An Experimentally Validated 3D Model for Friction Stir Welding

G.J. Bendzsak*, T.H. North* and C. B. Smith**

* Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science,
University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
** Tower Automotive Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin., USA
Introduction
The work described in the present paper is part of a multi-year program by Tower
Automotive Inc. aimed at developing a validated process model for friction stir welding.
This program is being carried out in distinct phases, where Phase 1 involves the
determination of unknown material properties (particularly material viscosity) and Phase 2
involves the development and validation of a 3-D process model for friction stir welding.
This paper presents the preliminary results obtained using a recently developed 3-D heat
and material flow simulation program for friction stir welding (STIR3D
TM
software
1
). For
illustrative purposes the flow structure produced using a tool designed by The Welding
Institute (TWI) is analyzed. The intent is to demonstrate an approach that successfully
analyses physical phenomena within the weld. For the sake of brevity, mathematical and
computer related details required for implementation of the simulation will be presented
elsewhere.
The essence of the simulation is that the dynamics within the weld zone can be explored
through solutions of the 3-D Navier-Stokes equations and the principles of non-linear
mechanics. Flow patterns are calculated using the equations of fluid mechanics and their
dynamics are then examined by following the motions of tracers embedded within the flow.
Concerning heat transfer, viscous dissipation of mechanical energy is the heat source [1,2].
As a result, the simulation does not resort to the artifact of a coefficient of friction for heat
generation. The approach ensures both consistent and unified application of the relevant
equations of mathematical physics and yields results that correspond with the features
observed in actual welds.
The inputs to STIR3D
TM
software involve tool geometry, material properties and operational
conditions such as welding speed, tool rotational velocity, travel (tilt) angle and depth of
immersion. STIR3D
TM
software generates a wide range of outputs for analysis and design.
These include:
A) 3-D material velocity profiles and pressure distributions
B) temperature and heat generation fields
C) complete shear and stress maps
D) force distributions on all tool surfaces
E) tool forces and torques
In Phase 1 of this program, the parameters of a non-Newtonian, temperature dependent
viscosity were derived for the 3-D process simulation [3]. It was also confirmed that the
eutectic temperature prevailed in material immediately adjacent to the tool periphery. With
this in mind, it is assumed in the initial 3-D simulations that the material surrounding the tool
pin is at the eutectic temperature and that the required value of viscosity corresponds to this
temperature. It is assumed that variations in the thermal profiles around the tool and within

1
Trade mark pending
the nugget have only secondary effects on the flow dynamics. The influence of thermal
profiles on the flow structure will be included in the model and described in a future paper.
An Overview of the Model
The flow dynamics produced using the threaded TWI tool design are used to illustrate
the numerical solution of the coupled Navier-Stokes and heat transfer equations. The
computational techniques employed in the solution are modifications of those described in
reference [3] and will not be presented here
The entire problem is first divided into a convenient number of regions. In turn, each
of these regions is sub-divided into a set of non-orthogonal control volumes. These are
required by the numerical approximation schemes for the flow and heat transfer equations.
Meshes for the regions have varied densities and this allows for a higher mesh density near
the tool in order to reveal the fine structure of the flow. Varied mesh densities allow more
detailed output of the critical regions close to the tool and reveal the fine structures embedded
within the flow. A mesh generated in any region is independent of any other and does not
require matching at region interfaces. For illustrative purposes, the flow region formed by
the plate and the tool has been divided into 41 separate sub-domains, see Figure 1.
The problem, as defined by the sub-domains, is divided into two separate inter-linked
parts:
A) An inclined, sliding grid system bounded by a tilted cylinder that both encloses the
tool and rotates with it. The effects of the changing geometry caused by the rotation of
the inclined tool are automatically accounted for by a set of continually deforming
grids. This allows the simulation to account for variations in the travel angle.
B) A fixed frame geometry for the plate that holds the tool region. The cylinder in a)
above translates along a fixed surface. After each step of the tool rotation the
geometrical configuration at the interface is re-visited to determine the contact
relationships between the control volumes on either side of the translating surface.
Bead-on-plate welds were made using a threaded TWI tool design shown in Figure 2. The
geometry of the tool shoulder was simplified to reduce the complexity of an already
complicated model. The welding parameters were:
A) welding speed of 20 mm/sec
B) counter-clockwise tool rotation at 1200 rpm
C) angle of inclination of 3
0
from the vertical
D) the tool heel was 0.2 to 0.3 mm below the plate surface
E) 7 mm thick 6061-T6 aluminum plate was used throughout
Assumptions
The assumptions comprise:
A) The material properties of 6061-T6 are those indicated in reference [3]
B) Constant temperature conditions prevail in every region in Figure 1. This
simplification is not inherent in the formulation of the problem; rather it was brought
about by computer resource limitations associated with the solution of a complex fluid
flow problem. Simply put, there was not enough memory available to include another
set of equations. This problem is presently being eliminated by an implementation of
STIR3D
TM
software on a large parallel computational facility to eliminate memory
constraints and reduce the solution time.
C) Since temperature effects on viscosity are not included in the analysis, viscosity is
assumed to be constant and equal to that at the eutectic temperature. Comparisons
between computed results and the observed flow patterns in actual welds reveal that
this assumption does not result in unrealistic predictions of flow dynamics.
D) The solution was initiated by assuming that a tool embedded within the aluminum
plate was impulsively started and instantaneously attained the welding velocity.
Typical Results
Large variations in the magnitude of velocity present difficulties in presentation and
interpretation of the test results. For this reason, all vector magnitudes in the paper are
uniform and are set equal to 1.5% of the maximum shoulder velocity. This simple expedient
allows the examination of the desired flow features without obstruction by large vectors in
the vicinity of tool surface. Also, a better understanding of the flow can be obtained by
viewing what happens on cylindrical surfaces around the tool since this is the natural
coordinate system within the nugget. Viewing of cylindrical surfaces readily highlights the
effects produced by several singularities within the flow.
Plan Views
Figures 3a to 3c illustrate the flow features observed in different through-thickness
sections. Counterclockwise flow occurs immediately below the shoulder (see Figure 3a) and
is consistent with published results indicating the transfer of material (from the advancing to
the retreating side of the weld) as the tool rotates [4,5,6]. However, at a distance of 3 mm
below the shoulder the flow direction is not counterclockwise, it is changed to extrusion of
material past the rotating pin (see Figure 3b). A transition region separates the
counterclockwise and extrusion flow regimes (see Figure 3c), is about 600 m wide and is
located 1.5 mm below the shoulder.
On the advancing side of the weld, at a point within the transition zone the component
of rotational velocity will be opposite to that of tool motion, reducing the net vector
component in the welding direction to zero. Above and below this location the flow will be
in opposite directions generating a vortex. The physical situation in a friction stir weld is
consequently similar to the establishment of the reverse flow typically found under the
rotating helicopter wing. Tool rotation will shift the zone of instability in the through
thickness direction and small markers released in close vicinity of each other on the leading
side of the weld will follow drastically different paths. Another way of describing this
phenomenon is to say that the dynamics within a particular region in the weld are very
sensitive to the initial conditions and the flow can become chaotic in nature [7]. For this
reason the transition region located at the advancing side of the weld is termed the chaotic
flow zone for the remainder of this paper. In Figure 3c, the line AB represents the
demarcation between the stable and chaotic regions. Line AB will be displaced towards the
leading edge of the weld for planes above Figure 3c; it will be moved towards the trailing
edge of the weld on planes below Figure 3c.
Figure 4 shows a cylindrical surface located at a radial distance 3 mm from the axis
of tool rotation. Two spirals (S1 and S2) and an unstable saddle (C) are observed and these
will noticeably affect the flow structure. For example, spiral S1 will direct material towards
the pin surface (see later) and spiral S2 forces material in the nugget to form the vertical wall
feature typically observed on the advancing side of friction stir welds.
Transverse Sections
No significant features in the flow are observed at the retreating side of the weld.
Weld microsections are also relatively featureless at the retreating side of the weld. This
correlates with the fact that it is difficult to produce weld defects on the retreating side of the
weld and that cross-sections show few distinctive features on the retreating side of the weld.
For this reason, the calculated results will only be presented for the advancing side of the
weld. Figure 5 shows a transverse section 5 mm behind the tool centerline. A number of
features are exhibited, e.g., the spiral S1 is 3-dimensional and has its midpoint 3 mm from the
weld centerline. This spiral forces material towards the tool periphery and a wall-like feature
is produced by the upward flow of material (W1 in Figure 5). A boundary forms between
two flow regimes (line AB BC) and has similar features to those in weld micrographs of lap
penetration welds (see Figures 6 and 7). This vertical flow is also responsible for the
interface deformation that is seen in lap penetration welds, using the tool with a threaded pin.
Pin Threads
Figure 8 shows the flow behavior associated with the threads on the TWI tool (at the
location 2 mm below the shoulder, in the chaotic flow zone). Material contained within the
tool thread space moves with the tool as it rotates in a counterclockwise direction. However,
at the advancing side of the weld material is removed from the thread space and forms a
stream at the trailing edge of the tool (P in Figure 8). It is suggested that this effect, in
combination with spiral S2, produces the flaw shown in Figure 9.
Tracer Paths
Figure 10a shows a 3-D view of typical particle paths for release points A to E, which
are located 5 mm from the centerline of the weld at the leading edge of the tool. Singularity
S1 dramatically alters the particle paths depending on their release point. For example,
particles can proceed along the length of the weld (see A and B in Figure 10a). Alternately
they may follow complicated spiraling motions towards the tool surface and eventually
become trapped in the region below the tool shoulder (see C, D, E in Figure 10a). In this
connection, Colligan [5] also observed erratic particle paths when he introduced steel tracer
particles into Al 6061 and Al 7075 friction welds, e.g., particles located 2 mm below the
surface of the aluminum plate were significantly lifted as they passed the pin.
In a similar manner, Figure 10b shows the particle paths produced for release points 1
mm ahead of the traversing tool (at the location 1 mm below the shoulder). Spiral S1 causes
a suddenly reversal in the direction of particle motion, so that a particle moving towards the
advancing side of the weld suddenly reverses its direction and moves in a counterclockwise
direction with the tool. Flow reversal test results were also observed when Al 5054 inserts
were introduced during friction stir welding of Al 2195 base material [6].
The apparently erratic particle motions observed when insert materials were
introduced in Al 6061, Al 7075 and Al 2195 friction stir welds [5,6] are symptomatic of
singularities embedded within the flow structure. It is worth emphasizing that the use of
insert can illustrate the general features of the flow structure in friction stir welds. However,
numerical modeling is required to fully understand the detailed features of the flow structure
in completed joints.
Discussion
The present paper has provided evidence that STIR3D
TM
software can model the flow
structure and flow irregularities that correspond with microstructural features observed in
actual welds. The formation of a chaotic flow region at the location immediately below the
shoulder (on the advancing side of the weld) is of particular importance. This is the region
where spiral and saddle singularities are embedded within the flow structure and these
correspond with the location of defects in completed welds. Possible mechanisms for
singularity formation comprise:
a) The interaction between the flow generated by the shoulder and material introduced
on the advancing side of the stir weld.
b) Motion of material within the tool thread space and the resulting vorticity, which
could destabilize the local flow regime.
c) Some combination of a) and b) above.
It must be emphasized that the present paper examines the output produced using a
single set of welding parameters and a particular tool design. It is suggested that the form of
the chaotic flow zone and the flow irregularities contained within it will be affected by the
rotational speed selected, the travel speed during welding and, particularly, by the geometry
of the tool (the relative diameters of the shoulder and pin regions, the thread dimensions and
thread geometry). The combination of fluid mechanics and non-linear dynamics can predict
the features of the chaotic flow zone. This may provide information that will allow the
identification of operating zones where defect-free friction stir welds can be produced in a
consistent manner.
Conclusions
This paper shows that computational fluid mechanics can be successfully used to
analyze flows in friction stir welds. When using the TWI tool design, the calculated flow
structures using STIR3D
TM
software correspond with features observed in actual weld
micrographs after there has been considerable forward motion of the tool. The present results
indicate that three quite distinct flow regimes are formed below the tool shoulder, namely,
i) A region of rotation immediately below the shoulder (where flow occurs in the
direction of tool rotation)
ii) A region where material is extruded past the rotating tool; this occurs towards the
base of the pin
iii) A region of transition in between i) and ii) where the flow has chaotic behavior
The development of these regions within the weld is thought to be the root cause for creation
of defects. The essential features of the flow structure are established at the initiation of tool
forward motion and instabilities contained within the flow structure will remain for the whole
length of the welded joint. Bearing this in mind, a defect produced when the forward motion
of the tool is initiated will be continually extended as the tool traverses the workpiece. If a
defect develops at some location during the friction stir welding operation, it will then be
continually extended as the component is fabricated.
References
1. Bendzsak, G.J., North, T.H. and Li, Z. 1997, Numerical model for steady-state flow in
friction welding, Acta Metall. Mater., 45(4), pp. 1735-1745.
2. Bendzsak, G.J. and North, T.H.; 1997, Numerical Modelling of Fluid Dynamics and Heat
Transfer in Friction Welding Proc. International Seminar, Numerical Analysis of
Weldability, Graz, Austria, Sept. 30th-Oct. 3
rd
.
3. Smith, C.B., Bendzsak, G. J., North, T.H., Hinrichs, J.F., Noruk, J.S. and Heideman, R.J.
1999, Heat and Material Flow Modeling of the Friction Stir Welding Process,
Proceedings of the 9
th
International Conference in Computer Technology in Welding,
Detroit, MI, Sept. 28 30.
4. Thomas, W.M., Threadgill, P.L. and Nicholas, E.D. 1999, Feasibility of friction stir
welding steel, Science and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 4, no.6, pp. 365
372.
5. Colligan, K, Welding Journal, 1999, Material flow behavior during friction stir welding
of aluminium, July, pp. 229s - 237s.
6. Reynolds, A., 1999, Visualisation of material flow in autogenous friction welds, Science
and Technology of Welding and Joining, vol.5, No. 2, pp.120 124.
7. Otino, J.M. The kinematics of mixing; stretching, chaos and transport, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1989.
Figure 1:Schematic of the simulated FSW process
Figure 2: Schematic of the right-hand threaded TWI tool
Figure 3a Counter-clockwise rotation of the nugget approximately 1 mm below
shoulder
Figure 3b Extrusion approximately 3 mm below shoulder
Figure 3c Plan view in the chaotic region approximately 1.5 mm
below shoulder
Figure 4 Flow structure on a cylindrical surface 3mm from tool centerline
Figure 5 Flow features in a transverse cut 3 mm behind tool centerline
Figure 6 Transverse weld micrograph at location approximately corresponding to that
of Figure 5 showing vertical wall on advancing side
Figure 7 Weld micrograph exhibiting features along lines AB BC in Figure 5
Figure 8 Flow features between tool threads within the chaotic zone
Figure 9 Micrograph exhibiting weld defect in the vicinity of spiral S1
Figure 10a 3D particle dynamics at the tool leading edge
Figure 10b Reverse particle motion on the tool leading edge