Journal of Hydrology, 83 (1986) 4 9 - 6 6 49

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amst erdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

[21
S ALI NE- VE RS US F RE S HWAT E R CONT RI BUT I ON TO T HE T HE RMAL
WAT E RS OF T HE NORT HE RN J ORDAN RI F T VAL L E Y, I S RAE L
ARNON ARAD and AMOS BEIN
Geological Survey of Israel, 95501 Jerusalem (Israel)
(Received February 24, 1985; revised and accepted August 31, 1985)
ABSTRACT
Arad, A. and Bein, A., 1986. Saline- versus freshwater cont ri but i on to the thermal waters
of the northern Jordan Ri ft Valley, Israel. J. Hydrol., 83: 49--66.
Temperat ure and salinity differences between thermal waters at equal depths on bot h
sides of Lake Tiberias, reveals t hat the hot t er eastern syst em consists of heated fresh
groundwater, whereas the western syst em consists of heated saline groundwater. This
difference seems to effect exceptional fluorine enrichment in t he fresh-thermal carbonate
aquifer through temperature-controlled equilibrium solubility of fluorite and calcite.
Mixing models based on oxygen isotopic composi t i on and ot her chemical parameters
suggest t wo distant recharge areas for the Mezar--Hammat Gader thermal system, as well
as a Ri ft Valley salinity source. Hydrogeological considerations and chemical constraints,
i.e., oxygen and st ront i um isotopic ratios suggest t hat heat in the western syst em is
attained through circulation under a normal geothermal gradient while in the eastern
system a higher t han usual geothermal gradient controls the heat balance.
INTRODUCTION
Sever al s our c e s o f h o t wa t e r ar e f o u n d a l ong t h e J o r d a n - - De a d Se a Ri f t
Va l l e y, f r o m La k e Ti be r i a s i n t h e n o r t h d o wn t o t h e De a d Se a i n t h e s out h.
No n e o f t he s e s our c e s p r o d u c e s s t e a m; t he hi ghe s t t e mp e r a t u r e r e c o r d e d so
f a r is 79 C, a n d t h e pr e va i l i ng t e mp e r a t u r e s o f mo s t o f t h e s our c e s ar e i n t h e
r a nge o f 3 1 - - 6 4 C. Al t h o u g h t h e s e t h e r ma l wa t e r s ar e o f d i f f e r e n t sal i ni t i es,
d i f f e r e n t t e mp e r a t u r e s a nd d i f f e r e n t a qui f e r s , t h e i r cl os e a s s oc i a t i on wi t h t h e
r a p i d l y s ubs i di ng Ri f t Va l l e y s ugges t s ge ne t i c r e l a t i ons hi ps . One c o n c e p t
e xpl a i ni ng t h e s e r e l a t i ons hi ps is t h a t t he s t r u c t u r e a nd t h e y o u n g r i f t i ng
i n d u c e s d e e p wa t e r c i r c u l a t i o n a n d t h a t t h e h e a t a t t a i n e d at t h a t d e p t h u n d e r
n o r ma l g e o t h e r ma l gr a di e nt s is s us t a i ne d as a r e s ul t o f t he wa t e r ' s r a p i d
a s c e n t a l ong t h e ma j o r f aul t s . An o t h e r pos s i bi l i t y is t h a t t h e r i f t i ng is associ -
a t e d wi t h a hi gh h e a t a n o ma l y l o c a t e d b e n e a t h t h e Ri f t Va l l e y a nd t h a t t h e
t h e r ma l wa t e r s ar e a s ur f a c e e x p r e s s i o n o f t hi s a n o ma l y . Da t a f r o m s ever al
d e e p wel l s dr i l l ed i n t h e Ri f t Va l l e y h o we v e r gave n o i n d i c a t i o n o f a n y t he r -
ma l a n o ma l y . On t he c o n t r a r y , t he c a l c u l a t e d g e o t h e r ma l gr a di e nt , a b o u t
0022-1694/86/$03. 50 1986 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
5 0
Mr. Hermon
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25C km -1 , is l ower t han t hat f ound in adj acent regi ons, pr oba bl y i ndi cat i ng
t hat t her mal equi l i br i um has not ye t been est abl i shed in t he sect i on of t he
r api dl y subsi di ng Ri f t Val l ey ( Fei nst ei n et al., 1982) .
Var i ous mi xi ng model s i ncor por at i ng mechani sms f or bot h f l ow and
heat i ng and account i ng f or t he compos i t i on of t he t her mal wat er s have been
pr opos e d ( Mazor et al., 1973, 1980; St ar i nsky et al., 1979) . All of t hem
i nvoked a hot -sal i ne and a col d-fresh c o mp o n e n t t o pr oduce t he r el evant
mi xt ur es.
New i nf or mat i on was r ecent l y obt ai ned f r om t he Mezar t her mal wells,
l ocat ed a f ew ki l omet er s ups t r eam of t he Ha mma t Gader t her mal springs
in t he Ya r mouq Ri ver gorge (Fig. 1). Thi s i nf or mat i on al ong wi t h new dat a
on t r ace and mi nor el ement s in all t he wat er sour ces of Israel ( Ar ad et al.,
1984) made a r eeval uat i on of t he t her mal occur r ences feasi bl e. The inte-
grat i on of t hi s new i nf or mat i on wi t h exi st i ng dat a gave rise t o a hydr o-
geol ogi cal mode l di f f er ent f r om t hos e pr evi ousl y pr opos ed.
Al t hough all t he t her mal occur r ences of t he Lake Ti beri as regi on are
geographi cal l y cl ose t o each ot her , t he y def i ni t el y bel ong t o t wo i ndpendent
syst ems oper at i ng on bot h sides of t he lake. Thi s pr ovi des t he oppor t uni t y
t o anal yse t he si gni fi cance of cert ai n chemi cal f eat ur es by compar i s on
bet ween appar ent l y anal ogous syst ems whi ch act ual l y have di f f er ent hydr o-
logical mechani sms.
P R O C E D U R E
Sampling and storage
In or der t o el i mi nat e any possi bl e t ubi ng cont ami nat i on, wat er sampl es
wer e col l ect ed f r om pumpi ng wel l s or f r om idle ones onl y af t er some run-
ning t i me. Wat er sampl es wer e col l ect ed in one-l i t er pol ye t hyl e ne bot t l es
51
(Kart el l TC 613, I t al y) and pH and t emper at ur e readi ngs wer e t aken on t he
spot . Bor ehol e wat er was f i l t er ed t hr ough a 0. 45 pm MiUipore membr ane
fi l t er and aci di fi ed wi t h Supr a Pur e HNO3 (Merck), wher eas some of t he
spring wat er s wer e fi rst f i l t er ed t hr ough What man no. 41 fi l t er paper pr i or t o
t he Mi l l i pore filtering. The sampl es wer e st or ed bef or e anal ysi s in t he above-
not e d bot t l es af t er t he l at t er wer e washed by 5 N HNO3 and di st i l l ed wat er .
I ns t r ument at i on
Tr ace el ement s as wel l as Ca, Mg, S (as SO4) and Si wer e anal yzed using
t he J obi n- Yvon 48, one- met er vacuum mul t i - channel di r ect readi ng spect r o-
met er (ICP). A high-salt Mei nhar d TR-C-20 glass nebul i zer was empl oyed.
Del i ver y of sampl e wat er t o t he s pect r omet er at t he rat e of 2 ml mi n -1 was
made by means of a peri st al t i c pump. I ns t r ument cont r ol and dat a registra-
t i on wer e achi eved wi t h a Digital Equi pme nt Cor por at i on PDP 11/ 03 util-
izing a dual f l oppy disc. An A. A. S. Perki n El mer 603 at omi c abs or pt i on
s pect r omet er was e mpl oye d f or s odi um analysis, and chl or i de was det er-
mi ned by t i t r at i on empl oyi ng t he Mol er me t hod. F was anal yzed by speci fi c
el ect r ode.
For mor e det ai l s regardi ng: st andar di zat i on and cal i brat i on, spect ral inter-
f er ence, backgr ound cor r ect i on, l i mi t of det ect i on, et c. t he r eader is r ef er r ed
t o Ar ad et al. ( 1984) .
Cal ci t e and f l uor i t e sol ubi l i t y equi l i bri a wer e cal cul at ed manual l y using
i t erat i ve pr ocedur es. Single-ion act i vi t y coef f i ci ent was cal cul at ed empl oyi ng
Davis equat i on. Thi s was checked against WATEQ c omput a t i ons ( done by
an a nonymous revi ewer), whi ch cor r el at ed r easonabl y wel l wi t h cal cul at ed
sat ur at i on i ndi ces s hown in Fig. 5 (in f act t he WATEQ resul t s are s omewhat
cl oser t o sat ur at i on i ndi ces).
HYDROLOGICAL SETTING
The J or dan- - Dead Sea Ri f t Val l ey cons t i t ut es a segment of t he well-
known Dead Sea t r ans f or m f aul t (Fig. 1). Hydr ogeol ogi cal l y, i t f or ms a
drai nage base level in a l andl ocked c a t c hme nt whi ch t er mi nat es in t he Dead
Sea Basin s ome 400 m bel ow mean sea level. Mesozoi c and Ter t i ar y sedi-
ment s cr op out in t he hi ghl ands on bot h sides of t he Ri f t Val l ey and const i -
t ut e t he i nt ake area f or t he maj or aqui fers. Thr ee regi onal aqui f er s sust ai n
mos t of t he gr oundwat er vol ume f l owi ng t o t he base level (Fig. 2): (1) t he
Cr et aceous J ude a Gr oup of pr edomi nant l y har d car bonat es; (2) t he Lowe r
Cr et aceous Kur nub Gr oup, of mai nl y cont i nent al sandst ones; and (3) Juras-
sic car bonat es, mai nl y devel oped t o t he nor t h. The subsi di ng Ri f t Val l ey is
l oaded by a t hi ck Pl i o- Pl ei st ocene sequence consi st i ng of var i ous fluvial and
l acust ri ne cl ast i cs and car bonat es, evapor i t es and alluvial deposi t s, whi ch
hydr ol ogi cal l y, in cont r as t t o t he sur r oundi ng aqui f er s are mai nl y aqui cl udes.
5 2
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Fi g . 2. Ge n e r a l i z e d l i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h y o f t h e area i n v e s t i g a t e d .
Thi s h y d r o l o g i c a l barrier h a mp e r s t h e di s char ge o f t h e mo u n t a i n o u s aqui f e r s ,
f o r c i n g ma n y s pri ngs and s e e pa g e s t o me r g e a l o n g t h e bo un d a r y f a ul t s or
up s t r e a m, c l o s e t o t h e gr abe n' s mar gi ns .
Th e La ke Ti be r i as d e p r e s s i o n i s an area i n wh i c h h y d r o l o g i c a l a ct i v i t y
i s a c c o mp a n i e d by t he r ma l o c c ur r e n c e s , wh i c h are f r o m s l i g ht l y up t o
h i g h l y mi ne r a l i z e d. Ho we v e r , n o n e o f t h e s al i ni t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d a n y wh e r e
i n t hi s area i s hi ghe r t h a n t h a t o f t h e Me di t e r r ane an Se a. T wo al r e ady we l l -
k n o wn l o c a t i o n s o f t h e r ma l wa t e r s , wh i c h we r e e x p l o i t e d by t h e Ro ma n s ,
are s i t ua t e d i n t h e area: o n e i s t h e R o ma n Spr i ng i n Ti be r i as , i s s ui ng f r o m
Ne o g e n e - - Qua r t e r n a r y v o l c a n i c s i n t h e we s t e r n mar gi n o f t h e Ri f t Va l l e y ;
and t h e s e c o n d i s t h e Ha mma t Gade r s pri ngs , e me r g i ng f r o m Eo c e n e s edi -
me n t s i n t h e Ya r mo u q Ri ve r g o r g e , 5 km e as t o f t h e e as t e r n ma j o r Ri f t
53
Val l ey f aul t , s out heas t of Lake Ti beri as (Fig. I ) . Numer ous s omet i mes war m,
mi neral seepages occur al ong bot h shores and under neat h Lake Ti beri as. On
t he surface, t he Ha mma t Gader springs exhi bi t a t emper at ur e- - sal i ni t y
r el at i onshi p ( St ar i nsky et al., 1979; Mazor et al., 1980) . The mi xi ng model
pr opos ed b y t hem i mpl i es a rel at i vel y shor t resi dence t i me f or a fresh-col d
c o mp o n e n t and a l onger r esi dence t i me f or a sal i ne-hot c o mp o n e n t ascend-
ing f r om a deep- seat ed reservoir.
THE HAMMAT GADER--MEZAR HYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM
The Ha mma t Gader gr oup of springs, al ong wi t h some ot her springs up-
st ream in J or dan, cons t i t ut es t he base f l ow of t he Ya r mouq Ri ver, a maj or
t r i but ar y of t he J or dan Ri ver. The regi onal geol ogi cal set t i ng r ef l ect s a br oad
syncl i nor i um ext endi ng s ome 120 km be t we e n t he Zer qa ant i cl i ne in t he
s out h and t he Mount He r mon ant i cl i nal bl ock in t he nor t h (Fig. 3). The
Ha mma t Gader springs di scharge at t he syncl i nal axis, r oughl y mi dway
be t we e n t hese t wo ant i cl i nal st r uct ur es. The s out her n hal f of t he basin is
expos ed in t he nor t h J or dani an pl at eau, wher e Triassic, Jurassi c and pre-
domi nant l y Cr et aceous sedi ment s cr op out . It s nor t her n hal f is cover ed b y
t he young vol cani c r ocks of t he Gol an Hei ght s. I t is pr es umed t hat a nor t h-
war d l at eral cont i nui t y of t he st rat i graphi c s equence not e d and its Ter t i ar y
cover occur s under t he young vol cani cs. The J or dan- - Dead Sea Ri f t Val l ey
f or ms t he west er n bounda r y of t he above syst em, al ong whi ch t he maj or
st ri ke--sl i p f aul t r uns in a N--S t r end. Thi s set -up f or ms a st rat i graphi c dis-
cont i nui t y al ong t he f aul t t race, wher e i mper vi ous graben sedi ment s bl ock
t he di scharge f r om mount a i nous f or mat i ons t o a l ower base level in t he west .
The uni queness of t he Ha mma t Gader springs is in t hei r di scharge t hr ough
a ver y t hi ck, up t o 900 m, i mper vi ous mar l y- - chal ky sequence, whi ch else-
wher e in Israel f or ms a maj or aqui cl ude, r at her t han al ong t he mai n r i f t faul t .
The recharge area of t he Ya r mouq springs, is c ommonl y consi der ed t o be t he
- S - - N-
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Fig. 3. Geological cross-section of the eastern sector (N--S).
54
expos ed Cr et aceous har d car bonat es ( t he J ude a Gr oup) of t he Aj l un area in
J or dan ( named t her e t he Aj l un Series; Parker, 1970; Mazor et al., 1973,
1980; Levi t t e et al., 1978; St ar i nsky et al., 1979) . The syncl i nal st r uct ur e of
t he area is r ef l ect ed by a gradual i ncrease nor t hwar d in t he cover of Uppe r
Cr et aceous- - Ter t i ar y marl s and chal ks of t he Mount Scopus and Avedat
gr oups ( known c o mmo n l y as t he Hashephel a Gr oup, Fig. 2). Anot he r
pot ent i al recharge area of t he Ya r mouq springs is Mount He r mon and t he
nor t her n Gol an Hei ght s. In t he f or mer a t hi ck Jurassi c l i mest one s equence
( ~ 2000 m, Fig. 3) is expos ed t o high pr eci pi t at i on, wher eas in t he l at t er t her e
is a combi ned J ude a Gr oup- - vol cani c aqui f er (Mi chel son, 1975) . In f act ,
t hese regi ons mai nl y f eed t he J or dan springs in t he Ri f t Val l ey t o t he west ,
but a s out hwar d f l ow c ompone nt under t he Gol an Hei ght s t owar ds t he
Mezar - - Hammat Gader syst em is also feasi bl e. The i mpl i cat i on of t hi s com-
pone nt vis-a-vis t he s ys t em is t her mal l y significant. Whereas emer gence of
gr oundwat er f r om t he Jurassi c aqui f er coul d account f or t he heat of t he
t her mal syst em, t he dept h of t he Cr et aceous J ude a Gr oup aqui f er is insuffi-
ci ent t o account f or t he 79C meas ur ed in t he Mezar 1 t her mal wel l at 1250
m ( 65C was meas ur ed in Mezar 2 at 807 m and 44C at 400 m in Mezar 3).
The dept h r equi r ed el sewhere in t he Ri f t Val l ey t o reach t he above t emper -
attire is a bout doubl e t hat encount er ed. The maj or obst acl e t o vert i cal f l ow
f r om t he deep aqui f er s under neat h t he Ya r mouq cour se are t he post ~Judea
Gr oup i mper vi ous r ocks. Separ at i on of t he t wo maj or aqui f er s by t he Lowe r
Cr et aceous Kur nub Gr oup is hydr ol ogi cal l y less ef f i ci ent t han t he f or mer .
Boundar y condi t i ons al ong t he east er n f l ank of t he above hydr ol ogi cal
syst em are r ef l ect ed at t he east er n shore of Lake Ti beri as. A f ew seepages, of
whi ch En Gof r a is t he mos t cons pi cuous (sal i ni t y of 5 g1-1 and t emper at ur e
of 31C) , suggest t hat t he y are also f ed by a hot c o mp o n e n t t here. In con-
t r ast , in bor ehol es dri l l ed in t he graben fill of t he same area, saline wat er and
ambi ent t emper at ur es wer e r ecor ded. Hydr ol ogi cal t est s reveal ed l ow per-
meabi l i t y whi ch pr ecl udes any si gni fi cant drai nage f r om t he east. Ther e is no
i ndi cat i on t hat f ur t her s out h t he si t uat i on is di f f er ent . Thi s ef f i ci ent barri er
appear s t o be t he maj or cause f or di scharge at l ocat i ons ot her t han t he Ri f t
Val l ey bounda r y faul t , i.e., t hr ough j oi nt s al ong t he Yar mouq gorge.
WESTERN LAKE TI BERI AS HYDROLOGI CAL SYSTEM
Al t hough t he general set -up in t he west er n Lake Ti beri as is similar t o t hat
of t he east er n par t in t he sense t hat t he i mper vi ous graben fill seals of f t he
mount a i nous f or mat i on, t her e is a maj or di f f er ence in t he nat ur e of t he dis-
charge t o t he same base level. Whereas in t he east t he maj or di scharge t akes
pl ace t hr ough a t hi ck i mper vi ous, but j oi nt ed, cover away f r om t he Ri f t
Val l ey, s ome upl i f t ed bl ocks expos e t he J ude a aqui f er al ong t he west er n
margi ns of t he val l ey, channel i ng t he mai n di scharge of t he syst em ( 38 x 106
m 3 yr -1 ; Gol ds chmi dt et al., 1967) . Col l ect i vel y t he y are char act er i zed by a
5 5
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I 0 0 0 .
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- I 0 0 O -
- 2 0 0 0 -
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I I I , ,
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I I I
Fig. 4. Geological cross-section through Lake Tiberias.
wi de range of salinities and t emper at ur es , of whi ch t he hi ghest encount er ed
( 64C, 18 000mg1- 1 CI) wer e at t he Ro ma n Spri ng in Ha mme Tveria. The
same t e mpe r a t ur e was e nc ount e r e d at a dept h of 1360 m in t he J or dan 2
oil wel l l ocat ed s ome 400 m nor t h of t he Ro ma n Spring. Thi s suggests a
fast ascent of wat er heat ed in a deep reservoi r and f or ced up al ong t he
upl i f t ed bl ock adj acent t o t he Ri f t Val l ey faul t . It shoul d be ment i oned,
however , t hat at 1250 m in t he Mezar 1 wel l t he t emper at ur e is 79C. Thi s
is si gni fi cant l y hi gher t han t hat in t he west (Mezar is t opogr aphi cal l y 200 m
higher).
The c a t c hme nt area wes t of Lake Ti beri as was s ubj ect ed t o post - Pl i ocene
t ect oni c act i vi t y, whi ch r esul t ed in a series of t i l t ed bl ocks t hat par t l y ef f ect
t he cont i nui t y of t he aqui f er s and may cause wat er move me nt bet ween
aqui f er s whi ch are ot her wi se t ot al l y separ at ed (Fig. 4). I t is pr es umed t hat
t he recharge occur r i ng in t he J ude a Gr oup exposur es in t he hilly area of
Lowe r Galilee can al so f eed aqui f er s under l yi ng t he maj or J ude a Gr oup
aqui f er and emer ge al ong t he r i f t margi n because of bot h high hydr os t at i c
head and t her mal convect i on. Var i ous par amet er s (di scussed bel ow) and t he
hi gher t emper at ur e at a similar dept h in t he east er n syst em i ndi cat e t hat t he
t wo hydr ogeol ogi cal syst ems are ef f i ci ent l y seal ed of f f r om each ot her by
t he deep graben fill of i mper vi ous sedi ment s.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The l andl ocked Ri f t Val l ey as a salt t r ap at its base level was di scussed in
var i ous st udi es. One wel l -est abl i shed c onc e pt is t hat of t he Pl i ocene mar i ne
i nvasi on t o t he Ri f t Val l ey, an event whi ch drast i cal l y enhanced its salt
bal ance. Thi s r esul t ed in r ecycl i ng of t he original mar i ne wat er , whi ch
f or med bri nes of var i ous concent r at i ons and t hi ck evapori t es. The l at t er
wer e e nc ount e r e d in Mt. Sedom and r ecent l y also in t he Zemah 1 well.
Gol ds chmi dt et al. ( 1967) and St ar i nsky ( 1974) suggest ed t hat t he bul k of
t he di ssol ved salts emergi ng at t he mi neral springs deri ve f r om di l ut ed
bri nes whi ch evapor at ed t o t he poi nt of NaC1 pr eci pi t at i on. St ar i nsky ( 1974)
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57
at t r i but ed t he fi nal Ca-chl ori de af f i ni t y of t hese wat er s t o dol omi t i zat i on of
cal ci t i c and aragoni t i c hos t r ocks. Mazor and Mer o ( 1969a, b) pr opos ed an
associ at i on wi t h initial mar i ne compos i t i on whi ch unde r we nt exchange
r eact i on wi t h t he c ount r y r ocks.
The cur r ent s t udy deal s onl y wi t h t he chemi st r y of F, B and SiO2 in con-
j unct i on wi t h geot her mal af f i ni t y, and not wi t h t he origin of t he salts invol-
ved in t he hydr ogeol ogi cal syst ems di scussed. The chemi cal compos i t i on of
t he t her mal and t her mal - r el at ed sour ces is given in Tabl e 1.
Fl uori ne
The i ncrease of F c ont e nt in non- t her mal gr oundwat er s r ef l ect s a progres-
sive i ncrease in sal i ni t y in t he f r eshwat er s (Arad et al., 1984) . Traci ng t he
chemi cal evol ut i on of nat ur al gr oundwat er s in Israel f r om t he i nt ake t o t he
di scharge area reveal s F levels of 0. 1- - 0. 2 ppm in t he recharge area and
0. 2- - 0. 5 ppm downs t r e a m wher e t he f r eshwat er aqui f er s be c ome conf i ned.
Bracki sh gr oundwat er in t he Lake Ti beri as area has an F c ont e nt in t he range
of 0. 7- - 1. 6 ppm, and al ong t he west er n es car pment of t he Dead Sea it is
1. 2- - 1. 9ppm, even slightly hi gher t han t he 1 . 6 p p m encount er ed in t he
Medi t er r anean Sea. The Ti beri as Roma n Spri ng ( 64C) , cont ai ns 3. 2 ppm F,
wher eas ot her br acki sh t her mal wat er s in t he Ri f t Val l ey have a range of
2. 4- - 3. 0 ppm. The hi ghest r ecor ded F level in Israel is in t he Dead Sea
br i ne (32% sal i ni t y) wi t h 5. 5 ppm ( Tabl e 1).
In cont r as t t o t he above t r end is t he case of t he Ha mma t Gader fresh
geot her mal wat er s. Thei r F c ont e nt , i.e., 1. 2- - 2. 3 ppm, is si gni fi cant l y hi gher
t han in any ot her har d car bonat e f r eshwat er aqui f er el sewhere in Israel. The
except i onal high F c ont e nt is best demons t r at ed by t hei r high F/C1 r at i o
( Tabl e 1) whi ch is one t o t wo or der s of magni t ude hi gher t han any ot her
wat er sour ce. Thi s r at i o decreases wi t h sal i ni t y i ncrease and mi ni mal val ues
are i ndi cat ed in t he Medi t er r anean and t he Dead Sea wat er s ( Tabl e 1).
Nor ds t r om and J enne ( 1977) have s hown t hat t he concent r at i on of fl uor-
i ne and cal ci um of geot her mal wat er s in t he west er n Uni t ed St at es is cont r ol -
l ed by t he equi l i br i um sol ubi l i t y of cal ci t e and f l uor i t e. Geot her mal wat er s
are in equi l i br i um wi t h f l uor i t e at dept h and t her ef or e, at t ai n t he hi ghest F
c ont e nt and decr ease when mi xed wi t h l ow- F- cont ent gr ound- or sur f ace
wat er s of a non- t her mal origin.
The cal cul at ed r at i os of t he AP ( act i vi t y pr oduc t of f l uor i t e and cal ci t e) t o
K ( equi l i br i um cons t ant s as a f unct i on of t emper at ur e) as obt ai ned f r om
Nor ds t r om and J enne ( 1977) and Garrel s and Chri st ( 1965) equat i on and
dat a i ndi cat es similar equi l i br i um r el at i onshi ps in t he wat er s of Mezar - -
Ha mma t Gader and Ti beri as. All t he wat er s are sat ur at ed or super sat ur at ed
wi t h r espect t o cal ci t e and sat ur at ed or slightly under s at ur at ed wi t h r espect
t o f l uor i t e (Fig. 5). Si mi l ar cal cul at i on i ndi cat es t hat non- t her mal fresh
gr oundwat er s in t he same aqui f er t ype in west er n Galilee are under s at ur at ed
wi t h r espect t o f l uor i t e and s at ur at ed wi t h r espect t o cal ci t e.
5 8
o
b-
o ~
3 . 0
2 . 0
1. 0
0
- I . 0
- 2 . 0
- 3 . 0
- 4 . 0
~a g
4 e 3 . F ~
W e s t e r n G a l i l e e
f r e s h wa t e r
o A
e 6 e 5
I I I I I I I 1 I
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0
Te mp. "C
Fig. 5. Log AP/K--temperature relationships indicating fluorite equilibrium in thermal
waters studied.
F
p p m
3
e8
Z /
3.
I 4
2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0
T e m p . *C
F i g . 6. F l u o r i n e - - t e mp e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( r = 0 . 9 9 ) .
C o n si de r i n g the se e qu i l i br i u m r e l at i o n shi ps, t he h ~ h F co n t e n t o f t he
fr e sh t he r mal wat e r s o f M e za r - Ha mma t G ade r as co mpar e d t o gr o u n dwat e r
e l se whe r e an d t o t he t he r mal br acki sh t o sal in e wat e r o f Hamme Tve r i a
( Ti be r i as R o man S pr i n g) can be e xpl ai n e d. The aspe ct o f di f f e r e n t F avail a-
bi l i t y do e s n o t se e m t o be ar o n t he F co n t e n t o f the se wat e r s, as al l appar -
e n t l y are in cont act wi t h similar r ock t ypes. The fi rst stage in t he F increase
resul t s f r om t he posi t i ve ef f ect of t emper at ur e on t he ki net i c appr oach
t owar d equi l i bri um of f l uor i t e and on t he equi l i bri um cons t ant i t sel f (K
changes f r om about 10 -l'96 at 25C t o about 10 -1-s6 at 80C; Nor ds t r om
and Jenne, 1977). The positive cor r el at i on of F wi t h t emper at ur e not i ced
in t he fresh Mezar - - Hammat Gader syst em (Fig. 6) but not in t he saline
t her mal sources suggests, however, t hat a second stage of f l uor i ne enrich-
me nt is enhanced in fresh t her mal wat ers, par t i cul ar l y t hr ough t he ef f ect of
t emper at ur e on t he car bonat e syst em.
In t hese wat ers Ca is ent i r el y bal anced by HCO 3 . Assumi ng consi st ent
CaCO 3 sat ur at i on and a cons t ant l ow pressure, r educt i on of al kal i ni t y due t o
59
r educed sol ubi l i t y of CO2 wi t h i ncreasi ng t emper at ur e, combi ned wi t h t he
r educt i on of t he equi l i bri um cons t ant of CaCO3 si gni fi cant l y di mi ni shes Ca
act i vi t y in t he wat er t hr ough CaCO 3 pr eci pi t at i on, and enhances f ur t he r
f l uor i t e di ssol ut i on. I n saline wat er , on t he ot her hand, onl y a small por t i on
of t he Ca is bal anced by HCO3 and, t her ef or e, t he Ca act i vi t y in t he sol ut i on
is muc h less af f ect ed by al kal i ni t y changes. Consequent l y, heat i ng of t he
saline wat er of Hamme Tveria will onl y slightly r educe t he Ca act i vi t y in
t he sol ut i on and its ef f ect on t he F bal ance will be negligible. As bot h
syst ems are nat ur al l y di scharged t hr ough large springs, it is pr es umed t hat
some of t hei r gas can escape, whi ch gives cr edence t o t he assumpt i on made
f or t he syst em. Consi deri ng t he overall sat ur at i on wi t h r espect t o f l uor i t e
(Fig. 5) t he wel l -est abl i shed cor r el at i on bet ween F and t emper at ur e in t he
Mezar - - Hammat Gader syst em (Fig. 6) appar ent l y def i nes t he sol ubi l i t y
line o f f l uor i t e unde r t hese specific condi t i ons. This sol ubi l i t y line
is ver y similar t o t hat est abl i shed f or silica (see Fig. 8). But unl i ke fl uori ne,
t he sol ubi l i t y line of silica in t he range of wat er and r ock- mi ner al composi -
t i ons di scussed her e is less de pe nde nt on ot her species and is t hus valid f or
bot h t her mal syst ems. Admi xt ur e wi t h wat er f r om ot her sources af f ect s t he
cor r el at i on as well, but t he rel at i vel y high F c ont e nt of t he heat ed fresh end
me mb e r is still r ecogni zed, even in margi nal bracki sh springs associ at ed wi t h
t he Mezar - - Hammat Gader syst em. Hence, a compar i son bet ween t wo
br acki sh- war m springs, En Gof r a in t he east and Hassart an in t he west
(in bot h chl or i ni t y is about 2 9 0 0 p p m and t emper at ur e is about 30C)
i ndi cat e 0. 00193 and 0. 00046 F/C1 rat i o, respect i vel y. The except i onal
high F c ont e nt in t he En Gof r a spring (8 in Fig. 6) rel at i ve t o its f r esh- hot
c o mp o n e n t and its mi xi ng pr opor t i on wi t h t he saline sour ce coul d i ndi cat e
hi gher t emper at ur es t han t hose r ecor ded t o dat e. The r emar kabl y hi gh SiO2
c ont e nt of t hi s spring also cor r obor at es t hi s assumpt i on.
The general t r end of absol ut e F i ncrease wi t h sal i ni t y in gr oundwat er
syst ems f r om t he wat er shed down t o t he base level resul t s mos t pr obabl y
f r om a cl oser appr oach t o f l uor i t e equi l i bri um wi t h i ncreasi ng r esi dence t i me
of t he wat er in t he aqui fer. I n saline wat ers, t her mal and non- t her mal , fur-
t her absol ut e F e nr i c hme nt is enhanced by t he i ncrease of f l uor i t e sol ubi l i t y
wi t h i ncreasi ng i oni c st rengt h. The Roma n Spring wat er f l uor i ne c ont e nt is
al most doubl e t hat of seawat er of similar i oni c st r engt h (0. 65 and 0. 70,
respect i vel y). Cal cul at i ng t he act i vi t y pr oduc t of f l uor i t e i ndi cat es t hat sea-
wat er is slightly under s at ur at ed wi t h r espect t o f l uor i t e wher eas t hat of t he
Roma n Spri ng is wel l -sat urat ed (AP of 10 -11"2 and 10 -9"s and K is in t he
or der of 10 -1'96 and 10 -1'64 , respect i vel y).
A pr es umed mi xt ur e of a sal i ne-hot c o mp o n e n t and a fresh-cool compon-
ent woul d r esul t in values cont r adi ct i ng t he mi xi ng ratios, namel y, t he
chl or i ni t y of En Gof r a compr i ses onl y 16% of t hat of t he Ti beri as Roma n
Spring, wher eas its f l uor i ni t y woul d i mpl y 93% of t he l at t er.
Weighing all t he evi dence, i.e., Mezar f r esh- t her mal wat ers versus Ti beri as
t her mal - mi ner al wat ers, F/C1 rat i os of br acki sh- war m springs on bot h sides
6 0
Io
BlC l
0.0:
B p p m
0. 00. 5
I . o - - 0 . 0 0 2
O . O O I
0 . 1
O . O l
I o
I
2 ' , :
De
/ ' :
i I
0. 5 1.0 2 . 0 N Q / C l .
a
I O 2 I O 3 I 0 4 CI p p m IO s
Fi g. 7. (a) Bor on- - chl or i ne r el at i onshi ps; ( b) B/ CI rat i o--Na/ C1 r at i o r el at i onshi ps (r =
0. 98).
of t he l ake, as wel l as t he di scr epancy obt ai ned in a linear mi xi ng rat i o, it is
concl uded t hat F anomal y ori gi nat es in t he fresh car bonat ed s ys t em east
of Lake Ti beri as.
Boron
Bor on c ont e nt in gr oundwat er in Israel general l y i ncreases wi t h sal i ni t y
increase. The good cor r el at i on f ound bet ween B and C1 in gr oundwat er
demons t r at es t hi s general t r end. The t her mal wat er s st udi ed do not const i -
t ut e a special case in t hi s r espect and t he y all cor r el at e wi t h C1, wi t hout
not i ceabl e ef f ect of el evat ed t emper at ur es on t he B c ont e nt of t he wat er
(Fig. 7a). Thi s general behavi or of B i ndi cat es t hat , like Cl, it is a conserva-
t i ve el ement whos e concent r at i on over a wi de range of salinities is not
cont r ol l ed by any equi l i br i um r el at i onshi p wi t h B salts. A slight decr ease
of t he B/C1 r at i o was not i ced when sal i ni t y i ncreases f r om ver y fresh up t o
mar i ne level. A slight i ncrease of t he above r at i o was de t e c t e d in a sal i ni t y
range of mar i ne up t o t hat of s at ur at ed br i nes in r espect t o hal i t e ( Ar ad et
al., 1984) . In t he t her mal wat er s st udi ed, a slight B/C1 i ncrease is r ecogni zed
in wat er havi ng an Na/C1 r at i o above t hat of seawat er (Fig. 7b). Si nce t he
above B enr i chment does not f ol l ow any i ncrease in Ca cont ent , it is suggest ed
61
S i O z
p p m
5 o
40
30
20
o - - ~ o A
,c ~ 5,,
D eB ~
e ~ 4
I I l I I 1 I
20 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 O 0
5 an d 8 not m~ l u de d T e mp . "C
Fig. 8. Si O2- - t emper at ur e rel at i onshi ps of geot hermal waters ( r = 0. 96, samples 5 and 8
n o t i ncl uded).
t hat B may be derived from clays or from basalts. Cont act with such rocks is
feasible in t he hydrogeological setting proposed for t he Mezar--Hammat
Gader t hermal system.
Silica
A linear positive correlation bet ween wat er t emperat ure and silica cont ent
was f ound in bot h t he Hammat Gader and Tiberias hydr ot her mal systems
(Levitte and Eckstein, 1979; Mazor et al., 1980). The dat a of all large
sources in bot h systems indicate t hat almost all of them* correlate along one
well-established regression line (Fig. 8). Following TruesdeU and Fournier' s
(1977) procedure, this regression line was empl oyed by Levitte and Eckstein
(1979) t o deduce t he presence of a hot wat er end-member component of
about 115C. They assumed t hat all t he silica was derived from quartz
dissolution (as mai nt ai ned by Fourni er and Rowe, 1966) and suggested t hat
t he slightly higher t han quartz equilibrium concent rat i on denotes, t herefore,
equilibrium at higher t emperat ures. In fact, as Mazor et al. (1980) have
already stressed, t he local silica--temperature regression line plots in-between
and subparallel t o t he solubility lines of quartz and chal cedony bot h of
which are onl y approxi mat e lines at this low t emperat ure range. The range
of analytical error and t he uncert ai nt y regarding t he relevant mineral renders
Levitte and Eckstein' s (1979) conclusion questionable. Nevertheless, t he
same regression line which is common t o bot h t hermal systems, regardless of
t hei r separated hydrogeologic setting, calls for anot her i nt erpret at i on. It
appears t hat t he established silica--temperature regression line mor e or less
* We c o ns i de r t h e s i ngl e e x c e p t i o n , t hat of Mezar 1, result of anal yt i cal or sampling
failure. Techni cal pr obl ems prevent ed resampl i ng i n this well.
62
def i nes t he sol ubi l i t y line of t he l ocal silica-containing mi neral speci es
equi l i brat i ng wi t h t he t her mal wat er and does not necessari l y excl usi vel y
r epr esent quar t z sol ubi l i t y. The mos t pr eval ent local silica-bearing f or m is
cher t whi ch consi st s mos t l y of cr ypt ocr ys t al l i ne quar t z associ at ed wi t h ot her
silica f or ms and t hus has sol ubi l i t i es hi gher t han quar t z pr oper .
I SOTOPI C DATA
51s0
Many 518 O dat a of gr oundwat er as wel l as of surface- and r ai nwat er f r om
t he area under di scussi on ( Gat et al., 1969; Gat and Dansgaard, 1972; Mazor
et al., 1973, 1980) pr ovi de a concr et e basis f or anal yzi ng t he rol e of 5180 in
t he t her mal s ys t ems di scussed.
The 5180 of t he Ti beri as t her mal syst em i ndi cat es a general cor r el at i on
wi t h t he sal i ni t y of t he wat er , namel y, t he hi gher t he sal i ni t y t he heavi er t he
i sot opi c oxygen compos i t i on. The 5180 of t he Roma n Spri ng (-- 3%0 ) whi ch
is t he mos t saline occur r ence in t he ent i re syst em, wi t h sal i ni t y cl ose t o t hat
of seawat er , cl earl y i ndi cat es t hat it ori gi nat ed f r om evapor at ed seawat er
mi xed wi t h f r eshwat er ( Gat et al., 1969) . The Na/ CI r at i os whi ch are l ower
t han t hat of seawat er and Br/CI r at i os whi ch are si gni fi cant l y hi gher, suggest
evapor at i on up t o t he poi nt of hal i t e pr eci pi t at i on ( St ar i nsky, 1974) . Calcu-
lating t he mi xi ng pr opor t i on be t we e n such a saline end me mbe r and fresh-
wat er based on expect ed 6180 val ues, i.e., + 3 t o + 5 and - - 5 t o - - 6 ,
r espect i vel y and chl or i ne c ont e nt ~ 220, 000 and ~ 100 ppm, r espect i vel y,
resul t s in a mi xt ur e cont ai ni ng a b o u t 5--20% of t he original bri ne. Some
di screpanci es be t we e n 51So and sal i ni t y in t hese wat er s and in ma ny mor e
di l ut ed wat er s in t he syst em coul d be expl ai ned by assumi ng mi xi ng in mor e
t han a single st age ( Gat et al., 1969) . The original bri ne is at t r i but ed t o t he
Pl i ocene sea i ngressi on i nt o t he Ri f t Val l ey whi ch unde r we nt evapor at i on
and pr eci pi t at ed hal i t e.
The ver y good cor r el at i on f ound bet ween 5 ' 8 0 and t emper at ur e in t he
fresh t her mal syst em of Mezar - - Hammat Gader i ndi cat es t hat t he hi gher
t he t emper at ur e t he mor e negat i ve is t he 6 ' 8 0 rat i o (Fig. 9). As t hi s rel at i on-
shi p is reversed t o t hat expect ed t o be devel oped under t emper at ur e-
cont r ol l ed wat er - - r ock i nt er act i on, t he 5 '8 O of t he wat er is t r aced t o its
original compos i t i on r at her t han t o di agenet i c ef f ect s.
Compar i ng t he 6180 of t he Mezar - - Hammat Gader t o t hat of known
surface- and shal l ow gr oundwat er in t he regi on, it appear s t hat t he obser ved
51s o- t emper at ur e cor r el at i on r epr esent s a mi xi ng line be t we e n t wo fresh
c ompone nt s , i.e., a hot and light and a cool er and heavi er one. The signifi-
cant l y heavi er 6 ~s O compos i t i on of t he bracki sh En Gof r a spring appar ent l y
c onne c t e d t o t he same syst em, r epr esent s mi xi ng wi t h a t hi r d c o mp o n e n t
whi ch is col der , mor e saline and i sot opi caUy heavy. The t hr ee mai n
63
8~aO
- 7 N O R THE R N C O M P O N E N T J
(M t. Har mo n - G o l an H e i g h t s /
/
- 6 e~/////e /
e7
~ I ~ S O ~ : H E R N & LO C A L C O M P O N E N TS
(main l y A j l u n A n t i c l i n e )
- 5 I i," i i i i i l
20 4 0 6 0 80
T e m p . =C
Fig. 9. ~lSO--temperature relationship i n t h e e a s t e r n Lake Tiberias hydrogeological
s y s t e m (r = 0.97).
c ompone nt s whi ch hydr ogeol ogi cal l y mi ght have mi xed t o f or m t he Me z a r -
Ha mma t Gader syst em, ma y have deri ved f r om recharge areas in t he nor t her n
Gol an Hei ght s in t he nor t h, f r om t he Aj l un area in t he s out h and f r om t he
di l ut ed bri ne st or ed in t he Ri f t Val l ey and its margins. Wat ers in t hese
recharge areas have al most i dent i cal i sot opi c composi t i ons, i.e., --7O/oo and
- - 5.75O/oo respect i vel y. The i sot opi c compos i t i on of t he bri ne is di f f i cul t t o
est abl i sh because of t he compl ex mi xi ng hi st or y di scer ned in t he vari ous
saline sour ces in t he regi on ( Gat et al., 1969) .
s7 Sr/s6 Sr rati o
Two anal yses of Sr i sot opi c compos i t i on have been carri ed out on Mezar
2 and 3 wat er s ( St ar i nsky, Geol ogy Depar t ment , Hebr ew Uni versi t y). The
val ues obt ai ned are 0. 70775 + 0. 00012 and 0. 70773 + 0. 00001, respect i vel y.
These val ues cor r es pond t o t he mar i ne rat i o f or Cr et aceous r ocks ( J udea
Gr oup aqui fer) el sewhere in Israel ( St ar i nsky et al., 1980) . The Me z a r -
Ha mma t Gader hydr ol ogi cal s ys t em f l ows t hr ough a t hi ck cover of mar i ne
car bonat es younger t han Cr et aceous. Deeper aqui f er s (in r ocks ol der t han
Cr et aceous) ma y al so cont r i but e t o t he syst em. Though seemi ngl y t he cont ri -
but i on of t he Cr et aceous J ude a Gr oup aqui f er t o t hi s hydr ol ogi cal syst em is
over whel mi ng, i sot opi c compos i t i ons of ol der and younger r ocks (Jurassi c
and Eocene) mi ght also be i ncor por at ed in t he above rat i os.
DISCUSSION
The adj acent , b u t separ at ed, Mezar - - Hammat Gader and Ti beri as
t her mal syst ems di f f er in t wo aspect s, namel y, in t he chemi st r y of t he
64
c o mp o n e n t t hr ough whi ch t he heat is suppl i ed t o t he syst em and in t he
abs ol ut e t emper at ur es prevailing in t he syst ems. As pr evi ousl y not ed, t he
f or mer is heat ed t hr ough its f r eshwat er c ompone nt , wher eas in t he l at t er t he
heat seems t o be pr ovi ded t hr ough its saline c ompone nt . Thi s di f f er ence in
t he heat suppl y mechani sm account s f or t he relative F enr i chment in t he
f or mer ' s t her mal syst em. It is also r ef l ect ed t hr ough its 15- - 20C hi gher
t emper at ur e r ecor ded at equal dept hs. Thi s coul d have r esul t ed ei t her f r om
deeper ci r cul at i on or f r om a s t eeper geot her mal gradi ent .
The i sot opi c compos i t i on of ' 80 and 87Sr/S~Sr pr ovi des r el evant i nfor-
mat i on in t hi s r espect . The 6 ' So val ue obt ai ned f or t he f r esh- hot c o mp o n e n t
at Mezar 1 cor r es ponds t o val ues obt ai ned f or t he nor t her n Gol an Hei ght s
and t he J or dan sour ces ori gi nat i ng in Mount Her mon. Thi s light oxygen
compos i t i on coul d not have r esul t ed f r om pr eci pi t at i on in t he Aj l un anti-
cline i nt ake t o t he s out h, but r at her i ndi cat es a recharge c o mp o n e n t deri ved
f r om a hi gher al t i t ude, namel y, f r om t he nor t h. The Sr i sot opi c compos i t i on
i mpl i es a J ude a ( Cenomani an) Gr oup origin f or t he Me z a r - Ha mma t Gader
hydr ogeol ogi cal t her mal syst em. A combi ned basal t i c- - Judea Gr oup aqui f er
in t he nor t her n Gol an Hei ght s was descr i bed by Mi chel son ( 1975) . Thi s
aqui f er is mos t l i kel y t he nor t her n ext ensi on of t he syst em and account s f or
t he high Na/C1 r at i o in t he fresh-t hermal wat er s of Mezar - - Hammat Gader.
The r at i os obt ai ned are t ypi cal of basaltic aqui f er s in nor t her n Israel and are
not known f r om any f r eshwat er car bonat e aqui fers. These dat a poi nt t o t he
J ude a Gr oup as t he maj or aqui f er t hr ough whi ch wat er is c ont r i but e d t o t he
syst em f r om t he nor t h, t hough l at eral deeper recharge f r om t he Mount
He r mon Jurassi c aqui f er is not di scount ed. A consi der abl e cont r i but i on f r om
t hi s sour ce, woul d have shi f t ed t he STSr/S6Sr t o a l ower rat i o, but t hi s coul d
have been count er bal anced by a hi gher r at i o deri ved f r om t he Ter t i ar y cover
t hr ough whi ch t he syst em discharges.
As t emper at ur es obt ai ned are hi gher t han t hos e expect ed f or a geot her mal
s ys t em sol el y f ed t hr ough t he Cr et aceous J ude a Gr oup f ound at a dept h of
up t o 1 5 0 0 - - 2 0 0 0 m under regul ar geot her mal condi t i ons, a l ocal heat
anomal y is i mpl i ed. The e xt e nt of such an anomal y, i f pr esent , is unknown,
as pr evi ous a t t e mpt s t o cal cul at e t he initial t emper at ur e of t he syst em by
means of var i ous geot her momet er s wer e unsuccessf ul . Consi deri ng all chemi -
cal dat a al ong wi t h t he hydr ogeol ogi cal set t i ng, it is mos t l i kel y t hat a hi gher
t han nor mal goet her mal gr adi ent ext ends over part s of t he Gol an Hei ght s.
The ext ensi ve basal t and t uf f cover over t he area r epr esent s a l ong per i od of
vol cani c act i vi t y whi ch onl y ceased a f ew hundr ed year s bef or e pr esent . I f
t he 79C t emper at ur e, t he hi ghest encount er ed so far, r epr esent s t he hot end
me mbe r of t he syst em der i ved f r om t he nor t h, t hen f l ow in t he J ude a Gr oup
aqui f er at a dept h of a b o u t 1500- - 2000 m i mpl i es a gr adi ent of a bout 40C
km -1 . The t emper at ur es r ecor ded in t he Ti beri as syst em, on t he ot her hand,
are in line wi t h a nor mal goet her mal gr adi ent f ound t hr oughout mos t of t he
count r y. The 64C f ound at a dept h of 1 3 5 0 m near t he Ro ma n Spri ng
i mpl i es a goet her mal gr adi ent of a bout 30C k m- ' .
65
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We t hank Prof. J. R. Gat of t he Wei zmann I nst i t ut e f or provi di ng 5180 dat a
f r om t he Mezar 2 and 3 t her mal wells, as wel l as f or his c omme nt s regardi ng
i sot opi c dat a. We also wi sh t o t hank Dr. A. St ar i nsky of t he Hebr ew Uni ver-
si t y f or provi di ng Sr i sot opi c dat a. The manuscr i pt was edi t ed by Mrs. B.
Kat z and t y p e d by Mrs. V. Ari eh, bot h of whom we t hank.
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