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Stormwater Industry Association 2005 Regional Conference, Port Macquarie, NSW
SUSTAINABLE STORMWATER: You Are Responsible Justify Your Decisions.
20-21 April 2005

THE USE OF GABIONS AND RENO MATTRESSES IN RIVER
AND STREAM REHABILITATION
By Dale Chaychuk (Maccaferri Pty LTD)

1 HISTORY

The word Gabion comes from the Italian word Gabbione, which means Big cage. First
records of the use of the system go back more than 2000 years, when the Egyptians used
cylindrical willow baskets filled with small stones to protect the banks of the Nile River
from erosion. This system was unchanged until as late as the nineteenth century, when
willow was replaced by Gabions made of wire netting.

The first industrial manufacture of Gabions began in 1894 when a blacksmith from
Bologna, Italy named Maccaferri came up with the idea of using mesh to contain rocks.
The first project on record was the protection of the river banks on the River Reno where
24000m of Gabions were used. (Figure 1). Since then, improvements in mesh
configurations and coatings have been adopted to better suit todays demands and to make
use of modern technology.



















Figure 1. The first Gabion protections on the River Reno.



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2 UNDERSTANDING THE SYSTEM

There are many advantages of the Gabion type system over conventional protections that
make it an appealing solution for the rehabilitation of riverine environments.

Woven mesh Gabions and Reno Mattresses are a flexible system, which unlike block
walls, reinforced concrete or concrete mattresses, are able to deform to differential
settlements while maintaining their functionality.

The fastening (lacing) procedure ensures the units act as one monolithic homogeneous
structure. The same cannot be said for loosely placed rock armour where each rock acts
individually and therefore needs to be excessively large.

Due to the fact that Gabions and Reno Mattresses are approximately 30% voided, pore
water pressures are easily dissipated through the structure without build up of
hydrostatic pressures. This inherent benefit ensures that the natural banks are not
isolated from the river as would occur with impermeable or semi-impermeable
protections.

The double twisted hexagonally woven mesh configuration ensures that if one wire was
to accidentally break, the mesh would not unravel. The heavily coated zinc galvanised
or Galmac (inclusion of Aluminium into the coating process) coated wire with an
additional PVC coating, disproves the fallacy that Gabion type structures are temporary
solutions.

Gabion type structures are widely known to be an environmentally friendly solution
where vegetation may easily establish, eventually re-creating the pre-existing
environment. The added use of bio-degradable coir fibre mats (Biomac), Jute blankets
or Ecologs to create planter boxes within the units will accelerate the vegetative
process. (Figures 2.1 and 2.2)

Figures. 2.1 and 2.2.The creation of planting areas within the Gabions.
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When considering Gabion or Reno Mattress protections, one must look at the system
holistically. The system comprises of the double twisted hexagonally woven Gabions or
Reno Mattresses, rock fill, geotextile separation layer, foundation preparation and backfill
procedure. If one of these components is not as per the correct specification, the structural
integrity of the entire system may be jeopardized.

2.1.1 Woven Mesh Gabions

Gabions are flexible cages made of hexagonally woven double twisted wire mesh. The wire
used to manufacture the baskets is heavily zinc coated or Galmac (95% Zinc + 5%
Aluminium + Mischmetals) coated mild steel with or without an additional Polyvinyl
Chloride (PVC) coating. (Figure 2.3) These units are laced together to create a monolithic
structure, packed with selected stone and act as building blocks. They are commonly used
in the construction of retaining walls, weirs, culvert inlets/outlets, bridge abutments and
other civil structures. (Figure 2.4)





Figure 2.3. The wire used in
woven mesh manufacture.







Figure 2.4. Woven mesh Gabions.
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Steel wire used for the manufacture of Gabions and Reno Mattresses is protected against
corrosion by the wire coating. The degree of protection afforded depends upon the type of
coating and the thickness of the coating; the thinner the coating, the more susceptible it is to
abrasion and mechanical damage.

Zinc Galvanised or Galmac coated wire with additional 0.5mm radial thickness PVC
coating should be used in the following instances:

River or fluvial conditions where abrasive sediment loads may exist
Marine conditions and salt spray areas
Industrial waste
Mining Applications
Effluent
Polluted water (pH less than 7 and above 12)
Where the soil is highly acidic or alkaline

Zinc Galvanised or Galmac coated wire (without PVC coating) can generally be used in all
other neutral conditions. Zinc Galvanised coated wire has a life expectancy of
approximately 40 years, Galmac coated approximately 60 years and PVC coated wire up to
120 years. Some manufactures have certification from international specification bodies
showing their specific products have been tested and reported to provide a life expectancy
of up to 120 years (in specific conditions).

Unfortunately, there have been instances where inferior products have been used under the
assumption that they have the same technical characteristics as double twisted hexagonally
woven mesh products. When considering Gabions, of vital importance is that the mesh
must fulfil the following requirements:

Have high mechanical resistance
Have a high resistance to corrosion
Good deformability
Will not unravel easily

In recent years there has been much debate over the equality of the different types of mesh
materials and mesh configurations available for the manufacture of Gabion products, in
particular woven wire mesh Gabions and welded mesh gabions. The use of chain link or
diamond mesh Gabions are beyond the scope of this paper as they are of such inferior
quality, performance and durability that any of the four requirements above are seldom
attained.

Experience has shown that when failures occur, they are generally viewed as a Gabion
failure rather than a woven or weld mesh failure. The perception that woven wire mesh and
welded wire mesh as applied to Gabion structures perform equally well when subjected to
the same loads, is untrue. These are two different types of mesh, generally made from the
same material, but in terms of the end product and field performance are very different.
Welded mesh does not offer the strength and flexibility that woven mesh does. (Figure 2.5)
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Figure 2.5. Welded mesh Gabions demonstrating their inability to accommodate settlement.


2.1.2 The Reno Mattress System

Reno Mattresses are thin flexible cages (less than 500mm thick), made of hexagonal double
twisted wire mesh with the same coating options as that of Gabions. The Mattress is
divided into cells by internal diaphragms positioned at 1 m centers and due to their flexible
nature, are used mainly as channel linings, revetments and scour protections (Figure 2.6)

Figure 2.6. The Reno Mattress System.
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It is generally recommended to use anchorage when installing Reno Mattresses on slopes
steeper than 1v:1.5h. This anchorage is either in the form of star pickets installed at centres
and depths dependant on the underlying soil or with the inclusion of a Gabion anchor at the
top of the slope.

Some manufactures are able to supply Reno Mattresses with a double diaphragm (i.e. the
base of the unit and the diaphragms are manufactured from one continuous mesh panel) to
offer maximum confinement and minimize internal rock movement during high flow
conditions. This double diaphragm also ensures that when the units are cut into smaller
sections, each segment will have side panels so additional cutting and fastening is not
required. These Mattresses units are known as Castoro Type Reno Mattresses.

2.2 The Rock Fill

The rock fill used in Gabion and Reno Mattress construction must be clean, sufficiently
durable, non friable and not show any signs of weathering. It should be evenly graded, be
angular to provide interlock and have a specific gravity (SG) of at least 2.4t/m. Typically,
basalt, granite and hard sandstones fulfil these criteria. Rock with an SG less than 2.4t/m
can be used, provided further stability analyses and weathering tests are carried out.

For Gabions, the distance between the twists is 80mm nominal and 60mm nominal for
Reno Mattresses (Figure 2.7). A rock fill size between say 1.5D to 3D is recommended to
limit the void ratio and maximize productivity. Where Gabions are used, rock on the
smaller side of the spectrum can be packed in the centre of the unit without compromising
the structural integrity. Reno Mattresses on the other hand are a lot thinner than Gabions so
the rock grading is a lot more critical. Under no circumstances should a rock size be used in
Reno Mattress that can be removed by hand through the mesh.


















Figure 2.7. Woven mesh configuration.

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2.3 The Geotextile Separation Layer

The use of geotextiles is essential in Gabion construction. The geotextile must be installed
at all mesh and soil interfaces with the primary function being that of separation and
secondly one of filtration. Generally, woven geotextiles are not suited to Gabion
construction as the filaments tend to slip on each other ultimately leading to piping failures.
They are also prone to installation damage from wires and sharp rocks which may tear the
geotextile. Non-wovens have high energy absorption, robustness and are more resistant to
installation damage making them ideal for Gabion construction.

The geotextile will not perform its function if it is damaged and it is proven that they incur
the biggest damage during installation. Supervisors on site must ensure that the contractor
takes due care to minimize damage by not driving machines over the geotextile or by
dropping rocks unnecessarily onto the material. If they can withstand installation damage,
they generally withstand the in service stresses that they are exposed to. The geotextile
must be robust, be sufficiently permeable and be abrasive resistant in hydraulic applications
to ensure that the filaments do not detangle when sediments are carried in suspension in the
watercourse. (Figure 2.8)


















Figure 2.8. A geotextile with poor abrasion resistance behind a Gabion wall.


Some engineers are of the opinion that geotextiles will clog over time and that this will lead
to excessive pore water pressures imposed on the structures. With the advancements made
in the field of Geosynthetics in recent years, it is rarely seen that, provided the correct grade
and type of geotextile is being used, any clogging will occur. You are more likely to see the
backfill material washed through the Gabion or Reno Mattress when a separation layer is
not present. (Figure 2.9 and 2.10)

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Figure 2.9 and 2.10. The omission of geotextile ultimately leads to piping through the
structure


2.4 The Foundation Preparation

Gabions and Reno Mattresses are an engineered system. The foundation needs to be level,
compacted as per specification, must provide uniform pressure distribution and there should
be minimal disturbance to the soil around the structure (Figure 2.11). The contractors must
show the same amount of effort as would be shown for a rigid type structure i.e. straight
lines, dumpy levels and compaction testing methods must be adopted. Generally,
specialized foundation techniques like concrete footings are not required. Compacted dump
rock is typically accepted where underlying material does not provide the necessary bearing
capacity. Where Gabions are installed on bedrock, concrete levelling pads with shear keys
(dowels) are recommended to maintain horizontal levels and minimize the potential for
sliding.















Figure 2.11. Level foundation with minimal disturbance to surrounding in-situ soil
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2.5 The Backfill Procedure

When backfilling behind Gabions it is recommended to use a free draining granular type
material. Care must be taken during the backfilling procedure to ensure that the geotextile
separation layer is not damaged. Heavy compaction machinery must keep at least 1.0m
away from the back of the units to minimize the chance of damaging the mesh with walk
behind compaction machinery used directly behind the wall. Backfilling must be completed
after every lift of Gabion units.

3 CHOOSING THE RIGHT SOLUTION

3.1 The Minimum Energy Level Concept
In choosing the most appropriate solution the following approach should be adopted:

Analysis of the problem (causes and effects).
Evaluation of the stability factors (numerical).
Use and knowledge of the performance limits, of the materials used.
Understanding of the performance of the combined use of these materials over time.
The most appropriate solution will be that defined by the Minimum Energy Level. This
is commonly defined as the minimum amount of intervention on the environment, which is
required to solve the problem. It is illustrated in Figure 3.1 and ranges from the lowest
level of no intervention through to the highest energy level, which may necessitate the
construction of a massive retaining structure, or a similar type of intervention.

Figure 3.1. Types of intervention for various energy levels.
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The right solution for the problem is dependent on:

The ability of the solution to be effective immediately after installation, as well as in the
long term.
Acceptable safety factors.
The degree and size of the risk associated with the failure of the structure used.
There are three categories of solution that could be appropriate:

Heavy systems. This category includes systems like articulated concrete blocks
(ACBs), Gabions or Reno Mattresses, Terramesh, rip rap, etc.
Light systems. This category includes Green Terramesh, erosion control blankets
(ECBs), turf reinforcement mats (TRMs), Ecologs, etc.
Soil Bioengineering techniques. This category may include many sorts of vegetative
species and treatments (without the use of combined inert materials) ranging from
herbaceous or woody plants, to a wide variety of treatments and systems.

4 DESIGNING THE SOLUTION

A proper design approach involves a complete analysis of the river and its catch basin in
order to identify the causes of land failure and possible restoration works. We should not
condemn extensive intervention if this is required to amend a compromised situation. In
planning river training, the designer may use three fundamental classes of training and
hydraulic protection structures:

Longitudinal works, defined as structures parallel to the river flow. They are used to:
a. Provide bank protection due to excessive erosion resulting in slope
instability;
b. Provide adequate flow conveyance during the flood event;
c. Provide sediment control and stabilisation of the streambed.
Transverse works (weirs, spillways, dams), to provide longitudinal stabilisation to the
watercourse.
Groynes, to convey the flow direction towards the central part of the channel, when the
banks may be subject to excessive erosion.
It is generally advised to approach a river training design by allowing streams to maintain
the most natural geometry, and combining experience and best management practices to
establish the most environmentally friendly protective system.
The stability against erosion of a river section is made by calculating the water velocity and
shear stress values generated by the hydraulic flow regime and checking whether the river
bed material is suitable to withstand/resist these effects without permanent damage.
The most general and widespread method used is referred to as the tractive force method.
It is applicable to any kind of solution and requires that the river bed material being adopted
has a defined shear resistance, limit velocity and critical velocity.
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When considering rock filled Gabions and Reno Mattresses, Critical velocity is the velocity at
which the revetment will remain stable without movement of the rock fill, while Limit
velocity is that which is still acceptable although there is some deformation of the protections
due to movement of the stones within the compartments. (Table 4.1)

FILLING STONES CRITICAL
VELOCITY
LIMIT
VELOCITY
TYPE
THICKNESS
m
Stone size mm d
50
m/s m/s
70 100 0.085 3.5 4.2
0.17
70 150 0.110 4.2 4.5
70 100 0.085 3.6 5.5
0.23
70 150 0.120 4.5 6.1
70 120 0.100 4.2 5.5
Castoro
Reno
Mattresses
0.30
100 150 0.125 5.0 6.4
100 200 0.150 5.8 7.6
Gabions 0.50 and 1.0
120 250 0.190 6.4 8.0
Table 4.1. Indicative Castoro Reno Mattress and Gabion thicknesses in relation to water
velocities.
Designing river training works using an environmentally friendly approach will often
require you to take account of the vegetation establishment over time. This will most likely
have an effect on the flow conveyance and on the materials allowable shear resistance. It is
recommended in this case to verify the channel section under two scenarios:

End of installation, where the river section will provide the maximum flow conveyance
(due to the low roughness), and the protective system the lowest allowable shear
resistance. This condition will normally be critical to the protection used and is
dependent on the inert materials only.
Vegetation completely grown, where the resistance to erosion will be higher due to the
consolidating effect of the roots. Vegetation will most likely reduce the river
conveyance section due to the increased roughness and reduced cross sectional flow
area. Design flow capacity with the vegetation completely grown (minimum 3 years
after end of installation) needs to be verified.

Table 4.2 gives the fundamental parameters (
c,

l
, n) taken into account in the bank
protection calculation where:

c
critical shear stress

l
limit shear stress
n Mannings n roughness coefficient

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END OF INSTALLATION VEGETATION
COMPLETELY GROWN
SYSTEM ADOPTED
Roughness n
(s/m
1/3
)
Allowable
tractive force

l
(Kg/m)
Roughness n
(s/m
1/3
)
Allowable
shear stress
c

(Kg/m)
Rip-rap 0.03-0.07
(b) (c)
0.07-0.4
(d)
35
Gabions 1.0m thick 0.0301 50 0.07-0.4
(d)
50
Gabions 0.5m thick 0.0301 47 0.07-0.4
(d)
50
Castoro Reno Mattress
0.17m thick
0.0277 22.4 0.07-0.4
(d)
40
Castoro Reno Mattress
0.23m thick
0.0277 26.9 0.07-0.4
(d)
45
Castoro Reno Mattress
0.30m thick
0.0277 33.6 0.07-0.4
(d)
45
MacMat-R (TRM) 0.0303 15-18
(a)
0.07-0.4
(d)
35
(a) = Function of the flood duration
(b) = The coefficient shall be computed on the basis of the real typology of the work, taking into
account shape and dimensions of the stones
(c) = The actual resistant shear stress depends on the stone dimensions and may be computed
(d) = Depends on the vegetation growth

Table 4.2. Allowable tractive force and roughness values

Vegetation can improve many of the factors and conditions causing earth slope and
riverbank instability. But we cannot ask the plant, or even their roots, to provide us
something they will never be able to give us in the causes effects solution chronological
scale.

If the problem is a stability issue, we cannot take the soil shear strength increase offered
from the vegetation roots into account, because at the moment of the intervention, they do
not exist, or demonstrate to be sufficient: the solution is the use of a retaining structure
(mass gravity or reinforced soil structure) that can solve the problem immediately.

If the problem is erosion control, we can use the widest range of solutions, from simple
seeding through the widest range of geosynthetics up to the heaviest stone revetment.
Today the global infrastructural solution must create (or re-create) new habitats suitable for
the life of animals and plant communities, whose aim is the improvement of the global
local environmental quality.

Combining these two concepts gives way to the soil bioengineering concept, where the
most appropriate inert material to provide an immediate solution, can be combined with
plants to ultimately create a complex, unique building block which is living as it is
functioning in its restoration of a natural ecosystem.




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5 THE FINER DETAILS OF DESIGN

There are unfortunately a number of important details that are commonly omitted or
overlooked during either the design or installation phase of Gabion and Reno Mattress
works. While failures do happen, the majority of them are avoidable. They are normally as
a result of poor designs and inadequate design information, inferior or incorrect products
being used or sub-standard installation / construction techniques adopted on site.

The most important details that must be considered during design and installation are:

5.1 Scour Protection to Retaining Structures

When constructing a Gabion wall along a watercourse, one must consider the effect of
possible scour at the toe of the structure especially in the case of highly mobile river beds.
When the potential scour is ignored or underestimated, the results can be catastrophic.
(Figure 5.1)


















Figure 5.1. Inadequate scour protection leads to undermining of the structure.


The two most common scour protection options adopted are:

Structures With Deep Foundations

The wall must be founded at a level that is not affected by potential water scour. This type
of foundation is suitable where the bed material is virtually in-erodible or where it consists
of solid rock. It is also appropriate in mountainous regions where a heavy bed load could
damage Reno Mattress scour aprons protruding into the stream in front of the walls.

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Structures Built on Anti-Scour Aprons

A Gabion or Rock Mattress apron should extend a minimum of 1.5 to 2 times the maximum
expected depth of scour horizontally beyond the vertical front face of the protection. To
ensure a monolithic structure, the anti scour apron should extend beneath the Gabion wall
to provide added structural integrity to the system. (Figure 5.2)















Figure 5.2. Gabion structure constructed on a Reno Mattress apron.

5.2 Keying In of structures into the banks

Outflanking due to inadequate key-ins is the most common mode of failure in river bank
protection works. The results can lead to costly repairs and what has been referred to as
monuments in the watercourse. (Figure 5.3)


















Figure 5.3. Total outflanking due to non-existent key-ins.
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When designing Gabion type protections, it is advisable to key the Gabions into the
existing banks at between 30 and 90 to minimize the chance of scour around the
structure. (Figures 5.4 and 5.5)


Figures 5.4 and 5.5. The inclusion of Gabion keys prohibit scour behind the protection.

5.3 Scour protection around crest walls for Gabion weirs

Weir crest walls exist to direct the flow in a specific direction to minimize the scour around
the structure i.e. towards the centre of the weir (Figure 5.6). Their exclusion can lead to
excessive erosion around the structure (Figure 5.7).



















Figure 5.6. Crest walls directing the flow to the centre of the weir.
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Figure 5.7. No crest walls can lead to scour around the weir structure.


5.4 Laying direction and thickness of Reno Mattresses

It is very important to ensure that Reno Mattresses are installed in the correct orientation to
minimize rock fill movement which could ultimately abrade the woven mesh. Most Reno
Mattresses are manufactured with internal diaphragms at 1.0m centres to assist in confining
the rock fill and limiting rock movement during high flow conditions. This would imply
that a 6 x 2 x 0.3 Castoro Reno Mattress with 5 double mesh internal diaphragms must be
installed such that they are perpendicular to the flow to provide confinement every 1.0m
(Figure 5.8). Mattresses installed with diaphragms parallel to the flow would only offer
confinement from the edge panels every 2.0m (Figure 5.9). Note: The allowable velocities
and tractive forces indicated in section 4 Designing the solution, are based on Castoro
Reno Mattresses installed in the correct orientation.
















Figure 5.8. Diaphragms perpendicular to flow at the base.
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Figure 5.9. Reno Mattresses installed in the incorrect orientation. Note the excessive rock
fill movement.

6 CONCLUSION

The Gabion system has in the past been considered to be somewhat simple; a characteristic
which might be considered a drawback in an age of technological innovations. On the
contrary, the system is a highly engineered solution where specific parameters are utilized
to conduct complex designs. The use of materials with lower grade coatings, thinner wire
diameters and inferior mesh configurations will put structures at risk.

The terms or similar approved and or equivalent are sometimes used very loosely and
designers must take a more proactive stance to obtain the relevant product technical data
from suppliers and contractors to ensure what is assumed during design stage is actually
what is being used on site.

On-going product knowledge training for both designers and installers by suppliers needs
to be a priority, as there have been many developments in the system in recent years.
Supervision of installers needs to closely monitored by the designers (and suppliers who
offer this service), to ensure that they are suitably qualified in the installation of these
complex structures.

Suppliers must provide the necessary product information, design assistance and
installation training to all parties involved. This will ensure that the Gabion solution does
not receive the negative criticism that it has in the past, due to inexperienced designers and
installers neglecting or overlooking details, which more than often compromise the
structural integrity of the systems. Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.2 show what can be achieved
when designers, suppliers and installers work closely together.
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Figure 6.1 Gabion weir structure with defined crest walls, key-ins and good installation
technique. The author provided design assistance and intensive on-site installation training
for this structure.





















Figure 6.2 Large 250m/s Gabion weir structure utilizing 5000m of Gabions and Castoro
Reno Mattresses. Note the concrete capped horizontal steps to protect the mesh during high
flow conditions. The author provided design assistance and intensive on-site installation
training for this structure.
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7 REFERENCES

Agostini, R and Ciarla, M (1987) Flexible Reno Mattresses and Gabion structures in
Coastal Protection works, Technical report: The Fifth Symposium on coastal and Ocean
Management, Seattle, Washington

Agostini, R, Conte, A, G, Malaguti and Pipettii, A (1985) Flexible Linings in Reno
Mattresses and Gabions for Canals and Canalized Water Courses

Pauselli, M (2003) Woven Mesh Gabions vs Welded Mesh Gabions The Facts!

Maccaferri Design Document Double Twist Wire Mesh Products for the Restoration of
Fluvial Environments

Brunet, G (1999) Bank Stabilisation with Ecological Engineering

US Army Corps of Engineers (1997) Bioengineering for Streambank erosion