Islam #esults in the
a$e#a"e Muslim ha$in" a &u#ious tenden&y to belie$e that non-Muslims eithe# kno,
that Islam is the t#uth and #e<e&t it out o) 'u#e obstina&y o# else a#e sim'ly
i"no#ant o) it and &an be &on$e#ted by elementa#y e:'lanationsJ that anyone
should be able to o''ose Islam ,ith a "ood &ons&ien&e (uite e:&eeds the Muslim1s
ima"ination '#e&isely be&ause Islam &oin&ides in his mind ,ith the i##esistible
lo"i& o) thin"s.=
CB
This insi"ht elu&idates many thin"s that those ,ho deal ,ith Muslim a'olo"ists on a
#e"ula# basis &an #eadily obse#$e. It e:'lains ,hy Muslim a'olo"eti& de)ense o)
Islam is so o)ten $e#y elementa#y e$en &hildish in its '#esentation and o)ten
(ui&kly b#eaks do,n into name-&allin" o# th#eats a"ainst the in)idel ,ho has
#e)uted Islami& a#"uments. It sho,s us ,hy Muslims ,ill loudly t#um'et the =lo"i&=
and =#ationality= o) Islam ,hile simultaneously de)endin" thei# )aith ,ith &i#&ula#
#easonin" and othe# sim'le e##o#s o) lo"i&. This is ,hy Muslims &an ,ithout any
a''a#ent i#ony &laim that Islam is a =#eli"ion o) 'ea&e= e$en ,hen the testimony
o) both histo#y and &u##ent e$ents bello,s the o''osite. 7o# most Muslims the
idea that an in)idel &ould #e<e&t Islam (ecause o) a sin&e#e &on&e#n )o# kno,in"
the t#uth is absolutely in&on&ei$able. /en&e the in)idel must be lyin" ,hen he o#
she '#esent )a&ts and a#"uments a"ainst Islam and the in)idel must be an
es'e&ially t#i&ky lia# ,hen the )a&ts and a#"uments &annot be ans,e#ed by the
Muslim. /en&e they #eso#t to taqiyya to tu#n aside in)idel lies so that the lo"i& o)
t#uth a priori de)ined as anythin" Islami& ,ill stand )i#m.
$aqiyya "oes beyond me#ely lyin" )o# '#o'a"anda 'u#'oses ho,e$e#. The ,o#d
&omes )#om a #oot meanin" =to "ua#d a"ainst to kee' ?onesel)@=. Thus it also
in&ludes dissimulation by the Muslim to "i$e the a''ea#an&e o) not bein" #eli"ious
so as not to a#ouse sus'i&ion. In this $ein a Muslim i) ne&essa#y may eat 'o#k
d#ink al&ohol and e$en $e#bally deny the Islami& )aith as lon" as he does not
=mean it in his hea#t=. I) the end #esult o) the lie is 'e#&ei$ed by the Muslim to be
"ood )o# Islam o# use)ul to b#in"in" someone to =submission= to Allah then the lie
&an be san&tioned th#ou"h taqiyya. As al-Tabba#ah ,#ites
=7alsehood is not al,ays bad to be su#eJ the#e a#e times ,hen tellin" a lie is mo#e
'#o)itable and bette# )o# the "ene#al ,el)a#e and )o# the settlement o)
&on&iliation amon" 'eo'le than tellin" the t#uth. To this e))e&t the 6#o'het saysN
1/e is not a )alse 'e#son ,ho settles &on&iliation amon" 'eo'le su''o#ts "ood o#
says ,hat is "ood.=
C5
It should "o ,ithout sayin" that '#omotin" the Islami& #eli"ion ,ould be &lassi)ied
unde# the headin" o) Gsu''o#ts "oodH by most Muslims.
The taqiyya &on&e't is also )ound in the 0u#1an
=Pet not the belie$e#s Take )o# )#iends o# hel'e#s >nbelie$e#s #athe# than
belie$e#sN i) any do that in nothin" ,ill the#e be hel' )#om AllahN e:&e't by ,ay o)
'#e&aution that ye may Aua#d you#sel$es )#om them. But Allah &autions you ?To
#emembe#@ /imsel)J )o# the )inal "oal is to Allah.= ?Surah 3N24@
/e#e the Muslims a#e ,a#ned a"ainst takin" unbelie$e#s as )#iends e:&e't i) it
,ill be bene)i&ial to the Muslims as a ,ay o) de)endin" Islam a"ainst its 'e#&ei$ed
enemies o# '#e$entin" loss o# dan"e# )#om &omin" u'on the Muslim be&ause o) his
)aith. In othe# ,o#ds the end <usti)ies the means. I) a Muslim must "i$e the
out,a#d a''ea#an&e o) not bein" a Muslim o# must "o a"ainst the "ene#al
'#in&i'le o) not be)#iendin" in)idels then this is a&&e'table unde# the taqiyya
do&t#ine. -ee' in mind also that ,hat is de)ined as ="ood= by the se#ious Muslim
,ill be anythin" that aids the s'#ead and e$entual t#ium'h o) Islam o$e# &om'etin"
#eli"ions and ideolo"ies. As su&h this ,ould tend to en&ou#a"e in)ilt#ation o) non-
Muslim &ount#ies and institutions by Muslims ,ho mi"ht '#etend to su''o#t the
o#"ani*ations they <oin but ,ho a#e #eally ,o#kin" to unde#mine these )o# the
"#eate# "oal o) establishin" Islam as su'#eme. 9b$ious #e&ent e:am'les o) this so#t
o) a&ti$ity ,ould be the misuse o) thei# 'ositions and a&&ess to in)o#mation by
Muslim membe#s o) Ame#i&a1s a#med )o#&es se$e#al o) ,hom ha$e been &au"ht and
a##ested ,hile attem'tin" to 'ass in)o#mation alon" to al-0aeda and othe# militant
Islami& te##o#ist o#"ani*ations.
The 0u#Ian and the ahadith '#esent nume#ous e:am'les in ,hi&h lyin" the
b#eakin" o) oaths and othe# so#ts o) Gsan&ti)iedH dishonesty a#e demonst#ated in a
'ositi$e li"ht
GThe 6#o'het said FI) I take an oath and late# )ind somethin" else bette# than
that then I do ,hat is bette# and e:'iate my oath.IH
CC

GAnd an announ&ement )#om Allah and /is Messen"e# to the 'eo'le ?assembled@
on the day o) the A#eat 6il"#ima"e- that Allah and /is Messen"e# dissol$e ?t#eaty@
obli"ations ,ith the 6a"ans....H ?Surah 2N3@
GAllah hath made la,)ul )o# you ?Muslims@ absolution )#om you# oaths ?o) su&h a
kind@ and Allah is you# 6#ote&to#. /e is the -no,e# the Wise.H ?Surah CCN2
6i&kthal t#anslation@
=A&&o#din" to Ibn /umayd- %alamah- Muhammad b. Isha(- 1Abd Allah b. Al-Mu"hith
b. Abi Bu#dahN The 6#o'het said =Who ,ill #id me o) Ibn al-Ash#a);= Muhammad b.
Maslamah the b#othe# o) the Banu 1Abd al-Ashshal said =I ,ill #id you o) him 9
Messen"e# o) Aod. I ,ill kill him.= =Do it then= he said =i) you &an.= Muhammad b.
Maslamah ,ent ba&k and #emained )o# th#ee days neithe# eatin" no# d#inkin"
mo#e than ,ould kee' him ali$e. The Messen"e# o) Aod "ot to hea# o) this so he
summoned him and said to him =Why ha$e you le)t o)) )ood and d#ink;= =9
Messen"e# o) Aod= he said =I said somethin" and I do not kno, ,hethe# o# not I
&an )ul)ill it.= =All that you a#e obli"ed to do is t#y= he #e'lied. =9 Messen"e# o)
Aod= he said =,e shall ha$e to tell lies.= =%ay ,hat you like= he #e'lied =5ou a#e
absol$ed in the matte#.=
CD

GAllahIs Messen"e# said FWho is #eady to kill Ash#a); /e has said in<u#ious thin"s
about Allah and /is A'ostle.I Maslama "ot u' sayin" FWould you like me to kill
him; The 6#o'het '#o&laimed F5esI Maslama said FThen allo, me to lie so that I
,ill be able to de&ei$e him.I Muhammad said F5ou may do so.IH
C4

G6#o'het Muhammad said =Pyin" is ,#on" e:&e't in th#ee thin"sN the lie o) a man
to his ,i)e to make he# &ontent ,ith himJ a lie to an enemy )o# ,a# is de&e'tionJ
o# a lie to settle t#ouble bet,een 'eo'le.H
C2

Thus Islami& t#adition has mo#e o# less #ende#ed 'e#missible any so#t o) unt#uth
that ,ould #ende# one bette# able to G"et one o$e# onH an enemy. This should be
inst#u&ti$e to us ,hen &onside#in" the )a&t o) #adi&al IslamIs belie) that it is
"#a''lin" ,ith )ar al-*ar( in a ,a# to the death. Indeed #elated to taqiyya is the
&on&e't o) hudna o# the tem'o#a#y t#u&e desi"ned to allo, Muslim )i"hte#s to
&onsolidate and im'#o$e thei# 'osition so as to be able to bette# be able to
&ontinue ,ith thei# a""#ession. %u&h t#u&es o) &on$enien&e a#e &onside#ed
e:'endable by Muslim /ihadi ,a##io#s and a#e o) no $alue to b#in"in" about any
lastin" 'ea&e)ul &oe:isten&e thou"h this is o)ten ho, the Muslims ,ill '#esent
thei# &alls )o# t#u&e ,ith thei# enemies. The $alidation o) su&h t#u&es made unde#
)alse '#etenses ,as '#o$ided by the mytho-histo#io"#a'hy about Mohammed ,ho
himsel) is said to ha$e established a ten yea# 'ea&e t#eaty ,ith the then-'a"an
Me&&ans a t#eaty ,hi&h he b#oke be)o#e its te#ms had e:'i#ed as soon as he had
su))i&ient st#en"th to take the &ity. 8e#tainly one need only see the &ontinual
$iolation o) the Gt#u&esH made bet,een the Is#aelis and 6alestinians by Muslim
te##o#ists to "ain an idea o) ho, this t#adition o) hudna ,o#ks in '#a&ti&e. >nlike
the West ,hi&h )o# millennia has been nu#tu#ed in the 8i&e#onian ideals o)
"ood,ill and <ust dealin"s e$en bet,een enemies Islam ne$e# in&o#'o#ated
notions o) honesty and <usti&e to,a#d othe# nations and hen&e the use o)
dishonesty subte#)u"e hudna et&. is 'e#)e&tly le"itimate and &onside#ed "ood
st#ate"y in Islam.
Islam as a Control Cult
6e#ha's #elated to its )alse '#esentation o) itsel) is the Islami& tenden&y to,a#ds
dis&ou#a"in" o'en in(ui#y about itsel) by ,hi&h is meant in(ui#y that is not
she'he#ded by some so#t o) Muslim #eli"ious autho#ity o# a Muslim al#eady ,ell-
$e#sed in Islami& do"ma. This is most 'lainly seen in the Islami& tea&hin" that the
0u#1an &annot be t#anslated out o) A#abi&. 6e# st#i&t Islami& t#aditional tea&hin"
,hen the 0u#1an is t#anslated into some othe# lan"ua"e it instantly &eases to be
the t#ue 0u#1an be&omin" instead a do&ument ,hi&h has had the admi:tu#e o)
man1s thou"hts and ,o#ds inte#<e&ted into it ?'#esumably as a #esult o) the
t#anslation '#o&ess@. 9nly the 0u#1an in A#abi& a&&o#din" to Islam is the t#ue ,o#d
o) Allah. As a #esult the#e a#e millions o) Muslims all o$e# the ,o#ld ,ho do not
kno, A#abi& and ,ho ,hen they #es'ond to the mue**in &all and hea# the 0u#1an
&hanted in A#abi& ha$e not the sli"htest idea ,hat is #eally bein" said. These
'eo'le ha$e to #ely u'on an imam o# othe# #eli"ious leade# to tell them ,hat the
0u#1an says and ,hat it means. Th#ou"h this means Islam maintains and en)o#&es
the submission o) millions o) non-A#ab Muslims ,ho ha$e to #ely u'on the A#abi&-
s'eake#s )o# kno,led"e o) ,hat thei# #eli"ion tea&hes and ,hat thei# holy book
says. Be&ause o) this tea&hin" Islam &an be said to take on the #ole o) a
kno,led"e &ont#ol &ult mu&h like the .eho$ah1s Witnesses ?,ho a#e =en&ou#a"ed= to
#ead only ,hat the Wat&hto,e# %o&iety 'ublishes@ o# othe# &ults ,he#e
inde'endent e:amination o) the #eli"ion1s do&t#ines a#e dis&ou#a"ed o# '#ohibited.
This so#t o) attitude is e:a&tly ,hat is '#esented in the Muslim t#aditions too. In
the 0u#1an ,e )ind that Muslims a#e en&ou#a"ed not to ask ha#d (uestions about
thei# o,n #eli"ion and the #eason is be&ause they mi"ht lose thei# )aith in Islam i)
they do
=9 ye ,ho belie$eO Ask not (uestions about thin"s ,hi&h i) made 'lain to you may
&ause you t#ouble. But i) ye ask about thin"s ,hen the 0u#1an is bein" #e$ealed
they ,ill be made 'lain to you Allah ,ill )o#"i$e thoseN )o# Allah is 9)t-)o#"i$in"
Most 7o#bea#in". %ome 'eo'le be)o#e you did ask su&h (uestions and on that
a&&ount lost thei# )aith. = ?Surah 5N101-102@
This dis&ou#a"ement )#om o'en (uestionin" is also seen in the ahadith one o)
,hi&h #e&o#ds that Mohammed ,as asked about some matte#s that he did not ,ant
to ha$e to ans,e# and "ot so an"#y ,hen the (uestione#s 'e#sisted that he "#e,
en#a"ed #ed in the )a&e
D0
. 9the# statements in the ahadith also #e&o#d
Mohammed1s ad$e#se #ea&tion to bein" &hallen"ed on the thin"s he tau"ht
D1
.
Maududi one o) the mo#e '#ominent theolo"ians o) Islam in the mode#n a"e
like,ise en&ou#a"es Muslims to lea$e o)) askin" the di))i&ult to ans,e# (uestions
about thei# )aith
D2
. The '#essu#e a"ainst o'en (uestionin" and ,illin"ness to
e:amine the belie)s o) Islam su""ests to us that Islam is not #eally inte#ested in
'eo'le in$esti"atin" Islam )o# the t#uth1s sake ?des'ite ,hat many a Muslim makin"
dawah mi"ht say@. !athe# it tells us that Islam seeks to su''#ess its inte#nal
in&onsisten&ies and emba##assin" tea&hin"s thin"s that mi"ht &ause the Muslim to
doubt his )aith and e$en a'ostati*e i) he ,e#e to d,ell on them.
In his dis&ussion about ea#ly Muslim &laims to &o##u'tion o) the %&#i'tu#es by .e,s
and 8h#istians Watt notes the unde#standin" o) at least one ea#ly Muslim s&hola#
that allo,in" the $ie,s o) 8h#istians and .e,s to ha$e )#ee &ou#se amon" Muslims
,ould e$entually lead to the dest#u&tion o) the Muslim belie) system
GThe mate#ial thus &on$eniently &olle&ted by Ibn FAbd al-Ba## em'hasi*es the
im'o#tan&e )o# Muslims o) a$oidin" dis&ussions ,ith .e,s and 8h#istians. The
'eo'le o) the Book held $ie,s ,hi&h ,e#e &ont#a#y to &e#tain )undamental Islami&
&on&e'tions and ,hi&h i) "i$en )#ee 'lay ,ould in &ou#se o) time ha$e so eaten
a,ay these &on&e'tions that the ,hole st#u&tu#e #aised u'on them ,ould ha$e
&olla'sed. These t#aditions and ane&dotes '#obably did not so mu&h hel' to )o#m a
ne, attitude as "i$e e:'#ession to the attitude al#eady )o#med.H
D3
Thus Muslims e$en )#om the ea#ly yea#s o) Islam ,e#e ad$ised not to del$e too
dee'ly into the belie)s o) non-Muslims as these ,ould dest#oy the )aith o) the
Muslims. This is some,hat i#oni& in li"ht o) the o)t-used e:ho#tation by Muslims
makin" dawah ?the in$itation to &ome to Islam@ )o# non-Muslims to =e:amine thei#
belie)s=. The #eli"ion that doesn1t ,ant its o,n adhe#ents to ask ha#d (uestions
about thei# )aith be&ause it mi"ht tu#n them a,ay )#om it ne$e#theless ,ants
othe# 'eo'le to (uestion thei# o,n so that they ,ill =#e$e#t= to Islam. Muslims
makin" dawah ,ill say ,hat they &an to "et &on$in&e othe#s to &on$e#t. Me,
&on$e#ts to Islam es'e&ially in the West ,he#e &oe#&ed &on$e#sion is usually not
an o'tion a#e ty'i&ally the $i&tims o) a &on-<ob. They ha$e been told one thin" by
Muslims attem'tin" to &on$in&e them to &on$e#t ,hen in #eality the t#uths about
Islam a#e (uite di))e#ent. A sti##in" e:am'le o) this is the testimony "i$en by the
B#itish )eminist 6hyllis 8hesle#
DB
. The &ha#min" &ha#ismati& and tho#ou"hly
Weste#ni*ed A)"han man she met in B#itain be&ame a man ,ho t#eated he# like
'#o'e#ty <ust as the othe# ,omen in his Islami& )amily ,e#e t#eated. The )agade
o) #es'e&t )o# ,omen $anished ,hen it ,as no lon"e# needed as Ms. 8hesle# )ound
out.
In the same $ein Muslims ,ho &on$e#t from Islam ?i.e. a'ostates@ a#e &onside#ed
by o#thodo: and #adi&al Islam to be )ai# "ame )o# 'e#se&ution e$en as )a# as the
death 'enalty ,hethe# it is a''lied o))i&ially o# by means o) $i"ilantism. 7o#
instan&e B#itish e:-Muslims ,ho ha$e &on$e#ted to 8h#istianity a#e the ta#"et o)
'e#se&ution )#om thei# o,n )amilies as ,ell as death th#eats
D5
. Also in B#itain the
dau"hte# o) an imam ,ho &on$e#ted to 8h#istianity has )a&ed th#eats )#om he# o,n
)amily to hunt he# do,n and kill he#
DC
. These a#e <ust t,o e:am'les o) this so#t o)
beha$io# in a Weste#n &ount#y. In the Muslim ,o#ld &on$e#sion )#om Islam also
&a##ies o))i&ial san&tions e$en in =se&ula# mode#ate= &ount#ies like Malaysia and
Indonesia. In st#i&te# nations like %audi A#abia a'ostasy means death.
The &on&lusion ,hi&h all the e$iden&e leads us to is that Islam &annot be
&onside#ed a #eli"ion o# ,ay o) li)e ,hi&h is in any ,ise tole#ant o) dissent o#
disa"#eement. Thus Islam &annot #i"htly be &alled =tole#ant=. Instead ,e see an
a""#essi$e im'e#ialisti& 'o,e# bent on su''lantin" all &om'etito#s and ,hi&h
"i$es all a''ea#an&e o) bein" uninte#ested in 'ea&e)ul &oe:isten&e.
End Motes
?1@ - Peland .. $he -ritings of the 9ate Elder 2ohn 9eland ed. P.7. A#eene '.
114
?2@ - Insight "aga.ine 5 Mo$embe# 2001 '. B3
?3@ - %. Auth#ie and 5. -hushi !adi&al Muslims Massa&#e 1C 6#otestants
8h#istianity Today 24 9&tobe# 2001
?B@ - %.6. /untin"ton +lash of +ivili.ations '. 21D
?5@ - Indeed a numbe# o) &ommon te#ms in En"lish be"innin" ,ith the '#e)i: al-
belie thei# Islami& o#i"in su&h as al"eb#a alkaline and ?i#oni&ally@ al&ohol as ,ell
as the names o) nume#ous sta#s su&h as Aldeba#an Al"eiba Alnasl and Alnai# this
not in&ludin" the many othe# sta#s ,ith A#abi& names ,hi&h do not &ontain this
'#e)i:.
?C@ - 7o# an in-de'th and (uite laudato#y o$e#$ie, o) Muslim &ont#ibutions to
lea#nin" and intelle&tual li)e see 6.-. /itti *istory of the %ra(s 8hs. 21 2D B0
and B4
?D@ - 7o# a most in&isi$e dis&ussion on this tu#n o) e$ents in the 13th &entu#y and
,hat its #ami)i&ations a#e )o# Islam in the '#esent day see &ha'te#s C and D o) 7.
/o$eyda $he 5ro'en +rescent3 $he $hreat of "ilitant Islamic !undamentalism
?4@ - /itti o'. &it. '. DB2
?2@ - Ibn -haldun %l-"uqaddimah t#ans. 7. !osenthal ab#". and ed. M... Da,ood
Bk. 1 8h. C.14 '. 3D3
?10@ - M./. /a##is *istory of 9i(raries in the -estern -orld '. 4B
?11@ - Ibid. '. DC
?12@ - =All Mode#n Dis&o$e#ies a#e by Muslim %&ientists= Daily Times o) 6akistan C
Mo$embe# 200D
?13@ - %ee the dis&ussions in 8./. /askins $he 8enaissance of the KDth +entury
8hs. 2-3
?1B@ - %ee %. !un&iman 5y.antine +ivili.ation 8h. 2 )o# a dis&ussion o) the
&ontinuation o) A#eek lea#nin" in the By*antine Em'i#e
?15@ - E.". see /askins o'. &it. ''. 221-22C
?1C@ - .. Bu#&kha#dt $he +ivili.ation of the 8enaissance in Italy ''. 152-1C0
?1D@ - %ee /a##is o'. &it. ''. DC-DD
?14@ - 7o# a "ood o$e#$ie, o) indust#y and en"inee#in" in medie$al Eu#o'e see ..
Aim'el $he "edieval "achine3 $he Industrial 8evolution of the "iddle %ges
?12@ - %ee /a##is o'. &it. '.D4J also A. T#ou'eau =Pe !ole Des %y#ia(ues Dans la
T#ansmission Et l1E:'loitation Du 6at#omoine 6hiloso'hi(ue et %&ienti)i(ue A#e&=
%ra(ica +ol. 34 ?1221@ Mo. 1 ''. 1-10 )o# a &on&ise summa#y o) the #ole ,hi&h
these %y#ian 8h#istians and othe#s 'layed in this ,o#k o) '#ese#$ation.
?20@ - %ee A.M. Ma#sden !undamentalism and %merican +ulture3 $he Shaping of
$wentieth +entury Evangelicalism ''. 55-C1
?21@ - %ee e.". al-Ma,a#di %l-ah'am as-sultaniyya t#ans. E. 7a"nan 9es Statuts
7ouvernementau0 ''. 222-300J in B. 5e1o# $he )himmi3 2ews and +hristians
Under Islam '. 1D5.J also Ibn an-Ma((ash !atwa concerning the condition of the
dhimmis and particularly of the +hristians in "uslim lands4 since the
esta(lishment of Islam4 until the middle of the Oth century after the *egira +ol.
14 ''. 513 t#ans. Belin 2ournal %siatique +ol. 14 ?1451@ and +ol. 12 ?1452@J in
5e1o# o'. &it. '. 145.
?22@ - /itti o'. &it. ''. 352-3C0
?23@ - Ibn an-Ma((ash o'. &it. ''. 513-51BJ in 5e1o# o'. &it. ''. 14B-145
?2B@ - al-Ma##akushi %l-mu/i( fi tal'his a'h(ar al-maghri( t#ans. E. 7a"nan
*istoire des %lmohades ''. 2CB-2C5J in 5e1o# o'. &it. '. 142
?25@ - .. /al[$y in 5ulletin %lliance Israelite Universelle ?14DD@ 1st %em. ''. 52-
5BJ in 5e1o# o'. &it. ''. 313-315
?2C@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 52 Mo. 1DD
?2D@ - P. Aoodstein =A Mation 8hallen"edN The ImamJ Me, 5o#k 8le#i&1s De'a#tu#e
7#om Mos(ue Pea$es Myste#y= Me, 5o#k Times 23 9&tobe# 2001
?24@ - =I#an 6lans /olo&aust 8on)e#en&e= 8MM Wo#ld Me,s 15 .anua#y 200C
?22@ - !. Be#man =Me, 5o#k Muslim Peade# Ba&ks I#anian In %ayin" /olo&aust Is
1E:a""e#ated1= Me, 5o#k %un 13 .anua#y 200C
?30@ - %ee A.A.M. el-A,aisi $he "uslim 5rothers and the 6alestine 1uestion4
KLDO-KLMW '. 125
?31@ - -. Aensi&ke )er "ufti von 2erusalem und die Cationalso.ialisten3 eine
6olitische 5iographie %min el-*usseinis '. 23B
?32@ - B. Pe,is Semites and %nti-Semites '. 1C0
?33@ - al-0ay#a,ani 9a 8isala3 Epitre sur les elements du dogme et de la loi de
lIslam selon le rite mala'ite t#ans. and ed. P. Be#&he# '. 1C3
?3B@ - 5a1(ub Abu 5usu) Kita( al-Khara/ t#ans. E. 7a"nan as 9e 9ivre de 9ImpXt
!oncier ''. 103-10B
?35@ - $he 9ife of "uhammad3 % $ranslation of Ishaqs Sirat 8asul %llah t#ans. A.
Auillaume '. 2B3
?3C@ - Ibid. '. B50
?3D@ - $ari'h al-rusul wal-mulu'3 $he *istory of al-$a(ari t#ans. W.M. B#inne#
+ol. 2 ''. 11-12
?34@ - Ibid. '. 21
?32@ - $ari'h al-rusul wal-mulu'3 $he *istory of al-$a(ari t#ans. I.-. 6oona,alla
+ol. 2 '. C2
?B0@ - Abd al-!ahman al-Ba**a* =Islam and A#ab Mationalism= %ra( Cationalism3
%n %nthology ed. %.A. /aim ''. 1DC-1DD
?B1@ - Abd al-!ahman al--a,akibi =The E:&ellen&es o) the A#abs= %ra(
Cationalism3 %n %nthology ed. %.A. /aim ''. D4-40
?B2@ - +. -halil and D. -halil =When 8h#istians Meet Muslims= +hristian *erald
.ulyQAu"ust 1244 '.BB
?B3@ - -.6. Moseley G8a#a$el and 8a#a$anN West A)#i&a and the Wo#ld-E&onomies
&a. 200]1200 ADH 8eview3 % 2ournal of the !ernand 5raudel +enter for the Study
of Economies4 *istorical Systems and +ivili.ations +ol. 15 ?1222@ Mo. 3 '. 53B
?BB@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. C Bk. C0 Mo. B35J Sahih "uslim Bk. 10 Mo. 3201
?B5@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. 11 Mo. CC2J +ol. 2 Bk. 42 Mo. 25C
?BC@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 5 Mo. 233B
?BD@ - A. PeBo# =When Muslims i"no#e the 6#o'het= The Times ?>-@ 1D Ma#&h 200D
?B4@ - %ee !.8. Da$is +hristian Slaves4 "uslim "asters 8ha'. 1 ''. 3-2CJ see also
%. 8lissold $he 5ar(ary Slaves )o# an in-de'th studies o) the li$es o) 8h#istians
sla$es in Mo#th A)#i&a du#in" this time 'e#iod
?B2@ - +.%. Mai'aul 5eyond 5elief3 Islamic E0cursions %mong the +onverted
6eoples '. 1
?50@ - M.0. Raman GA#abi& the A#ab Middle East and the De)inition o) Muslim
Identity in T,entieth 8entu#y IndiaG 2ournal &f the 8oyal %siatic Society Thi#d
%e#ies 6a#t 1 +ol. 4 ?A'#il 1224@ ''. CB-CC
?51@ - /itti o'. &it. ''. 21D-214
?52@ - Ibid. ''. 232-233
?53@ - %.A.A. Maududi $he Evidence of $ruth '. 23
?5B@ - D. 6i'es The Dan"e# WithinN Militant Islam in Ame#i&a 8ommenta#y
Mo$embe# 2001 #e'#inted on Daniel'i'es.o#"
?55@ - E.". %. Eme#son =When Islamists Aet 8au"htN MA% Edition= The
In$esti"ati$e 6#o<e&t on Te##o#ism 2 9&tobe# 200D
?5C@ - .. Mille# =A %PA66 A"ainst 7#eedom= 8ity .ou#nal Au"ust 200D
?5D@ - -. Punau =8anadian Islami& 8on"#ess laun&hes human #i"hts &om'laints
a"ainst Ma&lean1s= Ma&lean1s 30 Mo$embe# 200D
?54@ - D. 6i'es =/o, Many >.%. Muslims;= Me, 5o#k 6ost 22 9&tobe# 2001
#e'#inted on Daniel'i'es.o#"
?52@ - D. 6i'es book #e$ie, o) =The %un is !isin" in the West= by M. /aleem and B.
Bo,man in "iddle East 1uarterly De&embe# 2000 #e'#inted at Daniel'i'es.o#"
?C0@ - =/y'in" /ate 8#ime +s. Muslims= In$esto#1s Business Daily 3 De&embe# 200D
?C1@ - !. %'en&e# 7BI hate &#imes #e'o#t )o# 200CN .e,s su))e# o$e# 5 times mo#e
atta&ks than Muslims .ihad Wat&h 12 Mo$embe# 200D
?C2@ - A. Ben<amin Du#a Dis&#edited Media Ba&ks'in 1B Mo$embe# 200D
?C3@ - A. %&h,a#t* =Inde'endent e:'e#tN ID7 bullets didn1t kill Mohammed al-Du#a=
/aa#et* 3 7eb#ua#y 2004
?CB@ - 7. %&houn Stations of -isdom '. 5C n. 12
?C5@ - A. al-Tabba#ah $he Spirit of Islam '. 255
?CC@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. D Bk. CD no. B2D
?CD@ - $ari'h al-rusul wal-mulu'3 $he *istory of al-$a(ari t#ans. M.+. M&Donald
+ol. D '. 25
?C4@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 5 Bk. 52 Mo. 3C2J see also +ol. B Bk. 52 Mo. 2D1
?C2@ - Ibn /anbal "usnad +ol. C no. B52J see also Sahih "uslim Bk. 32 Mo. C303
?D0@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. 3 Mo. 22
?D1@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 2 Bk. 2B Mo. 555J +ol. 3 Bk. B1 Mo. 521
?D2@ - %ee %.A.A. Maududi $he "eaning of the 1uran +ol. 3 ''. DC-DD
?D3@ - W.M. Watt GDe$elo'ment o) the Muslim Attitude to the BibleH Early Islam3
+ollected Essays '. 45
?DB@ - 6. 8hesle# =/o, my eyes ,e#e o'ened to the ba#ba#ity o) Islam= Pondon
Times 9nline D Ma#&h 200D
?D5@ - =Muslim a'ostates th#eatened o$e# 8h#istianity= Pondon Tele"#a'h 9nline
12 De&embe# 200D
?DC@ - P. /ull and D. Bates =Imam1s dau"hte# in hidin" a)te# he# &on$e#sion to
8h#istianity s'a#ked death th#eats= Daily Mail D De&embe# 200D
Myth E2
Women a#e !es'e&ted and
E(ual in Islam
GThe man that lays his hand on a ,oman
%a$e in the ,ay o) kindness is a ,#et&h
Whom Ft,e#e "#oss )latte#y to name a &o,a#d.H
- .ohn Tobin $he *oneymoon
Muslim Women in the West - The White,ash
A Woman1s Pe"al %tatus in Islam
A Woman1s %o&ial %tatus in Islam
=/ono#= -illin" and 9the# At#o&ities
Women as 9b<e&ts o) 8a#nality
When Ame#i&ans and othe# Weste#ne#s think o) Islam and the Middle East 'e#ha's
one o) the )i#st ima"es that &omes to mind is that o) Muslim ,omen s,addled in
thi&k #obes thei# )a&es &o$e#ed. Islam is "ene#ally asso&iated ,ith dis#es'e&t )o#
the #i"hts and e$en the 'e#sonhood o) ,omen. Women in the Weste#n ,o#ld and
also in many non-Weste#n &ount#ies su&h as India .a'an -o#ea and else,he#e
ha$e seen thei# lot in li)e im'#o$ed and thei# #i"hts as human bein"s #e&o"ni*ed.
This so#t o) libe#ali*ation is not usually asso&iated ,ith the Muslim ,o#ld ho,e$e#.
Is this a )ai# 'e#&e'tion; Is the#e any basis )o# sayin" that Islam de"#ades ,omen
that this dis#es'e&t is not <ust an abe##ation but is in"#ained ,ithin the Islami&
#eli"ion; The ans,e# to these (uestions as ou"ht to be seen by any &lea#-minded
obse#$e# is yes.
Muslim -omen in the -est # The -hite!ash
Muslim ,omen in the >nited %tates and othe# Weste#n nations o)ten ,ill allo,
themsel$es to be used to ,hite,ash Islam1s ima"e as it is '#esented to the 'ubli&
at-la#"e. Ty'i&ally these ,omen li$in" he#e in the West o'e#ate unde# the banne#
o) =#ea))i#min"= the #i"hts that ,omen ha$e =t#aditionally= en<oyed in Islam. Mu&h
is made o) the ?te&hni&ally t#ue@ )a&t that ,omen in Islam a#e "#anted the #i"hts to
o,n '#o'e#ty and #e&ei$e inhe#itan&e '#ima#ily. Indeed in the li"ht o) the ,ay in
,hi&h ,omen ,e#e t#eated in '#e-Islami& A#abia the "#antin" o) the #i"hts to o,n
'#o'e#ty and to inhe#it )#om a dead #elati$e is a ste' )o#,a#d &onside#in" ,omen
,e#e denied e$en these in the '#e-Islami& t#ibal system.
/o,e$e# it should be noted that the Muslim ,omen ,ho seek to '#omote Islam as
a tole#ant and '#o"#essi$e )o#&e )o# ,omenIs #i"hts o)ten d#a, less than honest
&on&lusions )#om the sim'le (u#ani& a))i#mation o) '#o'e#ty #i"hts. Ty'i&ally they
attem't to d#a, thei# #eade#s o# listene#s into <um'in" )#om this technically
&o##e&t statement about ,omen1s #i"hts in Islam to a )alse asso&iation o) Islam ,ith
Weste#n-style asse#tions o) the 'e#sonhood and le"al #i"hts o) ,omen. 9n a
numbe# o) o&&asions I ha$e seen o# hea#d Muslim ,omen say that they a#e Muslim
and that they ha$e the same #i"hts and #es'e&t as a man that Islam #es'e&ts them
and allo,s them the same )#eedom as men en<oy. 9) &ou#se ,hat ,e need to
#emembe# is that these ,omen a#e sayin" this ,hile they a#e in the 8nited States"
or some other -estern nation. 9) &ou#se thei# #i"hts a#e #es'e&ted and they a#e
not o''#essedO They a#e li$in" in a so&iety ,he#e the so#t o) beha$io# ,hi&h many
Muslim men dis'lay to,a#ds ,omen in Muslim &ount#ies is not "ene#ally tole#ated.
In the West both la, and 'o'ula# o'inion "#eatly dis&ou#a"e a&ti$ities su&h as
,i)e-beatin" and ma##ia"e to unde#a"e "i#ls. %o&iety ,ould )#o,n u'on a man ,ho
made his ,i)e ,ea# a $eil and stay inside the house unless he ,as ,ith he#. It
,ould be neithe# unde#stood no# a&&e'ted that ,omen should ha$e an in)e#io#
le"al and mo#al status to men as is held by a 'lain #eadin" o) the 0u#1an and the
ahadith. In the West Islam has no &hoi&e but to #es'e&t the #i"hts and di"nity o)
,omen lest it #aise the i#e o) the "ene#al 'o'ula&e. /o,e$e# one ,onde#s ,hat
these Muslim ,omen ,ould say o# think i) they t#ied to take the same attitude in
say 6akistan o# I#an o# E"y't. 8lea#ly the a'olo"ies )o# Islam made by Muslim
,omen on the basis o) some su''osedly =enli"htened= $ie, o) ,omen1s #i"hts is
nothin" mo#e than a &loak that is ,o$en so as to t#y and &o$e# the u"ly t#uth about
Islam1s attitudes to,a#d ,omen.
This has not o) &ou#se im'eded the '#oli)e#ation o) ,ebsites 'am'hlets and
othe# $enues 'u#'o#tin" to sho, that ,omen a#e e(ual ,ith men in Islam and that
Islam ele$ates the )ai#e# se:. Desi"ned to a''eal to the Weste#n mind ,hi&h
o'e#ates unde# the 'a#adi"m o) e(ual #i"hts )o# all these $enues seek to #ede)ine
te#ms &ommonly used by Weste#n thinke#s and o)ten #eso#t to blatant
mis#e'#esentations so as to '#esent a "#ossly one-sided and de&onte:tuali*ed $ie,
o) Islam1s attitudes to,a#d ,omen ?an a''li&ation o) the taqiyya '#in&i'le
dis&ussed in the '#e$ious &ha'te#@. =Islam su''o#ts ,omen1s #i"hts= it is said but
the =#i"hts= that a#e su''o#ted a#e the basi& ideas '#esented in the body o) Islami&
s&#i'tu#e and <u#is'#uden&e su&h as )#eedom to di$o#&e )#eedom )o# a $i#"in o#
,ido, to &hoose he# s'ouse and the )#eedom to o,n '#o'e#ty. The#e a#e o)
&ou#se othe# loo'holes in the body o) Islami& la, that allo, )o# the practical
de'#i$ation o) these "#anted '#i$ile"es o)ten amountin" sim'ly to a &ont#adi&tin"
'assa"e in the 0u#1an o# in a hadith.
7u#the# many Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill themsel$es use out-o)-&onte:t statements
)#om the 0u#1an o# the ahadith to <usti)y thei# &laims - somethin" ,hi&h they o)ten
a&&use thei# o''onents o) doin" e$en ,hen the det#a&to#s a#e doin" nothin" mo#e
than #e'eatin" lon"standin" Islami& le"al t#adition. An e:am'le is the hadith ?the
&olle&tion o) ,hi&h is usually att#ibuted to al-Bukha#i but sometimes to the 10th
&entu#y +hristian 'hiloso'he# 5ahya Ibn 1Adi@ ,hi&h says =The sea#&h )o# kno,led"e
is a duty o) e$e#y Muslim male and )emale.= This is (uoted to ='#o$e= that ,omen
ha$e e$e#y #i"ht in Islam to "et any so#t o) edu&ation <ust like a man. 9) &ou#se
the &onte:t o) this 'assa"e and this &on&e't is that the kno,led"e is #eli"ious that
e$e#y Muslim has the obli"ation to lea#n Allah1s la, not some se&ula# o# te&hni&al
edu&ation. Indeed this is &lea#ly seen )#om the t#aditions
=Ma##ated Abdullah ibn Am# ibn al-1AsN
=The 6#o'het ?'ea&ehbehu'onhhim@ saidN -no,led"e has th#ee &ate"o#iesJ anythin"
else is e:t#aJ a '#e&ise $e#se o# an established sunnah ?'#a&ti&e@ o# a )i#m
obli"ato#y duty.=
1
In othe# ,o#ds =kno,led"e= as de)ined in the Islami& &onte:t is kno,led"e o) the
0u#1an the sunnat o# othe# #eli"ious obli"ations - anythin" else is =e:t#a= and
'#esumably not &om'a#ati$ely im'o#tant. That e$en this so#t o) kno,led"e is not
ne&essa#y )o# ,omen is sho,n else,he#e
=Ma##ated Ta#i( ibn %hihabN
=The 6#o'het ?'ea&ehbehu'onhhim@ saidN The 7#iday '#aye# in &on"#e"ation is a
ne&essa#y duty )o# e$e#y Muslim ,ith )ou# e:&e'tionsJ a sla$e a ,oman a boy
and a si&k 'e#son.=
2
As su&h it is not really ne&essa#y )o# ,omen to attend the "athe#in" at mos(ue
,he#e 7#iday '#aye#s a&&om'anied by a se#mon ?'#esumably )o# lea#nin" about and
)#om the 0u#1an@ ,ill be 'e#)o#med. As ,e ,ill see belo, o#thodo: Islam &onside#s
,omen to be de)i&ient in #eli"ion and less able to &ont#ibute to the #eli"ious li)e o)
the ummah.
This e:am'le as ,ell as the ,hole attem't by Muslim a'olo"ists to su"a#-&oat
Islam1s t#eatment o) ,omen a#e )u#the# illust#ations o) the taqiyya the lyin" )o#
the ad$an&ement o) Islam ,hi&h ,as mentioned abo$e. It is a "#a$e
misunde#standin" o) the )a&ts to belie$e that =,omen1s #i"hts= in an Islami& &onte:t
,ould mean anythin" simila# to ho, Weste#ne#s unde#stand the te#m ,hi&h ,ould
"ene#ally in&lude the #i"hts to a se&ula# edu&ation to hold any <ob to hold and
use '#o'e#ty a'a#t )#om he# husband1s di#e&tion the #i"ht to &ustody o) &hild#en
et&. 9n the &ont#a#y these ,ould be e:'li&itly denied to a ,oman in any Islami&
system ,hi&h institutes the t#aditional Islami& sharia #ooted in the 0u#1an and the
ahadith.
9)ten 8h#istians ,ill be &on)#onted by Muslim 'olemi&ists ,ho '#ea&h that Islam
u'holds the #i"hts o) ,omen and ,ho ,ill simultaneous &ha#"e that the Bible
de"#ades ,omen. Muslims o)ten 'oint to the 'osition o) ,omen in the Bible ,hi&h
does not allo, )o# ,omen 'asto#s o# allo, ,omen to e:e#&ise positional autho#ity
o$e# men ,ithin the )amily o# the &hu#&h. 9) &ou#se the 'olemi&ists &on$eniently
i"no#e 'assa"es su&h as Aalatians 3N24 that a))i#m the s'i#itual e(uality o) ,omen
,ith men be)o#e Aod. Muslims "ene#ally )ail to &om'#ehend the Bibli&al tea&hin"
on s'i#itual e(uality &ombined ,ith 'ositional subo#dination ?,hi&h &auses them
like,ise to misa''#ehend the do&t#ine o) the deity o) 8h#ist as ,ell@. Men and
,omen a#e s'i#itually e(ual both &an #e&ei$e the same sal$ation and the same
ete#nal li)e th#ou"h the Po#d .esus 8h#ist. /o,e$e# in the ea#thly #ealm Aod has
also established men as the tem'o#al s'i#itual autho#ity in the )amily and the
&hu#&hes. This does not ho,e$e# mean that men a#e s'i#itually su'e#io# to
,omen anymo#e than a "ene#al in the A#my is mo#e o) a &iti*en o) the >nited
%tates than a &olonel - both a#e e(ual &iti*ens yet one is 'la&ed in a hi"he# #ank o)
autho#ity within a specific conte0t and situation. Mo# does this tea&hin" mean that
,omen a#e to en<oy )e,e# le"al o# so&ial #i"hts - in othe# ,o#ds the Bible does not
'la&e ,omen in a 'osition o) absolute o# ontolo"i&al in)e#io#ity. Indeed the Bible
tea&hes this &on&e't in I 8o#inthians 11N3 ,he#e the #elationshi' bet,een men
and ,omen is sho,n in 'a#allel ,ith the #elationshi' bet,een Aod ?i.e. the
7athe#@ and 8h#ist. 8h#ist and the 7athe# a#e the same in essence yet 8h#ist as
the se&ond 'e#son o) the T#inity and the 9ne ,ho $olunta#ily humbled /imsel) to
take on humanity ,as made positionally subo#dinate to the 7athe#. In the same
manne# men and ,omen a#e o) the same essen&e and s'i#itual $alue but ,omen
a#e 'ositionally subo#dinate to men ,ithin thei# s'e&i)i& #oles in the )amily and
&hu#&h &onte:ts ?a subo#dination that ,ill end in the ete#nal state by the ,ay@.
While this tea&hin" ,ill ?ob$iously@ still be un'alatable to #adi&al )eminists and
othe#s on the 'oliti&al and theolo"i&al Pe)t it is ha#dly simila# to the Islami&
attitudes and tea&hin"s about the status o) ,omen.
7o# the Muslim to en"a"e in this atta&k is hy'o&#iti&al "i$en the (uite ob$ious
ine(uality ,hi&h is institutionali*ed in the Islami& #eli"ion. 5et the atta&k is o)ten
made in an attem't to di$e#t the attention o) 'otential Weste#n &on$e#ts a,ay
)#om Islam1s o,n miso"yny and to,a#ds a manu)a&tu#ed (uibble ,ith the Bible.
Indeed ,e should note a"ain that the 'ositional subo#dination in the Bible that
,as dis&ussed abo$e a''lies only to the #ealms o) the )amily unit and the lo&al
&hu#&h. It does not &a##y o$e# into the ,o#k'la&e the &lass#oom o# any othe#
se&ula# #ealm. It also does not as the Bible else,he#e makes &lea# <usti)y the so#t
o) 'hysi&al and emotional abuse ,hi&h &an be seen as an out)lo,in" o) Islami&
sharia la,.
Indeed it is also &ommon )o# Muslim a'olo"ists to 'lay the "ende# &a#d by
'#esentin" lists o) ,omen )#om the Bible ,ho a#e de'i&ted as unsa$o#y li&entious
and o) "ene#ally bad &ha#a&te# ?,omen su&h as .e*ebel /e#odias1 dau"hte# et&.@.
The aim in all this is to be able to 'oint to these and say =%ee; The Bible is anti-
,omanO= In addition to sim'ly bein" a #idi&ulous a#"ument it is also easily
#e)utable. 9ne &an sim'ly '#o$ide a list o) ,omen ?mu&h lon"e# as it tu#ns out@ in
the Bible ,ho a#e '#esented in a 'ositi$e li"ht ?!uth the ,ido, o) Ra#e'hath
Abi"ail Ma#y et&.@ and 'e#ha's also a list o) men ,ho a#e de'i&ted in a bad li"ht
?Mabal %aul Ahab .udas et&.@. I) the Bible is as &hau$inisti& a do&ument as these
a'olo"ists &laim then ,hy ,ould so many men be de'i&ted in a 'oo# li"ht and so
many ,omen be held u' as 'ositi$e e:am'les; 9) &ou#se the #eal 'oint that
should be unde#stood is that the Bible me#ely de'i&ts both men and ,omen as they
a#eN sinne#s some ,ho a#e sa$ed and li$e by )aith and some ,ho #emain lost and
#ebellious to thei# dyin" day.
' -oman's 9egal Status in Islam
In li"ht o) Islam1s o,n #e$e#ed ,#itin"s the 0u#1an and the ahadith ,e see a )a#
di))e#ent 'i&tu#e 'ainted o) a ,oman1s status in Islam than that ,hi&h is '#esented
to the West. In o#thodo: Islami& nations in ,hi&h the sharia la, has been
established the t#eatment o) ,omen "ene#ally #an"es )#om hea#tb#eakin" to
do,n#i"ht abominable. E$en in nations ,he#e sharia has not been )o#mally
established the theolo"i&al )undamentalism o) the Islam ,hi&h is almost
uni$e#sally held as dis&ussed '#e$iously #esults in so&ial and de facto 'oliti&al
)o#&es that militate a"ainst the e:e#&ise o) anythin" e$en a''#o:imatin" Weste#n-
style #i"hts by ,omen. 9)ten these a#e &odi)ied into the le"al st#u&tu#e o) the
nation e$en thou"h no )o#mal sharia has been established.
In Islam as )ound in the 0u#1an the ,oman is in)e#io# to the man in matte#s o) la,
and <usti&e. 7o# instan&e it is sti'ulated that a ,oman is to #e&ei$e only hal) the
inhe#itan&e that he# b#othe#s #e&ei$e ,hen thei# 'a#ents 'ass a,ay
=Allah ?thus@ di#e&ts you as #e"a#ds you# 8hild#en1s ?Inhe#itan&e@N to the male a
'o#tion e(ual to that o) t,o )emalesN i) only dau"hte#s t,o o# mo#e thei# sha#e is
t,o-thi#ds o) the inhe#itan&eJ i) only one he# sha#e is a hal)....= ?Surah BN11@
In this ,ay a ,oman is de'#i$ed o) an e(ual sha#e o) inhe#itan&e solely be&ause
she is )emale and i) ,omen a#e the only inhe#ito#s they do not e$en #e&ei$e the
)ull inhe#itan&eO This so#t o) une$en dist#ibution is else,he#e su''o#ted in the
0u#1an
=They ask thee )o# a le"al de&ision. %ayN Allah di#e&ts ?thus@ about those ,ho lea$e
no des&endants o# as&endants as hei#s. I) it is a man that dies lea$in" a siste# but
no &hild she shall ha$e hal) the inhe#itan&eN I) ?su&h a de&eased ,as@ a ,oman
,ho le)t no &hild /e# b#othe# takes he# inhe#itan&eN I) the#e a#e t,o siste#s they
shall ha$e t,o-thi#ds o) the inhe#itan&e ?bet,een them@N i) the#e a#e b#othe#s and
siste#s ?they sha#e@ the male ha$in" t,i&e the sha#e o) the )emale. Thus doth
Allah make &lea# to you ?/is la,@ lest ye e##. And Allah hath kno,led"e o) all
thin"s.= ?Surah BN1DC@
This a''o#tionment system ,hi&h "i$es ,omen hal) the amount that a man
#e&ei$es is also su''o#ted by the 'u#'o#ted statements o) Mohammed in the
ahadith
3
. /en&e e$en thou"h the (u#ani& #i"ht o) a ,oman to he# inhe#itan&e is
a))i#med it still establishes a systemati&ally une(ual le"al 'osition )o# he#.
Pike,ise a ,oman is #e&koned by Islami& <u#is'#uden&e to be ,o#th hal) a man in
a &ou#t o) la,. %'e&i)i&ally a ,oman1s testimony only &ounts )o# hal) that o) a
man1s thus t,o ,omen a#e needed to &ounte# the &laims o) a man.
=The 6#o'het said 1Isn1t the ,itness o) a ,oman e(ual to hal) o) that )o# a man;1
The ,omen said 15es.1 /e said 1This is be&ause o) the de)i&ien&y o) a ,oman1s
mind.1 =
B
Mot only is a ,oman1s ,o#d not as "ood as that o) a man1s but neithe# is he# mindO
Be&ause o) this a&&e'tan&e o) the notion that ,omen a#e not as intelli"ent as men
,omen a#e a&&o#ded an in)e#io# standin" in Islami& <usti&e. Po"i&ally this ,ould
bea# out to the disad$anta"e o) ,omen in '#essin" thei# #i"hts and de)endin"
themsel$es o# seekin" #ed#ess )o# ,#on"s done to them. I) a ,oman ,e#e #a'ed
and the deed ,as done se&#etly she ,ould ha$e absolutely no #ed#ess a"ainst he#
assailant unless he &on)essed out o) "uilt o# )ea# be&ause his ,o#d ,ould &ount
)o# t,i&e as mu&h as he#s and o$e##ule he#.
Women and men a#e also t#eated di))e#ently )o# b#eakin" the same la,s. An
e:am'le o) this &omes )#om the (u#ani& &ommands a"ainst homose:uality. The
'unishment )o# ,omen is
=I) any o) you# ,omen a#e "uilty o) le,dness Take the e$iden&e o) )ou# ?!eliable@
,itnesses )#om amon"st you a"ainst themJ and i) they testi)y &on)ine them to
houses until death do &laim them o# Allah o#dain )o# them some ?othe#@ ,ay.=
?Surah BN15@
7o# men on the othe# hand
=I) t,o men amon" you a#e "uilty o) le,dness 'unish them both. I) they #e'ent
and amend lea$e them aloneJ )o# Allah is 9)t-#etu#nin" Most Me#&i)ul.= ?Surah
BN1C@
While ,omen a#e &on)ined in house a##est until death ,ith no e$iden&e o)
)o#"i$eness bein" a$ailable )#om the te:t men a#e set )#ee ,ith no 'unishment i)
they disa$o, thei# sin. The 'assa"e BN15 '#o$ides a 'ossible &a$eat in its
statement G...o# Allah o#dain )o# them some othe# ,ay.G I) Allah #es&inds the
'unishment they may "o )#ee. 9) &ou#se the ,ill o) Allah is "ene#ally unde#stood
to be inte#'#eted and dis'ensed to the Muslim &ommunity $ia its mullahs and
imams so the ,omen a#e still essentially at the me#&y o) the inte#'#eti$e
tem'e#ament o) these men. This so#t o) one-sided un)ai# t#eatment o) ,omen is
a&kno,led"ed by s&hola#s ,ho a#e intimately )amilia# ,ith Islam
=The statement that 1men a#e the "ua#dians o) ,omen1 in $e#se 34 o) %u#a B
'ostulates ine(uality o) men and ,omen in &i$il #i"hts. The ,o#ds a#e )ollo,ed by
t,o b#ie) e:'lanations o) men1s su'e#io#ity o$e# ,omen
5
.....In Islami& la, male
hei#s "et mo#e than )emale hei#s and men1s e$iden&e is mo#e #eliable than
,omen1sJ to be e:a&t a man1s inhe#itan&e sha#e is t,i&e a ,oman1s sha#e and his
e$iden&e &a##ies t,i&e the ,ei"ht o) he#s in &ou#t...The #i"ht to di$o#&e belon"s to
the husband but not to ,i$es.=
C
In most Middle Easte#n Muslim &ount#ies that make a '#eten&e at some so#t o)
#e'#esentati$e "o$e#nment ,omen a#e o)ten still denied the #i"ht to $ote. !i"hts
to '#o'e#ty and asset o,ne#shi' by ,omen te&hni&ally e:istin" as ,e ha$e seen
a#e in '#a&ti&e non-e:istent as ,omen in many Muslim &ount#ies a#e not )#ee to
e$en lea$e the house ,ithout thei# husbands1 'e#mission mu&h less t#ansa&t
business and mana"e '#o'e#ty o) thei# o,n a&&o#d. Be&ause o) the debilitatin"
st#i&tu#es 'la&ed u'on a ,omanIs )#eedom o) mo$ement and &ommuni&ation ,ith
othe#s ?es'e&ially men@ outside o) he# kinshi' unit she is usually not e$en able to
e:e#&ise these (u#ani& #i"hts and must &onsi"n he# '#o'e#ty and #i"hts to he#
husband )o# him to e:e#&ise on he# behal).
The e:tension o) #i"hts to ,omen is not ne&essa#ily the di#e&t o# sole &ause o)
Islamist dissatis)a&tion but is instead $ie,ed to be a sym'tom o) the "#eate# e$il
o) Weste#n libe#al demo&#a&y ,hi&h the Islamists st#enuously o''ose. The )e,
Muslim &ount#ies ,he#e ,omen ha$e been allo,ed to 'a#ti&i'ate in the 'oliti&al
'#o&ess ha$e almost in$a#iably had '#oblems ,ith Islami& ha#d-line#s ,ho attem't
to destabili*e and o$e#th#o, thei# "o$e#nments. An e:am'le is 6akistan ,hi&h at
one time had a )emale 6#ime Ministe# Bena*i# Bhutto ?,ho ,as assassinated on 2D
De&embe# 200D a)te# a #etu#n )#om e:ile and an attem'ted #eent#y into 'oliti&s@.
/o,e$e# #adi&al Islamist a"itation se$e#ely dama"ed the stability o) the )#a"ile
demo&#ati& "o$e#nment and it ,as to''led in a milita#y &ou' in 1222 headed by
Aene#al 6e#$e* Musha##a). 6akistan is no, o'enly one o) the main hotbeds o)
#adi&al Islami& /ihadi a&ti$ity ,ith its thousands o) madrassas o# Islami& s&hools
&hu#nin" out tens o) thousands o) ha#d-line students.
When Islami& 'a#ties o# #e$olutiona#y "#ou's that seek to establish o#thodo: Islam
as the deen o) a nation mana"e to &ome to 'o,e# the #i"hts o) ,omen a#e
&om'letely &u#tailed. The#e is 'e#ha's no bette# e:am'le o) this than A)"hanistan.
Be)o#e the %o$iet in$asion o) this nation A)"hanistan ,as a #elati$ely o'en and
tole#ant so&iety one in ,hi&h ,omen had a "ood deal o) 'a#ti&i'ation &ould
#e&ei$e the same edu&ation as men and &ould e$en ente# into medi&ine o# othe#
'#o)essional )ields. All this &han"ed ,ith the %o$iet in$asion and the subse(uent
Ame#i&an su''o#t )o# A)"han o''osition "#ou's su&h as the "u/ahadeen. These
o''osition "#ou's mo#e o)ten than not ,e#e militantly o#thodo: in thei# a''#oa&h
to Islam. While the >nited %tates su''o#ted many o) these "#ou's be&ause o) thei#
sha#ed enemy the %o$iet >nion on&e this th#eat had ended it ,as le)t '#ima#ily
to these many militantly Islami& "#ou's to 'i&k u' the 'ie&es ?no, ,ith the money
and a#ms '#e$iously su''lied by the >nited %tates@. This they did o$e# the ne:t
de&ade ,ith the '#o&ess o) Islami*ation e$entually &ulminatin" in the Taliban
#e"ime &om'lete ,ith its #eli"ious 'oli&e ,ho ,ould sa$a"ely beat ,omen in the
st#eets )o# te##ible o))enses su&h as lau"hin" in 'ubli&. E$en ,ith the timely
demise o) the Taliban #e"ime at the hands o) Ame#i&an )o#&es the #i"hts o) ,omen
in A)"hanistan b#ie)ly #esto#ed a#e )ast on thei# ,ay to be&omin" non-e:istent
a"ain as the $a#ious othe# militantly Islami& ?but less anti-Ame#i&an@ )a&tions
<o&key )o# 'osition unde# the "o$e#nment established by the ne, &onstitution o)
that land one ,hi&h has an e:'li&it )oundation on the Islami& shari#a.
' -oman's Social Status in Islam
6a#t and 'a#&el ,ith the 'oliti&al in)e#io#ity o) ,omen in Islami& so&iety is the
sub<u"ation o) ,omen in the so&ial #ealm. Women a#e in many &ases &onside#ed to
be the '#o'e#ty o) men and this dates ba&k to the &onditions )ound in '#e-Islami&
A#abia. As Dashti notes
=In '#e-Islami& A#abi& so&iety the ,omen did not ha$e the status o) inde'endent
'e#sons but ,e#e &onside#ed to be 'ossessions o) the men. All so#ts o) inhumane
t#eatment o) the ,omen ,e#e 'e#missible and &ustoma#y.=
D
This bea#s out e:'li&itly in the 0u#1an
=Men a#e in &ha#"e o) ,omen be&ause Allah hath made the one o) them to e:&el
the othe# and be&ause they s'end o) thei# '#o'e#ty )o# the su''o#t o) ,omen. %o
"ood ,omen a#e the obedient "ua#din" in se&#et that ,hi&h Allah hath "ua#ded.
As )o# those )#om ,hom ye )ea# #ebellion admonish them and banish them to beds
a'a#t and s&ou#"e them. Then i) they obey you seek not a ,ay a"ainst them. PoO
Allah is e$e# /i"h E:alted A#eat.= ?Surah BN3B 6i&kthal t#anslation@
A&&o#din" to the 0u#1an men a#e lite#ally to #ule o$e# ,omen both be&ause o) a
su''osed natu#al su'e#io#ity and be&ause men s'end thei# #esou#&es su''o#tin"
,omen. This 'assa"e #eally makes a ,oman into '#o'e#ty ,hi&h belon"s to a man
and ,hi&h e:ists )o# his use sin&e he has to 'ay u'kee'.
The Muslim '#a&ti&e o) 'oly"amy $i#tually tu#ns ,omen into a &ommodity to be
bou"ht and sold. Many Weste#ne#s ha$e the im'#ession that the =)ou#-,i$es #ule=
)ollo,s basi&ally the same #ule and #es'e&t )o# ma##ia"e that the West used to
ha$e only (uad#u'led. This is not the &ase ho,e$e#. In Islam ,hile the ,oman
&annot di$o#&e he# husband ,ithout bein" &onside#ed an unbelie$e# and destined
)o# hell a man &an di$o#&e his ,i)e on any '#ete:t ?o# none at all@
=And i) ye ,ish to e:&han"e one ,i)e )o# anothe# and ye ha$e "i$en unto one o)
them a sum o) money ?ho,e$e# "#eat@ take nothin" )#om it. Would ye take it by
the ,ay o) &alumny and o'en ,#on";= ?Surah BN20 6i&kthal t#anslation@
What this is sayin" is that it1s al#i"ht )o# a Muslim man to dismiss one o) his ,i$es
and #e'la&e he# ,ith anothe# as lon" as he takes nothin" )#om the do,#y ,hi&h he
o#i"inally "a$e to obtain he# as his ,i)e. Essentially this tu#ns his )o#me# ,i)e into
nothin" mo#e than a "lo#i)ied '#ostitute and (uite ob$iously &an lead to the abuse
o) the system. This is sho,n in the li)e o) /assan a "#andson o) Mohammed.
/assan o$e# the &ou#se o) his li)e had o$e# se$enty ,i$es yet ne$e# e:&eeded the
)ou#-,i)e limit at any one time. /e ,ould ma##y a ,oman du#in" the day en<oy
he# &om'any )o# one o# a )e, ni"hts and then di$o#&e he# so that he &ould ma##y
anothe# all ,ithin the bounds o) Islami& la,
4
.
Women ,e#e also &onside#ed by Mohammed to be de)i&ient in #eli"ion. /e is
#e&o#ded as sayin"
=I ha$e not seen any one mo#e de)i&ient in intelli"en&e and #eli"ion than you
,omen.=
2
A&&o#din" to the #e'uted )ounde# o) Islam sli"htly o$e# hal) the 'o'ulation is
de)i&ient in intelli"en&e and unable to be as #eli"iously a&ti$e o# use)ul as the
othe#O This is bo#ne out in that the Islami& t#aditions tau"ht that Mohammed also
)o#bade ,omen )#om "i$in" themsel$es to o'tional e:t#a )astin" ,ithout the
e:'#ess 'e#mission o) thei# husbands
10
,hi&h mi"ht hinde# them )#om bein" as
use)ul to thei# husbands se:ually o# othe#,ise as they &ould be. Mohammed also
tau"ht that a ma<o#ity o) ,omen ,ould "o to hell
11
and that the ma<o#ity o)
'eo'le in hell ,e#e ,omen as he &laimed to ha$e seen in a $ision
12
. The ea#ly
Muslim attitudes e:'#essed th#ou"h the bio"#a'hi&al details att#ibuted to
Mohammed &lea#ly sho, a $e#y dis#es'e&t)ul &hau$inisti& attitude to,a#d ,omen
,hi&h has to $a#yin" de"#ees )ilte#ed do,n into mode#n Islam as seen and ,idely
'#a&ti&ed in many Muslim nations.
In o#thodo: Islam ,omen a#e &om'letely in the 'o,e# o) thei# husbands. Men a#e
)#ee to beat thei# ,i$es ?as 'e# Surah BN3B@ '#o$ided they do not st#ike he# on he#
)a&e
13
O 7a# )#om bein" the $ile a&ti$ity it is $ie,ed as in the West ,i)e-beatin" is a
'e#)e&tly a&&e'table '#a&ti&e a&&o#din" to the tea&hin"s o) Islam1s t#aditional
,#itin"s
=Ma##ated >ma# ibn al--hattabN The 6#o'het ?'ea&ehbehu'onhhim@ saidN A man ,ill
not be asked as to ,hy he beat his ,i)e.=
1B
This ,as #eite#ated in othe# t#aditions as ,ell ,ith Mohammed &ommandin" =Mo
man shall be (uestioned )o# beatin" his ,i)e.=
15
7u#the# >ma# ibn al--hattab ?the
se&ond &ali'h and a 8om'anion o) Mohammed@ is #elated in one t#adition to ha$e
told a man ,ho &ame to him )o# <ud"ment to beat his ,i)e ,hen she attem'ted to
#ende# the man1s sla$e "i#l se:ually =o))-limits=
=5ahya #elated to me )#om Malik that Abdullah ibn Dina# said =A man &ame to
Abdullah ibn >ma# ,hen I ,as ,ith him at the 'la&e ,he#e <ud"ments ,e#e "i$en
and asked him about the su&klin" o) an olde# 'e#son. Abdullah ibn >ma# #e'lied 1A
man &ame to >ma# ibn al--hattab and said 1I ha$e a sla$e-"i#l and I used to ha$e
inte#&ou#se ,ith he#. My ,i)e ,ent to he# and su&kled he#. When I ,ent to the "i#l
my ,i)e told me to ,at&h out be&ause she had su&kled he#O1 >ma# told him to
beat his ,i)e and to "o to his sla$e-"i#l be&ause kinshi' by su&klin" ,as only by the
su&klin" o) the youn".1=
1C
E$en today the (uestion in the mind o) many Islami& s&hola#s is not whether ,i)e-
beatin" is a&&e'table but #athe# ho, it should best be done. 9ne e:am'le o) this
&an be seen in MEM!I1s t#anslation and t#ans&#i't o) a %audi #eli"ious s&hola# named
Al-1A#i)i e:'lainin" to some Muslim youn" 'eo'le ,hat is the '#o'e# ,ay to beat
one1s ,i)e
1D
. E$en ,hile t#yin" to sound like the beatin" should be "entle and not
in)li&t 'ain he yet has to &aution his audien&e that the beatin" should not be
made to the )a&e o# the hand o# some othe# 'la&e ,he#e it &ould &ause dama"e.
A''a#ently talkin" thin"s o$e# #easonably ,ith you# ,i)e has not o&&u##ed to this
s&hola#.
%ometimes Muslim a'olo"ists ,ill make the a#"ument that the =beatin"= in Surah
BN3B me#ely means somethin" alon" the lines o) =ta''in" he# on the ,#ist=
su''osedly to shame he#. /o,e$e# the ,o#d =s&ou#"e= )ound in that ayah is
t#anslated )#om an A#abi& #oot dr( meanin" Gto hit st#ike o# beatH. This ,o#d &an
also be used to des&#ibe the ,hi''in" o) a &amel to "et it to mo$e o# a bullet
st#ikin" its ta#"et as in the 'h#ase =draboo (-r-rasaas w-gitloo= ,hi&h means
=they shot him ,ith bullets and killed him.= 8lea#ly the meanin" o) =beat= is mo#e
than <ust a non-$iolent means o) shamin" a ,i)e ,ho is bein" un#uly.
In many Muslim nations ,omen a#e sub<e&ted to the la,s o) purdah o# se&lusion
,hi&h #e)e#s not only to the '#a&ti&e o) )a&ial $eilin" and body &o$e#in"s but also
to the se&lusion o) ,omen )#om all 'ubli& li)e as mu&h as is 'ossible in a "i$en
situation. The '#aye#s o) a ,oman ,ho has #ea&hed 'ube#ty a#e not a&&e'ted i)
she is not $eiled
14
. A ,oman is not allo,ed by Islami& la, to unde#take a <ou#ney
lon"e# than th#ee days unless a&&om'anied by a male #elati$e
12
and the t#aditions
#e'o#t that &e#tain o) the &om'anions o) Mohammed e$en beat thei# ,i$es )o#
askin" money o) men
20
. A ,oman1s '#o'e#ty is not #eally he# o,n to use o# en<oy in
the 'ubli& s'he#e and the t#aditions e$en #e&o#d one instan&e in ,hi&h a ,oman
,as beaten and in<u#ed by he# husband and Mohammed1s <ud"ment in #esol$in"
the issue ,as )o# the husband to take a,ay )#om he# some 'ie&es o) '#o'e#ty he
had "i$en he# as a do,#y and to lea$e he#
21
. It is e$en #e&o#ded that Mohammed
stated that i) it ,e#e '#o'e# )o# any 'e#son to be de&#eed to '#ost#ate themsel$es
in #e$e#en&e to any othe# than Allah that it ,ould be a ,i)e to he# husband
22
. In
many Muslim &ount#ies ,omen &annot lea$e the house ,ithout ,#itten 'e#mission
)#om thei# husbands and &annot d#i$e automobiles.
&0onor& Gilling and *ther 'trocities
Anothe# distu#bin" as'e&t o) t#aditional Muslim t#eatment o) ,omen is the
'henomenon kno,n as =hono# killin".= This beha$io# about ,hi&h the#e is
absolutely nothin" =hono#able= in$ol$es the mu#de# o) ,omen by thei# male
#elati$es )o# some 'e#&ei$ed sli"ht a"ainst the hono# o) the )amily unit. 6#ima#ily
these sli"hts a#e se:ual in natu#e #an"in" )#om somethin" as se#ious as )o#ni&ation
to somethin" as #elati$ely inno&uous as )li#tin" ?o# bein" perceived as )li#tin"@ ,ith
a man outside the )amily. A ,i)e #e(uestin" a di$o#&e is &ited as anothe# &ommon
moti$ation )o# hono# killin"s and they o)ten o&&u# sim'ly be&ause a "i#l #e)used to
ma##y a 'a#tne# &hosen by '#e-a##an"ement. The#e ha$e e$en been instan&es
,he#e Muslim ,omen ha$e been killed be&ause they had been #a'ed a &#ime
,hi&h Islami& la, o)ten &onside#s to be the )ault o) the ,oman not the #a'ist.
T,o $e#y ho##i)i& e:am'les that ,e#e &ited by the >nited Mations 6o'ulation 7und
in 2000 in$ol$ed an 14-yea# old ,oman in Ban"ladesh ,ho ,as )lo""ed to death )o#
=immo#al= beha$io# and an E"y'tian &ase in ,hi&h a )athe# a&tually 'a#aded his
dau"hte#1s se$e#ed head th#ou"h the st#eets ,hile shoutin" =I ha$e a$en"ed my
hono#.=
23

This des'i&able '#a&ti&e has s'#ead to the West b#ou"ht alon" by the Muslim
immi"#ants ,ho ha$e been settlin" '#ima#ily in Weste#n Eu#o'e. A#eat B#itain has
seen a #ise in this &#ime. 7o# instan&e on 12 9&tobe# 2002 a B4-yea# old -u#dish
man named Abdalla 5ones an e:ile )#om I#a( sa$a"ely mu#de#ed his 1C-yea# old
dau"hte# /eshu a)te# #e&ei$in" an anonymous lette# tellin" him that she had been
slee'in" ,ith he# boy)#iend
2B
. %he had b#ou"ht shame u'on the )amily at least
a&&o#din" to an anonymous note and )o# this he #e'eatedly stabbed he# ba&k and
&hest )inally bu#yin" the blade o) his kni)e into he# th#oat so sa$a"ely that the
metal ti' sna''ed o)) a)te# hittin" bone. The BB8 at the time also #e'o#ted that
the "i#l had le)t a note to he# )athe# detailin" he# intention o) #unnin" a,ay ,ith
he# boy)#iend and the #eason "i$en ,as his '#e$ious '#o'ensity )o# 'un&hin" and
ki&kin" he#. Indeed 'oli&e #e'o#ts noted that she had been beaten )o# months
be)o#e he# mu#de# took 'la&e.
The same a#ti&le also details othe# hono# killin"s in B#itain. In Ma#&h 2002 a
Muslim ,oman ,as kidna''ed st#an"led ,ith 'a#&el ta'e and set on )i#e a)te#
)ilin" )o# di$o#&e )#om he# husband. A Muslim man stabbed his dau"hte# to death
o$e# 20 st#okes be&ause he &au"ht he# at home ,ith a boy)#iend in 7eb#ua#y 2002.
In %e'tembe# 2002 a Muslim man ,ent to the home o) his est#an"ed ,i)e and
ha&ked he# and thei# t,o small &hild#en to death ,ith a ma&hete. In 200C 20-yea#
old Bana* Mahmod ,hose I#a(i -u#dish )amily )led to B#itain in 1224 ,as
st#an"led to death ,ith a bootla&e (y her father and her uncle a)te# a t,o-hou#
o#deal o) to#tu#e and se:ual abuse and he# body ,as stu))ed into a suit&ase
25
. /e#
&#ime; Endin" an abusi$e a##an"ed ma##ia"e be&omin" too Weste#ni*ed and
)allin" in lo$e ,ith a man ,ho did not &ome )#om he# $illa"e ba&k home. Also in
200C !ahan A#shad beat his ,i)e and th#ee &hild#en to death ,ith a bat be&ause
she ,as ha$in" an a))ai#
2C
. In anothe# ho##i)yin" &ase 25-yea# old %amai#a Ma*i# a
'#omisin" youn" business,oman ,as mu#de#ed by he# male )amily membe#s )o#
be&omin" en"a"ed to a man o) ,hom they did not a''#o$e
2D
. >n)o#tunately this
so#t o) but&he#y is be&omin" mo#e &ommon in the West amon" the #esident Muslim
immi"#ant 'o'ulations and &ontinues to this day e$en in many Weste#n &ount#ies.
9ne a#ti&le about =hono#= killin"s a''ea#in" in the Ae#man daily Deuts&he Welle
mentioned the mu#de# o) /eshu 5ones as ,ell as that o) 2C-yea# old 7atime
%ahindal a Tu#kish ,oman ,ho ,as mu#de#ed by he# )athe# in %,eden in 2002
be&ause he ,anted he# to ma##y a man )#om Tu#key #athe# than he# %,edish
boy)#iend
24
. This ty'e o) &#ime has e$en made its a''ea#an&e in the >nited %tates.
9n C .uly 2004 A 6akistani immi"#ant li$in" nea# Atlanta Aeo#"ia killed his
dau"hte# ,ho ,anted out o) an a##an"ed ma##ia"e ,hi&h she did not ,ant to ente#
into in the )i#st 'la&e
22
. 9utside the Muslim ,o#ld hono# killin"s ha$e been
#e'o#ted in B#a*il 8anada E&uado# Ae#many India Is#ael Italy %,eden
>"anda the >nited -in"dom and the >nited %tates.
E$en in &ases ,he#e the youn" ,oman is &lea#ly the $i&tim o) a se: &#ime su&h as
#a'e she is still &onside#ed to be the sou#&e o) the )amily1s =dishono#= and must
still 'ay the 'enalty. 9ne su&h &ase ,as 1B-yea# old Mu#an /alito"ulla#i o) Istanbul
Tu#key ,ho ,as st#an"led to death by he# )athe# a)te# she had been kidna''ed
and #a'ed
30
. Then the#e is the &ase o) a 15-yea# old %y#ian "i#l named Rah#a E**o
,ho ,as kidna''ed and #a'ed by st#an"e#s only to be killed late# by he# b#othe#
31
.
The 'u#'o#ted o))enses that &an lead to an =hono#= killin" do not e$en ha$e to #ise
to the se#iousness o) a 'e#&ei$ed se:ual indis&#etion - any sli"ht to the autho#ity o)
a male )amily membe# may &ause one. %u&h ,as the &ase ,ith a 1C-yea# old
6akistani "i#l named A(sa 6a#$e* in Mississau"a 9nta#io. %he ,as st#an"led to
death by he# )athe# all be&ause she #e)used to ,ea# the hi/a(
32
. /e# )athe#
mu#de#ed he# be&ause she didn1t ,ant to ,ea# a 'a#ti&ula# a#ti&le o) &lothin". The
sto#ies "i$en abo$e un)o#tunately a#e only the $e#y ti' o) the i&ebe#" o) mu#de#s
&ommitted in the name o) =hono#= by t#aditional Muslim )amilies. Time and s'a&e
in this &ha'te# do not 'e#mit me to tell the sto#ies o) e$e#y $i&tim o) these &#imes.
The im'etus )o# this beha$io# is not an abe##ation )#om the t#eatment o) ,omen in
Muslim 'o'ulations but instead is )i#mly "#ounded in the so&ietal and e$en le"al
san&tion o) many Muslim nations. /ono# killin" is &ommon a&#oss the Muslim ,o#ld
mo#e &ommon than many ,ould like to admit. Indeed the >nited Mations
6o'ulation 7und estimates that a#ound 5000 ,omen a#e mu#de#ed ea&h yea#
th#ou"h hono# killin"s mostly in Muslim &ount#ies. The #eason )o# this &#ime is the
dee'ly "#ounded sense o) &ommunal hono# and shame in A#abQMuslim &ultu#e. I)
one a&ts shame)ully then the shame is not <ust bo#ne by the indi$idual but by the
,hole )amily "#ou' o)ten &on&omitant ,ith so&ial shunnin" by othe# membe#s o)
the &ommunity. This then &ombines ,ith the Islami& tenden&y to do,n"#ade the
'e#sonhood o) ,omen and "i$es a hea#tb#eakin" &o&ktail o) ,o#ldly #eli"ious
)anati&ism and the s&a'e"oatin" o) ,omen. This bea#s out in the &ase mo#e
ty'i&al than ,e ,ould like to belie$e o) !o)ayda 0aoud a 1D-yea# old 6alestinian
"i#l ,ho ,as #a'ed by he# t,o b#othe#s. %he ,as taken into &ustody by the
6alestinian 'oli&e and then #etu#ned to he# )amily a)te# she had "i$en bi#th. /e#
mothe# demanded that she &ommit sui&ide. The "i#l #e)used and he# mothe# &ame
into he# #oom one ni"ht and ,#a''ed a 'lasti& ba" a#ound he# head slit he# ,#ists
,ith a #a*o# and then beat he# on the head ,ith a ,ooden sti&k killin" he#
33
. The
mothe# s'e&i)i&ally stated that u'holdin" the )amily hono# ,as the #eason she
mu#de#ed he# dau"hte#. 5otam 7eldne# des&#ibes se$e#al &ases o&&u##in" in E"y't
and the 6alestinian autho#ity in ,hi&h =hono#= ,as the moti$atin" )a&to# o) the
mu#de# o) a youn" ,oman ,hile notin" that ea&h &#ime ,ill #e&ei$e a mu&h mo#e
lenient 'unishment due to le"al miti"ation
3B
. This di))e#s (uite &lea#ly )#om a &ase
o) =hono#= killin" in Is#ael ,he#e the ,omen o) the )amily Abu-Ahanem in !amle
a)te# endu#in" the ei"hth mu#de# o) a )emale )amily membe# by thei# male
#elati$es ,ithin a si: and a hal) yea# time 'e#iod &oo'e#ated )ully ,ith 'oli&e
35
.
The mu#de#e# -amal !ashad Abu-Ahanem a b#othe# o) the ei"hth $i&tim ,alked
into his siste# /amda1s #oom and shot he# in the head nine times. !ashad
e$entually #e&ei$ed a 1C-yea# '#ison senten&e )#om an Is#aeli &ou#t )o# his &#ime
3C

a sti))e# 'enalty than he ,ould in any o) the su##oundin" Muslim &ount#ies ?but one
,hi&h still seems insanely lenient@.
/ono# killin" is abetted by the )a&t that the need to maintain hono# is a miti"atin"
&i#&umstan&e unde# the le"al systems o) many Muslim &ount#ies. The 6alestinian
mothe# ,ho mu#de#ed he# dau"hte# &ould ha$e #e&ei$ed a ma:imum senten&e o)
)i$e yea#s in '#ison s'e&i)i&ally be&ause the hono# )a&to# ,as int#odu&ed and
a&&e'ted as miti"atin" e$en thou"h the 'enalty )o# '#emeditated mu#de# unde#
6alestinian la, othe#,ise is &a'ital 'unishment. Many &ount#ies le"ally a&&e't
=hono#= as a miti"atin" )a&to# in&ludin" .o#dan Mo#o&&o and %y#ia. In a s'ee&h on
this sub<e&t A*am -am"uian listed the s'e&i)i& a#ti&les )ound in the le"al &odes o)
$a#ious Muslim &ount#ies that san&tion hono# killin"s by lo,e#in" o# abolishin" the
'unishment )o# mu#de# i) the mu#de# ,as &ommitted to maintain Ghono#HN A#ti&le
5C2 in Pebanon ?)o#tunately abolished in 7eb#ua#y 1222@ A#ti&le 3B0 in .o#dan
A#ti&le 5B4 in %y#ia A#ti&le 153 in -u,ait A#ti&le 23D in E"y't A#ti&le 302 in
I#a(
3D
A#ti&le 33B in the >nited A#ab Emi#ate A#ti&le D0 in Bah#ain A#ti&le 1D2 in
I#an be)o#e 12D2 A#ti&les B14-B2B in Mo#o&&o and A#ti&le 252 in 9man
34
. %he also
notes that %audi A#abia I#an %udan 6akistan and 0ata# also a''ly a st#i&t
t#aditional inte#'#etation o) shari#a in ,hi&h hono# killin" is ta&itly a&kno,led"ed.
A #e'o#t issued ea#ly in 200C by the inde'endent /uman !i"hts 8ommission o)
6akistan ?/!86@ listed amon" se$e#al othe# human #i"hts $iolations &ommitted in
6akistan the Ghono#H killin"s o) o$e# 1000 ,omen in that &ount#y in 2005 a
numbe# ,hi&h &ontinues to )ollo, a steady u',a#d t#end
32
. A bill ,as int#odu&ed in
the .o#danian 'a#liament in 1222 ,hi&h ,ould that ha$e in&#eased 'enalties
a"ainst those ,ho &ommit hono# killin"s. The bill ,as soundly de)eated on the
'#in&i'le that it &ont#adi&ted Islami& tea&hin" and t#aditions and ,ould &ont#ibute
to =so&ial delin(uen&y=
B0
. The 'la&in" o) the bu#den o) "uilt )o# )amilial shame
stemmin" )#om the misbeha$io# o) othe#s e$en that o) male membe#s o) the
)amily onto ,omen is an in<usti&e ,hi&h stems )#om Islami& miso"yny &odi)ied by
&entu#ies o) t#adition and o#thodo: inte#'#etation o) the 0u#Ian and the ahadith.
%ometimes ,hen an =hono#= &#ime is &ommitted the )amily ,ill )o#&e the "i#l to
kill he#sel) in a so-&alled =hono# sui&ide=. The im'etus )o# the a&t is o)ten the
same thou"h the )amily may belie$e that it e:one#ates itsel) )#om le"al &ul'ability
)o# the deed sin&e =she &ommitted sui&ide=. These ty'es o) sui&ides a#e also
"#o,in" in numbe# e$en in mo#e se&ula# Muslims &ount#ies su&h as Tu#key
B1
.
A #elated in<usti&e a"ainst ,omen ,hi&h stems )#om se$e#al o) the )a&to#s unde#
dis&ussion in this &ha'te# - the bu#den o) "uilt that is automati&ally bo#ne by the
,oman the belie) o) a ,omanIs su''osed &ul'ability in all matte#s se:ual ?as ,ill
be seen belo,@ the 'e#&ei$ed in&om'eten&e o) a ,oman to testi)y e(ually to a
man in a &ou#t o) la, - is the all too &ommon 'la&in" o) blame u'on the )emale
$i&tim o) &#imes su&h as #a'e and abuse. 9ne #e&ent e:am'le that #e&ei$ed some
inte#national attention o&&u##ed in I#an
B2
. In this situation a teena"ed "i#l ,ho
de)ended he#sel) and he# youn"e# nie&e )#om th#ee ,ould-be #a'ists usin" a kni)e
,as senten&ed to death by han"in" be&ause she had stabbed t,o o) the atta&ke#s.
%o )o# the &#ime o) de)endin" he#sel) and he# &hastity as ,ell as that o) anothe#
youn"e# "i#l ,hi&h Muslims '#o)ess to be so &on&e#ned about she ,as senten&ed
to death. Alon" these same lines a %audi &ou#t #e&ently senten&ed a )emale #a'e
victim to 200 lashes and si: months in <ail
B3
. >n)o#tunately these a#e only a )e, o)
the lon" list o) in<usti&es di#e&ted a"ainst ,omen ,ho a#e the $i&tims o) assaults
se:ual o# othe#,ise in &onse#$ati$e Islami& &ount#ies. Abo$e it ,as 'ostulated
that the &hau$inisti& #ules o) Islami& &ou#ts in ,hi&h a ,omanIs ,o#d only &a##ies
hal) the ,ei"ht o) a manIs &ould #esult in a ,oman bein" denied <usti&e i) she
,e#e #a'ed o# assaulted and it ,as he# ,o#d a"ainst he# atta&ke#Is. In many
Muslim lands it is not un&ommon )o# e:a&tly this so#t o) s&ena#io to t#ans'i#e. The
onus is 'la&ed u'on the ,omen ,ho ,e#e the $i&tims o) &#imes and they a#e
t#eated as i) they ,e#e the insti"ato#s.
Ma##ia"es in Islami& &ount#ies as ,ell as those &ont#a&ted by immi"#ants to the
West a#e o)ten a##an"ed. These ma##ia"es o)ten in$ol$e the "i$in" o) youn" "i#ls
to men )#om the =old &ount#y= ,ho a#e sometimes mu&h olde# than they so as to
ensu#e that the "i#l is still a $i#"in ,hen the ma##ia"e takes 'la&e. I) a "i#l #e)uses
to ma##y someone ,ho is mo#e than likely a &om'lete st#an"e# and t,i&e he# a"e
this may be &onside#ed a =<usti)i&ation= )o# hono# killin" as ,ell. %ome &ount#ies in
the West ha$e made mo$es to limit o# &#iminali*e )o#&ed ma##ia"es su&h as
Ae#many ,hi&h is set to make the '#a&ti&e ille"al
BB
.
-omen as *bFects of Carnality
A study o) the sayin"s o) Mohammed as )ound in the 0u#1an and the ahadith sho,s
that the 'utati$e )ounde# o) Islam did not $ie, ,omen as 'e#sons dese#$in"
#es'e&t but #athe# as ob<e&ts to be used to "#ati)y the lusts o) men. This attitude
is 'e#ha's most &lea#ly illust#ated ,hen Mohammed said =A ,oman is like a
'#i$ate 'a#t. When she "oes out the de$il &asts a "lan&e at he#
B5
.= In his $ie,
,omen ,e#e little mo#e than the 'o#tions o) anatomy #e(ui#ed to "#ati)y his
desi#es. The =holy= ,#itin"s o) Islam a#e )ull o) 'assa"es demandin" that ,omen
submit to and )ul)ill the &a#nal desi#es o) thei# husbands at any time and a
'#emium is 'la&ed u'on ,omen ,ho =se#$e= this &a'a&ity es'e&ially ,ell. The
ahadith state that i) a man desi#es se:ual inte#&ou#se ,ith his ,oman that she
must #es'ond immediately e$en i) she is en"a"ed in bakin" b#ead at the
&ommunal o$en
BC
. I) a ,oman is #idin" a &amel and he# husband demands
inte#&ou#se she must submit and this is e$en said to be he# duty be)o#e Allah
that o) )ul)illin" he# husband1s desi#e
BD
. I) a ,oman #e)uses to &ome to bed ,ith
he# husband Islam tea&hes that she is &u#sed by the $e#y an"els o) Allah
B4
. A
,oman is also shamed and &oe#&ed into se:ual submission to he# husband1s ,ishes
by the th#eat o) &om'etition )#om the D2 houri ?$i#"ins@ that Islam tea&hes a man
,ill #e&ei$e )o# his en<oyment in 6a#adise
=A ,oman does not annoy he# husband but his s'ouse )#om amon"st the maidens
,ith ,ide eyes intensely ,hite and dee'ly bla&k ,ill sayN 1Do not annoy him may
Allah #uin you. /e is ,ith you as a 'assin" "uest. +e#y soon he ,ill 'a#t ,ith you
and &ome to us.1=
B2
.
Islam tea&hes a simila#ly lo, $ie, o) the blessed institution o) ma##ia"e #edu&in"
i) )#om the Aod-o#dained status o) li)elon" total 'a#tne#shi' to a me#e $ehi&le by
,hi&h a man1s &a#nal desi#es &an be =le"ally= )ul)illed. In the 0u#1an a ,oman is
likened to a )ield ,hi&h a man must ,o#k and &ulti$ate so that it bea#s him mu&h
)#uit. =5ou# ,omen a#e a tilth )o# you ?to &ulti$ate@ so "o to you# tilth as ye
,ill....= ?Surah 2N223@
50
. This attitude is #eite#ated in the ahadith =Ma##ated 1>(baN
The 6#o'het saidN 1The sti'ulations most entitled to be abided by a#e those ,ith
,hi&h you a#e "i$en the #i"ht to en<oy the ?,omen1s@ '#i$ate 'a#ts ?i.e. the
sti'ulations o) the ma##ia"e &ont#a&t@.1=
51
/e#e ,e see that ma##ia"e is <ust
&onside#ed to be a ,ay to make se:ual inte#&ou#se le"al i.e. not )o#ni&ation.
%atis)a&tion o) a man1s desi#es se:ual and othe#,ise is e$en made a means o)
ent#y )o# a ,oman in hea$enO =Any ,oman ,ho dies at a time ,hen he# husband is
'leased ,ith he# ,ill ente# the Aa#den.=
52

To )u#the# humiliate sub<u"ate and dis"#a&e ,omanhood the '#a&ti&e o) )emale
"enital mutilation ?sometimes &alled by the misnome# =)emale &i#&um&ision=@ is
&a##ied out in many Muslim nations 'a#ti&ula#ly those in A)#i&a. This 'ain)ul
'#o&ess #emo$es )#om a ,oman the ability to #e&ei$e any 'hysi&al en<oyment )#om
the &on<u"al a&t and makes inte#&ou#se a 'ain)ul duty. As a #esult it makes it
di))i&ult o# im'ossible )o# a ,oman to &lea$e to he# husband th#ou"h desi#e )o#
him as ,as "i$en in he# natu#e to E$e and he# dau"hte#s. This makes a ,oman less
likely to )o#m the 'sy&holo"i&ally intimate bond to he# husband that ,ould
no#mally make he# mo#e di))i&ult )o# him to send a,ay ,hen he di$o#&es he#.
/en&e it seems in #eality to be <ust anothe# means o) #emo$in" obsta&les to the
)ul)illment o) the lusts o) le&he#ous men.
7a# )#om #es'e&tin" the #i"hts and 'e#sonhood o) ,omen Islam as it is '#o'e#ly
unde#stood )#om the 0u#1an and othe# sa&#ed Islami& te:ts de"#ades them. As
tau"ht )#om these te:ts ,omen a#e little mo#e than <oy units )o# men1s 'leasu#e
not a&&o#ded the #i"hts o# le"al '#ote&tions that men en<oy and destined by
sharia and purdah to li$es o) $i#tual im'#isonment and sub<u"ation. Indeed the
attitudes to,a#ds ,omen that a#e &lea#ly de#i$ed )#om the 0u#Fan and ahadith
amount to little mo#e than the ob<e&ti)i&ation o) ,omen in a ,ay that is simila# to
ho, 'o#no"#a'hy de"#ades and #edu&es the 'e#sonhood o) ,omen. Muslims
#outinely de)end the out,a#d mani)estations o) thei# #eli"ion to,a#ds ,omen - the
(urqah purdah and so )o#th - on the basis that these means o) isolatin" and
se"#e"atin" ,omen =e:alts= them by kee'in" them )#om bein" ob<e&ts o) lust )o#
men. /o,e$e# the t#uth as unde#stood )#om the Muslim ,#itin"s themsel$es is
that ,hat is bein" ='#ote&ted= is the sole a&&ess o) a man to the ,oman o# ,omen
he has unde# his &ont#ol. /is ,omen a#e to kee' =&haste= so that he does not ha$e
to ,o##y about &om'etition )#om othe# men ,ho mi"ht othe#,ise &ome in and use
his '#o'e#ty. The &hastity en<oined to ,omen seems to ha$e little to do ,ith a
desi#e )o# 'e#sonal holiness o# mo#ality but #athe# ,ith the '#ote&tion o) a man1s
sole #i"hts to a ,oman.
Does all o) this mean that e$e#y Muslim man beats his ,i)e =lo$es= he# only )o# the
'leasu#e she &an b#in" him and ,ants to )o#&e his ,i)e to #emain se&luded )#om
the ,o#ld at la#"e; Mo o) &ou#se not. Mo# does it mean that Muslim ,omen
e$e#y,he#e su))e# )#om the ho##id &onditions that t#aditional Islami& states im'ose
u'on them. Many Muslim ,omen 'a#ti&ula#ly in the West but e$en in some o) the
mo#e se&ula# Muslim nations su&h as Tu#key and Indonesia do en<oy $a#yin"
de"#ees o) 'e#sonal libe#ty and 'oliti&al )#eedom. The 'oint is ho,e$e# that
st#i&tly o#thodo: Islam holds to the tea&hin"s illust#ated abo$e and this makes the
#esu#"en&e o) militant o#thodo: Islam in both the Middle East and Weste#n nations
a dan"e# to the #i"hts o) and #es'e&t )o# ,omen.
End Motes
?1@ - Sunan %(u )awud Bk. 14 Mo. 24D2
?2@ - Sunan %(u )awud Bk. 3 Mo. 10C2
?3@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 51 Mo. 10
?B@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 3 Bk. B4 Mo. 42C
?5@ - A. Dashti DE ;ears3 % Study of the 6rophetic +areer of "ohammed '. 113.
?C@ - Ibid. '. 11B.
?D@ - Ibid. '. 113.
?4@ - A. %haikh Islam3 Se0 and Violence 8ha'te# 2 )ound online at
htt'NQQ,,,.ne,s.)aith)#eedom.o#"Qinde:.'h';name\Me,si)ile\a#ti&leisid\1020
?2@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. C Mo. 301J +ol. 2 Bk. 2B Mo. 5B1
?10@ - Sahih 5u'hari +ol. D Bk. C2 Mo. 120
?11@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 1 Mo. 1B2
?12@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 1 Bk. 2 Mo. 24J +ol. 1 Bk. C Mo. 301J +ol. 2 Bk. 14
Mo. 1C1J +ol. D Bk. C2 Mo. 12BJ Sahih "uslim Bk. 3C Mo. C52C
?13@ - Sunan %(u )awud Bk. 11 Mo. 213D
?1B@ - Sunan %(u )awud Bk. 11 Mo. 21B2
?15@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. 3 Bk. 2 Mo. 124CJ see also Sahih "uslim Bk. 11
Mo. 21B2
?1C@ - "uwatta o) Malik Bk. 30 %e&t. 2 Mo. 13
?1D@ - =%audi 8le#i& Muhammad Al-1A#i)i E:'lains Wi)e Beatin" in Islam to 5oun"
Muslims in a !amadhan %ho,= Middle East Media !esea#&h Institute 2 %e'tembe#
200D
?14@ - Sunan %(u )awud Bk. 2 Mo. CB1
?12@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. D Mos. 3024J see also Sahih "uslim Bk. D no. 3022 and
Sahih 5u'hari +ol. 2 Bk. 21 Mo. 244 ,hi&h say that a ,oman should not
unde#take mo#e than a t!o day <ou#ney ,ithout husband o# &lose #elati$e. The
te#m )hu "ahram #e)e#s to a male #elati$e ,ho is &losely enou"h #elated to a
,oman )o# se:ual #elations to be )o#bidden any,ise.
?20@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 2 Mo. 350C
?21@ - Sunan %(u )awud Bk. 12 Mo. 2220
?22@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. 3 Bk. 2 Mo. 1452J this hadith also #elates that i) a
man ,e#e to &ommand his ,i)e to &a##y stones )#om a #ed mountain to a bla&k
mountain o# $i&e $e#sa an utte#ly 'ointless endea$o# that she must obey him.
?23@ - The >nited Mations %tate o) the Wo#ld 6o'ulation !e'o#t )o# 2000 8ha'te# 3
?2B@ - A. Asthana and >. Mist#y =7o# )amilies that )ea# dishonou# the#e is only one
#emedy....mu#de#= The 9bse#$e# 5 9&tobe# 2003
?25@ - =1/onou# killin"1 'ai# senten&ed to li)e= The A"e ?Aust#alia@ 21 .uly 200D
?2C@ - M. Bunyan =7athe# killed ,i)e and &hild#en o$e# a))ai#= The Tele"#a'h ?>-@
1B Ma#&h 200D
?2D@ - %. Bi#d =%iste# is stabbed to death )o# lo$in" the ,#on" man= The Times
?>-@ 1D .une 200C
?24@ - =Eu#o'e A#a''les ,ith 1/ono# -illin"s1= Deuts&he Welle 23 .une 200B
?22@ - =Dad &ha#"ed ,ith mu#de#in" #elu&tant b#ide= 8MM 4 .uly 2004
?30@ - =Man "a##ottes dau"hte# 1B to #esto#e honou# a)te# #a'e= I#ish E:amine#
30 A'#il 200B
?31@ - =1/onou#1 killin" o) teen s'u#s out&#y in %y#ia= Aul) Me,s 12 7eb#ua#y 200D
?32@ - B. /e#t* =Teen "i#l in &#iti&al &ondition a)te# alle"ed dis'ute o$e# hi<ab=
The Mational 6ost 11 De&embe# 200DJ ,ith )ollo, u' sto#y !. !obe#ts =Ai#l has
died 6eel 'oli&e &on)i#m= The Mational 6ost 11 De&embe# 200D
?33@ - %.%. Melson =Mothe# kills #a'ed dau"hte# to #esto#e Ihono#I= Bulletin o) the
8ommittee to De)end Women1s !i"hts in the Middle East Mo. 20 .anua#y 200B
o#i"inally )iled ,ith Knight-8idder Cewspapers 1D Mo$. 2003
?3B@ - 5. 7eldne# =1/ono#1 Mu#de#s ] Why the 6e#'s Aet o)) Easy= Middle East
0ua#te#ly De&embe# 2000
?35@ - D. /a#dake# inte#$ie,in" Is#aeli 'oli&e o))i&ials =Women b#eak silen&e on
honou# killin"s= $he W<EP 8eport o) the Aust#alian B#oad&astin" 8o#'o#ation 14
A'#il 200D
?3C@ - =B#othe# senten&ed to 1C yea#s in siste#1s 1hono# killin"1= .e#usalem 6ost 5
Ma#&h 2004
?3D@ - This s'ee&h ,as "i$en '#io# to the Ame#i&an in$asion in Ma#&h 2003
?34@ - A. -am"uian GThe Pethal 8ombination o) T#ibalism Islam and 8ultu#al
!elati$ismH )#om a s'ee&h made at a &on)e#en&e on hono# killin" and $iolen&e
a"ainst ,omen 1D-12 .anua#y 2003 in %to&kholm %,eden
?32@ - 6. Aoodenou"h =6akistani Women +i&tims o) Islami& 9#dinan&es= 8ybe#&ast
Me,s %e#$i&e 21 Ma#&h 200C
?B0@ - =.o#dan M6s !e<e&t Bid to 9$e#tu#n /onou#--illin" Penien&y= A"en&e 7#an&e
6#esse 22 Mo$embe# 1222
?B1@ - 5. Pa$ie =Women 7o#&ed Into 1/onou# %ui&ides1= %ky Me,s 13 Mo$embe#
200D
?B2@ - =I#an to han" teena"e "i#l atta&ked by #a'ists= I#an 7o&us D .anua#y 200C
?B3@ - =%audi 'unishes "an" #a'e $i&tim ,ith 200 lashes= A"en&e 7#ee 6#ess 15
Mo$embe# 200D
?BB@ - -. A#ieshabe# =Ae#many 8#a&ks Do,n on 7o#&ed Ma##ia"es= %an 7#an&is&o
8h#oni&le 22 9&tobe# 200D
?B5@ - %l *adis3 "ish'at ul-"asa(ih Bk. 2 8h. 2D Mo. 123
?BC@ - An-Ma,a,i 8iyad as-Salihin 8h. 35 Mo. 24B
?BD@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. 3 Bk. 2 Mo. 1453
?B4@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 5B Mo. BC0J also Sahih "uslim Bk. 4 Mo. 33C4
?B2@ - Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. 3 Bk. 2 Mo. 201B
?50@ - Pite#ally this is #e)e#in" to 'osition du#in" inte#&ou#se and is meant to
allo, a man to &ome to his ,i)e ,hi&he$e# ,ay he &hooses ,ithout any su''osed
ill e))e&ts on any &hild#en ,ho a#e &on&ei$ed 'e# the &ommenta#y '#o$ided in
Sahih "uslim Bk. 4 Mo. 33CB
?51@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. D Bk. C2 Mo.41J also Sunan I(n-i-"a/ah +ol. 3 Bk. 2
Mo. 125B
?52@ - An-Ma,a,i 8iyad as-Salihin 8h. 35 Mo. 24C
Myth E10
Islam is a !eli"ion Whi&h
8an Ai$e Ete#nal %al$ation
G7o# he saith I ha$e hea#d thee in a time a&&e'ted and in the day o) sal$ation
ha$e I su&&ou#ed theeN behold no, is the a&&e'ted timeJ behold no, is the day
o) sal$ation.H
- II 8o#inthians CN2
Islam - A Way to /ea$en;
/o, E$e#yone - Muslim o# 9the#,ise - 8an !e&ei$e Ete#nal Pi)e
6e#ha's the most im'o#tant (uestion o) all then is thisN Does Islam o))e# a t#ue
ho'e o) hea$en to its )ollo,e#s; 8an )ollo,in" the tea&hin"s o) Mohammed sa$e a
'e#son1s soul; A#e the o$e# one billion Muslims in the ,o#ld )ollo,in" =anothe# ,ay=
to Aod o# a#e they t#eadin" a )alse 'ath leadin" only to hell;
Islam # ' -ay to 0eaen3
Islam &annot sa$e a 'e#son. /o, &ould it; The #easonable (uestion to ask isN Would
Aod be im'#essed ,ith the ,o#ks o# #ituals that man 'e#)o#ms; I) one is in&lined to
ans,e# this (uestion in the a))i#mati$e then ,hy ,ould they think this; Why ,ould
,e think that the 'iti)ul o))e#in"s that ,e &an "i$e to Aod ,ould be enou"h to
ea#n us a s'ot in hea$en; The sho#t and sim'le ans,e# to this is that ou# ,o#ks
cannot "et us into hea$en. /o,e$e# this is ,hat Islam essentially tea&hes. Pike
e$e#y othe# #eli"ion on ea#th aside )#om bibli&al 8h#istianity Islam tea&hes that
&e#tain ,o#ks and #ituals a#e needed be)o#e a 'e#son &an "ain ent#y into 6a#adise
?o# ,hate$e# the desi#ed end #esult o) the 'a#ti&ula# #eli"ion may be@. Islam is
essentially a ,o#ks-based #eli"ion that $ie,s man1s deeds and #eli"ious #ituals as
&om'etent to ea#n me#it and )a$o# )#om Aod. This is seen in the 0u#1an
=The#e)o#e stand )i#m ?in the st#ai"ht 6ath@ as thou a#t &ommanded- thou and
those ,ho ,ith thee tu#n ?unto Allah@J and t#ans"#ess not ?)#om the 6ath@N )o# /e
seeth ,ell all that ye do. And in&line not to those ,ho do ,#on" o# the 7i#e ,ill
sei*e youJ and ye ha$e no '#ote&to#s othe# than Allah no# shall ye be hel'ed. And
establish #e"ula# '#aye#s at the t,o ends o) the day and at the a''#oa&hes o) the
ni"htN 7o# those thin"s that a#e "ood #emo$e those that a#e e$ilN Be that the ,o#d
o) #ememb#an&e to those ,ho #emembe# ?thei# Po#d@N And be stead)ast in
'atien&eJ )o# $e#ily Allah ,ill not su))e# the #e,a#d o) the #i"hteous to 'e#ish.=
?Surah 11N112-115@
/en&e i) a 'e#son does "ood ,o#ks these ,ill #emo$e thei# e$il ,o#ks and ea#n
them the =#e,a#d o) the #i"hteous=. Basi&ally the Islami& do&t#ine o) sal$ation says
that to be a&&e'ted o) Allah a 'e#son needs to at least t#y to )ul)ill the )i$e 'illa#s
o) the Islami& )aith ,hi&h a#e said to be able to "i$e a Muslim #i"hteousness
be)o#e Allah.
1. De&la#in" and belie$in" the Shahada o# 8#eedN A 'e#son must de&la#e
=%shhadu %n 9a Ilaha Illa %llah -a %shhadu %nna "uhammadan 8asulu
%llah= ,hi&h is to say =I belie$e the#e is no "od but Allah and I belie$e in
Mohammed the messen"e# o) Allah.= This is 'e#ha's the bed#o&k belie) in
Islam. Without #e&itin" this a 'e#son is not &onside#ed to be a Muslim and
is still a 'ufr ?an unbelie$e#@. Pike,ise ,hen a 'e#son says it intentionally
they a#e &onside#ed to be a Muslim and #e&itin" this 'h#ase is the essential
ste' in a &on$e#sion to Islam by someone ,ho is not a bo#n Muslim. This
&#eed ,ill o)ten be #e'eated by Muslims &onstantly and dyin" Muslims ,ill
#e&ite it in ho'es o) attainin" ent#y into AllahFs Aa#dens.
2. 9bse#$in" daily '#aye#s ?Salat@ and attendin" the 7#iday 'ubli& se#$i&es.
6#aye# is a $e#y im'o#tant #itual to de$out Muslims ,ho ,ill )a&e to,a#d
Me&&a and '#ost#ate themsel$es and #e&ite '#aye#s to Allah )i$es times in a
dayN u'on #isin" in the mo#nin" ?fa/r@ noon ?.uhr@ mid-a)te#noon ?asr@
sunset ?maghri(@ and be)o#e #eti#in" )o# the ni"ht ?ishha@. The '#aye#s as
)ound in the ahadith a#e done $e#y me&hani&ally and it is '#es&#ibed )o#
them to be 'e#)o#med a &e#tain ,ay. De$out Muslims ,ill attend 7#iday
,o#shi' se#$i&es in a mosque that &onsist o) '#aye# and a se#mon )#om the
0u#Fan by a Muslim #eli"ious leade# su&h as the imam o) the mos(ue o# a
$isitin" s&hola# o) the 0u#Fan ?alim@.
3. 7astin" du#in" !amadan ?Sawm@. !amadan is &onside#ed a holy month to
Muslims and )o# the enti#e month the '#a&ti&e is to abstain )#om all
'leasu#es du#in" the 'e#iod bet,een sun#ise and sunset. Du#in" the day
de$out Muslims ,ill not eat d#ink smoke o# en"a"e in se:ual a&ti$ities.
The &on&e't unde#lyin" the !amadan )ast is )o# Muslims to de$elo' sel)-
&ont#ol de$ote themsel$es to Allah and lea#n to identi)y ,ith the less
)o#tunate.
B. The "i$in" o) alms ?:a'at@. Muslims a#e "ene#ally #e(ui#ed to "i$e one-
)o#tieth ?2.5T@ o) thei# ,ealth to the needy and less )o#tunate thou"h this
amount &an be in&#eased de'endin" on the amount o) a 'e#son1s assets and
the means by ,hi&h they a&(ui#e them. This o#i"inally ,as $olunta#y but
has e$ol$ed o$e# time into a #eli"ious obli"ation. %ometimes the .a'at as
an obli"ation is distin"uished )#om 'u#ely $olunta#y "i$in" kno,n as
sadaqah.
5. The 'il"#ima"e to Me&&a ?*a//@. At least on&e in thei# li)etime de$out
Muslims a#e #e(ui#ed to make the 'il"#ima"e to Me&&a i) it ,ithin thei#
)inan&ial and 'hysi&al &a'abilities. This #itual is &onside#ed $e#y ne&essa#y
)o# "ainin" o) sal$ation in Islam and i"no#in" it is &onside#ed a $e#y se#ious
sin a )o#m o) #ebellion a"ainst Allah. At Me&&a Muslims ,ill en"a"e in a
'#es&#ibed set o) #ituals and &e#emonies &ente#ed about the Ka(ah a la#"e
sh#ine in Me&&a ,hi&h ,as '#obably int#odu&ed into Islam as its sa&#ed
sh#ine sometime in the late Dth o# ea#ly 4th &entu#ies and ,hi&h ,as
initially a site o) 'a"an ,o#shi' )o# the a#ea su##oundin" Me&&a in '#e-
Islami& times. The #ituals in$ol$ed ,ith the 'e#)o#man&e o) the ha// in&lude
&i#&lin" the Ka(ah '#ost#ation to,a#d the &ent#al san&tua#y $isitin" the
sa&#ed ,ell o) Ram-Ram and th#o,in" stones at the de$il in a $alley site
nea# the Ka(ah.
To this list o) )i$e 'illa#s some Muslims es'e&ially those o) the -ha#i<ite se&t add
/ihad as a si:th 'illa#. It has been sho,n abo$e that the#e is de)inite (u#ani& and
hadithi& su''o#t )o# the notion that Mohammed tau"ht sal$ation th#ou"h
ma#ty#dom in holy ,a#. 7u#the# the "ene#al t#end in Muslim <u#is'#uden&e
th#ou"hout the Islami& 'e#iod has been that /ihad is a ne&essa#y and iolent a&t
&a##ied out a"ainst in)idels to b#in" them unde# the domination o) Islam. The 'la&e
o) /ihad &an be seen in the im'o#tan&e that many Muslims atta&h to shaheed
ma#ty#dom that o&&u#s ,hile )i"htin" )o# Islam o# be&ause o) one1s Islami& )aith.
The added bene)it o) multitudes o) 'e#'etually #e"ene#atin" $i#"ins in 6a#adise
has ob$iously also se#$ed to in&#ease the $i"o# ,ith ,hi&h many youn" Muslim
men ha$e de$oted themsel$es to this as'e&t o) Islam.
Additional to the stated ='illa#s= o) Islam it is also in&umbent u'on a Muslim to
belie$e &e#tain basi& do&t#ines. Most &ent#al o) these to Islam 'e#ha's is the
do&t#ine o) tawhid o# the oneness o) Allah. This do&t#ine states that the#e a#e no
othe# "ods besides Allah and denies the asso&iation o) othe# deities ,ith him a
'#a&ti&e &alled shir'. This do&t#ine )o#ms 'a#t o) the basis )o# the shahada. It is
also in&umbent u'on Muslims to t#y to lead li$es in ,hi&h they "enuinely seek
)o#"i$eness ?istighfar@ )#om Allah and ,hi&h a#e limited by the bounds set by Allah
?taqwa@. Indeed Islam has a &om'le: hie#a#&hy o) &ate"o#ies into ,hi&h ea&h
a&tion that a Muslim does ,ill )all a&&o#din" to the $a#ious inte#'#etations held by
di))e#ent s&hools o) fiqh o# Islami& la,N
!ardh - A&tions that a#e #e(ui#ed o) Muslims the 'e#)o#man&e o) ,hi&h
&ounts as a "ood deed and the la&k the#eo) is &onside#ed a sin.
"andu( - A&tions that a#e #e&ommended but not #e(ui#ed. Doin" them is
&onside#ed to be a "ood deed but not doin" these is not &onside#ed a sin.
"u(ah - A&tions that a#e le)t u' to indi$idual dis&#etion. They a#e not in
and o) themsel$es &onside#ed to be "ood o# bad thou"h the moti$es and
intentions o) the one doin" them may mo$e thei# status u' o# do,n.
"a'ruh - A&tions that a#e not #e&ommended )o# Muslims but not absolutely
)o#bidden. Doin" them is not ne&essa#ily &onside#ed to be a sin but not
doin" them is &ounted as a "ood deed.
*aram - A&tions that a#e '#ohibited in Islam. Doin" these is a sin ,hile not
doin" them is &onside#ed a "ood ,o#k.
The t#aditions tell us a lot about ,hat a Muslim has to do to ea#n 6a#adise. Most
basi&ally i) one dies ,hile ,o#shi''in" Allah alone a'a#t )#om any othe#s e$en i)
they a#e "uilty o) adulte#y they a#e "ua#anteed 6a#adise
1
. %imila#ly doin" "ood to
thei# o,n kin 'ayin" the .a'at asso&iatin" none ,ith Allah and ,o#shi''in" Allah
,ill ea#n 6a#adise
2
. 6#ayin" belie$in" in Allah and )astin" at !amadan hel' as
,ell
3
. The t#aditions also sho, that honesty is &e#tainly the best 'oli&y sin&e
t#uth)ulness leads to #i"hteousness ,hi&h leads to 6a#adise
B
. -no,in" all 22 names
o) Allah ,ill also ea#n a Muslim sal$ation
5
. Aua#anteein" the &hastity o) both one1s
ton"ue and one1s '#i$ate 'a#ts ,ill ea#n 6a#adise
C
. /a$in" th#ee &hild#en ,ho die
be)o#e they #ea&h 'ube#ty ,ill #es&ue a 'e#son1s soul )#om hell)i#e '#o$ided that
they ha$e =#esi"ned themsel$es to the ,ill o) Aod=
D
thou"h anothe# t#adition is
mo#e lenient and "ua#antees 6a#adise a)te# only t,o lost &hild#en
4
. And o) &ou#se
dyin" in /ihad "ua#antees the holy ,a##io# an ete#nity o) bliss in Allah1s "a#dens
2
.
Be)o#e Muslim belie$e#s ente# 6a#adise the t#aditions #e&o#d a ne&essa#y ?thou"h
st#an"e@ so#t o) 'u#"ato#y ,he#eby belie$e#s ,ill
=....#etaliate u'on ea&h othe# )o# the in<usti&es done amon" them in the ,o#ld
and ,hen they "et 'u#i)ied o) all thei# sins they ,ill be admitted into 6a#adise.=
10
As ,e &an see the system is &om'li&ated but yet &an be boiled do,n to one
sim'le 'oint - "ood ,o#ks ?at least as de)ined by the Islami& system@ "ets you to
6a#adise ,hile doin" e$il does not. But e$en then the t#aditions '#esent a
&ont#adi&tion. 7o# ,hile many t#aditions as seen abo$e su""est that "ood ,o#ks
do "et a soul to 6a#adise at the same time t#adition also denies this sayin" that
none &an ente# 6a#adise due to his "ood deeds
11
. All these "ood ,o#ks and yet the
out&ome still 'e# the $e#y same set o) t#aditions #emains han"in" in the balan&e.
T#uly Muslims must be ,illin" to ask themsel$es the (uestion =Whe#e)o#e do ye
s'end money )o# that ,hi&h is not b#ead; and you# labou# )o# that ,hi&h satis)ieth
not;= ?Isaiah 55N2a@
0o! Eeryone # Muslim or *ther!ise # Can ,eceie Eternal 9ife
A de$out Muslim &e#tainly ,ill be ke't $e#y busy in his o# he# #eli"ious li)eO 8an this
hel' to sa$e them thou"h;
=Mot by ,o#ks o) #i"hteousness ,hi&h ,e ha$e done but a&&o#din" to his me#&y he
sa$ed us by the ,ashin" o) #e"ene#ation and #ene,in" o) the /oly Ahost.= ?Titus
3N5@
=7o# by "#a&e a#e ye sa$ed th#ou"h )aithJ and that not o) you#sel$esN it is the "i)t o)
AodN Mot o) ,o#ks lest any man should boast.= ?E'hesians 2N4-2@
=7o# ,hat saith the s&#i'tu#e; Ab#aham belie$ed Aod and it ,as &ounted unto him
)o# #i"hteousness. Mo, to him that ,o#keth is the #e,a#d not #e&koned o) "#a&e
but o) debt. But to him that ,o#keth not but belie$eth on him that <usti)ieth the
un"odly his )aith is &ounted )o# #i"hteousness.= ?!omans BN3-5@
It is not the ,o#ks that man does that &an sa$e him but #athe# it is o) the "#a&e
and me#&y o) Aod ,ho sent /is %on .esus 8h#ist to die and shed /is blood )o# us
and ,ho #ose a"ain )#om the dead "ainin" the $i&to#y o) that most )ea#ed o) man1s
enemies - death. 9nly by )aith in /im &an you be sa$ed and this a)te# /e &alls us
and "i$es us the &on$i&tion to #e&o"ni*e that ,e a#e sinne#s in need o) sal$ation.
!e'entan&e that &han"e o) attitude and hea#t to,a#ds ou# sin that must lead to a
,illin"ness to allo, Aod to &han"e ou# beha$io# and li$es must be had be)o#e ,e
a#e in a 'osition to &ome to Aod )o# sal$ation.
=!e'ent ye the#e)o#e and be &on$e#ted that you# sins may be blotted out ,hen
the times o) #e)#eshin" shall &ome )#om the '#esen&e o) the Po#d.= ?A&ts 3N12@
I) ,e #e)use to a&&e't that ,e a#e sinne#s ,ho &annot '#o$ide ou# o,n ,ay to
Aod then ,e &annot be sa$ed no# ente# into the kin"dom o) Aod. The#e is
nothin"J no #itual no &e#emony no 'il"#ima"e ,hi&h human bein"s &an 'e#)o#m
and ea#n a s'ot in hea$en.
=But ,e a#e all as an un&lean thin" and all ou# #i"hteousnesses a#e as )ilthy #a"sJ
and ,e all do )ade as a lea)J and ou# ini(uities like the ,ind ha$e taken us a,ay.=
?Isaiah CBNC@
The Bible tells us that ou# e))o#ts at '#odu&in" ou# o,n #i"hteousness a#e un,o#thy
and )la,ed. Be&ause o) ou# sin ,e a#e un&lean thin"s in the si"ht o) Aod and ou#
,o#ks and #ituals a#e ,o#thless and )ilthy. This a''lies to all o) us too.
=As it is ,#itten The#e is none #i"hteous no not one....7o# all ha$e sinned and
&ome sho#t o) the "lo#y o) Aod.= ?!omans 3N1023@
This in&ludes that su'#eme e:am'le o) "oodness and 'iety )o# e$e#y Muslim all
o$e# the ,o#ld - the '#o'het o) Islam. Mohammed as ,e sa, ,as a sinne#. The
0u#1an says as mu&h. =PoO We ha$e "i$en thee ?9 Muhammad@ a si"nal $i&to#y That
Allah may )o#"i$e thee o) thy sin that ,hi&h is 'ast and that ,hi&h is to &ome and
may 'e#)e&t /is )a$ou# unto thee and may "uide thee on a #i"ht 'ath.= ?Surah
B4N1-2 6i&kthal t#anslation@ 7u#the# in Surah B0N55 =Then ha$e 'atien&e ?9
Muhammad@. PoO the '#omise o) Allah is t#ue. And ask )o#"i$eness o) thy sin and
hymn the '#aise o) thy Po#d at )all o) ni"ht and in the ea#ly hou#s.= ?6i&kthal
t#anslation@ The 0u#Ian #e&o"ni*es that Mohammed himsel) ,as a sinne# in need o)
)o#"i$eness.
%o i) all 'eo'le a#e sinne#s and ,o#ks #ituals and the like &annot sa$e them
,hat &an; As stated abo$e the only ,ay to sal$ation is by 'la&in" you# )aith in
.esus 8h#ist as you# %a$io# #e'entin" o) you# sins and t#ustin" /im to ,ash you#
sins a,ay th#ou"h /is o,n blood that ,as shed to )o#"i$e sin.
=.esus saith unto him I am the ,ay the t#uth and the li)eN no man &ometh unto
the 7athe# but by me.= ?.ohn 1BNC@
%al$ation is only th#ou"h the Po#d .esus 8h#ist. Mo ,o#ks &an #e'la&e this
=+e#ily $e#ily I say unto you /e that ente#eth not by the shee')old but &limbeth
u' some othe# ,ay the same is a thie) and a #obbe#....I am the doo#N by me i) any
man ente# in he shall be sa$ed...= ?.ohn 10N12@
.esus the sinless %on o) Aod '#esented both in the Bible and the 0u#1an ,ho
,ould not lie said that /e ,as the ,ay to ente# into hea$en. I) you a#e t#yin" to
"et in by kee'in" the #ules and #e"ulations o) Islam ?o# any othe# )o# that matte#@
you a#e t#yin" to &limb u' some anothe# ,ay and ,ill not be able to su&&ess)ully
ente# in.
=But Aod &ommendeth his lo$e to,a#d us in that ,hile ,e ,e#e yet sinne#s
8h#ist died )o# us.= ?!omans 5N4@
This is the lo$e o) Aod. We ,ho a#e sinne#s by natu#e and by '#a&ti&e and ,ho
<ustly dese#$e the ,#ath o) Aod by bu#nin" in hell )o# ete#nity a#e freely "i$en the
o''o#tunity to es&a'e that )ate ,ithout ,o#k on ou# 'a#t and ,ithout it &ostin"
us a thin". A"ain I (uote
=7o# by "#a&e a#e ye sa$ed th#ou"h )aithJ and that not o) you#sel$esN It is the "i)t o)
Aod. Mot o) ,o#ks lest any man should boast.= ?E'hesians 2N4-2@
%al$ation is by "#a&e th#ou"h )aith /is "i)t to us. We don1t need to ,o#k ,e only
need to belie$e and t#ust in /im )o# ou# sal$ation. Doin" "ood ,o#ks and li$in" a
mo#al li)e &annot sa$e. In )a&t human bein"s a#e not e$en ABPE to li$e a t#uly
mo#al li)e unless they ha$e the %'i#it o) Aod #esidin" in them ,hom ,e #e&ei$e
,hen ,e t#ust on 8h#ist )o# sal$ation. Think about it - no matte# ho, mo#al you
may a''ea# to othe# 'eo'le you kno, dee' do,n inside that the#e is some sin
,hi&h you ha$e in you# li)e ,hi&h ,ill &ondemn you to hell. Why t#y to st#i$e to
ea#n a sal$ation ,hi&h &annot be ea#ned; .esus said
=8ome unto me all ye that labou# and a#e hea$y laden and I ,ill "i$e you #est.=
?Matthe, 11N24@
Pay the hea$y bu#den o) you# sins and "uilt at /is )eet and take /im as you#
%a$io# and be sa$edO
End Motes
?1@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 2 Bk. 23 Mo. 322
?2@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 1 Mo. 11
?3@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 52 Mo. B4
?B@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 4 Bk. D3 Mo. 11C
?5@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 3 Bk. 50 Mo. 42B
?C@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 4 B-. 42 Mo. D22
?D@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 2 Bk. 23 Mo. 3B0
?4@ - Sahih "uslim Bk. 32 Mo. C3CD
?2@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. B Bk. 52 Mo. BC et&.
?10@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. 3 Bk. B3 Mo. C20 see also +ol. 4 Bk. DC Mo. 5B2
?11@ - Sahih al-5u'hari +ol. D Bk. D0 Mo. 5DD