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The Robert Gordon University

Well Lifecycle
Process Overview
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So just where does oil come from?
Hydrocarbon deposits originate from the remains of
plants and animals. Over millions of years the organic
matter decayed and decomposed under conditions of
extreme pressure and heat into what we know today
as hydrocarbon products. These may be found in
liquid, gaseous, and solid form but they all consist of
the same base elements, hydrogen (~13% by weight)
and carbon (~ 87%).
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Cycle of Deposition
WEATHERING & EROSION
of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
TRANSPORT OF DEBRIS
by wind, running water, etc.., and
DEPOSITION in the sea
SUBSIDENCE
accompanied by compression and
cementation of loose sediments
FOLDING & UPLIFTING
accompanied by volcanic activity and
igneous intrusions
Rocks can be arranged into a few groups of closely related
types depending on the size and nature of the mineral
forming the rock:
I gneous: solidified from a molten mass - made up of a
few minerals of definite composition - crystals - and each
recognizable. Silica is present in almost all igneous rocks.
Eg quartz - almost entirely silica).
Sedimentary: Accumulated on land or in water from
debris of existing rock. There are only 4 main varieties:
Arenaceous - Sandy
Argillacous - Clay
Calcerous - Lime
Organic - Remains of plants and animals
Metamorphic: Rocks that have been altered by heat
and pressure. Heat causes the mineral to re-crystallise and
turn into a simpler and more stable form. Pressure allows
them to to grow and re-arrange themselves - they have a
definite grain
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The Earth beneath our feet ...
The extent of reservoirs is dependent on the structure
of the earths crust. Where movement of the earths
various layers along geological fault lines is excessive
then it is these layers that are pushed into mountains
and valleys creating conditions conducive to the
formation of oil bearing rock. The natural fault line
barriers usually prevent the migration of hydrocarbon
products and encourage their accumulation.
The majority of hydrocarbon accumulations are located
between the depths of 7,000 - 13,000 feet although
discoveries of new hydrocarbon areas are now being
found underneath existing reservoirs at depths up to
15,000 feet.
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ERA SYSTEM AGE (approx.) millions of years
QUATERNARY Recent
Pleistocene
0
0.01
CAENOZOIC or TERTIARY Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Palaeocene
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7
26
38
54
MESOZOIC or SECONDARY Cretaceous
J urassic
Triassic
65
136
195
PALAEOZOIC or PRIMARY Permian
Carboniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
225
280
345
395
440
500
AZOIC or ARCHAEAN Pre-Cambrian
Origin of Earth from-
570
4500
Just how long has it been there?
Northern & Central North Sea (incl West of Shetland)
Oil: Mainly in Jurassic sandstones (e.g. Brent,
Statfjord, Magnus, Hutton). But also in Lower Tertiary
sandstones (e.g. Forties, Frigg, Maureen, Claymore),
and in Cretaceous fractured chalk (Ekofisk).
Southern North Sea
Gas: In Upper Carboniferous and Permian
sandstones.
Irish Sea (Morcambe Bay)
Gas: In Triassic sandstones
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Oil in place
An oil reservoir should not be thought as some
underground cavern full of oil and gas at a pressure.
Usually the hydrocarbons exist within the structure of
porous rock like a sponge full of water
See also next slide
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How much oil?
Rock Matrix
Pore Space
(Porosity)
But
Pore space
without
communication
is no good. We
need ..
Permeability
But
Pore space
without
communication
is no good. We
need ..
Permeability
Porosity
is expressed as
a % of pore
space vs. total
rock volume
Porosity
is expressed as
a % of pore
space vs. total
rock volume
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Drilling process overview Stage 1
Geological data is
gathered and
interpreted by
geophysicists and
geologists looking at
where, when, and at
what depth there could
be hydrocarbons in
place
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Initially by using ...Seismic data
Subsurface formations are
mapped by measuring the
time taken for acoustic
pulses generated in the
earth to return to the
surface after reflection or
refraction from interfaces
between geological
formations with different
physical properties
To examine the effect of a falling weight, Ludger Mintrop built a
mechanism to drop a 4000 kg iron ball from 14 metres height
(1908)
During Word War 1 German scientist Ludger Mintrop
invented a portable seismograph to locate Allied
artillery. By recording earth vibrations from positions
opposite Allied bombardments he could calculate gun
positions so accurately that the first shot from a
German gun would often make a direct hit. However,
varying velocities among geological formations through
which the vibrations passed induced errors into
distance calculations, but, by making certain
assumptions about the geology, corrections could be
made to compute distance.
After the war Mintrop reversed the process by
measuring distances and computing the geology from
earths vibrations on his portable seismograph.
In April 1923 he was granted a US patent
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Initially by using ...Seismic data
Subsurface formations are
mapped by measuring the
time taken for acoustic
pulses generated in the
earth to return to the
surface after reflection or
refraction from interfaces
between geological
formations with different
physical properties
To examine the effect of a falling weight, Ludger Mintrop built a
mechanism to drop a 4000 kg iron ball from 14 metres height
(1908)
During Word War 1 German scientist Ludger Mintrop
invented a portable seismograph to locate Allied
artillery. By recording earth vibrations from positions
opposite Allied bombardments he could calculate gun
positions so accurately that the first shot from a
German gun would often make a direct hit. However,
varying velocities among geological formations through
which the vibrations passed induced errors into
distance calculations, but, by making certain
assumptions about the geology, corrections could be
made to compute distance.
After the war Mintrop reversed the process by
measuring distances and computing the geology from
earths vibrations on his portable seismograph.
In April 1923 he was granted a US patent
11
Initially by using ...Seismic data
Subsurface formations are
mapped by measuring the
time taken for acoustic
pulses generated in the
earth to return to the
surface after reflection or
refraction from interfaces
between geological
formations with different
physical properties
To examine the effect of a falling weight, Ludger Mintrop built a
mechanism to drop a 4000 kg iron ball from 14 metres height
(1908)
During Word War 1 German scientist Ludger Mintrop
invented a portable seismograph to locate Allied
artillery. By recording earth vibrations from positions
opposite Allied bombardments he could calculate gun
positions so accurately that the first shot from a
German gun would often make a direct hit. However,
varying velocities among geological formations through
which the vibrations passed induced errors into
distance calculations, but, by making certain
assumptions about the geology, corrections could be
made to compute distance.
After the war Mintrop reversed the process by
measuring distances and computing the geology from
earths vibrations on his portable seismograph.
In April 1923 he was granted a US patent
12
Initially by using ...Seismic data
Subsurface formations are
mapped by measuring the
time taken for acoustic
pulses generated in the
earth to return to the
surface after reflection or
refraction from interfaces
between geological
formations with different
physical properties
To examine the effect of a falling weight, Ludger Mintrop built a
mechanism to drop a 4000 kg iron ball from 14 metres height
(1908)
During Word War 1 German scientist Ludger Mintrop
invented a portable seismograph to locate Allied
artillery. By recording earth vibrations from positions
opposite Allied bombardments he could calculate gun
positions so accurately that the first shot from a
German gun would often make a direct hit. However,
varying velocities among geological formations through
which the vibrations passed induced errors into
distance calculations, but, by making certain
assumptions about the geology, corrections could be
made to compute distance.
After the war Mintrop reversed the process by
measuring distances and computing the geology from
earths vibrations on his portable seismograph.
In April 1923 he was granted a US patent
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Drilling process overview Stage 2
From this initial
information costs are
estimated to prepare
an AFE (Application
for Expenditure) for
submission to
management
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Drilling process overview Stage 3
Drilling engineers
start the process of
designing the well in
conjunction with the
geologists, reservoir
engineers and well
completion specialists
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Things like.....
Rig Selection
Permits & Legislative compliance
Blow Out Prevention
Casing Design
Mud Programme
Solids Control Systems
Drill Bit Options
Directional Drilling Requirements
Logging (evaluation) Programme
Completion Requirements
HS&E (Health, Safety & Environmental) Aspects
... To name but a few...
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Drilling process overview Stage 4
The next stage is the
construction of the
well using drilling
equipment suitable for
the pressure and
hazards expected
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Well types
Wildcat: Little or no previous drilling exploration activity in the
area
Exploratory: Geological target selection based on seismic data,
and geological modelling i.e. no previous drilling in
the prospective horizon
Appraisal: Delineates the reservoirs boundaries, usually
drilled after the exploratory discoveries
Producers: Drilling into a known reservoir
Infill: Drilling in known productive portions of the
reservoir that have not been properly drained.
This is usually done later in the life of the
reservoir
Re-entry: Existing well re-entered to deepen, side-track,
complete, or re-complete
Others include: Step out - usually from an existing
borehole, but is used to probe for reservoir boundaries
I nj ector: - producing wells are often reversed in to
injectors to maintain reservoir pressure - water, gas or
steam are injected to flood the oil and gas toward the
designated producer
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Drill Bits are used to cut / crush the rock
Roller Cone
PDC
These are made-up to heavy large diameter series
of tubes, collectively called...
Roller cone - so called because each of the three cones
rotate independently , running on ball / race bearings
or journal type friction bearings. Cutting action is by
digging or crushing the rock
PDC means Polycrystalline Diamond Compacts -
wafers of man made diamonds used to shear the
formation.
Natural diamond on a solid steel mould - used for very
hard formations
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... the Bottom Hole Assembly BHA
Drill Collar
Connection
Hevi-Wate Drill Pipe
Stabilizer
Basic elements only - things like motors, MWD, LWD,
Jars also form part of the BHA but are probably the
subject of another presentation
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Drilling fluids: Mud - has to:
cool and lubricate the bit, drillstring, and to clean the bottom
of the hole
carry cuttings to surface
remove cuttings from the mud at surface minimise possible
subsequent formation damage
control formation pressures and to maintain hole integrity
assist in well logging operations
minimise corrosion of the drillstring, casing and tubing,
minimise contamination problems
minimise torque, drag and pipe sticking propensities, improve
drilling rate
A complete and comprehensive mud plan must be
included in the well planning process. Drilling fluids are
designed to solve or minimise many drilling problems.
The major factors that have to be covered include the
above.
The drilling fluid programme must be designed to
satisfy the highest priority requirements for drilling the
prospective well, especially well control
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Drilling fluids: Mud - has to:
cool and lubricate the bit, drillstring, and to clean the bottom
of the hole
carry cuttings to surface
remove cuttings from the mud at surface minimise possible
subsequent formation damage
control formation pressures and to maintain hole integrity
assist in well logging operations
minimise corrosion of the drillstring, casing and tubing,
minimise contamination problems
minimise torque, drag and pipe sticking propensities, improve
drilling rate
A complete and comprehensive mud plan must be
included in the well planning process. Drilling fluids are
designed to solve or minimise many drilling problems.
The major factors that have to be covered include the
above.
The drilling fluid programme must be designed to
satisfy the highest priority requirements for drilling the
prospective well, especially well control
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Carry
Cuttings
to
Surface
Reduce
Rotational
Torque
Form
Filter
Cake
Stabilize
Formation
Lubricate
Drill Bit
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Liner
Casing ... protects the newly drilled hole
Intermediate
Casing
Surface
Casing
Casing setting depths are directly affected by
geological conditions. In some cases, the prime
criterion for selecting casing seats is to cover exposed,
severe lost circulation zones. In others, the seat
selection may be based on differential sticking
problems, perhaps resulting from pressure reduction in
the field. In deep wells, however the primary
consideration is usually based on controlling abnormal
formation pressures and preventing the exposure to
weaker shallow zones.
Selecting casing seat depths for pressure control
purposes starts with knowing geological conditions
such as formation pressure and fracture gradients.
After these have been established, the engineer will
design a casing programme based on the assumption
that he already knows the behaviour of the well even
before it is drilled.
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Main functions of casing strings:
Consolidate unstable formations that have just been
drilled through
Contain any pressures that may be encountered
Separate any different pressure regimes
Provide structural support for the BOPs and diverters
Protect sensitive formations from contamination
Provide a suitable environment for installation of
production or testing equipment such as packers,
downhole valves, tubing, liner hangers etc.
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Cementing ...
is performed to secure
casing strings, and
isolate zones for
production purposes
as well as solve
various hole problems
Inner Casing
String
Cement
being
injected
Cement
Sheath
Outer Casing
String
Casing strings are usually cemented in the hole to
isolate the troublesome zones behind the casing from
deeper formations to be drilled. It is also used to
isolate high-pressure formations below the casing from
the weaker shallower ones. Cement is normally placed
behind the casing in a single or multiple stage
technique. The single stage pumps cement down the
casing and up the annulus. To stop the cement U-
tubing a backpressure valve is fitted at the bottom of
the casing. It is drilled out after the cement has
hardened. In a multistage cement job the first stage is
like a single stage one. The next stage is pumped
though a special port collar at the desired location up
the annulus. Liners are cemented in a slightly different
fashion as they are usually run on the end of drill pipe.
The cement slurry has to run through the pipe prior to
entering the liner annular space
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Packer
Production
Tubing
Production
Fluids
Casing String
Christmas
Tree
When a well has been
drilled and cased it
must now be
Completed in order
to produce the
hydrocarbons residing
in the reservoir
Completions
The Christmas tree provides connection and isolation between
the wellbore and production equipment. There are usually
automatic valves fitted that are fail safe i.e. master valve and
wing valve with hydraulic cylinders to open them and springs to
close them
The automatic valves, including the downhole safety valve, are
usually connected to the platform or control point ESD system
Flow string systems are the components used in the tubing
string to conduct produced fluids from the reservoir to the
surface. They can include tubing, mandrels and nipples, flow
couplings, sliding sleeves, side mandrel pockets for gas lift
valves and backpressure valves
Packers provide the annular seal between the tubing and the
production casing. They must be able to withstand high
differential pressures and still maintain an effective seal. They
are usually classed into retrievable and permanent. The
permanent type is held in place by opposing slips and can be set
with wireline or tubing conveyed methods. Retrievable packers
can be weight set, mechanical set, or hydraulically set
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Modern completions
Choosing the proper size of flow string can affect
reservoir performance to some degree. Tubing with a
restricted inner diameter can cause high-pressure
losses. Since this pressure is the driving energy that
forces fluids out of the reservoir any wasteful source of
pressure dissipation can cause lower primary reservoir
recovery. The tubing string should be sized to allow for
optimum production with a minimum tubing size. Well
completions involve placing flow control equipment at
the surface and in the tubing string.
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Drilling process overview Stage 5
Once the well has been
completed and is
flowing for commercial
purposes, it has to be
maintained with
occasional intervention
work for replacement of
worn parts e.g. leaking
down-hole safety
valves, and to gather
pressure and
temperature
information for
reservoir management
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Produced Oil can be processed and stored ready for
tankering in Floating Production, Storage and Offloading
(FPSO) Vessels
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Or... By subsea pipelines etc...
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.... Monitoring ....
Detailed reservoir
models and
simulations are
constantly updated as
new development-
drilling data becomes
available enabling
effective Field
Management
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Drilling process overview - 6
Abandonment - this is
the stage when the
reservoir is depleted
and seabed or land is
returned to its natural
environment
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How an Oil Company is Generally Structured
Oil Company
(or Well operator)
Drilling Engineering Formation Evaluation Accounts Operations Reservoir Engineering Production Engineering Geology
Drilling Superintendent
Wells in Progress
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How a Drilling Contractor is Generally Structured
Drilling Contractor
Accounts Rig Manager Rig Design & Maintenance
Tool Pusher Rig 1
Driller
Derrickman
Rig Crew
Tool Pusher Rig 2 (etc.
Driller
Derrickman
Rig Crew
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Drilling Service companies
Drilling Service Companies
Drilling Fluids Drilling Cements
Directional Drilling Casing Running
Formation Evaluation Mud Logging
Drilling Bits Tool Rental
Well Completion Equipment Many others .....etc.
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Further Reading
Virtual Campus: ENM201 Wells an
Introduction
MIs Drilling Fluids Engineering Manual Chapter
1 Introduction
http://science.howstuffworks.com/oil-
drilling.htm/printable
http://science.howstuffworks.com/oil-
refining.htm/printable
http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Default.cfm