ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE

Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

Advanced Legal Studies Institute

P.O.Box 3013, Islamabad

Contents
1

Introduction
1.1 The Problem With the Meaning of Jurisprudence
1.2 A Format of the General Theory of Law . . . . .
1.3 A Model for the Study of the General Theory of
Islamic Law or Usul al-Fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.4 The Subject-matter of Usul al-Fiqh . . . . . . . .
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1.5 The Scope of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1
3
10
14
17

21
The Meaning of Usul al-Fiqh and Basic Terms
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2.1 The Literal Meaning of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Earlier General Meaning of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Later Sh ite Denition of Fiqh . . . . . . . . . 26
a
2.4 Analysis of the Denition of Fiqh . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Distinctions Based on the Denition . . . . . . . 30
2.5.1
Distinction between sharah and qh . . 31

2.5.2 Distinction between mujtahid and faqh . 31

2.5.3 Distinction between ijtih d and taqld . . 32
a

2.5.4 Distinction between a muqallid and a

faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.6 A Wider Denition of Fiqh: Criticising the Narrow Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.6.1 What in reality is the dall tafsl? . . . . 33

.
2.6.2 The legal structure of the evidences (adillah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.3 Identifying the defects of the narrow
denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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2.6.4 Redening qh . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rejection of the Narrow Denition of Fiqh and
its Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 The Meaning of Asl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
2.9 The Nature of the Qaw id Usuliyyah: the Basis
a
.
of the Schools of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9.1 The Meaning of a School of Law . . . .
2.10 Usul al-Fiqh Dened: Combining the Meaning
.
of Fiqh and Usul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.11 The Nature of the Qaw id Fiqhiyyah: Are These
a
Evidences too? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.12 A Wider Denition of Usul al-Fiqh . . . . . . .
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2.7

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The Hukm Shar

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The Hukm: What is Islamic Law?

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3.1 The Three Elements of the Hukm Shar . . . . .

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3.2 The Meaning of the Hukm Shar or the Mean
.
ing of Islamic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The Hukm TaklfObligations and Duties . . .

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3.3.1
The hukm taklf from the perspective of

the usul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.3.2 The hukm taklf from the perspective of

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the faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3.3
The hukm taklf according to the Hanafs

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3.4 The Hukm WadDeclaratory Rules . . . . . .

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3.5 The Distinction Between the Hukm Taklf and

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the Hukm Wad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Classication of Rules in Islamic Law

75
4.1 The Meaning of W jib (Obligatory Act) and its
a
Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.1
The hukm or rule for the w jib . . . . . . 79
a
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4.2 The Classications of the W jib (Obligatory Act) 80
a
4.2.1 Classication based on the time available for performance: mutlaq and muqayyad 81
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4.2.2

4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

4.8
5

Classication based on the extent of the

required act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Classication based on the subjects who
are required to perform . . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Classication based on the identication of the object of the required act . .
The Meaning of Mand b (Recommended Act)
u
and its Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
Types of Mand b . . . . . . . . . . . .
u
The Meaning of Har m (Prohibited Act) and its
. a
Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 The types of har m . . . . . . . . . . .
. a
The Meaning of Makr h (Disapproved Act) and
u
its Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Meaning of Mub h (Permitted Act) and its
a.
Dierent Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Hukm Wad or the Declaratory Rule . . .
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4.7.1
Sabab, shart and m ni . . . . . . . . .
a
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4.7.2 Sihhah, fas d and butl n (validity, vitia
. ..
.a
tation and nullity) . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3
Azmah and rukhsah (initial rules and

.
exemptions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Purpose of the Classication . . . . . . . .

The Lawgiver (Hakim)

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5.1 Allah is the True Source of all Laws . . . . . . .
5.2 The Fundamental Norm of the Legal System .
5.3 The Law and the Interest of Man . . . . . . . .
5.3.1
Is Man the sole purpose of creation? . .
5.3.2 Can we employ maslahah (interest) for
. .
new laws? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Are the Sharah and Natural Law Compatible?

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The Act (Mahk m Fh)

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6.1 Dening the Mahk m Fh . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

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6.2

6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

Contents

The Conditions for the Creation of Obligation

(Taklf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.2.1 The act to be performed or avoided

must be known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.2 The subject should be able to perform
the act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Nature of the Act (Mahk m Fh) . . . . . . 121

. u
Classication of the Hukm Taklf on the Basis

.
of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Classication of Duties: Original and Substitutory 127
The Importance of the Classication of Rights
for Islamic Criminal Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Human Rights and Other Classications . . . . . 133
6.7.1
Developing the Islamic Theory of Rights
and Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.7.2 The analysis of rights . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.7.3
The nature of duties in Islamic law . . . 137
6.7.4 Natural rights and rights given by the law 138

The Subject (Mahk m Alayh)

. u
7.1 Ahliyyah or Legal Capacity . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1
The two parts of legal capacity . . . . .
7.1.2
Dhimmah and legal capacity . . . . . .
7.2 The Underlying Bases of Legal Capacity . . . .
7.2.1
Ins niyyah and Aql . . . . . . . . . . .
a
7.2.2
Mental maturity . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3
Legal capacity and liability . . . . . . .
7.3 Complete Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1
Legal eects of complete capacity . . .
7.3.2
The stages leading to complete legal capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Decient and Imperfect Capacity . . . . . . .
7.4.1
Cases of decient legal capacity . . . .
7.4.2 Cases of Imperfect Capacity . . . . . .

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II
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Islamic Jurisprudence

Causes of Defective Legal Capacity

8.1 Natural Causes of Defective Capacity . . . . . .
8.1.1
Minority (sighar) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
8.1.2 Insanity (jun n) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
u
8.1.3
Idiocy (atah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Sleep and ts of fainting (nawm, ighm )
a
8.1.5
Forgetfulness (nisy n) . . . . . . . . . .
a
8.1.6 Death-illness (marad al-mawt) . . . . .
.
8.2 Acquired Causes of Defective Capacity . . . . . .
8.2.1 Intoxication (sukr) . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Jest (hazl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Indiscretion (safah) . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Coercion and duress (ikr h) . . . . . . .
a
8.2.5 Mistake and ignorance (khata, shub.
hah, and jahl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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181

The Primary Sources of Islamic Law

The Meaning of Primary and Secondary Sources
9.1 The Meaning of Source in Islamic Law . .
9.2 The Classication of the Sources . . . . . .
9.2.1 Agreed upon and disputed sources
9.2.2 Transmitted and rational sources .
9.2.3 Denitive and probable sources . .
9.2.4 Primary and secondary sources . .
9.3 Grades of the Sources . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10 The Qur n
a
199
10.1 The Qur n as the Primary Source of Law . . . . 200
a
10.1.1 Justication of the Qur n as a source . . 202
a
10.1.2 The recording and revelation of the Qur n 203
a
10.2 Legal strength and indication of ahk m in the
a
.
Qur n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
a
a
10.3 The kinds of ahk m in the Qur n . . . . . . . . 206
. a
10.4 Can one text of the Qur n abrogate another? . . 207
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11 The Sunnah
11.1 The Sunnah as a Primary Source . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Denition of the Sunnah . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 Kinds of Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.3 Justication of the Sunnah as a source
of law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.4 Justication of the dierent types of
Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Status of the Sunnah With Respect to the Qur n
a
11.2.1 The manner in which the Sunnah lays
down the ahk m . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. a
11.2.2 Modern views about the relationship
between the Qur n and the Sunnah . . .
a

209
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221
223
227
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231

12 Consensus of Legal Opinion (Ijm )

a
235
12.1 The Meaning of Ijm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
a
12.1.1 Technical or legal meaning . . . . . . . . 237
12.1.2 Conditions for the validity of ijm . . . 237
a
12.1.3 Types of ijm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
a
12.1.4 The legal force of ijm as a source . . . . 241
a
12.1.5 The sanad of ijm . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
a
12.1.6 Likelihood of the occurrence of ijm . . 246
a
12.1.7 Cases of ijm transmitted in books of qh 248
a
12.1.8 Role of ijm in the modern world . . . . 248
a

III

251

The Secondary Sources of Islamic Law

13 Maslahah and the Maq sid al-Sharah

a.

. .
13.1 The Meaning of Maslahah (Interest) and the
. .
Doctrine of Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1 The Meaning of Utility and Bentham .
13.1.2 Maslahah in Islamic Law . . . . . . . .
. .
13.2 The Classication of Maslahah . . . . . . . . .
. .
13.2.1 First classication: maslahah acknowl. .
edged or rejected by the sharah . . . .

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13.2.2

Second classication: maslahah accord. .

ing to its inner strength . . . . . . . .
13.2.3 Third classication: denitive and probable interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.4 Fourth classication: public and private
interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 The Doctrine of Maslahah and Maslahah Mur. .
.
salah: Distinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Maq. id al-Sharah or the Purposes of Islamic
as

Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.1 What is beyond the purposes? . . . . .
13.4.2 Maq. id al-sharah and the texts . . .
as

13.5 The Nature and Structure of the Purposes of the

Sharah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.5.1 Primary purposes in the service of the

Hereafter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
as
13.5.2 The two faces of the maq. id . . . . . .
13.5.3 Primary and secondary purposes . . .
13.5.4 Priorities within the maq. id . . . . .
as
13.5.5 Maslahah, Public Interest and Human
. .
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Qiy s (Analogy)
a
14.1 Denition of Qiy s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
14.2 Elements of Qiy s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
14.3 Examples of Qiy s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
14.4 Conditions Pertaining to the Elements . . . . .
14.4.1 Conditions of the asl or the case in the
.
texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.2 Conditions pertaining to the hukm of
.
the asl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
14.4.3 Conditions pertaining to the far or new
case needing a hukm . . . . . . . . . .
.
14.4.4 Conditions pertaining to the illah and
meaning of illah . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5 Types of Analogy (Qiy s) . . . . . . . . . . . .
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14.5.1

The rst type: probable and denitive

or qat and zann . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
14.5.2 The second type: classication according to the strength of the hukm estab.
lished in the far . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5.3 Qiy s jal and qiy s khaf or manifest
a

and concealed analogy . . . . . . . . .

14.6 Justication of qiy s as a source of Islamic law .
a
14.6.1 Arguments of those who uphold qiy s .
a
14.6.2 Arguments of those who reject qiy s . .
a
15 Istihs n (Juristic Preference)
. a
15.1 The Meaning of Istihs n . . . . . . . . . . . .
. a
15.1.1 Istihs n is a method for looking at the
. a
consequences of a decision . . . . . . .
15.2 Examples of istihs n . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. a
15.3 Types of Istihs n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
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15.3.1 Distinction between the various types .
15.4 Justication of Istihs n . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. a

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16 Istishab (Presumption of Continuity)

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16.1 The Meaning of Istishab . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..
16.2 The Principles That Form the Basis of Istishab . .
..
16.2.1 Types of Istishab and Their Legal Validity
..

16.3 Istishab al-Hal Cannot Establish a New Rule . . .

.
..
16.4 Istishab al-Hal and the Islamisation of Laws . . .
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17 Maslahah Mursalah (Extended Analogy)

. .
17.1 The Meaning of Maslahah Mursalah . . . . . .
. .
17.2 The Conditions for the Validity of Maslahah
. .
Mursalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 Illustrations of Maslahah Mursalah . . . . . .
. .
17.4 The Process of Using Maslahah Mursalah . . .
. .
17.5 Identifying Maslahah That is Gharb . . . . . .

. .
a
17.6 Identifying Maslahah That is Rejected (Mulgh )
. .
17.7 Justication of Maslahah Mursalah . . . . . . .
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18 Sadd al-Dharah (Blocking the Lawful Means to an Un

lawful End)
333
18.1 Types of Lawful Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
18.2 Disagreement of Jurists About the Legality of
the Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
19 Other Secondary Sources
19.1 Companions Opinion (Qawl al-Sahab) . . . .
. .
19.1.1 Views of those who accept it as a source
19.1.2 Views of those who do not consider it
binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.1.3 Opinions of the Followers of the Companions (T bi n) . . . . . . . . . . .
a u
19.2 Shar Man Qablan (Earlier Scriptures) . . . .
a
19.2.1 Types of earlier laws . . . . . . . . . .
19.2.2 Reason why the earlier laws are not
binding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Custom (Urf ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.1 Types of urf . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.2 Can the Western laws obtaining in Pakistan be treated as custom? . . . . . . .

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349

Ijtih d (Interpretation)
a

20 The Meaning of Ijtih d and its Modes

a
20.1 The Meaning of Ijtih d . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
20.2 Ijtih d is not Independent of the Qur n and the
a
a
Sunnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 The Task of the Mujtahid . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Basic Assumptions Made by the Mujtahid . . .
20.5 Texts That are not Subject to Ijtih d . . . . . .
a
20.6 The Three Modes of Ijtih d . . . . . . . . . . .
a
20.6.1 The rst mode . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6.2 The second mode . . . . . . . . . . .
20.6.3 The third mode . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 The Complete Process of Ijtih d . . . . . . . .
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20.8 The Hukm of Ijtih d and its Types . . . . . . .

a
.
20.9 The Qualications of the Mujtahid . . . . . . .
20.9.1 Who is a mujtahid today? . . . . . . .
20.10 Ijtih d a Legislative Function: The Need for an
a
Islamic Theory of Legislation . . . . . . . . . .

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21 The First Mode of Ijtih d: Interpreting the Texts

a
21.1 The Concept of Bay n (Elaboration) . . . . . . .
a
21.1.1 Bay n taqrr (complementary expresa

sion or elaboration) . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1.2 Bay n tafsr (enabling expression) . . . .
a

21.1.3 Bay n taghyr (elaboration by exception)

a

21.1.4 Bay n tabdl (conditional expression) . .

a

21.1.5 Bay n dar rah (elaboration by necessity)

a . u
21.2 Literal Interpretation of the Texts . . . . . . . .
21.2.1 The structure of interpretation . . . . .
21.2.2 The four general literal methods of establishing the ahk m (dal l t) . . . . . .
aa
. a
21.2.3 The literal methods of establishing the
ahk m practised by the Sh s . . . . .
a
. a
21.2.4 Amr (command) and nahy (proscription): the nature and type of hukm es.
tablished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2.5 The number or categories aected by
the hukm: mm; kh. . ; mushtarak; and
a
ass
.
muawwal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2.6 The clarity or ambiguity with which the
hukm is established . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
21.2.7 The eect of the use of words in the actual or metaphorical meanings . . . . .

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403

22 The Second Mode of Ijtih d: Reasoning by Analogy

a
407
22.1 Moving From the First Mode of Ijtih d to the
a
Second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
22.2 The Methods of Discovering the Underlying
Cause (Mas lik al-Illah) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
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22.2.1

Discovering the cause in the new case:

tahqq al-man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
at
.
22.3 Analogy and the Modern Jurist . . . . . . . . . . 413
23 The Third Mode of Ijtih d: Employing the Maq sid ala
a.
Sharah

415
23.1 Moving From the Second Mode of Ijtih d to the
a
Third: the Illah and the Hikmah . . . . . . . . . 416
.
23.2 The Interplay Between General Principles and
the Maq. id al-Sharah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
as

23.3 A Value Oriented Jurisprudence . . . . . . . . . 420

23.3.1 Distinction between the value system in
Islamic law and Western jurisprudence . 422
23.4 Maslahah and the Modern Jurist . . . . . . . . . 423
. .
24 Abrogation (Naskh) and Preference (Tarjh)
.
425
24.1 The Doctrine of Abrogation (Naskh) . . . . . . . 426
24.1.1 Examples of repealing and overriding laws 427
24.1.2 The wisdom behind the doctrine of abrogation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
24.1.3 Distinction between naskh (abrogation)
and takhs. (restriction) . . . . . . . . . 428
. s
24.1.4 Types of abrogation . . . . . . . . . . . 429
24.1.5 The attributes of the abrogating and abrogated evidences . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
24.2 Justication for the Doctrine of Abrogation . . . 430
24.2.1 Comparing the Impact of Abrogation
and Restriction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
24.3 The Rules of Preference (Tarjh) . . . . . . . . . 432
.
24.3.1 Reconciliation (jam) . . . . . . . . . . . 433

V The Faqh and His Methodology

435

25 Taqld as a Methodology

439
25.1 Taqld as a Basis for the Islamic Theory of Adju
dication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
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xii

Islamic Jurisprudence

Contents

25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5

The Literal Meaning of Taqld . . . . . . . . . . 442

The Technical Meanings of Taqld . . . . . . . . 442

The Hukm of Taqld and Ijtih d . . . . . . . . . 443

a
.
Taqld in Law is an Exemption from the General

Rule of Prohibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

25.6 Taqld in the Pakistani Legal System . . . . . . . 446

25.7 Taqld and the Islamic Legal System . . . . . . . 446

25.7.1 The grades of the jurists . . . . . . . . . 448

25.7.2 The mujtahid and the faqh . . . . . . . 450

25.8 The Layman Moving From One School to Another 452

26 The Sources of Islamic Law for the Faqh

26.1 The Task of the Faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a
26.2 The Output/Result of Ijtih d is a Source for the
Faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.3 The Established Principles of Islamic Law are a

Source for the Faqh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.3.1 Principles stated explicitly or impliedly

in the texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.2 Principles derived by the jurist from a
number of existing cases in the law . . .
26.3.3 Examples of principles from al-Dabb s .
u
26.4 Al-Dabb s on the Methodology of the Faqh . .
u

26.5 The Faqh May Formulate a New Principle if it

Meets the Prescribed Conditions . . . . . . . . .

26.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

455
457
458
461
461
464
466
470
472
472

21 Select Bibliography

473

21 Detailed Bibliography

477

22 Glossary

515

Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee

Advanced Legal Studies Institute