Ee801 Power Quality

MAHAKAVI BHARATHIYAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY, VASUDEVANALLUR 627 758

DEPARTMENT OF EEE VIII SEM EEE EE801-POWER QUALITY

POWER QUALITY (EE801)
SEM 8 EEE
Two Marks Questions and Answers
Prepared by:
C.MALLIKA DEVI
AP/ EEE, MBCET.
MAHAKAVI BHARATHIYAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,
VASUDEVANALLUR 627 758


UNIT- I INTORDUCTION TO POWER QUALITY

1.What is Power Quality?
From the utility perspective, Power Quality has been defined as the parameters of the voltage that
affect the customers supersensitive equipment.From the power user perspective, Power Quality
may be defined as any electricalparameter or connection that affects the operation of the equipment. This
included allelectrical parameters, connections and grounds, whether the source from the utility,
localequipment or other users.
2.How can Power Quality problems be detected?
Determining the exact problems requires sophisticated electronic test equipment. Thefollowing
symptoms are indicators of Power Quality problems:
A piece of equipment misoperates at the same time of day.
Circuit breakers trip without being overloaded.
Equipment fails during a thunderstorm.
Automated systems stop for no apparent reason.
Electronic systems fail or fail to operate on a frequent basis.
Electronic systems work in one location but not in another location.
Lights dim or blink and electronic systems misoperate.

3.What are Harmonics?
Harmonics are distortions in the AC waveform. These distortions are caused by loadson the electrical
system that use the electrical power at a different frequency than thefundamental 50 or 60 Hz. An
example of such a load is the common PC, televisionreceiver or any other electronic load.
4.What are the various power quality issues?
Power frequency disturbances
Power system transients
Grounding and Bonding
Electromagnetic interference
Power system harmonics
Electrostatic discharge
Power factor



5.Classify power quality events in long duration events and shout duration events.
The short duration variations are further classified into the following three categories:
1.Sag
2.Swell
3.Interruption
6.Differentiate between sag and swell
.1.Voltage Sag is an event in which the RMS voltage decreases between 0.1 and 0.9 perunit at the
power frequency. It lasts for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 min.
2.Swell is an event in which the RMS voltage increases between 1.1 and 1.8 per unit atthe power
frequency. It lasts for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 min.
7. Mention the types of sag.
Based on the time duration and voltage magnitude, sag is further classified as:
1.Instantaneous Sag
2.Momentary Sag
3.Temporary Sag
8.What are the causes of sags?
1.Voltage sags are usually associated with system faults but can also be caused by theswitching of heavy
loads.
2.Voltage sags are caused by motor starting, for example, an induction motor will drawsix to ten times
its full load current. This lagging current causes a voltage drop acrossthe impedance of the system.
9.Define Waveform Distortion.
It is the deviation from an ideal sine wave of power frequency principallycharacterized by the spectral
content of the deviation. Harmonics is one of the causes of many types of waveform distortion.
10.What are the components of waveform distortion?
DC offset
Notches
Flickering
Harmonics
Noises
Interharmonics

11.Define Total harmonic distortion and mention the formula used to calculate


THD.
Total harmonic distortion is the term used to describe the net deviation of a non-linearwaveform from
ideal sine wave characteristics. THD is the ratio between the RMS valueof the harmonics and the RMS
value of the fundamental.Mention the formula used to calculate THD.
THD=100(
Where Uh represents harmonic components, U1 represents the fundamentalcomponent and h
represents harmonic order.
12.Define Total Demand Distortion (TDD).
The total demand distortion is defined as the square root of the sum of the squares of the RMS value of
the currents from 2
nd
to the highest harmonic (say 25thmaximum inpower system) divided by the peak
demand load current and is expressed as a percent.
13.Define for the following terms:(i)DC offset, (ii)Interharmonics, (iii)Voltage
Flicker
DC offset:
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed DC offset.This can occur as the
result of a geomagnetic disturbance or asymmetry of electronicpower converters.
Interharmonics:
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of thefrequency at
which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz0 are calledinterharmonics. They
can appear as discrete frequencies or as a wideband spectrum.Interharmonics can be found in networks
of all voltage classes.
Voltage Flicker:
Voltage flicker is rapidly occurring voltage sags caused by sudden and large increasesin load
current. Voltage flicker is most commonly caused by rapidly varying loads thatrequire a large amount of
reactive power such as arc furnaces, electric welders, rock crushers, sawmills, wood chippers, metal
shredders, and amusement rides. It can causevisible flicker in lights and cause other processes to shut
down or malfunction.

14. List any four standards available in power quality
.IEEE Power Quality Standards:The Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineerIEC Power Quality


Standards:The International Electro technical CommissionSEMI Power Quality Standards:The
Semiconductor Wquipment and Material InternationalUIE Power Quality Standards:The International
Union for Electricity Applications

UNIT- II VOLTAGE SAG & INTERRUPTIONS
15.What is Voltage Sag?
A sag or dip, as defined by IEEE Standard 1159-1995, IEEE Recommended Practicefor Monitoring
Electric Power Quality, is a decrease in RMS voltage or current at thepower frequency for durations
from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute, reported as the remainingvoltage. Typical values are between 0.1 pu and
0.9 pu.
16.What are the causes of sag?
Voltage sags are usually associated with system faults
It can also be caused by energization of heavy load
Starting of large motors
17.What are three levels of possible solutions to voltage sag and
momentaryinterruption problems?
Power System Design
Equipment Design
Power Conditioning Equipment
18.List some IEEE Standards Associated with Voltage Sags.
1.IEEE 1250-1995, IEEE guide for service to equipment sensitive to momentaryvoltage
disturbances
2.IEEE 493-1990, Recommended practice for the design of reliable industrial and
commercial power systems
3.IEEE 1100-1999. IEEE recommended practice for powering and groundingelectronic
equipment
4.IEE 446-
1995, IEEE recommended practice for emergency and standby power
systems for industrial and commercial applications range of sensibility loads

19.What are the sources of sags and Interruption?
1.A sudden increase in load results in a Corresponding sudden drop in voltage


2.Any sudden increase in load, if large enough, will cause a voltage sag in
1.Motors
2.Faults.
3.Switching
20.Name the different motor starting methods.
1.Resistance and reactance starters
2.Autotransformer starters
3.Star-Delta starters
21.Name any four types of sag mitigation devices.
1.Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
2.Active Series Compensators (Transformer less series injection)
3.Solid State (static) Transfer Switches (SSTS)
22.Define active series compensation devices.
1.One of the important new options is a device that can boost the voltage by injecting avoltage in series
with the remaining voltage during a voltage sag condition. These arereferred to as active series
compensation devices.
2.They are available in size ranges from small single-phase devices to very largedevices that can be
applied on the medium-voltage systems.
23.What is the main function of DSTATCOM?
Voltage regulation and compensation of reactive power
Correction of power factor
Elimination of current harmonics

UNIT- III OVER VOLTAGES
24.Define transient over voltages.
A transient over voltage can be defined as the response of an electrical network to asudden change in


network conditions, either intended or accidental, (e.g. a switchingoperation or a fault) or network stimuli
(e.g. lightning strike).
25.Define voltage magnification phenomena?
The highest transient voltages occur at the low voltage capacitor bank when thecharacteristic frequency
of the switching transient is nearly equal to the resonantfrequency of the low voltage system and when
the switched capacitor is ten or moretimes the size of the low-voltage capacitor
26.Give the various aspects of equipment specific design and protection issues for
thecapacitor switching transients.
1.Phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase insulation switching withstand to voltagestresses
2.Controlled closing for circuit breakers (pre-insertion resistors/reactors or synchronousswitching)
3.Capacitor bank and substation circuit breakers ANSI?IEEE C37 requirements
4.Current limiting reactor requirements
5.Surge arrester energy requirement
27.What are the various Causes of over voltages?
Over voltages, i.e. brief voltage peaks (transients, surges, spikes), can be attributed totheFollowing main
causes:
1.Atmospheric discharges, i.e. lightning (LEMP Lightning Electro-Magnetic Pulse)
2.Switching operations in the public grid and low-voltage mains
3.Electrostatic Discharges (ESD)
4.Ferro resonance
28.What is the need of surge arrestors?
1.A surge arrester is a protective device for limiting surge voltages on equipment bydischarging or
bypassing surge current.
2.Surge arresters allow only minimal flow of the 50Hz/60Hz power current to ground.
29.What is metal-oxide surge-arrester?
A metal-oxide surge-arrester (MOSA) utilizing zinc-oxide block provides the bestperformance, as surge
voltage conduction starts and stops promptly at a precise voltagelevel, thereby improving system
protection.
30.What is the role of surge arrestor on shielded and unshielded transmission line?
1.On shielded transmission lines or under-built distribution circuits, the arresterprevents tower-to-phase
insulator back-flashovers during a lightning strike.
2.On unshielded sub transmission or distribution circuits, the arrester prevents phase-to-ground


flashover.
31.Define lightning phenomena.
1.Lightning is an electrical discharge in the air between clouds, between differentcharge centre within
the same cloud, or between cloud and earth (or earthed object).
2.Even though more discharges occur between or within clouds, there are enoughstrokes that terminate
on the earth to cause problems to power systems and sensitiveelectronic equipment
32.What is Ferro resonance?
Ferro resonance is a special case of series LC resonance where the inductanceinvolved is nonlinear and it
is usually related to equipment with iron cores. It occurswhen line capacitance resonates with the
magnetizing reactance of a core while it goes inthe out of saturation.

33.Give the cable life equation as a function of impulses.
The cable life is an exponential function of the number of impulses of a certainmagnitude that it receives,
according to Hopkinton. The damage to the cable is related byDc=P.VeWhere,Dc=constant,
representing cable damageP=Number of impulsesV=Magnitude of impulsesE=empirical constant
ranging from 10 to 15
34.What is the need of Computer analysis tools for transient studies?
Computer analysis simulation tool can simulate the time response of the transientphenomena in the
power system with a very high degree of accuracy.
35.Give any two analysis examples available in PSCAD/EMTDC?Transient Studies
1.Transient over voltage studies (TOV)
2.Line energizing (charging and discharging transients)
3.Capacitor bank back to back switching, selection of inrush and out-rush reactors

UNIT- IV HARMONICS
36.Define Harmonics.
Harmonics is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having afrequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental power frequency.The equation representing a harmonic frequency


is given by:
fh=f1*hWhere f1 is the fundamental frequency and h is the harmonic order
37.Define true power factor.
True power factor is calculated as the ratio between the total active power used in acircuit (including
harmonics) and the total apparent power (including harmonics)suppliedfrom the source.True power
factor = total active power (P)/Total apparent power (S)
38.Differentiate between linear loads and non-linear loads.Linear loads:
Any load that draws current at supply fundamental frequency only is a linear load.The current drawn
does not contain any harmonics (multiples of the supplyfrequency). Motors, resistors, inductors
and capacitors are all linear loads.
Non linear load:
Any load that draws harmonic currents from the supply is a nonlinear load.The current waveform of
such non-linear loads, is discontinuous and non sinusoidalbecause of the presence of harmonics.
39.What is voltage and current distortion?
1.Voltage distortion is any deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the linevoltage.
2.Current distortion is any deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the AC linecurrent.
40.What is total harmonic distortion?
THD is the ratio between the RMS value of the harmonics and the RMS value of thefundamental.The
amount of harmonic distortion can be measured by means of a factor known asthe total harmonic
distortion (THD), which is given by the relation,THD%=100*Where U1 represents the fundamental
components and h represents harmonic number
41.What is total demand distortion?
The total demand distortion is defined as the square root of the sum of the squares of the RMS value of
the currents from 2
nd
to the hth harmonics divided by the peak demandload current and is expressed as a
percentage.TDD% of peak demand=Where, IRMS distorted is the RMS value of the distorted
waveform with the fundamentallift out of the summation.
42.Mention the harmonic effects on devices and loads.
1.Insulation stress (voltage effect)
2.Thermal stress (current effect)
3.Load ruptures (abnormal operation)
43.Mention the harmonic sources from industrial loads.
1.Three phase converter with Adjustable speed drives (DC drives and AC drives)


2.Arcing Devices (Arc furnaces, weiders, Discharge lamps etc)
3.Saturable devices (transformer, electromagnetic devices etc with steel core)
44.State the different types of inverters
1.Variable voltage inverter(VVI)
2.Current source inverter(CSI)
3.Pulse width modulated(PWM)
45.What is Variable Voltage Inverter?
The variable voltage inverter (VVI). Or square-wave six-step voltage source inverter(VSI), receives DC
power from an adjustable voltage source (either from thyristorconverter or DC-DC converter fed by
Diode Bridge) and adjusts the frequency andvoltage.
46.What are the objectives of IEEE standard?
Provide general harmonic distortion evaluation procedures for different classes of customers (industrial,
commercial, residential) and for the application of equipments onutility system.
47. What are the applications of active filters?
Passive tuned filters introduce new resonances which can cause additional harmonicproblemsActive
filters will provide compensation for harmonic components on the utilitysystem based on the existing
harmonic generation at any given moment in time
48.Give at least two IEC standards for EMC.
1.IEC 610000-2-2 (1993): Electromagnetic Compatibility (ECM). Part 2: Environment.Section 2:
Compatibility Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted Disturbances andSignaling in Public Low-Voltage
Power Supply Systems.
2.IEC 610000-3-2 (2000): Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Part 3: LimitsSection 2: Limits for
Harmonic Current.
49.What is the need of filtering in harmonic studies?
Filtering is a method to reduce harmonics in an industrial plant when the harmonicdistortion has been
gradually increased or as a total solution in a new plant. There aretwo basic methods: passive and active
filters.
50.List the some dynamic correction of power quality events.
1.Resonance Prevention.
2.Power Factor Correction.
3.Dynamic VAR Compensation.



UNIT- V POWER QUALITY MONOTORING

51.What are the importance of power quality monitoring?
1.Power Quality Monitoring is necessary to detect and classify disturbance at aparticular location on the
power system.
2.PQ monitoring assists in preventive and predictive maintenance.
3.Problems can be detected before they cause widespread damage by sendingautomated alerts.
4.PQ Monitoring can be used to determine the need for mitigation equipment.
52.What are the monitoring objectives?
1.Continuous evaluation of the electric supply system for disturbances and powerquality
variations.2.Document performance of power conditioning equipment, such as static switches,UPS
systems, other ride through technologies, and backup generators.
53.What are the requirements of monitoring for a voltage regulation and
unbalance?
1.3 phase voltages
2.RMS magnitudes
3.Continuous monitoring with periodic max/min/avg samples
4.Currents for response of equipment.
4.What are the requirements of monitoring for a harmonic distortion?
1.3 phase voltages and currents
2.Waveform characteristics
3.128 samples per cycle minimum
4.Synchronized sampling of all voltages and currents
5.Configurable sampling characteristics
55.What are the Characteristics of power line monitors?
1.Portable, rugged, lightweight
2.Simple to use, with proper training
3.Designed for long-term unattended recording
4.Definition of line disturbance parameters varies between manufacturers
56.What is the use of oscilloscope?
Oscilloscopes with fast sampling rates and automatic triggering function can be veryuseful for trace of
transients.


57.What is Spectrum analyzer?
1.An instrument used for the analysis and measurement of signals throughout theelectromagnetic
spectrum.
2.Spectrum analyzers are available for sub audio, audio, and radio-frequencymeasurements, as well as
for microwave and optical signal measurements.
58.What is FFT (or) digital technique used for harmonic analysis?
The signal to be analyzed is converted to a digital signal by using an analog-to-digitalconverter, and the
digital signal is processed by using the FFT algorithm.The algorithm analyzes the time domain
waveform, computes the frequencycomponents present, and displays the results.
59.What is tracking generator?
The tracking generator enhances the applications of spectrum analyzers. Ins outputdelivers a swept
signal whose instantaneous frequency is always equal to the input tunedfrequency of the analyzer.
60.What is the purpose of SVC?
The SVC is mainly used for compensation of large fluctuating reactive industrial loadslike arc furnaces
etc
The purpose of the SVC is to maintain a constant voltage level at PCC by dynamicallyinjecting reactive
power and compensation for the fluctuation power demand of the load.
61.What are the components of flicker meter?
The flicker meter consists of a lamp model, a model representing the human eye-brainchain and a
statistical evaluation block where the flicker parameters PST and PLT arecalculated.

62.What is total error?
The total error in a measurement is a sum of errors that can (mainly) be divided intothree different
categories:1.Instrument errors (quantization, offset- and linearity errors etc.)
2.Transducer errors
3.Errors due to the measure signal (low signal level etc.)
63.What are the advantages of expert systems?
1.Expert systems help users cope with large volumes of EIA work;
2.Expert systems deliver EIA expertise to the non-expert;
3.Expert systems enhance user accountability for decisions reached; and
4.Expert systems provide a structured approach to EIA.


UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

1. Define sag.
Sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
2.What is Power Quality?
From the utility perspective, Power Quality has been defined as the parameters of the voltage that
affect the customers supersensitive equipment.From the power user perspective, Power Quality
may be defined as any electricalparameter or connection that affects the operation of the equipment. This
included allelectrical parameters, connections and grounds, whether the source from the utility,
localequipment or other users.
3. When sag leads to interruption?
Voltage sag is a short-duration (typically 0.5 to 30 cycles) reduction in rms voltage
caused by faults on the power system and the starting of large loads, such as motors.
Momentary interruptions (typically no more than 2 to 5 s) cause a complete loss of
voltage and are a common result of the actions taken by utilities to clear transient faults
on their systems. Sustained interruptions of longer than 1 min are generally due to
permanent faults.

4. How fast transfer switches are used in minimizing the severity of sags?
Configuration of a static transfer switch used to switch between a primary supply and a backup supply in the event of a disturbance.
The
controls would switch back to the primary supply after normal power is restored.
There are a number of alternatives for protection of an entire facility that may be
sensitive to voltage sags. These include dynamic voltage restorers (DVRs) and UPS
systems that use technology similar to the systems described previously but applied at the
medium-voltage level. Another alternative that can be applied at either the low-voltage
level or the medium-voltage level is the automatic transfer switch. Automatic transfer
switches can be of various technologies, ranging from conventional breakers to static


switches. Conventional transfer switches will switch from the primary supply to a backup
supply in seconds. Fast transfer switches that use vacuum breaker technology are
available that can transfer in about 2 electrical cycles. This can be fast enough to protect
many sensitive loads. Static switches use power electronic switches to accomplish the
transfer within about a quarter of an electrical cycle. The most important consideration in
the effectiveness of a transfer switch for protection of sensitive loads is that it
requirestwo independent supplies to the facility. For instance, if both supplies come from
the same substation bus, then they will both be exposed to the same voltage sags when
there
is a fault condition somewhere in the supply system. If a significant percentage of the
events affecting the facility are caused by faults on the transmission system, the fast
transfer switch might have little benefit for protection of the equipment in the facility.
5. When on the device to position the power conditioners to avoid voltage swells.
Low-impedance power conditioners (LIPCs) are used primarily to interface with the
switch-mode power supplies found in electronic equipment. LIPCs differ from isolation
transformers in that these conditioners have much lower impedance and have a filter as
part of their design (Fig. 4.22). The filter is on the output side and protects against
highfrequency,
source-side, common-mode, and normal-mode disturbances (i.e., noise and
impulses). Note the new neutral-to-ground connection that can be made on the load side
because of the existence of an isolation transformer. However, low- to medium-frequency
transients (capacitor switching) can cause problems for LIPCs: The transient can be
magnified by the output filter capacitor.
6. How to model a surge arrestor in PSCAD?
This program features a very sophisticated graphical user interface that enables the user
to be very productive in this difficult analysis. Time-domain solution is required to model
nonlinear elements such as surge arresters and transformer magnetizing characteristics.
7. What is Total harmonic distortion?
Total Harmonic Distortion: The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content
to the rms value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percent of the
fundamental
8. Give the IEEE and IEC standards for EMC.


IEC 61000-2-2 (1993): Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Part 2:
Environment. Section 2: Compatibility Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted
Disturbances and Signaling in Public Low-Voltage Power Supply Systems.
IEC 61000-3-2 (2000): Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Part 3: Limits.
Section 2: Limits for Harmonic Current Emissions (Equipment Input Current Up
to and Including 16 A per Phase).
Section 4: Limitation of Emission of Harmonic Currents in Low-Voltage Power
Supply Systems for Equipment with Rated Current Greater Than 16 A.
Section 6: Assessment of Emission Limits for Distorting Loads in MV and HV
Power Systems. Basic EMC publication
9. What are the necessary measurements to be made to know about the power
quality of a product?
1. Nature of the problems (data loss, nuisance trips, component failures, control system
malfunctions, etc.)
2. Characteristics of the sensitive equipment experiencing problems (equipment design
information or at least application guide information)
3. The times at which problems occur
4. Coincident problems or known operations (e.g., capacitor switching) that occur at the
same time
5. Possible sources of power quality variations within the facility (motor starting,
capacitor switching, power electronic equipment operation, arcing equipment, etc.)
6. Existing power conditioning equipment being used
7. Electrical system data (one-line diagrams, transformer sizes and impedances, load
information, capacitor information, cable data, etc.)
10. What is meant by online power quality monitoring?
On-line power quality data assessment analyzes data as they are captured. The analysis
results are available immediately for rapid dissemination. Complexity in the software
design requirement for on-line assessment is usually higher than that of off-line. Most
features available in off-line analysis software can also be made available in an online
system. One of the primary advantages of on-line data analysis is that it can provide


instant message delivery to notify users of specific events of interest. Users can then take
immediate actions upon receiving the notifications.
11. (A) Define distortion factor.
Distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation.
11. (B) What are the power quality indices?
Power quality indices are the indices for assessing the quality of service with respect to
harmonic voltage distortion.
12. What are the sources of sag interruptions?
Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on the utility
system.
fault on the same feeder,
a fault on one of the other feeders from the substation,(a fault on a parallel feeder)
a fault somewhere on the transmission system
4. Define sag severity.
If full-voltage starting is used, the sag voltage, in per unit of nominal system voltage, is
16. Define ferroresonance.
An irregular, often chaotic type of resonance that involves the nonlinear characteristic of
iron-core (ferrous) inductors. It is nearly always undesirable when it occurs in the power
delivery system, but it is exploited in technologies such as constant-voltage transformers
to improve the power quality.
17. What are the advantages of computer analyzing tools?
low cost
Very sophisticated graphical user interface that enables the user to be very
productive in this difficult analysis.
Ability of the program to solve some classes of nonlinear problems but is not
usually a significant constraint for most power system problems.
18. Define individual and total harmonic distortion.
Harmonic distortion is caused by nonlinear devices in the power system. A nonlinear
device is one in which the current is not proportional to the applied voltage. While the
applied voltage is perfectly sinusoidal, the resulting current is distorted. Increasing the
voltage by a few percent may cause the current to double and take on a different wave


shape.
2 Total Harmonic Distortion: The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content
to the rms value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percent of the fundamental.
19. Name the devices for controlling harmonic distortion.
In-line reactors or chokes
Zigzag transformers
Passive filters
Active filters
20. List the advantages of automatic power quality monitoring system.
The capability to provide systemwide analysis of the power quality information. The
future of these systems involves integration with other data-collection devices in the
substation and the facility. Standard interfaces like the Power Quality Data Interchange
Format (PQDIF) and COMTRADE are used to share the information, and standard
protocols like UCA are used for the communications. The intelligent applications
described will be applied at both the substation level and at the enterprise level, as
appropriate.
21. What are the specifications for the measuring equipment?
Number of channels (voltage and/or current)
Temperature specifications of the instrument
Ruggedness of the instrument
Input voltage range (e.g., 0 to 600 V)
Power requirements
Ability to measure three-phase voltages
Input isolation (isolation between input channels and from each input to ground)
Ability to measure currents
Housing of the instrument (portable, rack-mount, etc.)
Ease of use (user interface, graphics capability, etc.)
Documentation
Communication capability (modem, network interface)
Analysis software
22.Define Voltage swell and momentary interruption.
A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at


the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. (1 mark)
Momentary interruption is a type of short-duration variation. The complete loss of
voltage (<0.1 pu) on one or more phase conductors for a time period between 30 cycles
and 3 s. (1 mark)
23. What are the causes of sag interruption?
Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on the utility
system.
fault on the same feeder,
a fault on one of the other feeders from the substation,(a fault on a parallel feeder)
a fault somewhere on the transmission system
24. What are the mitigation techniques for voltage sags?
1. Equipment manufacturers should have voltage sag ride-through capability curves
(similar to the ones shown previously) available to their customers so that an initial
evaluation of the equipment can be performed. Customers should begin to demand that
these types of curves be made available so that they can properly evaluate equipment.
2. The company procuring new equipment should establish a procedure that rates the
importance of the equipment. If the equipment is critical in nature, the company must
make sure that adequate.
3.Equipment should at least be able to ride through voltage sags with a minimum voltage
of 70 percent (ITI curve). The relative probability of experiencing a voltage sag to 70
percent or less of nominal is much less than experiencing a sag to 90 percent or less of
nominal. A more ideal ride-through capability for short-duration voltage sags would be
50 percent, as specified by the semiconductor industry in Standard SEMI F-47.17
25. How does the lightning cause over voltages?
The most obvious conduction path occurs during a direct strike to a phase wire, either on
the primary or the secondary side of the transformer.This can generate very high
overvoltages. Transient overvoltages can be generated by lightning currents flowing
along ground conductor paths.
26. List the functions of line arresters.
To prevent overhead line faults, one must raise the insulation level of the line, prevent
lightning from striking the line, or prevent the voltage from exceeding the insulation
level.


The third idea is becoming more popular with improving surge arrester designs. To
accomplish this, surge arresters are placed every two or three poles along the feeder as
well
as on distribution transformers. Some utilities place them on all three phases, while other
utilities place them only on the phase most likely to be struck by lightning. To support
some
of the recent ideas about improving power quality, or providing custom power with super
reliable main feeders, it will be necessary to put arresters on every phase of every pole.
27. List the harmonic indices.
The two most commonly used indices for measuring the harmonic content of a waveform
are
the total harmonic distortion and the total demand distortion.
28. Name the devices for controlling harmonic distortion.
In-line reactors or chokes
Zigzag transformers
Passive filters
Active filters
29. What is meant by power quality monitoring?
Power quality monitoring is the process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting raw
measurement data into useful information. The process of gathering data is usually
carried
out by continuous measurement of voltage and current over an extended period.
30.What are the requirements for the power quality measuring equipment?
Number of channels (voltage and/or current)
Temperature specifications of the instrument
Ruggedness of the instrument
Input voltage range (e.g., 0 to 600 V)
Power requirements
Ability to measure three-phase voltages
Input isolation (isolation between input channels and from each input to ground)
Ability to measure currents
Housing of the instrument (portable, rack-mount, etc.)


Ease of use (user interface, graphics capability, etc.)
Documentation
Communication capability (modem, network interface)
Analysis software

Ee801 Power Quality

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Ee801 Power Quality

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MAHAKAVI BHARATHIYAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY, VASUDEVANALLUR 627 758

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