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30 July 2007 1
CHAPTER5
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
PART 1
30 July 2007 2
OUTLINE
3.1 Mechanical Properties
3.1.1 Definition
3.1.2 Factors Affecting
Mechanical Properties
3.1.3 Kinds of Mechanical
Properties
3.1.4 Stress and Strain
3.1.5 Elastic Deformation
3.1.6 Plastic Deformation
& Plasticity
3.1.7 Strength
3.1.8 Brittleness,
Toughness, Resilience &
Ductility
3.1.9 Fatigue
3.1.10 Creep and
Shrinkage Design and
Safety Factors
3.2 Electrical Properties
3.3 Optical Properties
3.4 Magnetic Properties
3.5 Thermal Properties
3.6 Corrosion Properties
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3.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
3.1.1 DEFINITION
Properties or deformation
observed when a material is
subjected
to an applied external force
(F = ma)
to a mechanical force of
stretching, compressing,
bending, striking
are called
the mechanical properties.
e.g. Mechanical properties of airplane
wing made of aluminum alloy
Mechanical properties of a bridge made of steel.
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3.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Nature of the applied load, e.g. Tensile,
compressive, shear
Magnitude of the applied force
The duration (application time): may be
less than a second, may extend over a
period of many years.
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3.1.3 KINDS OF MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
Elasticity
the ability of a material to deform under load and return to its original size and shape when the
load is removed.
Stiffness
the slope of the linear segment of stress strain curve is Elastic Modulus or Youngs Modulus.
The value of the Modulus is the measure of STIFFNESS, materials resistance to elastic
deformation (MPa)
Plasticity the property of a material to deform permanently under the application of a load.
Yield Strength the stress level at which the plastic deformation begins. (MPa)
Tensile Strength
the stress at the maximum on the engineering stress-strain curve.the ability of a material to
withstand tensile loads without rupture when the material is in tension (MPa)
Compressive Strength
the ability of a material to withstand compressive (squeezing) loads without being crushed
when the material is in compression. (MPa)
Fracture Strength corresponds to the stress at fracture (MPa)

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3.1.3 KINDS OF MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
Toughness
the ability of a material to withstand shatter. A material which easily shatters is brittle. The ability of a
material to absorb energy (J/m
3
)
Resilience
The capacity of material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to
have this energy recovered (J/m
3
)
Ductility
the ability of a material to stretch under the application of tensile load and retain the deformed shape on the
removal of the load. Measure of ability to deform plastically without fracture (no units or m/m)
Brittleness brittle materials approximately have a fracture strain of less than about 5%.
Malleability
the property of a material to deform permanently under the application of a compressive load. A material
which is forged to its final shape is required to be malleable
Fatigue
Strength
the property of a material to withstand continuously varying and alternating loads
Hardness
the property of a material to withstand indentation and surface abrasion by another hard object. It is an
indication of the wear resistance of a material.

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3.1.4 STRESS & STRAIN
Tension Compression Shear Torsion
Reference: Callister, Material Science and Eng., 5th Ed., p114
Types of force(load) applied on the object
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3.1.4.1 ENGINEERING STRESS ():
(Gerilme)
Stress is defined as force F applied over the original cross-
sectional area A
o
.
For a tensile test the stress is given by,
Stress, (MPa or psi)
Where,
F = applied tensile force (N or lbs)
A
0
= original cross-sectional area of the test specimen (m
2
or in
2
)
Units for Engineering Stress:
US customary: pounds per square inch (psi)
SI: N m
-2
= Pascal (Pa)
1psi = 6.89 x 10
3
Pa
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3.1.4.1 ENGINEERING STRESS ():
(Gerilme)
Example: A 1.25 cm diameter bar is subjected to a load of
2500 kg. Calculate the engineering stress on the bar in
megapascal (MPa)
Soln:
F= ma = 2500 x 9.81 = 24 500 N
A
o
= r
2
= ( 0.0125
2
/ 4 )
= Ft / A
o
= 2 x 10
8
Pa = 200 MPa
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3.1.4.2 ENGINEERING STRAIN:
(ekil Deitirme)
When an unaxial tensile force is applied to a rod, it causes
the rod to be elongated in the direction of the force.
Engineering strain is the ratio of the change in the length of
the sample in the direction of the force divided by the original
length.
= ( l l
o
) / l
o
= l / l
o
Where,
l = l - l
o
is the change in length
l0 = original length of the specimen
In engineering practice it is common to convert engineering
strain into percent strain or percent elongation
% engineering strain = engineering strain x 100 % = %
elongation
Unit of engineering strain:
Inch / inch or m/m which is dimensionless
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3.1.4.2 ENGINEERING STRAIN:
(ekil Deitirme)
L
Engineering
stress
Engineering
(normal) strain
= =
= =
A
F

A
F
L
A
F

=
= =
2
2
L
L
A
F

= =
=
2
2
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3.1.4.3 STRESS STRAIN TESTING
Tension tests: they are common, since they are easier to
perform for most structural materials, steel etc.
Compression tests: are used, when a materials under large
and permanent strains is desired, or when the material is
brittle in tension, concrete
Shear and torsion tests: Torsion test are performed on
cylindrical solid shafts or tubes, machine axles and drive
shafts
Typical tensile Specimen
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3.1.4.3 STRESS STRAIN TESTING
Hydraulic
Wedge
Grips
Specimen
Extensometer
Schematic representation of the apparatus
used to conduct tensile stress - strain tests
Typical tensile test machine
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3.1.4.4 YOUNG'S MODULUS (E)
During Elastic
Deformation: Stress /
Strain = a constant
/ = E =Modulus of
elasticity (Youngs
Modulus) (Elastisite
Modl) (MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity
gives an idea about
materials resistance
to elastic deformation.
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STIFFNESS:Materials resistance to
Elastic Deformation.
Atomic Origin of Stiffness
Strongly Bonded
Weakly Bonded
N
e
t

I
n
t
e
r
a
t
o
m
i
c

F
o
r
c
e
Interatomic Distance
E
dF
dr






ro
The value of the Modulus of Elasticity is
the measure of STIFFNESS
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Metal Alloy Modulus of Elasticity,
E ( GPa)
Aluminum
Brass
Copper
Magnesium
Nickel
Steel
Titanium
Tungsten
69
97
110
45
207
207
107
407
3.1.4.4 YOUNG'S MODULUS (E)
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3.1.4.4 YOUNG'S MODULUS (E)
Engineering Strain, = L/Lo) 0.002
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

=

F
/
A
o
Total Elongation
E
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3.1.5 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Elasticity, or elastic deformation is defined as ability of returning to
an initial state or form after deformation.
In most engineering materials, however, there will also exist a time-
dependent elastic strain component. That is, elastic deformation will
continue after the stress application, and upon load release some
finite time is required for complete recovery. This time-dependent
elastic behavior is known as ANELASTICITY, and it is due to time-
dependent microscopic and atomistic processes that are attendant to
the deformation.
For metals the inelastic component is normally small and is often
neglected. However, for some polymeric materials its magnitude is
significant; in this case it is termed VISCOELASTIC BEHAVOR.
A simplified view of a
metal bar's structure
P
The same metal bar, this
time with an applied load.
After the load is released,
the bar returns to its
original shape. This is
called elastic deformation.
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3.1.5 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
EXAMPLE:
A piece of copper originally 305 mm (12 in.) long is
pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa (40,000 psi).
If the deformation is entirely elastic, what will be the
resultant elongation?
Soln:
Since the deformation is elastic, strain is linearly
dependent on stress the magnitude of E for copper is
110 GPa
= (l lo ) / lo = l / lo
l = (276 MPa) (305 mm)/ 110 x 103 MPa = 0.77 mm
=
E

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3.1.6 PLASTIC DEFORMATION &
PLASTICITY
For most metallic materials,
elastic deformation exists
only to strains of about
0.005. As the material is
deformed beyond this
point, the stress is not
proportional to strain. And
permanent, nonrecoverable
deformations, PLASTIC
DEFORMATION, occurs.
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3.1.6 PLASTIC DEFORMATION &
PLASTICITY
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3.1.7 STRENGTH
3.1.7.1 YIELD STRENGTH ( Y ) ( MPa or psi )
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
The magnitude of the yield strength for a metal is a
measure of its resistance to plastic deformation.
A straight line is drawn parallel to the elastic deformation
part of the curve from the engineering strain value of
0.002. The stress corresponding to the intersection point
of these two lines is YIELD STRENGTH.
Yield strengths may range from 35 MPa for a low strength
Al to over 1400 MPa for high strength steels.
Comparison of Yield Strength :
y (ceramics) >> y (metals) >> y (polymers)
>> y (composites)
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3.1.7.2 TENSLE STRENGTH (TS)
( MPa or psi )
The stress at the maximum on the engineering stress-
strain curve.
This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be
resisted by a structure in tension. It is the maximum
stress without fracture.
Examples:
metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts
ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts
polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are all
aligned and about to break.
Tensile Strengths may vary from 50 MPa to 3000 MPa
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3.1.7.3 COMPRESSIVE (CRUSHING)
STRENGTH
It is important in
ceramics used in
structures such as
buildings or refractory
bricks. The
compressive strength
of a ceramic is usually
much greater than
their tensile strength.
Tensile, compressive
and bending testing
for materials
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3.1.7.3 COMPRESSIVE (CRUSHING)
STRENGTH
Comparison
of Stress -
Strain
Curves for
Metals,
Ceramics,
Polymers
and
Elastomers
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3.1.7.3 COMPRESSIVE (CRUSHING)
STRENGTH
The Relationship between Elastic Modulus and Melting Temperature
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3.1.8 BRITTLENESS, TOUGHNESS, RESILIENCE
& DUCTILITY
3.1.8.1 BRITTLENESS
A material that experiences very little or no plastic
deformation upon fracture is termed brittle.
Ductile vs Brittle Materials
Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)
Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
X
X
X
A
B
C
X D
Brittle Ductile
A & B C & D
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

S
t
r
e
s
s
Engineering Strain
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3.1.8.1 BRITTLENESS
Brittle Fracture Surfaces
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3.1.8.2 TOUGHNESS
A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy
without fracture.
(J/m3 or N. m/m3= MPa)
It is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb
energy up to fracture.
Energy needed to break a unit volume of material.
Area under stress-strain curve
For a material to be tough, it must display both
strength and ductility.
Often ductile materials are tougher than brittle ones.
Examples:
smaller toughness (ceramics),
larger toughness(metals, PMCs)
smaller toughness unreinforced ( polymers)
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3.1.8.2 TOUGHNESS
Toughness, U
t
Engineering Strain, e = L/Lo)
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

S
=
P
/
A
o

X
U
t
= Sde
o
e
f

(S
y
+ S
u
)
2
EL%
100






S
u
S
y
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3.1.8.2 TOUGHNESS
Toughness is really a
measure of the energy a
sample can absorb
before it breaks.
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3.1.8.3 RESILIENCE
A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy
without plastic or permanent deformation. (J/m
3
or N.
m/m
3
= MPa)
X
Resilience, U
r
Engineering Strain, e = L/Lo)
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

S
=
P
/
A
o

U
r
= Sde
o
e
y

S
y
e
y
2
=
S
y
2
2E
S
u
S
y
E
e
y
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3.1.8.4 DUCTILITY (% EL)
Ductility is another important mechanical property.
It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation
that has been sustained at fracture.
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3.1.8.4 DUCTILITY (% EL)
Stress-Strain diagrams for
typical (a) brittle and (b) ductile
materials
Stress- Strain
Curves for Brittle
and Ductile
Materials
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3.1.8.4 DUCTILITY (% EL)
Ductile Materials
Brittle Materials
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3.1.8.4 DUCTILITY (% EL)
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STRESS STRAIN CURVES
Stress- Strain Curves for Different Materials
CURVE EXAMPLE
A. Stiff but Weak: CERAMIC
B. Stiff and Strong: CERAMIC
C. Stiff and Strong: METAL
C'. Moderately Stiff and Strong: METAL
D. Flexible and Moderately Strong: POLYMER
E. Flexible and Weak: POLYMER
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3.1.9 FATIGUE
If placed under too large of a stress, metals will mechanically
fail, or fracture. This can also result over time from many
small stresses. The most common reason (about 80%) for
metal failure is fatigue.
The most common reason (about 80%) for metal failure is
fatigue.
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FATIGUE MECHANISM
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FATIGUE MECHANISM
This front brake assembly broke off under braking and severely injured the cyclist.
Poor maintenance had allowed the brake bolt to loosen and allow the assembly to
"chatter" when braking imposing cyclic loads instead of steady stress on the fastening
bolt.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Typical Mechanical Properties
Material Yield Stress
(MPa)
Ultimate
Stress (MPa)
Ductility
EL%
Elastic Modulus
(MPa)
Poissons
Ratio
1040 Steel 350 520 30 207000 0.30
1080 Steel 380 615 25 207000 0.30
2024 Al Alloy 100 200 18 72000 0.33
316 Stainless Steel 210 550 60 195000 0.30
70/30 Brass 75 300 70 110000 0.35
6-4 Ti Alloy 942 1000 14 107000 0.36
AZ80 Mg Alloy 285 340 11 45000 0.29
Metals in annealed (soft) condition