K.

Sathya Prakash
Ksp-acu@acu.ltindia.com
Issue # EE 02
Not necessarily a speed variation is must for such an application, If the speed is
other than top rated speed, it is oin to ive cost !enefits. "o#er the speed
more the !enefits.
Nevertheless, Simpler less expensive solutions such as changing pulleys,
modifications of the fan blades or a new fan, may be more effective in
some cases, where Variable Speed is not required to be adjusted.
Ie . If a fan of 1000 RPM, has to be made to run at 500 RPM Constantly, then in that case , one
can adopt the cost effective methods.
But, if a fan of 1000 RPM, is reuire to run at any speed set!point bet"een 10# to 100# speed,
one has to $o for %&'(s )nly. *he follo"in$ topics illustrate the +ner$y &avin$ Phenomenon,
"hile usin$ the %&'(s.
$oncept of varia!le speed drives
DC motors & AC induction motors
Any variable speed electrical drive system comprises of the following components
! An electronic actuator " the controller.
! A driving electrical machines " motor.
! A driven machine #load$ " pump, fan, blower, compressor%
&he tas' of a variable speed electrical drive is to convert the electrical power supplied by the mains into mechanical
power with a minimum loss. &o achieve an optimum technological process, the drive must be variable in speed. &his
will steplessly adjust the speed of the driven machine. &his is ensured by the low loss control using solid state
Technology in electronic controllers. &he controllers are connected to mains supply and the electrical machine as
shown in figure

&he solid " state devices, which convert the A( supply to )( supply were first used as variable speed devices, in )(
technology. *sing these devices the armature voltage of a )( motor and therefore the speed can be adjusted,
almost without losses and over a wide range of speed . *sing these features the drive can be designed which start
smoothly and jer'"free. &his helps to maintain the desired selected speed, independently of the load and operate with
good dynamic response
*he 'C drive needs special consideration in some applications. ,or e-ample in ha.ardous
atmosphere, vibrations and hi$her speeds the usa$e of /C motor "ith suirrel!Ca$e rotor is
advanta$eous. *he use of freuency inverters 0VFD's1 to supply to /C Motors resulted in a ne"
orientation of electrical po"er for handlin$ variable speeds operation is sho"n in fi$ure
1
+very standard /C motor can be fitted "ith a variable speed drive usin$ a freuency inverter.
,reuency and volta$e of the sin$le ! phase or three ! phase mains are varied by the freuency
inverter, such that the motor can be operated "ith varyin$ speeds over lar$e ran$e settin$s. *he
operatin$ mode of any motor connected to these variable speed drives can be classified in ,our
2uadrants, dependin$ upon the *orue and &peed of the drive in fi$ure above
Four Quadrant Operation :
A +our"quadrant diagram can represent mode of operation of variable speed drive. ,n -uadrant . the speed and
torque can be represented positive or forward direction. &his is consistent with a motor driving a load ta'ing power
from the mains. Similarly in -uadrant /, both speed and torque are in negative or reverse direction.
*his Corresponds to a motor turnin$ in the reverse direction, drivin$ a load and a$ain ta3in$
po"er from the mains. In 2uadrants 4 and 5, the speed and torue are in mutually ! opposed
directions, that is to say, the torue of the motor is opposin$ its rotation, $ivin$ a bra3in$ effect.
It follo"s,then, that mechanical and 3inetic ener$y of the load is bein$ converted into electrical
ener$y. *he motor is behavin$ as a $enerator and the system as a "hole is deliverin$ po"er into
the mains.
&his behavior is 'nown as %eeneration. &fter going, through the mode of operation of VS)s, let us briefly discuss
about the various loading patterns. &he characteristics of the load are particularly important in the trouble "+ree
operation of VS)s. 0oad refers essentially to the torque output and the corresponding speed required. 0oads can be
broadly classified as follows
(onstant torque
Variable torque
(onstant power
(1NS&AN& &12-*3 01A)
4
(onstant torque load are those for which the output power requirement may vary with speed of operation, but the
torque does not vary. (onveyors, rotary 'ilns and constant " displacement pumps are typical examples of constant
torque loads.
VA2,A403 &12-*3 01A)
Variable torque loads are those for which the torque required varies with speed of operation. (entrifugal pumps and
fans are typical examples of variable torque loads # torque varies as the square of the speeds $.
(1NS&AN& 51632 01A)
(onstant power loads are those for which the torque requirements are typically changed inversely with speed.
6inders, coilers are typically the examples of constant power loads.
*he lar$est potential for ener$y savin$s "ith variable speeds drive are $enerally in variable
torue applications. ,or e-ample, centrifu$al pumps and fans, "here the po"er reuirements
chan$es as the cubes of speed. Constant torue loads are suitable for %&' application.
&he latest industrial trend is to use A( drives for variable speed application. As already discussed, to vary the speed
of an A( motor and at the same time retain its torque producing capability a power source is required. &his power
source has to provide variable voltage and frequency output in such a way that, in most of the operating area the V 7 f
ratio is maintained constant. &his can be achieved through an A( drive which gives variable frequency and variable
voltage as out put by ta'ing fixed voltage as input.
&he principle involved in this technique is first to convert the fixed frequency, fixed voltage A( supply into a variable
or constant )( voltage. &his is then into the A( supply of desired frequency 8 amplitude. &he criteria for the
selection of A( inverter drive are essentially the same as for a )( variable speed drive. &he latest developments in
technology and successful development of electronic drives #A( drives$ for cage motors have resulted in the
following benefits
.$ Availability of full load torque from standstill
9$ Absence of torque fluctuations at low speed.
/$ Ability to hold a set speed, regardless of load torque variation
:$ Ability to control the rate of increase 8 decrease of speed
;$ )ynamic response.
Induction otor :
An A( induction motor essentially consists of two parts namely a stationary part called the <stator< and a rotating part
called <rotor'. &he rotor is placed inside the stator and is supported on both sides. 3nergy is supplied to the windings
placed in the stator slots. 3nergy is transferred to the rotor windings through electromagnetic induction and hence
such motors are called <induction motors<. (hree Phase Induction )otor $onstruction* &he stator consists of
three"phase winding which are placed in the slots of a laminated stator core. &he rotor core is a laminated steel
cylinder, having slots in which conductors are cast or wound. &he rotor bars are shortened at the both ends by rotor
end"rings.
!rinciple:
6hen a three"phase supply is connected across the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field, constant in magnitude
but rotating at synchronous speed, Ns, is produced. &he speed of the rotating field so produced depends upon the
supply frequency and the number of poles for which the winding is made. &he direction of the rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator depends upon the supply phase sequence. &his field induces an electromotive force #emf$ in
the rotor conductors which in turn produces the current flow. &hus magneti=ing the rotor. )ue to the tendency of the
rotor magnetic field to be aligned with the stator field, the rotor develops the torque in the same direction and it starts
6
rotating. &he speed of the rotor however is less than synchronous speed Ns #the speed of rotating magnetic field
developed by the stator$. ,f the rotor runs exactly at the synchronous speed induced emf in the rotor will be =ero.
>ence there will be no rotor current and rotor torque.
&he synchronous speed is a function of the no of poles of the motor and supply frequency. &his is given by
Ns ? .9@ A frequency #f$ 7 number of poles #5$
>ence the speed of an A( motor is a function of frequency and the number of motor poles. &he speed of the rotor
relative to that of the stator"rotating field is called as <S0,5<. &his slip is the difference between the synchronous
speed, Ns and actual speed N and is denoted by S. &his is generally expressed as a fraction of the synchronous
speed. &hus slip is S ? #Ns"N$ 7 Ns where N" is actual rotor speed, Ns " Synchronous speed &he primary function of
the motor is to provide torque, which ma'es the shaft 7 loads to rotate at the required speed.
.$ &he <torque< of an induction motor depends upon the flux in the air gap.
9$ +urther, flux is directly proportional to V 7 f.... where V is supply voltage and f is the supply frequency. ,t can
therefore be said that, the torque & is directly proportional to flux 8 flux is directly proportional to V 7 f.
/$ &hus the torque producing capability of the motor at the rated 7 required speeds can be retained constant, by
maintaining the voltage v7s frequency ratio constant.
:$ (onclusively one can say that to vary the speed of an induction motor the frequency of the supply going to
the motor should be varied. ,n order to maintain the torque producing capability the voltage applied to the
motor needs to changed in the same proportion as that of frequency.
Varia"le Fre#uenc$ Dri%es :
&he primary functions of a variable speed A( drive, is to convert electrical power to the usable form for controlling
speed, torque and direction of rotation of A( motor
&he A( drive system basically splits into two sections
Po#er electronics* ,n the power circuit the three phase incoming A( power is rectified to )( and then inverted to
A( of desired frequency 8 voltage. &his consists of surge suppresser circuit, line communicated converter #controlled
or uncontrolled rectifier$, pre"charging unit, )( lin' capacitor unit with bleeder resistor inverter, etc.
$ontrol circuitry* &he control circuitry monitors 8controls the whole wor'ing of the drive. ,t regulates the output
voltage, process the feedbac', the fault and interloc's the inverter by tripping it in case of any fault. &he mode of
operation of A( drives are mainly classified into two types $onstant + , f and +ector control.
Ad%anta&es o' %aria"le 're#uenc$ dri%es:
-eature .enefits
Soft starting
2educed impact on electrical networ' means no
penalties from utility
2educed stress on motor, coupling and load, giving
extended life time
*nlimited number of starts per hour
5recise speed and torque control
4etter product quality
improved cost of ownership
4etter protection of motor #e.g. stall protection and
load$
(onsistent product quality, despite input power
variations and sudden load changes
5
6ide speed control range
,mproved efficiency compared to traditional flow
control methods e.g. damper control, throttling
lower maintenance
>igh reliability and availability
2educed downtime
,mproved process availability
0ow audible noise
,mproved wor'ing environment for
operators
(apability for speed reversal 7 regenerative bra'ing
)esired torque during bra'ing,
therefore better product quality
improved bra'ing characteristics
>igher efficiency
+lux optimisation #motor flux automatically adapted to load$
,mproved motor efficiency
2educed motor noise
5ower loss ride through
2educed number of drive trips
4etter process availability
Automatic start #drive can catch a spinning load$
2educed waiting time
2educed downtime
3nergy saving A( drives can be retroffied to
standard induction motors, to
provide substantial energy savings
(peed control o' Induction otor :
&he power supply to the induction motor is through the stator winding terminal. &he speed control of the induction
motor is possible at the stator winding terminal, by appropriately changing the electrical supply voltage, frequency or
the internal winding. &he rotor circuit windings available in a slipring induction motor, allows an additional means to
control the speed. &his method of varying the motor speed by adding resistance in the rotor circuit is 'nown as rotor
resistance control # 22( $. &he operating principle of 22( is explained as follows
,n the rotor resistance control method, the speed variation in a motor can be achieved by altering the slip the motor
can operate. &his method is applicable for slipring induction motors, as it involves addition of the external resistance
in the rotor circuit of the motor #as shown in fig $.&he principle employed in the rotor resistance control is changing the
internal motor circuit parameters, by adding external rotor resistance. &his in turn changes the torque"speed
characteristics of the motor.
+igure" Slipring induction motor " with external rotor resistors
5
7ith increasin$ resistance, the slope of the motor curve decreases, shiftin$ the stable operatin$
point for the $iven load curve to a point "ith hi$her slip. *hus the speed control is achieved in
the rotor resistance control.0 *his is represented in the fi$. belo"1
+igure" Slipring induction motor " with external rotor resistors
&he above graph shows the variations of the torque with slip, the other factors remaining constant. &he change in slip
is attained by changing the value of rotor resistances. ,n the graph, the curves A, 4, ( 8 ) have rotor resistances 2a,
2b, 2c 8 2d respectively. &he relative values of resistanceBs is as follows %d/%c/%!/%a. ,t is observed that a
significant amount of input power has to be dissipated in the external resistors. &his power lost due to the increase in
slip is called as slip po#er. &he ratio of slip power to total power input changes with speed.
2otor 2esistance (ontroller #22($ 2otor 2esistance (ontroller #22($ is a method of speed control applicable to
the slip"ring induction motor only.
&dvantaes of %%$*
No harmonic eneration* *nli'e A( drives 8 S52S, 22( has no adverse effect, such as harmonics generation
which affects the distribution networ'.
&m!ient conditions* 22( has no electronic components li'e that of other electronic variable speed drives. >ence,
they can be installed in even adverse environments.
0isadvantaes of %%$*
)*ternal coolin&: / portion of the input po"er has to be dissipated in the e-ternal rotor
resistors. *hese resistors reuire coolin$ fans to dissipate the heat $enerated by them. *he
coolin$ fans form an additional load.
(peed ad+ustment: In this methods the speed ad8ustment is in steps or "ith very poor
re$ulations
aintenance: *his method of control has lot of contractors 9 orther movin$ parts, "hich
reuires re$ular maintenance.
)ner&$ sa%in& concept & 'an cur%es
7e all 3no" that lot of ener$y is "asted in fan:pump:blo"er applications if not properly
desi$ned. 7hen "e use conventional motor control system, in "hich /C motor is run at full
;
speed, the flo" of $ases:air :liuid is re$ulated usin$ the damper :throttle control. In this
process , substantial ener$y is lost in the damper:throttle. *his "aste of ener$y can be as hi$h as
45 to 60 # of motor ratin$. /l"ays $o for reliable v:f , variable speed drives to control the speed
of fan:pump:blo"er, "hich in turn "ill automatically control the flo". <ence you can eliminate
the need of damper:throttle. =our pay bac3 period can be even less than one year.
)''ect o' ,armonic Distortion on an induction motor :
>armonic )istortion is a 'ind of pollution in electrical supply. &he distortion is caused by different <Non 0inear 0oad<
connected to electrical supply.
&he harmonic frequencies are exact multiples of the fundamental supply frequency.
&ypically the harmonics which are generated by/ phase C"pulse rectifiers in the common A( or )( drives just include
the harmonics numbers ;, D, .., ./, .D, .E, 9/ 8 9; etc.
>armonic currents affect the circuit components which are direct on the line supplying the drive, such as
transformers, cables and circuit brea'ers.
*he most sensitive are transformers, because the losses in "indin$s and cores are hi$her "ith
hi$her amount of harmonic currents. If the non!linear load percenta$e of the total transformer
load is $oin$ to be more than 50#, it is important to chec3 the transformers loadability.
Distorted wave composed by the superposition of a 60 Hz fundamental and small third harmonic
and fifth harmonics.
>armonic voltage affect all equipment which are connected to the supply. 6ays to reduce harmonic distortion
*se 56F A( drive
(hoose drive with effective )( 0ine +iltering
>
,f possible use .9"pulse 2ectifier in the )rive
,nstall the cabling and earthing properly
,nstall Shunt +ilters or >armonic &raps
Formula 'or calculatin& otor Capacit$
2otary motion
0inear motion #>ori=ontal motion$
! 5o ?
9 ! &l ! N
C@ !
x .@
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G'6H ! 5o ?
! 6 ! Vl
C.9@ !
G'6H
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:Il ! #Nl$
9
/C; J .@/ ! ta

G'6H ! 5a ?
6 ! #Vl$
9
/C@@ J .@
/
! ta
G'6H
! &0 ?
Nl
NF!
! &l GN! FH ! &0 ?
E.K m ! 6 ! Vl
9 ! NF ! p
GN! FH
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!Il G'g ! m
9
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: ! NF
G'g ! m
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H
! ta ?
9 #IF L I0$ ! NF
C@ ! #&F ! a " &0$

GsecH ! ta ?
9
p
#IF L I0 $ !NF
C@ ! #&F ! " &0$
GsecH
! td ?
9 #IF L I0$ ! NF
C@ ! #&F ! L &0$

GsecH ! td ?
9p #IF L I0$ ! NF
C@ ! #&F ! L &0$
GsecH
0egend
5o
@
2unning power G'6H &l
@
0oad torque GN ! mH
5a
@
2equired power for accel G'6H &0
@
0oad torque GN ! mH
Nl
@
0oad speed Gr7mH

#2eflected to motor shaft$
NF
@
Fotor shaft speed Gr7mH &F
@
Fotor rated torqueGN.mH
Vl
@
0oad velocity of load Gm7min.H ta
@
Acceleration time GsecH

@
Fachine efficiency td
@
)ecceleration tiem GsecH

@
+riction factor
@
@.K " ..9
6
@
6eight of load G'gH
@
@.. " @.9 #9@@V class$
@.@; " @.. #:@@ V class$
IF
@
Fotor inertia G'g ! m
9
H

Il
@
0oad inertia G'g ! m
9
H

I0
@
0oad inertia G'g ! m
9
H
#2eflected to motor shaft$

Do-nsi.in&
6ith the expansion of the field of application of drives, the demands for ma'ing drives more compact and lower in
cost are becoming stronger.
Among the above, the issue of cooling is especially important in counteracting the increase of heating density
accompanying downsi=ing and is becoming difficult to accommodate by normal conventional methods. 6ith regard to
A
this issue, we will describe the building"in of quality and the the prior verification activities which are performed at the
initial stages of development by the effective utili=ation of (A)7(A3 tools.
7hen an induction motor is driven by a P7M /C drive, a sur$e volta$e may occur at the motor
terminals due to the characteristics of the drives output volta$e 0dv:dt1. Bar$e sur$e volta$es can
brea3 do"n the motor insulation and cause premature motor failure. *he article attempts to
discuss this phenomenon in both a theoretical and practical "ay.
.. 6hat is VVV+ A( drive M
VVV+ A( drive is the power electronic controller used to control the speed of /ph A( motors
#synchronous or inducution$ by varying the frequency and the voltage applied to the motor terminals.
Voltage and frequency relationship is decided based on the motor name plate data and the load
characteristics.
9. 6hat is the typical power circuit configuration of VVV+ A( driveM
10
&ypical power circuit configuration involves /5h. diode rectifier at the input, which converts the A( input
to )( voltage. 0( or ( filter reduces the ripple in the )( voltage. /5h ,N4& A( drive stage converts this
)( voltage into variable voltage variable frequency output as per the desired pattern
/. 6hat are the different types of VVV+ A( driveM
VVV+ A( drive are generally classified into three types based on the type of control philosophy adopted
for motor control
Scalar control756F control.
Sensorless vector control.
Vector control #with sensor$ or +lux vector control.
:. 6hat is scalar controlM
,n scalar control, relationship between voltage and frequency of the A( voltage applied to the motor
terminals is predetermined by the user. &his relationship is marginally altered in scalar drives sometimes,
to improve the performance of the drive. Scalar controlled inverters can have only speed control and
these are ideal for group7multi motor drives.
;. 6hat is vector control or flux vector controlM
6hat are the typical applicationsM
,n Vector (ontrol motor, current is controlled with two independent components i.e., torque component
and flux component. &hese components are computed based on the rotor position, rotor speed and motor
parameters. Fotor speed is controlled rather than output frequency. 2elationship between voltage and
frequency is decided by operating conditions. Vector controlled inverters invariably use encoders for rotor
speed and position feedbac'. As flux and torque components of current are decoupled, fast dynamic
response is obtained. ,t is possible to get more than rated torque at =ero speed also. Vector control can
be achieved for single motor only. Vector control inverters are used for applications demanding =ero
speed regulation, wide speed control range and excellent dynamic response. 3x. 5aper machine drives,
film line drives.
C. 6hat is Sensorless Vector (ontrolM
,n sensorless vector control, motor speed is estimated based on the measured motor terminal parameters
and hence speed sensor is avoided. 4ased on motor parameters and computed rotor speed, flux and
torque component of motor current are computed. As flux and torque component of current are
independently controlled, fast dynamic response is achieved. Speed regulation is better than scalar drives
and typical value is L7@.;O. &his speed regulation is typically achieved in the range .;@. >igh starting
torque #P.;@O$ is also achieved by this control.
D. 6hat is 56F (ontrolM
5ulse 6idth Fodulation #56F$ is the method of control where variable voltage #A(7)($ is achieved from
a fixed )( voltage using switching devices. )( voltage is applied for sometime in the cycle and in the
remaining period, no voltage is applied to the load. 4y adjusting the duty ratio, #ratio of on period to cycle
time$ output voltage is adjusted between =ero and rated voltage
K. 6hat is applied motor rating as specified by inverter specificationM
Applied motor rating specifies the maximum rating of the :"pole motor that can be connected to the
inverter to obtain its rated output power at the rated speed. ,t is necessary that the rated input voltage of
the inverter and motor are matched or else specified out power may not be achieved.
E. 6hat is rated QVA output capacityM
,t is the apparent power that can be delivered continuously by the inverter at the rated frequency. &his is
calculated as GS-2&#/$ x rated output voltage x rated currentH7.@@@.
.@. 6hat is rated output voltageM
11
2ated output voltage is the fundamental rms value of the output terminal voltage at rated input and output
conditions.
... 6hat is the output rated currentM
)utput rated current is the rms current the inverter can continuously supply irrespective of the output freuency.
.9. 6hat is the rated input voltage 8 frequencyM
,t is the rated supply voltage and frequency for which invertor delivers its rated output.
./. 6hat is input voltage variation and frequency variationM
,nput voltage and frequency variation range specifies the range wherein the inverter can deliver the rated
current without affecting the life of the equipment. 1ther specifications as output power, voltage etc., may
not be met during the variation.
.:. 6hat is the power factor as claimed by manufacturersM
,nput power factor can be specified in two ways i.e., displacement power factor and harmonic power
factor. ,f diode rectifier is used displacement between the fundamental voltage and current is nearly =ero
and hence displacement power factor is approximately ..@. >armonic power factor in the ratio of input
effective power and input apparent power. &his depends on output speed and load conditions. ,t is
normally specified at rated input and output conditions. 5ower factor depends on the power circuit
configuration.
.;. 6hat is input QVA capacityM
,t is the input apparent power drawn by the inverter at the rated output conditions.
.C. 6hat is the frequency 7 speed rangeM
+requency7speed range is the ratio of minimum and maximum frequency7speed in the defined operating
condition. 3x...@ speed range with constant torque.
.D. 6hat is frequency stabilityM
+requency stability specifies the variation in output frequency with the defined temperature variation
'eeping frequency reference constant. 3x. L7"@.;O of max frequency for 9;R (. L7".@R (.
.K. 6hat is inverter efficiencyM
,nverter efficiency is the ratio of the output power to the input power of inverter at rated output conditions
i.e., with rated voltage, rated current 8 rated power factor at the output of inverter.
.E. 6hat is A( 2eactor70ine (ho'eM
A( 2eactor is used when supply line has to be isolated from commutation notches caused by the inverter
and to reduce the rectifier pea' current.
9@. 6hat is noise filterM
Coise filter is the element involvin$ inductor and noise capacitor to suppress hi$h freuency
volta$es, "hich can cause interference to sensitive electronic euipment.
)FF)C/ OF F0)Q1)2C3 VA0IA/IO2 O2 O/O0 C4A0AC/)0I(/IC(
Motors are normally desi$ned to operate at a freuency ran$e of
D:!5# from desi$ned freuency.
Runnin$ a motor at a lo" freuency results in reduction of the output
14
po"er.But the effect of lo" freuency is not very $reat since there is
no mar3ed chan$e in po"er factor.
*he losses due to freuency variations are mainly due to hysteresis 9
eddy current losses.<ysteresis losses are directly proportional to the
freuency 9 eddy current losses are directly proportional to the suare
of the freuency
Copper losses in the motor are unaffected , but friction 9 "inda$e
losses increase.
/s such, efficiency of the motor is reduced sli$htly.
)FF)C/ OF VO5/A6) VA0IA/IO2 O2 O/O0 C4A0AC/)0I(/IC(
16