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Introduction
Introduction
General Classifications
Metals
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Structure of Materials
Atomic Bonds
Solid State Structure
Metallic Crystalline
Structure
Solidification
Anisotropy and Isotropy
Crystal Defects
Elastic/Plastic Deformation
Fatigue Crack Initiation
Diffusion
Property Modification
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Polymer Structure
Composite Structures
Physical and Chemical
Properties
Phase Transformation
Temp
Density
Specific Gravity
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Expansion
Electrical Conductivity
Magnetic Properties
Oxidation and Corrosion
Mechanical Properties
-Loading
-Stress & Strain
Tensile
Compression, Bearing, &
Shear
Hardness
Creep & Stress Rupture
Toughness
-Impact Toughness
-Notch Toughness
-Fracture Toughness
Fatigue
-S-N Fatigue
-Fatigue Crack Growth
Rate
Selection of Materials
Specific Metals
Metal Ores
Iron and Steel
Decarburization
Aluminum/Aluminum
Alloys
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Titanium and Titanium
Alloys
General Manufacturing
Processes
Metallic Components
Ceramic and Glass
Components
Polymers/Plastic
Components
Composites
Manufacturing Defects
Metals
Polymers
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity
It is well known that one of the subatomic particles of an atom is the electron. The electrons
carry a negative electrostatic charge and under certain conditions can move from atom to atom.
The direction of movement between atoms is random unless a force causes the electrons to
move in one direction. This directional movement of electrons due to an electromotive force is
what is known as electricity.
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material accommodates the movement of an
electric charge. It is the ratio of the current density to the electric field strength. Its SI derived
unit is the Siemens per meter, but conductivity values are often reported as percent IACS.
IACS is an acronym for International Annealed Copper Standard, which was established by the
1913 International Electrochemical Commission. (More Information on the IACS.) The
conductivity of the annealed copper (5.8001 x 10
7
S/m) is defined to be 100% IACS at 20C .
All other conductivity values are related back to this conductivity of annealed copper.
Therefore, iron with a conductivity value of 1.04 x 10
7
S/m, has a conductivity of approximately
18% of that of annealed copper and this is reported as 18% IACS. An interesting side note is
that commercially pure copper products now often have IACS conductivity values greater than
100% IACS because processing techniques have improved since the adoption of the standard
in 1913 and more impurities can now be removed from the metal.
Conductivity values in Siemens/meter can be converted to % IACS by multiplying the
conductivity value by 1.7241 x10
-6
. When conductivity values are reported in
microSiemens/centimeter, the conductivity value is multiplied by 172.41 to convert to the %
IACS value.
Electrical conductivity is a very useful property since values are affected by such things as a
substances chemical composition and the stress state of crystalline structures. Therefore,
electrical conductivity information can be used for measuring the purity of water, sorting
materials, checking for proper heat treatment of metals, and inspecting for heat damage in some
materials.
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. It is the is the opposition of a body or
substance to the flow of electrical current through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy
into heat, light, or other forms of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of
material. Materials with low resistivity are good conductors of electricity and materials with high
resistivity are good insulators.
The SI unit for electrical resistivity is the ohm meter. Resistivity values are more commonly
reported in micro ohm centimeters units. As mentioned above resistivity values are simply the
reciprocal of conductivity so conversion between the two is straightforward. For example, a
material with two micro ohm centimeter of resistivity will have microSiemens/centimeter of
conductivity. Resistivity values in microhm centimeters units can be converted to % IACS
conductivity values with the following formula:
3/15/2014 Electrical Properties
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conductivity values with the following formula:
172.41 / resistivity = % IACS
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
As noted above, electrical conductivity values (and resistivity values) are typically reported at
20
o
C. This is done because the conductivity and resistivity of material is temperature
dependant. The conductivity of most materials decreases as temperature increases. Alternately,
the resistivity of most material increases with increasing temperature. The amount of change is
material dependant but has been established for many elements and engineering materials.
The reason that resistivity increases with increasing temperature is that the number of
imperfection in the atomic lattice structure increases with temperature and this hampers electron
movement. These imperfections include dislocations, vacancies, interstitial defects and impurity
atoms. Additionally, above absolute zero, even the lattice atoms participate in the interference of
directional electron movement as they are not always found at their ideal lattice sites. Thermal
energy causes the atoms to vibrate about their equilibrium positions. At any moment in time
many individual lattice atoms will be away from their perfect lattice sites and this interferes with
electron movement.
When the temperature coefficient is known, an adjusted resistivity value can be computed using
the following formula:
R
1
= R
2
* [1 + a * (T
1
T
2
)]
Where: R
1
= resistivity value adjusted to T
1
R
2
= resistivity value known or measured at temperature T
2

a = Temperature Coefficient
T
1
= Temperature at which resistivity value needs to be known
T
2
= Temperature at which known or measured value was obtained
For example, suppose that resistivity measurements were being made on a hot piece of
aluminum. Normally when measuring resistivity or conductivity, the instrument is calibrated using
standards that are at the same temperature as the material being measured, and then no
correction for temperature will be required. However, if the calibration standard and the test
material are at different temperatures, a correction to the measured value must be made.
Presume that the instrument was calibrated at 20
o
C (68
o
F) but the measurement was made at
25
o
C (77
o
F) and the resistivity value obtained was 2.706 x 10
-8
ohm meters. Using the above
equation and the following temperature coefficient value, the resistivity value corrected for
temperature can be calculated.
R
1
= R
2
* [1 + a * (T
1
T
2
)]
Where: R
1
= ?
R
2
= 2.706 x 10
-8
ohm meters (measured resistivity at 25
o
C)
a = 0.0043/
o
C
T
1
= 20
o
C
T
2
= 25
o
C
R
1
= 2.706 x 10
-8
ohm meters * [1 + 0.0043/
o
C * (20
o
C 25
o
C)]
R
1
= 2.648 x 10
-8
ohm meters
Polymers
Composites
Service Induced Damage
Metals
Polymers
Composites
Material Specifications
Component Design,
Performance and NDE
Strength
Durability
Fracture Mechanics
Nondestructive Evaluation
3/15/2014 Electrical Properties
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Note that the resistivity value was adjusted downward since this example involved calculating
the resistivity for a lower temperature.
Since conductivity is simply the inverse of resistivity, the temperature coefficient is the same for
conductivity and the equation requires only slight modification. The equation becomes:
s
1
= s
2
/ [1 + a * (T
1
T
2
)]
Where: s
1
= conductivity value adjusted to T
1
s
2
= conductivity value known or measured at temperature T
2

a = Temperature Coefficient
T
1
= Temperature at which conductivity value needs to be known
T
2
= Temperature at which known or measured value was obtained
In this example lets consider the same aluminum alloy with a temperature coefficient of 0.0043
per degree centigrade and a conductivity of 63.6% IACS at 25
o
C. What will the conductivity
be when adjusted to 20
o
C?
s
1
= 63.6% IACS / [1 + 0.0043 * (20
o
C 25
o
C)]
s
1
= 65.0% IASC
The temperature coefficient for a few metallic elements is shown below.
Material
Temperature Coefficient (/
o
C)
Nickel 0.0059
Iron 0.0060
Molybdenum 0.0046
Tungsten 0.0044
Aluminum 0.0043
Copper 0.0040
Silver 0.0038
Platinum 0.0038
Gold 0.0037
Zinc 0.0038