N THE EUROPEAN MASTER N CHLDHOOD STUDES AND CHLDRENS RGHTS FACHBERECH ERZEHUNGSWSSENSCHAFTEN UND PSYCHOLOGE FREE UNVERSTT BERLN FACULTATEA DE SOCOLOGE ASSTENA SOCALA UNVERSTATEA BABE BOLYA DISCRIMINATION OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS IN THEIR EVERYDAY LIVES - AN INSIGHT INTO THE SITUATION IN GERMANY AND ROMANIA MASTER THESS (18.000 WORDS) HANDED N BY ANDREA MARA RETZE MATRCULATON NUMBER 4317681 KUPFERHAMMER 33, 79822 TTSEE NEUSTADT, GERMANY nambela@gmx.de, +49.176.65.35.65.08 1 ST SUPERVSOR: PROF. DR. MARA ROTH, UNVERSTATEA BABE-BOLYA, CLUJ-NAPOCA 2 ND SUPERVSOR: PROF. DR. MANFRED LEBEL, FREE UNVERSTT BERLN BERLN, FEBRUARY 2009 ALL HUMAN BENGS ARE BORN FREE AND EQUAL N DGNTY AND RGHTS FROM THE UNVERSAL DECLARATON OF HUMAN RGHTS (UNTED NATONS HUMAN RGHTS, 2009) DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 1ABSTRACT 4 2A BEAUTFUL SUNSHNY DAY... 5 3NTRODUCTON 7 1.1 Terminology 8 1.2 'The Roma and Discrimination 10 1.2.1 Roma: History of Europes Largest Ethnic Minority 10 1.2.2 Roma: Present of Europes Largest Ethnic Minority 11 1.2.3 Discrimination of Roma Adolescents 13 1.3 The Right to Non-Discrimination 15 1.3.1 Legal Situation and Reality 16 1.3.2 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 17 1.4 Research Questions 18 1.4.1 The Perception of Discrimination of Roma and Non-Roma 18 1.4.2 The Perception of Discrimination of Roma in Germany and in Romania 19 1.4.3 ntersectional Discriminiation in this Study 19 DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS ABSTRACT 1 ABSTRACT DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS A BEAUTFUL SUNSHNY DAY. 2 A BEAUTIFUL SUNSHINY DAY... great , because today we have a special programme, an extra activity for the youths. My colleague and I are standing in the kitchen busy preparing sandwiches for the boys they are already here. Where else would you suppose them to be than on the internet? ut well, let them chat for another fifteen minutes and off we will go, ready for a funny and !oyful time. "ome thirty minutes later we are on our way to the bus station, we make one station on foot !ust to spare the ticket. It#s incredibly hot$ we are looking forward to having a nice cooling down soon. %he bus is arriving, it#s full but we s&uee'e ourselves in are we all there? (es, we are. Inside the bus the heat feels even more unbearable than outside. We have to change busses$ waiting for the second one we come to hear a sad story) *ne of the boys tells us about a conversation he !ust overheard in the bus) +n elderly lady telling her friend to be extra careful with her handbag when she saw the ,oma adolescents. "he warned her friend because there were -.igani/ entering the bus, those people never working but always stealing. 0ot enough he adds a similar story which had happened to him the very day before again in the bus, again stigmati'ing him to being one of those ever stealing gypsies. %hat time it were Italian tourists mentioning as well the fact of the ,oma coming to Western 1urope !ust for stealing, not being smart enough to do anything else. We are a small group that day, seven boys, my colleague and I. "till, the peak is yet to come) When some time later we reach our destination we are not prepared to find another big obstacle to overcome before our day, which is supposed to be funny and !oyful, may finally start. %he lady at the entrance seems to have a real problem with our small group I am not even able to follow what she is shouting at us. +nyhow, she obviously is not at all happy about us being here and wanting to enter. 2ater on my colleague explains to me that this lady didn#t want to let us enter the swimming pool because there were some -.igani/ among the members of the group, she even invented to having seen that some of the boys were smoking, trying to find excuses to prevent us from entering. Well yes, in the end we make it and enter under the promise to not come again after this day. 3espite all these experiences casting a damning light on this nice day we still have &uite a good time. 2ater that day two of the boys want to leave the pool to get new batteries for the camera. 0ot surprisingly the same lady at the entrance doesn#t let them leave, or rather tells them that they would have to pay again if they left now. *ne may not understand why they should not leave the pool for some time, being with their tickets 4valid for the whole day5, DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS A BEAUTFUL SUNSHNY DAY. but one may easily understand that in such a case it doesn#t matter too much whether one understands or not. My colleague leaves the pool without problems, she gets the batteries and we take great snaps keeping the moments of the boys in6 and outside the water, splashing around and having fun. %hese nice pictures will last, as the good part of this day, as well as the memories of the all the discrimination, as the bad part of this day. %he lady at the entrance is without good excuses facing my colleagues# &uestion why she didn#t want to let leave the boys it will stay unanswered. +nyway she 7explains# that they cannot let ,oma enter the pool due to the fact that afterwards other people would not come any more. %his, as she states, is due to the fact that ,oma are dirty and smelling badly, steal from the other clients, don#t know how to behave and make others not to come again as they don#t want to be with these underclass people. 8lad that the adolescents didn#t get this se&uence of the story we try to continue having a nice day and the boys, yes, they really seem to en!oy it9 %hey are in the water almost the whole day long, making friends here and there, !umping into the water, playing with smaller children and !ust having fun. *ne might not see any difference between the behaviours of the ,oma and the 0on6,oma adolescents here, but when we leave the place we shall once more learn better. It#s still the same lady, it#s still the same furiousness and it#s an even worse use of words. "houting at us not to come back again and other things, she wants to have the name and address of the pro!ect, even saying that in their regulations it is written that ,oma are not allowed to enter the area. %his time the boys don#t make it to !ust stand there and say nothing honestly I am glad they finally react, it#s really too much of a performance. %hough compared to the lady they are far too polite. ut still, at least it shows that they are also humans who can and do react to such discriminating attitudes. :inally, we figure out where to find the owner of the swimming pool, we go there to complain, wanting to know more about the policies of this facility) %he owner seems to be a smart person, telling us to be welcome any other time and ensuring us that it is not his policy to not let enter ,oma. ut it#s too hard for us to believe in his words on that :riday a beautiful sunshiny day; 1 ; and for me the reason to work on this sub!ect; I dedicate it to all ,oma adolescents, with a special thanks to all those adolescents who participated in the conduced research presented in this paper. 1 The story happened in July 2009 in Cluj-Napoca, Romania. (not speaking too much Romanian) was working at the youth day centre Clujul Are Suflet. DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON 3 INTRODUCTION Unequal treatment can be considered a very well known phenomenon in society some are disadvantaged while others are not. Thinking about it, each of us may, probably quite fast, have a specific event, situation or moment in mind. There may be a black woman doing the same job as a white woman but earning less, still today when it is the ideal of equality discussed and fought for since years (European Commission, 2007). Maybe even the white woman, though being paid more than the black one is still paid less than their male colleague. Others are treated unequally due to their language or origin, due to their religion or belief, because they have a disability or because they are too young or too old. Unequal treatment, a crucial phenomenon in todays society most, if not all of us, have already been confronted with in one context or another be it as the victim, be it as the offender. t is not only a well-known but also an old phenomenon. By the beginning of the modern age the idea aroused in Europe that people living in the newly discovered continents were, apart from different appearances, worth less than Europeans because they were so easily oppressed (Schfer, 2008). nequality regarding ethnicity came to know a peak in the attitudes and incidents of racism during the Second World War. Yet the idea of some ethnic groups, specifically Jews, to be worth less and to be a threat to the survival of the ethnicity seen to be worth most (the majority population, here the ethnic Germans) developed already years before the beginning of World War (ibidem). Genetic differences were explained to result in certain characteristics especially regarding the appearance still today racism in Europe usually addresses people supposedly having a non-European origin (ibidem). Also regarding religious freedom, which is fixed by law in the European Union, it can not be considered to being granted to people in their everyday lives (Mar Castro Varala do, 2008). The latest outcome of the referendum in Switzerland concerning the building of minarets is an example for disadvantages a minority might overtly experience in Europe (see DE ZET, 2009/50) just because the majorities opinion is different. A key characteristic of discrimination is the discriminators positive picture of the self in opposition to the negatively distorted image of the discriminated (Schfer, 2008). Free of doubt unequal treatment is a reality in everyday life; discrimination is a present and in certain situations an explosive matter. DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON The introductory story points out discrimination of Roma 2 adolescents, which is the main subject to the presented work. Before entering deeper into the topic the following shall give a general definition and introduce different concepts of discrimination. Afterwards a short review of the history of Roma will be given as well as the elucidation of some scientific research concerning discrimination. The presentation of the conducted research forms the heart piece of this work and will allow an accurate view on the perception of discrimination in the daily routine of adolescents living in Germany and Romania this will be from both points of view, the Roma as well as Non-Roma. To leave the reader with a concrete picture of what discrimination in todays society means for these groups belonging to different ethnicities and living in different contexts is a main purpose of the paper. As well as the generation of ideas and ways of how to put such scientific findings into working practice to reduce discrimination. 1.1 TERMNOLOGY Discrimination is any kind of disadvantage, non-observance, exclusion or unequal treatment. A person is considered to being discriminated against in case he/she is disadvantaged compared to somebody else because of the social status, ethnic origin, gender, ideology, disability or sexual orientation. (Verein fr soziale Arbeit und Kultur Sdwestfahlen e.V., 2004) 3 . Additional to the above general definition of discrimination it shall be understood that reasons for discrimination vary as much as people do and all types of discrimination have their own stories and appear in different forms according to diverse contexts (Mar Castro Varala do, 2008). Usually when speaking about discrimination some unequal treatment due to a certain factor, like the socio-economic status, the gender or political opinion, the race and the ethnic origin is meant. Anyhow when taking a closer look at discriminative incidents 2 To simplify the readability of this work the term 'Roma' shall contain all the subgroups. Also for the in Germany living 'Sinti and Roma the term 'Roma will be used. t stand comprise Sinti, Roma and other subgroups. Acknowledging that there are many subgroups forming 'the Roma the use of the name Roma only shall not imply the ignorance of other groups. To find out about whether people living in Germany know the difference between Sinti and Roma a short survey was conducted. The answers (of 30 people) given allow the assumption that the difference is not known to the majority of people and 'Sinti and Roma is accepted and used as a fixed term. For this work the supposition is therefore made, that even in terms of discrimination there is no difference made between 'Sinti and 'Roma, thus no conceptual differentiation is made. (A table showing the answers to the question What is the difference between 'Sinti and 'Roma? is found in the annex, 9.4). 3 The definition in its original wording is the following: ,Diskriminierung ist jede Form von Benachteiligung, Nichtbeachtung, Ausschluss oder Ungleichbehandlung. Ein Mensch wird diskriminiert, wenn er/sie aus Grnden des Alters, des sozialen Status, der ethnischen Herkunft, des Geschlechts, der Weltanschauung, einer Behinderung oder der sexuellen Orientierung im Vergleich zu jemandem anderen benachteiligt wird. (Verein fr soziale Arbeit und Kultur Sdwestfahlen e.V., 2004). DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON or scenes many times more than only one of such factors are found to characterise affected people (European Commission, 2007). To differentiate between single ground and multiple ground discrimination the concept of intersectionality was introduced by Crenshaw (1989). At the bottom of the concept lies the assumption that there is not only discrimination based on a single ground but also discrimination due to multiple grounds (Crenshaw, 1989). This intention to allow the description and understanding of an interaction of several reasons for discrimination marked an important step in discrimination research (Mar Castro Varala, 2008). Crenshaw can be seen to be one of the originators of one of the most famous theoretical models trying to make tangible the heterogeneity of discrimination (ibidem). Reasons for the concept of discrimination as a single ground phenomenon may anyhow root in history. Taking a closer look at movements contending subjects like gender or ethnicity, approaches far from each other are found. As there was little or no connection or linkage between such movements the concept of discrimination rooting in a single cause can be followed (European Commission, 2007). To describe different concepts of discrimination based on more than one grounds even other concepts apart from intersectional discrimination, such as compound and multiple discrimination, were developed. A short definitional overview of these concepts advancing the classical idea of discrimination routed only in one reason, is given below. Compound Discrimination Of this concept is spoken in case of situations when someone is discriminated against due to more than one ground at the same time and when the function of one of these grounds is reinforcing to discrimination of another (European Commission, 2007). t may be said that one ground gets compounded by one or more other grounds. As an example may be imagined an old homosexual woman being refused to be helped at a job centre because her 'circumstances wouldnt lead anyone to employ her anyhow. ntersectional Discrimination The occurrence of different discriminations at the same time (Mar Castro Varala do, 2008), such as minority women who may be victims to discrimination at a higher rate than minority men. n contrast to the concept of compound discrimination the grounds operate and interact with each other to an inseparable extend (European Commission, 2007). EXAMPLE!!! Multiple Discrimination DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON Multiple discrimination actually refers to situations in which discrimination takes places due to various grounds, but in contrast to the above defined concepts it doesnt happen at the same time (European Commission, 2007). A black young boy may experience discrimination because of his age in one situation and due to his ethnic origin in another situation. n literature these terms describing discrimination routed in more than one grounds are often used exanchable and authers do not always refer to the same concept when using these terms (European Commission, 2007). Yet in 2001 the international community recognised multiple ground discrimination at the UN World Conference Against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related ntolerance in Durban, South Africa (European Commission, 2007). Concerning the conducted research a general definition of discrimination formed the basis, data will anyhow explicitly be examined on the supposition that discrimination at least very often roots in more than a single reason. Not to disturb the readability of this paper the term discrimination shall not exclusively implement single ground discrimination, instead it shall comprise all concepts of discrimination unless explecitely stated that only a certain concept is meant. For a better understanding what stands behind the name 'Roma some historical and comtemporary background about that ethnicity is given before illuminating discrimination in regard to Roma adolescents. 1.2 'THE ROMA AND DSCRMNATON 1.2.1 ROMA: HSTORY OF EUROPES LARGEST ETHNC MNORTY According to the state of research, Roma have put foot on European ground even before the 14 th century (Schler, 2007). North-West ndian regions, like for example Panjab, and the Pakistan region Sindh are assumed to be the regions of origin of Roma (Knudsen, 2003). One important evidence of the origin of the Roma being ndia is their language the 'Romanes it They had been deported as slaves under Alexander the Great from ndia to mainly todays region of Afghanistan. Their journey led them from Asia Minor via the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan regions to Europe (ibidem). With the beginning of the deportation of Roma as slaves, which was roughly between 800 and 1000, they had over and over again been forced to flee (Ortmeyer et al., 1998). The assumption that Roma have the tradition of moving from place to place and not wanting to settle down may originate in this historical and relatively constant persecution by local authorities and residents (Knudsen, 2003 and Schler, 2007). Certain mobility might have been necessary for Roma DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON due to occupational or the diasporic situation, but the refusal of cities and municipalities made them become a nomadic folk without permanent residence (Schmalz-Jacobsen & Hansen, 1997). 1.2.2 ROMA: PRESENT OF EUROPES LARGEST ETHNC MNORTY As the presented work is focusing on discrimination of Roma in Germany and Romania the following comprehends general information as well as it specifically looks at some historical and contemporary facts in these two countries. Roma were still persecuted overtly in Germany and Romania until the end of communism. n the last century, during the Second World War, they suffered deportation to concentration camps aiming to eliminate their ethnicity (Ortmeyer et al., 1998). According to estimations, about 500.000 Roma were killed under the domain of National Socialist Germany, but only in the 1990ies has the Federal Government acknowledged this genocide against Roma (ibidem). Discriminatory administrative regulations still persisted in Germany after the end of World War until 1970, when they were finally suspended. Yet until then, Roma were for instance detected by way of police identification service (Schmalz-Jacobsen & Hansen, 1997). n Romania they were subjects to an unequal treatment and not having the same rights as the majority population under Ceauescu, whose dictatorship has been brought down in 1989 (Schler, 2007). Although there have also been some positive formal changes after the end of communism, like constitutional basic rights and freedoms (ibidem), Roma are still suffering from discrimination and unequal treatment: As a result of opinion research, a big share of the majority population in Germany admits still having hate and prejudices against Roma (Ortmeyer et al., 1998). 'The Roma are formed by several subgroups usually not identifying themselves as having the same ethnicity (Ortmeyer et al., 1998). There are anyhow important similarities proving historical continuity: in general Roma have ever lived in society as a marginal group, experienced exclusion and discrimination as well as the pressure to conform (ibidem). Subgroups of Roma in Europe are for instance the Sinti, living mainly in Middle and Western Europe and the Kale who immigrated above all to France, Spain and Portugal (Schmalz-Jacobsen & Hansen, 1997). n Romania the Moldavian Roma distinguish themselves for example from Transylvanian Roma (Schler, 2007). Apart from that Roma form a minority in any country of the world they live in, there is neither a mythical nor an actual home country and there is no external reference state Roma officially belong to (ibidem). DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON Historical reasons, discrimination and stigmatisation Roma are experiencing even today, explain why many are denying their belonging to the ethnicity: famous prejudices about the 'dirty gypsy being poor and having a dozen of children, stealing and not settling down are still in peoples minds (Kenrick & Puxon, 1972). Century-long exclusion had an impact on Roma and resulted in an overt ethnic discrimination (UNCEF, 2005). The denial of their ethnicity of many Roma may be a result of these discriminations. Therefore estimates usually vary a lot. With between seven to nine million, Roma are not only the largest but also the most vulnerable minority living in Europe (ibidem). The imprecise estimation may also be rooted partly in the fact that in some countries, for instance in Germany, Roma are not necessarily recorded in separate statistics (Schmalz-Jacobsen & Hansen, 1997). Formal figures, for instance for Roma living in Romania, are far below the estimates: Experts assume that 1,9 million Roma live there, of which above 800.000 under the age of 18 (Hoelscher, 2007) against what only about 535.000 stated to be Roma in an official census in 2002 (Schler, 2007). n Romania Roma make eight to twelve percent of the population (The World Bank, 2009), whereas in Germany a 50.000 Sinti and 20.000 Roma are estimated to live (Schlaginweit & Rupprecht, 2007), forming a minority of less than one percent of the whole population. These lastly mentioned estimates do not include refugees therefore the total number of Roma living in Germany should be higher (ibidem). Roma can not be characterised by a common ethnic identity or group conscious. n different counties and within the states they distinguish themselves by linguistic, socio-economic, cultural and historical as well as territorial differentiations and mostly varying, at times overlapping patterns of identification (Schler, 2007). Ladnyi and Szelnyi (2006) state that cross-country differences of Roma are almost as large as inter-ethnic differences. Concentrating on the discrimination of Roma adolescents, the presented work wont go deeper into discussions about whether or not 'the Roma are to be seen as one ethnicity. Schler (2007) gives more information and discusses that question chapter 1 Die Roma eine ethnische Gruppe? of her book. Apart from the non-existence of a self group-concept common to all subgroups, a certain collective identity is still preserved and the separation from the Non-Roma is common to most, if not all the subgroups of Roma (Schler, 2007). Reasons for this may be due to earlier on mentioned historical discrimination, stigmatisation and persecution of Roma as large not differentiating between different subgroups (apart from such as the differentiation between 'domestic and 'foreign Roma (Knudsen, 2003)). One important example is the naming 'gypsy by others, irrespective their own naming 'Roma or specific names of the subgroups. The name gypsy, 'Zigeuner in German and 'sigan in Romanian, is negatively connoted and matches expressions like inferiority and subnormality in its DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON meaning (Schler, 2007). For the following section on discrimination of Roma adolescents and the later on presented research this shall be kept in mind intending to comprehend the situation Roma are in every single day. 1.2.3 DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS Scientific findings show that Roma adolescents are more often victims to discrimination than their peers belonging to the national majority. For instance Teasley (2005) examined how teachers responded to new regulations in their practice due to increased student diversity in a Spanish secondary school. The results revealed that teachers blamed Roma students to not wanting to attend school in case of high absence and worried for the academic achievements of the other students if there were Roma 'troublemakers. Also she found the teachers stressing their disruptive behaviours and mentioning Roma students names proportionally often in connection to problems within school life. Here applies the attitude to make a minority collective or an individual responsible for the distress of others, characterized as 'blaming the victim. Most of the affected Roma students can be seen to be victims themselves, being subject to socio-cultural discrimination and failure in school (ibidem). Questions of how adolescents deal with the undergone distress due to discrimination have been subject to other research: n their study conducted with Black youth Scott and House (2005) examined for example strategies adolescents might use to cope with the stress resulting from discriminatory experiences. Evidence was found that the report of greater distress regarding discrimination was connected to the higher use of internalising and externalising coping strategies. Whereas internalising coping refered to strategies of feeling sorry for oneself, externalising coping comprehended strategies of more aggressive manners like shouting out loud or other impulsive reactions lived out more visible to the environment than internalising coping strategies. Schmitt & Branscombe (2002) worked on attributions to prejudice and found out that even here not only an external but also an internal component is present . Such can be considered as being an important finding for the field and the development of programs conceptualised to prevent or reduce discrimination among adolescents. Apart from that the same study showed women reporting more negative affect regarding prejudice involved in rejection than when exclusively external attributions were considered being responsible (Schmitt & Branscombe, 2002). Keeping in mind the concepts of discrimination routing in multiple grounds other factors, apart from the ethnicity and individual situations and cases, may also come into account. As DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON such factors maybe regarded for instance the gender, the age or the socio-economic background. Though the empirical part of this work is not dealing with information about the socio-economic situation of the participants it must be kept in mind that it is a factor which might influence the perception of discrimination of the adolescents. Regarding the socio- economic situation, findings by Schler (2007) about the situation of Roma in Romania suggest that there is an influence on everyday lives of Roma in general and can therefore be assumed that this is also the case regarding discrimination. Hoelscher (2007) also brings to light that Roma children are at a higher risk of growing up poor and in severe circumstances compared to children of the majority population of the country. Considering the concept of intersectional discrimination, the fact of the frequency to which Roma are affected by poverty is four times higher than of Non-Roma (UNDP, 2006). The factor gender was found out to be linked to discrimination of Roma within the European Union (EU): The European Parliament (2005) reports that Roma women are especially at risk to be discriminated in the EU findings which emphasize the concept of intersectional discrimination, in that case putting Roma at an even higher risk to being discriminated against due to their gender. Yet there is still not much research found on the specific group of adolescents in the field of discrimination of Roma, often they are included in superior groups like Roma children (e.g. Hoelscher, 2007 and Schlaginweit & Rupprecht, 2007) or in the group of Roma in general (for instance Nedelsky, 2003). Anyhow, discriminatory experiences in adolescence may have an even greater impact on the discriminated than the experience of being discriminated against in other periods of life. Early adolescence itself is proved to be the life period in which interpersonal relations gain much importance regarding the perception of the own self-worth (Shaffer, 2002). Factors like academic and athletic competences, social acceptance, physical appearance and behavioural patterns influence the perception of the self-worth. Adding discrimination on the difficulties faced by adolescents in general, the stress experienced in the period of adolescence may be higher than average. n fact, Armenta and Hunt (2009) were able to show a lower level of personal self-esteem in relation to the perception of discrimination in their study conducted with Latino/a adolescents. As for the perceived discrimination of the own ethnic group they found that the psychological distance from the own group as kind of a coping strategy wouldnt diminish negative impacts of the perceived personal discrimination. The meaning of ethnic discrimination against adolescents and on global self-worth was examined by Verkuyten and Thijs (2006) in the Netherlands. Stating that several research findings demonstrate global self-worth of ethnic minorities members not to be lower than that of the majority members, their examination concentrates on the emotions about the DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON ethnic ingroup they belong to and on the feelings of global self-worth. Findings of their conducted research proved the connection of perceived discrimination and feelings of global self-worth to be mediated by the ethnic self-esteem. Thus global self-worth is considered to relate with ethnic discrimination in terms of affecting the appreciation of the ethnic identity forming part of the personal self-concept (ibidem). Different research connected to global self-worth showed that various important domains being crucial within the self-evaluation during early adolescence as such fields school, family and peers as well as physical appearance and athletic activity were explored in the context of the integrative model of DuBois et al. (2000). An adolescent being member of an ethnic minority might face more severe problems and contradictions evaluating the self than an adolescent belonging to the majority, as differences and conflicts between the various domains may be greater due to diverse ideas. For instance could there be a greater gap between the expectations of the parents (supposedly of the same ethnicity) and the peers (probably of different ethnicities including the majorities one). Already adolencents living in the context of being member of the ethnic majority possibly face conflicts in the process of detaching themselves from parents and family on the one hand and belonging to a certain peer group on the other hand (Amelang & Bartussek, 2001). Adolescents often confront conflicts of that kind at their own expense which may cause feelings of fear, anger, stress and distress. As for group identification findings show that it functions as a mediator in the connection of the perception of discrimination and the collective self-esteem (Jetten et al., 2001). Though this research was not conducted with members of ethnic minotrity groups (but of other disadvantaged groups), still the importance of the identification with ones ingroup and its effects on the well-being is a crucial outcome. n addition, Hansen and Sassenberg (2006) demonstrated in regard to social discrimination that social identification has a protective impact on the self and does not, as might be assumed, raise the individuals vulnerability. Reminding the discrimination in the introductory story experienced by the Roma adolescents and considering all the scientific findings regarding such topics the question of what is done to fight discrimination. Following some aspects of the human right to non- discrimination will be highlighted on an international and national level applicable for the research conducted in the context of this work. 1.3 THE RGHT TO NON-DSCRMNATON n taly, there is particular concern for the way in which the right-wing government, recently elected, is victimising Roma. Since late May 2008, the new government has adopted a DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON series of legal and policy measures that explicitly discriminate against Roma, in violation of international and domestic law. (CRN Child Rights nformation Network, 2008) 1.3.1 LEGAL STUATON AND REALTY Reports like the above demonstrate that society is far from treating Roma equally and just. Thus they are not permitted to live their lives without being discriminated over and over again, not even by such societies being considerd to form part of the most developed countries. Though the legal situation in most national contexts and on an international level should protect people from being discriminated against, reality looks different: n Central and Eastern Europe up to 75% of Roma children are attending special schools for mentally disabled though most of them were found to not being handicaped (UNCEF, 2005). t is also Roma who make more than half (57%) of the children abandoned in medical institutions in Romania (ibidem). Such facts persist and still exist parallel to legal rights regarding equality and non- discrimination. There is for instance the right to identity for minorities fixed in article 6 of the Romanian constitution, though stating indirectly that there should not be positive discrimination in the sense of advantaging minorities: All protection by the state to guarantee the right to identity have to be in accordance with the principle of equality and non-discrimination regarding the other Romanian citizens (Gllner, 2006). n 2004 the Romanian Parliament also passed the law on the protection and promotion of the rights of the child which includes the right to equal opportunities and non-discrimination in Article 6 (CRN Child Rights nformation Network). Apart from that the Romanian constitution states the acceptance by the state of the binding character of contracts it is participating in and ensures its best to fulfil such treaties (Chamber of Deputies). The latest shall be kept in mind when speaking about the right to non-discrimination fixed in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) which has been ratified by the Romanian state. But not only in Central and Eastern European countries is overtly discrimination against Roma found. n Germany for instance there is no compulsory education for refugees in an uncertain residence status in all Laender (Schlaginweit & Rupprecht, 2007). This excludes also Roma. Discrimination and rejection are part of the daily routine of many children being thought to not be German (UNCEF, 2001). On the legal basis there is article 3 of the federal constitution specifying equality of people and not allowing the discrimination of anyone due to gender, derivation, ethnicity, language, home and origin, belief, religious or political opinion (Bundesministerium der Justiz (c)). Further there is the Allgemeines DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON Gleichbehandlungsgesetz 4general law for e&ual treatment5 underlining the right to equal treatment (Bundesministerium der Justiz (a)). For children and adolescents there is no law in Germany specifying their rights including a right to equal-treatment. The law on child and youth protection in welfare services is only about regulations in the work of social services than insuring rights to children and adolescents (Bundesministerium der Justiz (b)). Speaking about the legal situation on an international level there are, apart from the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (see United Nations Human Rights, 2009), several documents providing people with rights to non-discrimination: The nternational Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination by the United Nations (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner of Human Rights (b)) shall be mentioned at this point as well as the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms by the Council of Europe (Council of Europe (b)) and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Council of Europe (c)). Germany as well as Romania have both at least acceded, mostly ratified, these listed Conventions. 4
Yet apart from the existence of international conventions, national laws and the like, the urgency and need of the implementation of rights to non-discrimination is evident and underlined by the words of Navi Pillay given in relation to the last Human Rights Day, which was celebrated on the 10 th of December 2009 under the focus of non-discrimination: Discrimination lies at the root of many of the worlds most pressing human rights problems. No country is immune from this scourge. Eliminating discrimination is a duty of the highest order. (Pillay, 2009). Her statement emphasizes that non-discrimination lies at the heart of human rights and todays importance of fighting discrimination in the worlds society. 1.3.2 THE UNTED NATONS CONVENTON ON THE RGHTS OF THE CHLD The Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in November 1989 (United Nations Treaty Collections). One of its four main principles of the UNCRC is the right to equal treatment. The Convention declares that no child shall be disadvantaged due to its gender, origin and ancestry, nationality, language or religion, its skin colour, due to a disability or its political views or because of its economic capital (UNCEF, 2001). The original wording of Article 2 of the UNCRC is the following (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (a)): 4 For the state of ratification see Council of Europe (available at http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/ Commun/ListeTraites.asp?CM=8&CL=ENG) and United Nations Treaty Collection (available at http://treaties.un.org/Pages/Treaties.aspx?id=4&subid=A&lang=en). DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON 1. States Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present Convention to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the childs or his or her parents or legal guardians race, colour, sex, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth or other status. 2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that the child is protected against all forms of discrimination or punishment on the basis of the status, activities, expressed opinions, or beliefs of the childs parents, legal guardians, or family members. The other main principles the Convention is following are the principle of the best interest of the child, the right to life and personal development and the respect for the childs opinion and will (UNCEF, 2001). On these main principles several single rights are based and in total the Convention comprehends 54 articles aiming to improve childrens situations worldwide by binding nations to this international law human rights document. Germany, though under reservations, as well as Romania are two of the 191 states world- wide who ratified the UNCRC. Missing only Somalia and the United States of America the UNCRC is the most signed Convention of the United Nations. Questions like whether this is to the better of the children and adolescents in our world no less than whether the situation of the children improved after all those signatures being put under the UNCRC will be left open. As mentioned above not much research on the subject of discrimination of Roma adolescents has been conducted so far. The reason of the conduction of the below presented study was to find out more about the situation in Germany and Romania, aiming to contribute to other experience and knowledge for a better understanding and (social) working practice in society. Thus enabling Roma adolescents to experience less discrimination in their lives in the future. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTONS The presented research, exploring the perception of discrimination in the daily lives of Roma and Non-Roma adolescents, is following two main hypotheses and one general assumption throughout the process of investigation and analysis. Due to little scientific research regarding the discrimination of Roma adolescents the research questions guiding this study are of a general mode and cover aspects of main interest: 1.4.1 THE PERCEPTON OF DSCRMNATON OF ROMA AND NON-ROMA DSCRMNATON OF ROMA ADOLESCENTS NTRODUCTON The first hypothesis is dealing with the differences in the perception of discrimination of Roma and Non-Roma adolescents. Presuming that Roma adolescents are more often confronted with discrimination in their daily routine, the assumption is that this group perceives discrimination significantly more than the group of Non-Roma, both in Germany and in Romania. 1.4.2 THE PERCEPTON OF DSCRMNATON OF ROMA N GERMANY AND N ROMANA The second hypothesis assumes statistically significant differences between the perceptions of discrimination in the two different national contexts. Discrimination of Roma is expected to be higher in Romania in comparison to Germany because of this ethnic minority being one of the biggest minorities there. nstead in Germany, Roma are one of the smallest minorities. Assuming that the discrimination of Roma therefore is more present in Romania a higher perception of the phenomenon is expected. 1.4.3 NTERSECTONAL DSCRMNATON N THS STUDY Within the presented research the general assumption underlies that other factors than ethnicity play a role and correlate with the perception of discrimination. Here, the following main factors are expected to be connected to the perception of discrimination: gender, age and nationality (distinguishing between the German and other nationalities for the participants living in Germany and between the Romanian and other nationalities for the participants living in Romania). For the different main factors assumed to correlate with the perception of discrimination the female gender is expected to perceive a higher experience of discrimination and the groups having the nationality of the country they live in are supposed to perceive lower discrimination compared to those who dont have the nationality of the country they live in. Refering to DuBois et al. (2000) it is expected that younger adolescents (under the age of 16) have a higher perception of discrimination.