srgszeti Tanulmnyok / Prehistoric Studies

I
MOMENTS IN TIME
srgszeti Tanulmnyok / Prehistoric Studies
Series Editors
Alexandra Anders, Gbor Kalla, Viktria Kiss,
Gabriella Kulcsr and Gbor V. Szab
MOMENTS IN TIME
Papers Presented to Pl Raczky
on His 60
th
Birthday
Edited by
Alexandra Anders and Gabriella Kulcsr
with
Gbor Kalla, Viktria Kiss and Gbor V. Szab
srgszeti Trsasg / Prehistoric Society
Etvs Lornd University
LHarmattan
Budapest 2013
English and German text revised by
Lszl Bartosiewicz, Alice M. Choyke, Judith A. Rasson and Magdalna Seleanu (English)
Ulf Morche and va Pvai (German)
Te publication of this volume was generously supported by
Etvs Lornd University, Faculty of Humanities
Deutsches Archologisches Institut, Eurasien-Abteilung
srgszeti Trsasg / Prehistoric Society
Nra 97 Kf.
Archeodata 1998 Bt.
satrs Kf.
Te Authors, 2013
LHarmattan Kiad, 2013
ISBN 978-963-236-346-2
ISSN 2063-8930
Typography by
Zsolt Gembela
Cover design
Gbor Vczi and Zsolt Gembela
Printed in Hungary by Robinco Kf.
Director: Pter Kecskemthy
CONTENTS
Editorial / A szerkesztk elszava ..................................................................................................................14
Publications of Pl Raczky .............................................................................................................................16
Walter Meier-Arendt
Pl Raczky zum 60. Geburtstag. Ein Vor- und Gruwort ........................................................................ 27
The Early Neolithic The First Moments
Krum Bacvarov
Malak Preslavets Revisited: Te Early Neolithic Burials ..................................................................... 29
Eszter Bnfy
On Neolithic Frontiers in the Carpathian Basin .................................................................................. 35
Paolo Biagi Elisabetta Starnini
Pre-Balkan Platform Flint in the Early Neolithic Sites
of the Carpathian Basin: Its Occurrence and Signifcance ................................................................. 47
Mihael Budja
Potters and Pots in the MesolithicNeolithic Transformation
in Southeastern Europe .............................................................................................................................61
Ivan Gatsov
Lithic Assemblages from the Area of the North-Western Pontic
from the 9
th
7
th
Millennia ........................................................................................................................ 85
The Middle Neolithic The Time of the LBK
Piroska Csengeri
Figural Representations from the Initial Phase of the Alfld Linear
Pottery Culture from Novajidrny (Hernd Valley, Northeast Hungary) ........................................91
Ferenc Horvth Florin Draovean
Remarks on the Connections between the Banat and the Great
Hungarian Plain at the Beginning of the Middle Neolithic
(SatchinezAlfld Linear PotteryEsztrVina) ................................................................................113
Gbor Ilon
Te Transdanubian Linear Pottery Culture in County Vas:
Recent Finds and Findings ......................................................................................................................133
Eva Lenneis
Beobachtungen zu frhneolithischen Schlitzgruben ..........................................................................147
Tibor Marton
LBK Households in Transdanubia: A Case Study .............................................................................. 159
Zsolt Mester Jacques Tixier
Pot lames: Te Neolithic Blade Depot from Boldogkvralja
(Northeast Hungary) ...............................................................................................................................173
Krisztin Oross
Regional Traits in the LBK Architecture of Transdanubia ................................................................187
Tibor Paluch
Maroslele-Panaht, Legel: Data to the Middle Neolithic
Anthropomorphic Vessel ....................................................................................................................... 203
Juraj Pavk Zdenk Farka
Beitrag zur Gliederung der lteren Linearkeramik ............................................................................213
Jrg Petrasch
Standardisierung versus Individualitt?
Das Wesen der jungsteinzeitlichen Bestattungssitten ........................................................................ 237
Katalin Sebk
Two Ceramic-Covered Burials from the Middle Neolithic
of the Carpathian Basin .......................................................................................................................... 249
Peter Stadler Nadezdha Kotova
Te Early LBK Site at Brunn am Gebirge, Wolfolz (56705100 BC):
Locally Established or Founded by Immigrants from the Starevo Territory? .............................. 259
Gerhard Trnka
Ein bemerkenswerter Klingenkern aus Szentgl-Radiolarit
von Gro-Schollach im westlichen Niedersterreich ........................................................................ 277
Zsuzsanna M. Virg
On the Anthropomorphic Representations of TLPC in Connection
with Some Recent Finds from Budapest (Figurines and Vessels with Facial
Representations) ...................................................................................................................................... 289
The Late Neolithic Polgr-Csszhalom and Its World
Judit P. Barna
A Miniature Anthropomorphic Vessel from the Early Lengyel Culture
Site at Sorms-Trk-fldek in Southwestern Hungary......................................................................311
John Chapman
From Varna to Brittany via Csszhalom Was Tere a Varna Efect? ..................................... 323
Alice M. Choyke Zsuzsanna Tth
Practice Makes Perfect: Quartered Metapodial Awls
in the Late Neolithic of Hungary .......................................................................................................... 337
Contents
6
Magorzata Kaczanowska Janusz K. Kozowski
Te Transition from the Neolithic to the Copper Age Lithic Industries
in the Northern Carpathian Basin ........................................................................................................ 353
Nndor Kalicz
Siedlungsstruktur und Bestattungen mit Prestigeobjekten
des Fundplatzes Tp-Leb (sdliches Teigebiet, Ungarn) ........................................................... 365
Katalin Kovcs
Late Neolithic Exchange Networks in the Carpathian Basin ........................................................... 385
Kitti Khler
Ergebnisse der anthropologischen Untersuchungen zweier
sptneolithischer Bestattungen in Alsnyk ....................................................................................... 401
Johannes Mller Robert Hofmann Nils Mller-Scheeel Knut Rassmann
Neolithische Arbeitsteilung: Spezialisierung in einem Tell um 4900 v. Chr. ................................. 407
Zsuzsanna Siklsi
Traces of Social Inequality and Ritual in the Late Neolithic
of the Great Hungarian Plain ................................................................................................................ 421
Krisztina Somogyi Zsolt Gallina
Besonderes anthropomorphes Gef der Lengyel-Kultur mit doppelter
Gesichts- und Menschendarstellung in Alsnyk (SW-Ungarn) ..................................................... 437
Alasdair Whittle
Enclosures in the Making: Knowledge, Creativity and Temporality ............................................... 457
Istvn Zalai-Gal
Totenhaltung als Indikator relativer Chronologie
im transdanubischen Sptneolithikum? .............................................................................................. 467
Neolithic Spiritual Life
Lszl Domborczki
Neolithic Cult Objects and Teir Symbolism ..................................................................................... 487
Gheorghe Lazarovici Cornelia-Magda Lazarovici
Sacred house and Teir Importance for the Reconstruction
of Architecture, Inner Furnishings and Spiritual Life ....................................................................... 503
The Early Copper Age Between Change and Tradition
Attila Gyucha William A. Parkinson
Archaeological Cultures and the Study of Social Interaction:
Te Emergence of the Early Copper Age Tiszapolgr Culture ..........................................................521
Contents
7
Svend Hansen
Figurinen aus Stein und Bein in der sdosteuropischen Kupferzeit ............................................. 539
Judit Regenye
Surviving Neolithic Te Early Copper Age in Transdanubia,
North of Lake Balaton ............................................................................................................................ 557
Wolfram Schier
An Antiquarians Grave? Early Tiszapolgr Burials
in the Late Vina Tell Site of Uivar (Romania) .................................................................................. 569
The Middle Copper Age Time of Axes
Attila Lszl Sndor Jzsef Sztncsuj
Vessels with Handles with Discoid Attachments Discovered
in the AriudCucuteni Area and Some Problems in the Development and
Chronology of the Ariud (Ersd) Culture in Southeastern Transylvania ..................................... 579
Ildik Szathmri
Kupferhammeraxt mit Spuren eines Holzschafrestes
vom Donauufer bei Szentendre ............................................................................................................ 595
From the Late Copper Age to the Beginning of the Bronze Age Transitions
Mria Bondr
Utilitarian, Artistic, Ritual or Prestige Articles? Te Possible Function
of an Enigmatic Artefact ....................................................................................................................... 605
Szilvia Fbin
A Preliminary Analysis of Intrasite Patterns at Balatonkeresztr-Rti-dl,
a Late Copper Age Site on the Southern Shore of Lake Balaton in Hungary ..................................613
Lszl Gyrgy
Late Copper Age Animal Burials in the Carpathian Basin .............................................................. 627
Gabriella Kulcsr
Glimpses of the Tird Millenium BC in the Carpathian Basin ....................................................... 643
Vajk Szevernyi
Te Earliest Copper Shaf-Hole Axes in the Carpathian Basin:
Interaction, Chronology and Transformations of Meaning ............................................................ 661
The Early Bronze Age The Rise of a New Age
Jnos Dani Viktria Kisjuhsz
Bestattungen der Mak-Kultur in Berettyjfalu, Nagy Bcs-dl ................................................ 671
Contents
8
Anna Endrdi
Recent Data on the Settlement History and Contact System of the Bell
BeakerCsepel group .............................................................................................................................. 693
The Middle Bronze Age Tells and Metals
Marietta Csnyi Judit Trnoki
A Dinner Set from a Bronze Age House
in Level 2 of the Trkeve-Terehalom Settlement ................................................................................ 707
Klra P. Fischl Lszl Remnyi
Interpretation Possibilites of the Bronze Age Tell Sites
in the Carpathian Basin ......................................................................................................................... 725
Szilvia Honti Viktria Kiss
Te Bronze Hoard from Zalaszabar. New Data on the Study
of the Tolnanmedi Horizon Part 2 ................................................................................................... 739
Magdolna Vicze
Middle Bronze Age Households at Szzhalombatta-Fldvr ............................................................ 757
The Late Bronze Age Rituals of Power
Judit Kos
Sptbronzezeitliche Grube mit besonderer Bestimmung
aus Oszlr-Nyrfaszg (Nordostungarn) ............................................................................................. 771
Gbor V. Szab
Late Bronze Age Stolen. New Data on the Illegal Acquisition
and Trade of Bronze Age Artefacts in the Carpathian Basin ........................................................... 793
Gbor Vczi
Burial of the Late TumulusEarly Urnfeld Period
from the Vicinity of Nadap, Hungary ...................................................................................................817
The Iron Age End of the (Pre)history
Istvn Fodor
A Scythian Mirror from Hajdnns, Hungary ..................................................................................831
Mikls Szab
Livre celte de la puszta hongroise ........................................................................................................ 839
Contents
9
Interdisciplinary Archaeology
Lszl Bartosiewicz Erika Gl Zsfa Eszter Kovcs
Domesticating Mathematics: Taxonomic Diversity
in Archaeozoological Assemblages ....................................................................................................... 853
Katalin T. Bir
More on How Much? ........................................................................................................................... 863

Zoltn Czajlik Andrs Bdcs
Te Efectiveness of Aerial Archaeological Research
An Approach from the GIS Perspective ............................................................................................... 873
Ferenc Gyulai
Archaeobotanical Research of the Neolithic Sites in the Polgr Area ............................................. 885
Pl Smegi Sndor Gulys Gerg Persaits
Te Geoarchaeological Evolution of the Loess-Covered Alluvial Island
of Polgr and Its Role in Shaping Human Settlement Strategies ...................................................... 901
Zsuzsanna K. Zofmann
Signifcant Biostatistical Connections between Late Neolithic
Ethnic Groups from the Carpathian Basin and Bronze Age Populations
from Territories beyond the Carpathians .............................................................................................913
Contents
10
The Effectiveness of Aerial
Archaeological Research
An Approach from the GIS Perspective
Etvs Lornd University
Institute of Archaeological Sciences
H-1088 Budapest, Mzeum krt 4/B
czajlik.zoltan@btk.elte.hu
Zoltn Czajlik
MOMENTS IN TIME BUDAPEST 2013
We made an efort in order to demonstrate the possibilities that are based on the utilization of the fully
digitalized and identifed image data in a GIS system. Te project is based on the collection of the Aerial Ar-
chaeological Archive of the Institute for Archaeological Sciences of the Etvs Lornd University. In order to
maintain the archive, the identifcation and the registry up-to-date, there is a constant need for the support
of the GIS. It is also inevitable for the comparison with other topographical data and the the documentation
of the feld control work. Te quantity (more, than 40,000 photos) and the quality (more, than 1700 sites of
mostly complex features) allows a full-scale evaluation using other data available in the GIS (soil quality, soil
humidity). Even the development of the predicative models became possible. According to the latter, there is a
clear correspondence between the quality and thickness of the soil and the position of the aerial archaeologi-
cal sites. Our analysis has proven that the correspondence of soil humidity and the suitability of the sites for
aerial archaeological photography is true.
Our results comply with the earlier international experience, but the use of GIS is a novelty. Due to this,
the newest data can be integrated into our registries fast and easily. Te results are the more and more precise
models that provide a great help for improving the efciency of the topographical research.
Cikknk clja az ELTE Rgszettudomnyi Intzetnek Lgifot Archvumra alapozva azon lehetsgek be-
mutatsa, amelyek a teljes mrtkben digitalizlt s azonostott kpanyag GIS-ben val kezelsbl addnak.
gy mindenekeltt GIS htteret ignyel az archivls, az azonosts s a nyilvntarts napraksz vezetse,
illetve a klnfle topogrfai adatgyjtsekkel val sszevets, valamint a terepi kontroll-tevkenysg doku-
mentlsa. Az adatok mennyisge (40 000-nl tbb felvtel) s minsge (1700-nl tbb, sok esetben komplex
lelhely) azonban ms, GIS-ben elrhet adatokkal (talajminsg, talajnedvessg) a komplex rtelmezst, st
a prediktv modellek kifejlesztst is lehetv teszi. Utbbiak alapjn egyrtelm kapcsolat van a talajminsg
s -vastagsg, illetve a lgifot-lelhelyek elhelyezkedse kztt, s elemzseink igazoltk a talajnedvessg s a
lgifotzsra alkalmas terletek kztti sszefggseket is.
Eredmnyeink egybevgnak a korbbi nemzetkzi tapasztalatokkal, jszersgket a GIS alkalmazsa
jelenti. Ennek ksznheten az jabb s jabb adatok gyorsan, egyszeren integrlhatk, gy egyre pon-
tosabb modellek hozhatk ltre, segtve a topogrfai kutatsok hatkonysgnak nvelst.
Etvs Lornd University
Institute of Archaeological Sciences
H-1088 Budapest, Mzeum krt 4/B
bodocs.andras@btk.elte.hu
Andrs Bdcs
873
Zoltn Czajlik Andrs Bdcs
874
INTRODUCTION
Te Institute of Archaeological Sciences of Etvs
Lornd University was re-named and its infra-
structure underwent signifcant changes in 1993.
One of the frst projects of the institute was the
creation of the GIS (Geograpraphical Information
System) Laboratory. On the initiative of Pl Racz-
ky, this unit served not only the rescue excavations
of the Hajd-Bihar county section of the M3 mo-
torway, but other scientifc projects as well (Czaj-
likMartonHoll 1997; Raczky et al. 1997). It
played an important role in the HungarianFrench
aerial archaeological research programme started
by Mikls Szab in 1993 (Goguey 1995; 1997;
2000; GogueySzab 1995). Te GIS and the aer-
ial archaeological research was supplemented with
topographical research from 1996, mainly to build
up a registry of tell settlements, kurgans, and pre-
historic fortifed settlements. Te aerial archaeo-
logical research of Ren Goguey ended in 2000
and we continued his work with a combination of
aerial photography and registry compilation. We
processed the images taken by Ren Goguey be-
tween 1993 and 2000 (more than 4000 aerial views
of 432 archaeological sites).
Nowadays our method enables us to discover
at least 200 new archaeological sites a year from
the air and our experience has proved to be use-
ful in similar topographic programmes in Roma-
nia. Aerial archaeological research has resulted
in the discovery of more than 1700 new archae-
ological sites in diferent parts of Hungary in
the last 19 years. We have tried to make a com-
prehensive study of them on an empirical basis
(Czajlik 2007). Te possibilities of fnding and
studying archaeological sites from the air and in
a wider sense the efectiveness of this research
depends on many factors. Te relationship of the
factors is not easy to understand; long (as long as
1015 years) and intensive (at least 3050 hours a
year of aerial reconaissance) research periods are
needed for success. Since it is possible to record
the geographical locations of the main factors
(soil structure, precipitation, vegetation) as well
as the aerial photos and the archaeological top-
ographical data, we have made our studies us-
ing a GIS system according to the mission of our
laboratory.
THE POSSIBILITIES OF GIS
Tere have been many experiments and develop-
ments in the last years concerning the evaluation
methods of aerial archaeology using not only the
results of international GIS research, but the the
possibilities provided by the data available in Hun-
gary. We have to mention here that we have used
GPS technology from the beginnings of our re-
search (1993) even though the possibilities were
limited at frst which helped us a great deal in
the indentifcation of the sites (GogueyCzajlik
2003).
Te continuous development of GIS sofware
and hardware and their decreasing prices as
well make it possible to process very detailed
data like the 1:10,000 scale Hungarian EOTR
topographical maps. Tis statement may seem
surprising, because the use of maps is evident
in the conventional archaeological fieldwork.
But detailed and computer-aided GIS data
processing would have been a hard or even im-
possible task without the proper technological de-
velopments for studying large regions (like coun-
ties or even the whole surface of the country). At
this point archaeological topography supported
by GIS methods is not the equivalent of tradi-
tional topographical methods, but it has many ad-
vantages. One of the gains is that the sites local-
ized on detailed maps do not have to be marked
on large-scale maps because the system is able to
deal with the whole area at once. Another impor-
tant feature is that conventional (manual) identi-
fcation was unable to keep pace with the annual
growth in the number of the sites identifed. Te
use of GIS methods and constant data upload-
ing (e.g., processing the data from topographical
maps) is more and more inevitable. A continuous-
ly updated registry covering the whole surface of
Hungary was created in 2007.
As the situation stands now, when the position
of an aerial archaeological site is being recorded
it is possible to record a description and study of
the topographical environment at the same time
using the proper digital GIS and photogrammetry
technologies. Our laboratory is up-to-date con-
cerning the results of aerial photo activity; sites
are identifed and recorded in the registry in a
short time.
The Effectiveness of Aerial Archaeological Research An Approach from the GIS Perspective
875
PREPARATION, DOCUMENTARY
BACKGROUND AND THE ROLE OF
ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA
Tere are two main strategies for the prepara-
tion of aerial photo campaigns. Te frst has the
aim of researching sites that are already known,
which means checking the archaeological data;
the timing of the fights is set to the weather con-
ditions. Te primary aim of the second method
is reconaissance, thus the timing of the fights
depends on changes in the vegetation. Both of
the methods were used in the 1990s; Zsolt Visy
(1995) and Zsuzsa Mikls (2007b) conducted re-
search in the knowledge of preliminary archaeo-
logical data and they studied already-known sites
many times. Ren Goguey (GogueySzab 1995,
1314) and Otto Braasch (Braasch 2003, 4145;
2005, 4263), however, used a method similar to
the strafng method of British fghter pilots and
they research areas with favourable vegetation
conditions in the early summer period.
Since 2000 we have tried to combine the two
methods in our research. Besides the documen-
tation of kurgans, tell settlements, and earthwork
fortifcations, we are able to do more and more re-
search in the early summer period. One can see a
similar tendency in the work of Zsuzsa Mikls in
recent years (Mikls 2004; 2005; 2006; 2007a). Tis
double goal has had many important results: the dis-
covery and identifcation of the outer fortifcation
lines of already known earthworks (CzajlikHoll
2003), the observation of traces of destroyed tumuli
at well-known tumulus felds (Czajlik 2008), and
the exploration of the settlement nuclei of tells (e. g.,
at csd-Kovshalom: Fig. 1).
Repeated research at an important site and the
discovery of its surroundings can reveal many new
results. A good example is the earthwork fortifca-
tion of Perkta and the nearby tumuli identifed
by Ren Goguey. In this zone we have been able
to fnd a number of important settlements and
tumulus felds since 1998 as a result of systematic
research (Rupnik in press). According to our ex-
perience, the preliminary data collection and reg-
ular evaluation of the former aerial photo activi-
ties provide an evaluation of the efectivess of the
research.
We have conducted systematic feld surveys
since 2006, particularly in Fejr, Tolna, Heves and
Fig. 1. csd-Kovshalom tell settlement (Photo: Z. Czajlik, 29
th
of April, 2008)
Zoltn Czajlik Andrs Bdcs
876
Gyr-Moson-Sopron counties, with the principal
aim of testing the aerial archaeological data. A
detailed evaluation has not been done yet, but it
seems clear that the feld control provided a great
help in the improvement of the efciency. It has
primarily been useful in the fltering of traces of
modern and early modern age farms, mainly in
the southern part of Heves county.
Where the research has been less intensive, the
role of sites more or less localized by using medi-
eval charters is increased, e.g., in the case of me-
dieval churches. In 20082009 we cooperated in
a joint project with Andrs K. Nmeth in Tolna
county. It proved to be a great help that the po-
sition of the medieval villages was known to us.
Tus it was ofen possible to identify the remains
of very small churches (approximately 1015 m)
from a low altitude, despite the undulating fea-
tures of the landscape. The preliminary data
collection extended to the survey of the actual
agricultural status of the region, allowing us to re-
search the zones where crop marks were expected
(Fig. 2).
Foreign researchers working in Hungary in the
1990s formed the objective opinion that the middle
part of the Carpathian Basin has a good situation
for aerial archaeological research. Tis observation
has been proven by Hungarian research in the last
decades; good crop marks are visible over large
areas (Northern and Eastern Transdanubia, the
region between the Danube and the Tisza) except
in very humid years. With the proper preparations,
every region of Hungary can be researched with a
chance of success. Tere are no borders for the good
situations; research in Eastern Austria has also
been fruitful as seen in the well-known activity of
Michael Doneus (www.univie.ac.at/lufbildarchiv),
as well as in southwest Slovakia, as shown by Ivan
Kuzma (Kuzma 2007). Published sources (Stefan
1999; HeebSzentmiklosiWiecken 2008) and
our experiences in the year 2009 show that western
Romania (the eastern part of the Great Hungarian
Plain referred as the Partium) is suitable for aerial
archaeological research, too. To the south, the
features of the DanubeTisza region may also be
characteristic for the Serbian Bcska region as
was envisaged by O. Braasch (Braasch 2003, 45).
In the Slovenian region of the Mura River the use
of the method is demonstrated by the photos of
Branko Kerman (Kerman 2002).
Fig. 2. Kajdacs traces of the medieval church (Photo: Z. Czajlik, 18
th
of May, 2009)
The Effectiveness of Aerial Archaeological Research An Approach from the GIS Perspective
877
We plan to show the efects of soil features and
the infuence of precipitation. Research into these
factors in larger regions as far as we know
has had little attention yet, with the exception of
Great Britain (JonesEvans 1975). Te connec-
tion between soil features and crop marks has
been studied at specifc sites lately (StanjekFass-
binder 1996).
EXAMINING THE ROLE OF THE SOIL
CHARACTERISTICS A PREDICTIVE
MODEL
One of the signifcant advantages of a regularly
updated aerial photographical site registry is the
opportunity to carry out a GIS analysis with the
data. A main goal is to build predictive models in
order to be able to fnd more and more geographi-
cal areas which can be researched with success.
Due to the attribute of a GIS that the geographical
or projection coordinates can serve as the low-
est common denominator of various scientifc
branches, we compared the the distribution of ar-
chaeological sites with the soil features of Hungar-
ian agricultural production sites.
Te Research Institute for Soil Science and Ag-
ricultural Chemistry of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences (www.taki.hu) fnished the agrotopo-
graphical map of Hungary in 1979. Te map shows
9 diferent types of soil characteristics and code
numbers of soil values which are derived from
the charactersitics (FhrerJr 2005, 23). Te
basis of the map was provided by the so called
Kreybig maps of soil recognition (scale 1:25,000)
and the 1:100,000 scaled agrotopographical map
was created by generalizing and using analog
processing (www.taki.hu). In the mid-1980s the
map was adjusted to the unifed Hungarian pro-
jection (EOV) and topographical system (EOTR),
and the information was rendered to the agroeco-
nomical units. Te map sections were published
in printed format as a series of maps. Te AGRO-
TOPO is a computer database created on the basis
of the agrotopographical maps. It uses the EOTR
standard with a scale of 1:100,000 and contains
nationwide data. Te solid agroeconomical units
are linked to the diferent main soil parameters
at a given resolution (www.taki.hu). Te feld of
the database shows the following parameters: ge-
netic soil type classifcation, soil parent material,
physical soil type, clay mineral compound, water
management properties, acidity and lime content,
organic material content, topsoil thickness, soil
value indicator.
We have linked the coordinates of the archae-
ological sites discovered from the air (defned
according to the EOV system) with the AGRO-
TOPO database. When making a query in order
to map the distribution of the sites, a new data-
base map can be generated with all the informa-
tion of the two databases. Te data contents of the
distribution map are easy to process in datasheets
and statistics; the fnal results can be displayed in
graphs.
Tis method, however, is not truly precise; the
data have certain imperfections. Tus, our model
is an approximate model only. Some of the prob-
lems come from the generalization and reduction
of the maps when the 1:25,000-scale sections were
transferred to 1:100,000 scale. Te scale itself de-
fnes the maximum precision due to the transfer
methods used. Te precision of the coordinates
read from these maps can be defned as the scale
0.1 mm (because of the printing technologys
reliability: Bcsatyai 1993). According to the lat-
ter, the maximum precision of the 1:100,000 scale
map is 100,0000,1 mm = 10 m. For a comparison
we have to remark that the precision of the digital
OTAB maps (nationwide GIS database) created on
the basis of the EOTR map sections is
+

40 metres,
which comes from the addition of the digitizings
imprecisions and other collateral errors.
As a consequence of the above, the pedological
areas surveyed by us (in the digital GIS environ-
ment they appear as poligonal shapes) do not ex-
actly correspond to the real soil surface; smaller
anomalies and details are not indicated. Tere-
fore, the soil types which appear locally have to
be identifed in future studies with increased pre-
cision. Te AGROTOPO database has another
shortcoming; when the basic agrotopographical
map was compiled the degree of soil erosion was
not indicated nor taken into consideration. Ac-
cording to this, the soil features at the agricul-
tural production sites (genetic soil types) are un-
certain over larger areas (FhrerJr 2005, 6).
Nevertheless, predictive modelling has brought
numerous new results, as shown in the following
section.
Zoltn Czajlik Andrs Bdcs
878
Fig. 3. Correlation between the geological conditions and archaeological sites seen from the air. Red (value 1 on chart):
pleistocene sediment (gravel and sand), green (value 2 on chart): loess residua. (map source: AGROTOPO) Chart: main
geological structures/number of archaeological sites discovered from the air
Fig. 4. Correlation between soil thickness and archaeological sites visible aerially. Yellow (value 5 chart): soil thickness is
more than 100 cm. (map source: AGROTOPO) Chart: soil thickness/number of archaeological sites identifed from the air
The Effectiveness of Aerial Archaeological Research An Approach from the GIS Perspective
879
EXAMINING THE ROLE OF SOIL
FEATURES THE RESULTS OF THE
PREDICTIVE MODEL
When analysing the soil characteristics one has to
mention the role of the geological structures, too
(Fig. 3). According to international experience, al-
luvial plains banked with gravel silt ensure the best
conditions. Te southern part of Bavaria (Christ-
leinBraasch 1990, 3337, Abb. 18, Abb. 2021)
and the environment of Zrich (LekebuschNagy
1991, 67) correspond to this as well as what we
have found south of Budapest and in the Kisalfld
(the northwestern part of Transdanubia). Statistical
data from Britain show that fewer crop marks have
to be expected where the clay content of the soil is
high, but this might correspond to the less intense
occupation of those areas; smaller populations lef
fewer marks (Mills 2003).
Analysis of the undulating landscape of Fe-
jr and Tolna counties (in eastern Transdanubia)
shows that the development of crop marks is not
only strong on gravel deposits, but also on loess al-
luvia. Te agrotopographical data correspond to
this revelation, especially in the Transdanubian
region. One can also see the efect of glacial, allu-
vial, and loess residua in the DanubeTisza region
and in the northern part of the Great Hungarian
Plain.
Te most signifcant result of the GIS analysis
of soil features (Fig. 4) is that in 2008 about 1000
aerially identifed archaeological sites out of the
1151 sites in our registry were found in areas cov-
ered with a soil more than 100 cm thick; most of
the rest were also covered by a soil-layer between
70 and 100 cm thick. Afer recognizing this pat-
tern we surveyed some areas in 2009 which had
been less studied before. Our predictive model
proved to be correct in two cases (the eastern half
of Somogy county and Bks county), but along
the Drva river despite Branko Kermans suc-
cessful research mentioned above we had no
signifcant results. Te impact of the two main soil
types is clear: the newly identifed sites come from
areas characterized by chernozem and solonetz
soils, although the soil subtypes show a somewhat
diversifed situation (Fig. 5).
Johanna Dressler had similar results when mak-
ing a GIS analysis of archaeological sites seen from
the air in Hessen (Germany). Although she does
not refer to the thickness of the soils nor to the
soil types she encountered, most of the sites can be
Fig. 5. Correlation between soil type and archaeological sites seen from the air. Red (value 50 on chart): chernozem and
solonetz soils. (map source: AGROTOPO) Chart: soil types/number of archaeological sites discovered from the air
Zoltn Czajlik Andrs Bdcs
880
linked to areas covered by medio-
cre and good quality soils accord-
ing to the fve-grade classifcation
of the Soil Management Author-
ity of Hessen (Dressler 2009,
2023).
Tere is a controversy con-
cerning the role of the retain-
ing soil layers. We have already
mentioned that gravel layers help
to enhance the effects of crop
marks, but although we have
many new sites from areas with
low water-retention soil char-
acteristics, the number of the
sites with expressly good water-
retaining soils seems to be more
signifcant. Tat means we have
to conduct further research in
order to obtain more detailed
data, particularly concerning hy-
draulic conductivity.
THE ROLE OF
PRECIPITATION
ANALYSIS OF HYDRAULIC
CONDUCTIVITY
It is well known in archaeologi-
cal research that the develop-
ment of crop marks is greatly in-
fuenced by the seasonal changes
in precipitation. A drought in the
winter and spring period usu-
ally causes intensive crop marks
and the precipitation conditions
of the early summer are decisive
for the length of the crop-mark phase (if the ear-
ly summer period is dry, the intensive crop-mark
phase might disappear within hours). If the pre-
cipitation is abundant, crop marks may not appear
at all or their intensity is very low. Signifcant ear-
ly summer rainfall is able to make the crop marks
disappear. In order to avoid very complex stud-
ies, German scientists have favoured studying the
water balance. Te data for such research is avail-
able in Hungary too, even if the opportunities are
somewhat limited.
In 20022003 the data were available on the
internet for free and O. Braasch used them in his
research (Braasch 2003, 61). Using the same in-
ternet data, we explored the intensive crop marks
of the Tkz region in 2003 (Czajlik 2004). Un-
fortunately, the hydrological data no longer avail-
able for free, which prevents us from studying the
complete sequence of 17 years. We have analysed
data from the Hungarian Meteorological Agency
for June 20062007. Te soil moisture was checked
on the all available meteorological stations (see the
numbers on the maps: Figs 69) and the agency
created a map using spline interpolation.
For a better comparison, we have obtained the
data from 1 and 14 June of 20062007. We used
Fig. 6. Correlation between precipitation and aerial archaeological sites. Soil
moisture on 1
th
June 2006 (map source: Hungarian Meteorological Agency) and
the recorded aerial archaeological sites from this period
Fig. 7. Correlation between precipitation and aerial archaeological sites. Soil
moisture on 14
th
June 2006 (map source: Hungarian Meteorological Agency) and
the recorded aerial archaeological sites from this period
The Effectiveness of Aerial Archaeological Research An Approach from the GIS Perspective
881
Fig. 9. Correlation between precipitation and aerial archaeological sites. Soil
moisture on 14
th
June 2007 (map source: Hungarian Meteorological Agency) and
the recorded aerial archaeological sites from this period
Fig. 8. Correlation between precipitation and aerial archaeological sites. Soil
moisture on 1
th
June 2007 (map source: Hungarian Meteorological Agency) and
the recorded aerial archaeological sites from this period
the data applied to the 2050 cm layer of the soil,
because the most common crop mark, grain, roots
minimally at 35 cm. In 2006 we noted a high value
of precipitation and even if we spent more hours
with aerial research than ever (36 fy hours), we
found no more than 18 new sites in June 2006 (Figs
67). In 2007 the soil moisture was defnitely less;
on 1 June it was about 20 mm or less in the eastern
Transdanubia, in the DunaTisza region, and in
the northern part of the Great Plain. Te tendency
did not change in the next 2 weeks: even the re-
gion of the Kisalfld (in the northwestern part of
Transdanubia) became dry (Figs 89). Te low soil
moisture value resulted in high-
er efciency compared to 2006;
we were able to fnd 85 new ar-
chaeological sites aerially in this
early summer period. We have to
remark that in the Kisalfld re-
gion we had success only in the
second half of June as a result of
the soil moisture values.
SYNTHESIS
Te main goal of this study was
the investigation of the role of
soil and moisture in aerial ar-
chaeological research with GIS
methods. We did not study the
role of the vegetation, which is
the subject of future research.
Te geological features seem to
be the most decisive; Pleistocene
gravel alluvia and loess subsoil
provide very favourable condi-
tions for the development of the
crop marks.
Tere is a direct connection
between precipitation and soil
moisture, the latter had demon-
strable infuence on the results of
archaeological aerial photogra-
phy in both of the years studied
(2006, 2007).
If we evaluate the two fac-
tors the soil features and soil
moisture together, we can
assess that the best crop marks
usually appear in the Duna-Ti-
sza region to the south of Budapest, where a Pleis-
tocene gravel layer is present with a low soil mois-
ture in the early summer period. Te addition of
the efect of the two factors as well as the high
percentage and surface of the indicator vegetation
(autumn-crop grain) give an adequate explana-
tion for the intensive crop marks observed in that
zone.
Acknowledgement
Tis research was supported by the Hungarian Re-
search Found (OTKA), project id.: 43762, 68824.
Zoltn Czajlik Andrs Bdcs
882
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