6/10/2014 History, His Story, and Stories in Graham Swift's Waterland

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History,HisStory,andStoriesinGrahamSwift'sWaterland
GeorgeP.Landow,ProfessorofEnglishandArtHistory
[OriginallypublishedinStudiesintheLiteraryImagination,23(1990):197211.]
ForMeloraWolff
Children[arethose]towhom,throughouthistory,storieshavebeentold,chieflybutnot
alwaysatbedtime,inordertoquellrestlessthoughtswhoseneedofstoriesismatchedonly
bytheneedadultshaveofchildrentotellstoriesto,ofreceptaclesfortheirstockoffairy
tales,oflisteningearsonwhichtounload,bequeaththosemostunbelievableyethaunting
offairytales,theirownlives.[GrahamSwift,Waterland(NewYork:Poseidon/Simon
andSchuster,1983),6]
GrahamSwift'sWaterland(1983),anovelcastintheformofafictionalautobiography,hasmuchto
tellusaboutthefate,eventhepossibility,ofautobiographyinthelatetwentiethcentury.Although
Waterlanddoesnotconfusepersonalwithpublichistory,itintertwinesthem,makingeachpartofthe
other,forasTomCrick,thesecondaryschoolteacherofhistorywhoisSwift'sprotagonist,seeksan
explanationofhowhislifehasturnedout,hetellshisstory,butashedoesso,hefindsthathemustalso
tellthestoriesofthefensandofhisancestorswholivedthere.Inthecourseoftellinghisstory,their
story,hequestionswhywetellstoriestoourselvesandourchildren,howthestorieswetellrelateto
thosefoundinliteratureandhistory,andwhatthesestoriestellusaboutselves,ourselves.
Waterlandmeditatesonhumanfate,responsibility,andhistoricalnarrativebypursuingamysteryso
thebook,isinpartadetectivestory.Itisalsothestoryoftwofamilies,ofanentireregioninEngland,of
Englandfromtheindustrialrevolutiontothepresent,oftechnologyanditseffects,anditis,finally,a
meditationonstoriesandstorytellingafictionalinquiryintofiction,abookthatwindsbackupon
itselfandaskswhywetellstories.
AsnovelthatquestionstheinterrelatednotionsofselfandstoryinDickens'sGreatExpectationsand
Faulkner'sAbsalom,Absalom!atthesametimethatitdrawsuponthem,Waterlandappearsalate
twentiethcentury,postmodernistrewritingofeach.Inattemptingtorelatehisownstory,TomCrick
beginsbyquestioningthepurpose,truthfulness,andlimitationsofstorieswhileatthesametimemaking
clearthathebelieveshistorytobeaformofstorytelling.Thesequestioningsofnarrativewithinits
narrativemakeWaterlandaselfreflexivetext.
Thenovelhasasprotagonistahistoryteacherwhoisabouttobefiredbecausehistory(hisstories)are
nolongerconsideredofsufficientculturalvalue.Heruminatesuponhistoryintermsoftheeventsofhis
ownlife,andhequicklyrunsupagainsttheyoung,thosewithoutinterestinthepast,thosewhoquite
properlywanttoknowwhy?whypayattentiontowhat'soveranddonewith?"Youask,"thenarrator
tellshisstudents,"asallhistoryclassesask,asallhistoryclassesshouldask,Whatisthepointof
history"(92).Theywanttoknow,aswedo,twothings:Whatisthepointofhistoryasasubjectthatis,
whystudythepast?andwhatisthepointofhistoryitself,thatis,doeshistory,man'sexistenceinpublic
time,haveanymeaning,anypattern,anypurpose?
Thisresistancetobothnotionsofhistorybytheyoung,whowishtoliveinthehereandnow,is
embodiedinPrice,TomCrick'sstudent,whovoicesalltheusualobjectionstopayingattentiontowhat
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hasgoneby."Yourthesis,"Tomresponds,"isthathistory,assuch,isaredherringthepastis
irrelevant.Thepresentaloneisvital"(143).SomeofTom'sownstatementsabouthistoryand
historiographysuggestthatPricemighthaveapoint."WhenintroducedtohistoryasanobjectofStudy.
..itwasstillthefabulousauraofhistorythatluredme,andIbelieved,perhapslikeyou,thathistorywas
amyth."TomCrickconfessesthatheretainedsuchpleasing,soothingnotionsofhistory
UntilaseriesofencounterswiththeHereandNowgaveasuddenurgencytomystudies.
UntiltheHereandNow,grippingmebythearm,slappingmyfaceandtellingmetotakea
goodlookatthemessIwasin,informedmethathistorywasnoinventionbutindeed
existedandIhadbecomeapartofit.(53)
Concernedwithsavingtheworldfromnuclearwar,concernedthattheremaynotbeafuture,Price
thinkshistoryisbunk:"Iwantafuture...Andyouyoucanstuffyourpast!"(123)Asitturnsout,
Price'suseofthesecondpersonpronouniscorrect,forthispast,thishistory,thatherejectsisprecisely
hisTom'spast.
Pricealsomakesasecondappealingattackonhistoryandhistoriography,namely,thatitisameansof
avoidance:"Youknowwhatyourtroubleis,sir?You'rehookedonexplanation.Explain,explain.
Everything'sgottohaveanexplanation....Explaining'sawayofavoidingfactswhileyoupretendto
getneartothem"(145).TobeagainsthistoryisthusforPriceantiexplanation,becauseaccordingto
him,bothhistoryandexplanationevadelifeinthepresentanattitudebasedontheassumptionthatthe
presentispleasant,nurturing,andnotdeadly.
NearthecloseofthenovelSwift'sprotagonistanswersthechargethatpeopleresorttohistoryonlyasa
meansofevasionwiththecounterclaimthatcuriosityandtheexplanationstowhichitleadsare
necessaryandinevitable.Theydonotsubvertlife,claimsCrick,nordotheybearresponsibilityfor
keepingusfromengaginginimportanteventslikerevolutions.
Supposingit'stheotherwayround.Supposingit'srevolutionswhichdivertandimpedethecourseof
ourinborncuriosity.Supposingit'scuriositywhichinspiresoursexualexplorationsandfeedsour
desirestohearandtellstorieswhichisournaturalandfundamentalstateofmind.Supposingit'sour
insatiableandfeverishdesiretoknowaboutthings,toknowabouteachother,alwaystobesniff
sniffingthingsout,whichisthetrueandrightfulsubverteranddefeatsevenourimpulseforhistorical
progression.(168)
Tryingtounderstandwhytryingtounderstand,thatis,whathashappenedtohimandhislifeCrick
retellsthestoryofhislife.Byrelatingtheeventsofhislifeinsomesortofanorderhemakesitintoa
story.Heconstructshistoryhisstory.Heconstructshimself,andinthecourseofdoingsohe
recognizesthat"Perhapshistoryisjuststorytelling"(133)"Historyitself,theGrandNarrative,thefiller
ofvacuums,thedispelleroffearsofthedark"(53).andhehasexamplesofthisinthehistoricallegends
toldhimbyhismother(53).
BeforethemurderofFreddieParr,heandMarylivedoutsideoftimeandhistory,outsidethatstreamof
eventsheistryingtoteachtohisclass.ButwiththediscoveryofFreddie'sbodyfloatinginthecanal
lock,andwiththediscoveryofabeerbottle,TomandMaryfallintotimeandhistory.Previously,
"Marywasfifteen,andsowasI...inprehistorical,pubescenttimes,whenwedriftedinstinctively"
(44).AsTomexplains,"itispreciselythesesurpriseattacksoftheHereandNowwhich,farfrom
launchingusintothepresenttense,whichtheydo,itistrue,forabriefandgiddyinterval,announcethat
timehastakenusprisoner"(52).
ThisviewaccordswiththatofthosephilosophicalanthropologistsMirceaEliadeandotherswho
emphasizethatuntilhumanbeingsleavetribal,agriculturalexistence,theyliveinaneternalpresentin
whichtimefollowsacyclicalpatternofdaysandseasons.Emphasizingthat"fromthepointofviewof
anhistoricalpeoplesorclasses'suffering'isequivalentto'history,'"Eliadeclaimsthatarchaichumanity
hasnointerestinhistoryorintheindividuationitcreates.Interestinthenovel,theunique,the
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irreversibleappearedonlycomparativelyrecently.TomCrick'swholeexistenceinthenovelinstantiates
Eliade'spointthatthe"crucialdifference"betweentribalhumanityanditsdescendantslieinthevalue
"modern,historicalman"givestohistoricaleventstothe'novelties'"thatoncerepresentedonlyfailure
andinfraction.Intribalsociety,onebecomesindividual,onebecomesanindividual,onlybybotchinga
ritualorotherwisedepartingfromsomeuniversalpattern.Insuchsocieties,onedifferentiatesoneself,
becominganindividual,onlybysinandfailure.Theindividualthereforeisthemanorwomanwhogot
wrongtheplantingorfertilityritual,thehuntingpattern.Whichiswhythenarratorexplains:"Whatisa
historyteacher?He'ssomeonewhoteachesmistakes.Whileotherssay,Here'showtodoit,hesays,
Andhere'swhatgoeswrong"(203).
Therefore,writinghistory,likewritingautobiography,onlycomesafterafall,forautobiographyand
otherformsofhistoryrespondtothequestion"why,"andpeopleonlyaskthatquestionaftersomething
hasgonewrong."AndwhatdoesthisquestionWhyimply?"Crickaskshisstudents."Itimpliesasit
surelyimplieswhenyouthrowitatmerebelliouslyinthemidstofourhistorylessonsdissatisfaction,
disquiet,asensethatallisnotwell.Inastateofperfectcontentmenttherewouldbenoneedorroomfor
thisirritantlittleword.Historybeginsonlyatthepointwherethingsgowronghistoryisbornonlywith
trouble,withperplexity,withregret"(92).But,ofcourse,wereitnotfortrouble,perplexity,andregret
wewouldnothaveautobiographies,andasthehistoryofVictorianautobiographydemonstrates,
periodsoftroubleandperplexity,ifnotregret,produceselfhistoriesgalore,forinsuchcircumstances
autobiographerstraditionallyhaveofferedtheirexperiences,theirsurvival,asexemplary.
TomCrick'sautobiographicalprojectthereforecentersonwhatwentwrong.Thiswholenovel,infact,
isanattempttoexplainwhatwentwrongwhatwentwrongwithhisownlifeandMary's,withthe
livesofhisparents,andwiththelivesofboththeirfamilies,whorepresentthepeasantandwealthy
entrepreneurialclassesofBritainfromtheseventeenthcenturytothepresent.Waterlandbegins,
therefore,withthediscoveryofFreddieParr'sbodyinmidsummer1943(4),adiscoverythatcomesall
themoreshockingly,unexpectedly,becauseSwiftpresentsitwithinafairytalelandscape,foritwas"a
fairytaleland,afterall"(2),inpartbecausebothhismotherandfatherhadagiftformakingitsuchwith
theirhandmedowntales.
Waterland,inotherwords,toalargeextentembodiestheconventionalromanticpatternbestknown,
perhaps,from"TinternAbbey."LiketheidealizedWordsworthwhoisthespeakerofthatpoem,Tom
Crickreturns(thoughonlyinimagination)tothelandscapeofthoughtlessyouth,andlikethepoet,he
concernshimselfwiththelossesofinnocenceandwiththecorollaryfallintotime,selfconsciousness,
andsocialexistenceinto,thatis,theworldofadulthood,into"trouble...perplexity...regret"(92).
Finally,likeWordsworthin"TinternAbbey,"Crickrelateshismeditationsonhisownlifeandits
patternsinthepresenceofayoungeraudience,andlikethepoem'sspeaker,Crickalsoactsinthe
mannerofaventriloquist,obviouslyplacingwordsinthemouthsofthatyoungeraudience.Theobvious
differencebetweenthetwoworks,ofcourse,appearsinthefactthat,unlike"Tintern
Abbey,"WaterlandbravelyrefusestofindsolaceinsomeRomanticrevisionofMilton'sFortunateFall.
Tomdoes,however,cometobelievethatallsuchexplanatorynarratives,function,however
provisionally,asmeansoforderingourlivesandtherebyprotectingusfromchaosanddisorder.And
Swift'sarrayofcharacterssurelyneedsuchshelter,forsomearevictimsofprogress,technology,and
theantinatural(theCricksofearliergenerationslosttheirwayoflifeasswamppeoplewhenthe
swampsweredrained),andothersvictimsofwhattheadultnarratorconsiderspurelynatural(asare
Mary,andTom,andDick,andFreddie,whowereonlyfollowingnaturalsexualurges)andyetothers
werevictimsofWorldWarI(likeTom'sfatheranduncle),orvictims,likeTom'smother,ofnatural
unnaturallove,oftheincestthatproducesDick,hisidiothalfbrother.Storytelling,andhistory,and
bookslikeWaterlandarethesepeople'sprimedefenceagainstfear:"It'sallastruggletomakethings
notseemmeaningless.It'sallafightagainstfear,"TomCricktellshisclass."Whatdoyouthinkallmy
storiesarefor...Idon'tcarewhatyoucallitexplaining,evadingthefacts,makingupmeanings,
takingalargerview,puttingthingsinperspective,dodgingthehereandnow,education,history,fairy
talesithelpstoeliminatefear"(208).
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Infact,TomCrickargues,storytellingcomeswithtime,withlivingintime,andstorytelling,which
distinguishesusfromanimals,comeswithbeinghuman.
Children,onlyanimalsliveentirelyintheHereandNow.Onlynatureknowsneither
memorynorhistory.Manmanletmeofferyouadefinitionisthestorytellinganimal.
Whereverhegoeshewantstoleavebehindnotachaoticwake,notanemptyspace,butthe
comfortingmarkerbuoysandtrailsignsofstories.Hehastogoontellingstories.Hehasto
keeponmakingthemup.Aslongasthere'sastory,it'sallright.(53)
Theproblem,asthisentirenovelgoestoshow,isthatthematerialofstoriesoftenrefusestobeshaped
bythem,justasnature,unmediatednature,refusestobeshapedbytheconvenientstoryofprogress
withinwhichVictorianstriedtoplaceit.(And,onemustnoteinpassing,thisfactmightcastintodoubt
allstorytelling,particularlythatofthisnovel,sincenarrativealwaysinvolvessomekindofprogress.)
Thus,GrahamSwift'semphasisthroughoutthenovelontwomatterstheFensandsexualitythat
resistallideological,narrativecontrol,thatrefusetobeshapedbystorieswetell.Puttingtogetherthe
twoopposedforcesthatdrivemuchofhistale,Tomclaims"Children,there'ssomethingwhich
revolutionariesandprophetsofnewworldsandevenhumblechampionsofProgress(thinkofthose
poorAtkinsons...)can'tabide.Naturalhistory,humannature"(178).AsTommakesusrealize,natural
historyisaparadoxandanoxymoronthatis,ajarringplacementtogetherofcontrariesbecauseitis
historyoftheantihistoricalwhichhasnoorderoriscyclical(nonhistorical)withoutindividuating
markers.
Thiswholenovel,inotherwords,setsouttoexaminetheseagesandtheirliteraryaswellasreligious
andphilosophicalfoundationsandfindsthemwanting.Itexaminesvarioustheoriesofhistory,suchas
thatproposedbyreligion(35),progress(137,140),andhubris(62),andcanvasesawiderangeof
subjectsforhistorysuchaspoliticaleventsfromtheRomanconquerorsofBritain(1245)totheBastille
(155)andWorldWarsIandII,thehistoryoftechnology(118,290,includingdrainingtheFens(111),
thehistoryofplaces(Fens),thehistoryoffamilies(AtkinsonsandCricks,78),thehistoryofindividual
people,especiallythenarratorandMary(214),andthehistoryofabottle,abeerbottle(33).
Waterland,whichiscastintheformofafictionalautobiography,probestheroleofnarrativeandinso
doingraisesquestionsaboutthemeansandmethodsofautobiography.Likemuchrecenttheoryand
criticism,thenovellooksskepticallyattwoaspectsofnarrative.First,itexpressessuspicionoftheway
humanbeingsgravitatetowardsfolktales,myths,andotherwellshapednarrativesthatfalsify
experienceandkeepusfromencounteringtheworld.Swift'snarratorhimselfadmitsthathis"earliest
acquaintancewithhistorywasthus,inaformissuingfrommymother'slips,inseparablefromherother
bedtimemakebelievehowAlfredburntthecakes,howCanutecommandedthewaves,howKing
Charleshidinanoaktreeasifhistorywereapleasinginvention"(53).Recentstudiesofnineteenth
centuryautobiographyhavepointedouttheextenttowhichauthorsdependuponsuchconventional
narrativepatternstocreatewhatAvromFleishmanhastermed"personalmyth"bywhichtotelltheir
lives.AsLindaH.Petersonhaspointedout,however,conventionalnarratives,suchasthosedrawn
fromscripture,createmajorproblemsformanywouldbeselfhistorians,particularlywomen,whofind
thatthesenarrativesdistorttheirstoriesordonotpermitthemtotelltheirstoriesatall.
Second,Swift'snoveltakesitsskepticismaboutnarrativefurther,foritnotonlypoints,likerecent
critics,tothefalsificationscreatedbyparticularstories,itissuspiciousofallstorytelling.Waterland
questionsallnarrativebasedonsequence,andinthisitagreeswithothernovelsofitsdecade.Like
PenelopeLively'sMoonTiger(1987),anothernovelintheformoftheautobiographyofaninvented
character,Swift'snovelhasanhistorian,TomCrick,ashisprotagonist,andlikeLively'scharacter,
Swift'srelatestheeventsofasinglelifetothemajorcurrentsofcontemporaryhistory.
Usingmuchthesamemethodforautobiographyasforhistory,Swift'sprotagonistwouldagreewith
Lively'sClaudiaHamptonwhosedeepsuspicionofchronologyandsequenceexplicitlyderivefromher
experienceofsimultaneity.Thinkingoverthepossibilityofwritingahistoryoftheworld,Lively's
heroinerejectssequenceandlinearhistoryasinauthenticandfalsetoherexperience:
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Thequestionis,shallitorshallitnotbelinearhistory?I'vealwaysthoughtakaleidoscopic
viewmightbeaninterestingheresy.Shakethetubeandseewhatcomesout.Chronology
irritatesme.Thereisnochronologyinsidemyhead.IamcomposedofamyriadClaudias
whospinandmixandpartlikesparksofsunlightonwater.ThepackofcardsIcarry
aroundisforevershuffledandreshuffledthereisnosequence,everythinghappensat
once.[7]
LikeProust'sMarcel,shefindsthatasimplesensationbringsthepastbackflushuponthepresent,
makingamockeryofseparationandsequence.ReturningtoCairoinherlatesixties,Claudiafindsit
bothchangedandunchanged."Theplace,"sheexplains,"didn'tlookthesamebutitfeltthesame
sensationsclutchedandtransformedme."Standingnearamodernconcreteandplateglassbuilding,she
picksa"handfulofeucalyptusleavesfromabranch,crushedtheminmyhand,smelt,andtearscameto
myeyes.SixtysevenyearoldClaudia...cryingnotingriefbutinwonderthatnothingiseverlost,
thateverythingcanberetrieved,thatalifetimeisnotlinearbutinstant."Herlessonforautobiographyis
that"insidethehead,everythinghappensatonce"(68).LikeClaudia,TomCricktakeshistorical,
autobiographicalnarrativeswhoseessenceissequenceandspreadsthemoutorweavesthemina
nonsequentialway.
LivelyandSwiftarehardlythefirsttosuggestthatnarrativesequencefalsifiesautobiographicaltruth.
Tennyson'sInMemoriam,oneofthemostinfluentialaswellasmosttechnicallydaringpoemsofthe
nineteenthcentury,embodiesthispostmodernistsuspicionofnarrativeasfalsifying.ArthurHenry
Hallam'sdeathin1833forcedTennysontoquestionhisfaithinnature,God,andpoetry.InMemoriam
revealsthatthepoet,whofoundthatbrieflyricsbestembodiedthetransitoryemotionsthatbuffetedhim
afterhisloss,rejectedconventionalelegyandnarrativebecausebothfalsifytheexperienceofgriefand
recoverybymechanicallydrivingthereaderthroughtoounifiedandhencetoosimplifiedaversion
oftheseexperiences.Creatingapoetryoffragments,TennysonleadsthereaderofInMemoriamfrom
griefanddespairthroughdoubttohopeandfaith,butateachstepstubborn,contraryemotionsintrude,
andreadersencounterdoubtinthemidstoffaith,paininthemidstofresolution.Insteadoftheelegaic
plotof"Lycidas,""Adonais,"and"Thrysis,"InMemoriamoffers133fragmentsinterlacedbydozens
ofimagesandmotifsandinformedbyanequalnumberofminorandmajorresolutions,themostfamous
ofwhichissectionninetyfive'srepresentationofTennyson'sclimactic,ifwonderfullyambiguous,
mysticalexperienceofcontactwithHallam'sspirit.
LikeTennysonandmostothernineteenthcenturyautobiographers,TomCricktellshisstoryasameans
ofexplaininghisconversiontoaparticularbeliefandwayoflife.UnlikethegreatVictorian
autobiographers,realandfictional,hedoesnotrelatethesignificantdetailsabouthislifefromthe
vantagepointofrelativetranquilityorevencomplacency.Mill,Ruskin,andNewman,likethePipof
GreatExpectationsortheheroineofJaneEyre,alltellthestoriesoftheirlivesaftereverything
interestinghasalreadyhappenedtothemandtheyhaveatlastreachedsomesafehaven.Similarly,
howevertorturedTennyson'smindandspirithadbeenafterthedeathofHallam,andhoweverlittle
conventionalnarrativesweresuitedtocommunicatingthatexperience,bythecloseofInMemoriamthe
readerencountersanautobiographicalspeakerornarratorwhostandsonsafe,secure,unchanging
ground.Incontrast,TomCrick,unlikePipandJane,writesfromwithinatimeofcrisis,forTom,like
hisage,existsinaconditionofcatastrophe.
Suchwritingfromwithinanongoingcrisismaywellbethepostmodernistcontributionto
autobiography,forwhetherornotonechoosestoseesuchanarrativepositionasapretentiouspose
afterall,peoplehavealwayslivedwithincrisistheVictorianscertainlybelievedtheydidthisvantage
pointinevitablyundercutsthetraditionalautobiographer'sproject,whichentailsshowinghimselfandhis
survivedcrisesasexemplary.EventhoughNewman,Mill,Ruskin,andTennysonpresentthemselves
andtheirexperiencesasessentiallyunique,theynonethelessemphasizetherepresentativenessand
thereforerelevanceoftheirlivestotheirreaders.Theypresentthemselvesaslivinglessonsfortherestof
us.TheapproachtoautobiographyundertakenbyTomCrick,ontheotherhand,essentially
deconstructsthepotentiallyhopefulaspectsofhisnarrative.Byrefusingtheautobiographer's
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traditionallysecureclosingposition,inotherwords,Swift'sprotagonistcastsintodoubttheworldofthe
autobiographer,hisautobiography,andnarrativeingeneral.
Waterland,aswehaveseen,isabookthatwindsbackuponotherbooks,foritisadescendent,an
echo,andaqualificationofbothDickens'sGreatExpectationsandFaulkner'sAbsalom,Absalom!
Swift'snovelbegins,forexample,withanepigraphfromGreatExpectations,anotherworkthatopens
inthefens,anditshareswithDickens'snovelmanyelementsotherthantheiropeningscenesofdeath
andguilt.Bothworks,whichcombineautobiographyandatonement,beginwiththeintrusionofa
fearfulrealityintoyoungperson'sconsciousness.Both,furthermore,telloftheirprotagonists'climbup
thesocialladderfromworkingclasstosomeformofshabbygentility,andboth,forthesereasonsand
others,couldequallywellbearthetitlesGreatExpectationsandExpectationsDisappointed,forboth
endwithfarsadder,somewhatwisernarrators.Bothnovelsrelatethedarkresultsofanadolescent
passion,andbotharehauntedbythepresenceofanabusedolderwoman,asSarahAtkinsonechoesand
completesMissHavishamasdothebreweriesandflamesthatassociatewitheach.
WaterlandstandsinasimilarrelationtoatwentiethcenturycanonicalworkFaulkner'sAbsalom,
Absalom!BrianMcHale'scontrastofmodernistandpostmodernistfictionhelpsusplaceboth
Waterland'sattitudestowardnarrativeanditsrelationtoFaulkner'snovel.AccordingtoMcHale,
whereasepistemologicalconcernsdefinethenovelsthatembodymodernism,ontologicalconcerns
characterizepostmodernistfiction.
Thatis,modernistfictiondeploysstrategieswhichengageandforegroundquestionssuchas..."How
canIinterpretthisworldofwhichIamapart?....Whatistheretobeknown?Whoknowsit?How
dotheyknowit,andwithwhatdegreeofcertainty?Howisknowledgetransmittedfromoneknowerto
another,andwithwhatdegreeofcertainty?"....Faulkner'sAbsalom,Absalom!hasbeendesignedto
raisejustsuchepistemologicalquestions.Itslogicisthatofadetectivestory,theepistemologicalgenre
parexcellence.
Incontrasttomodernistfiction,whichthuscentersonquestionsofknowledge,
postmodernistworkisinformedbyontologicalquestionssuchas"Whatisaworld?...
Whathappenswhendifferentkindsofworldareplacedinconfrontation,orwhen
boundariesbetweenworldsareviolated?Whatisthemodeofexistenceofatext,andwhat
isthemodeofexistenceoftheworld(orworlds)itprojects?"(MacHale,p.10).
AlthoughWaterlandshareslittleofpostmodernistfiction'saggressive,explicitdestabilizingofthe
worldandtheself,thenovel'sintertextualrelationswithFaulknerdifferentiatesitfrombothhiswork
andfromliterarymodernism.TheclearparallelsbetweenWaterlandandAbsalom,Absalom!that
reviewershaveobservedinfactservetopointupthedifferencesbetweenthetwofictionalworlds.As
oneanonymousreviewpointedout,"TheFensofeastEnglandservenovelistGrahamSwiftas
YoknapatawphaCountyservedWilliamFaulkner:lessasageographicalsettingthanasanactiveforce
shapingpeople'slives....Mysteriesramifybutultimatelylead,asinallGothicnovels(including
Faulkner's)toasecretatthecenterofthefamilyhouse."Thetwonovelsshareothersimilaritiesaswell:
bothtaketheformoffamilytragediesinwhichamaleancestor'shubrisleadstoterribledisaster,both
emphasizeviolationsofthefamilybond,andbothemployasbackgroundscataclysmicwarsthatchange
theirnationsforever.LikeFaulkner'sAbsalom,Absalom!,andlikeDickens'sGreatExpectations
(whichtheBritishreviewersdon'tmention),Waterlandmeditatesonhumanfate,responsibility,and
historicalnarrativebypursuingamysterysothebook,liketheseothers,isinpartadetectivestory.
Thereis,however,oneimportantdifference:IntruemodernistfashionQuentinCompsonandhis
Harvardroommateattempttosolveamysterybydetectionandbyimaginativerecreation.Intrue
postmodernistfashionTomCrick,whoknewtheidentityofthemurdereryearsbeforehebeganthe
storytellingthatconstitutesWaterland,createsamystery(forus)wherenoneexists.
InadditiontoWaterland'sverydifferent,selfconscioususeofmystery,itsdiscussionsofnarrativity
andnarratologymakeitalatetwentiethcenturyretellingoftheworksofbothFaulknerandDickensas
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doitspostmodernistgrotesqueries,playfulness,emphasisupontheerotic,andconvolutedstylethat
continuallydrawsattentiontoitself.Anotheraspectofpostmodernistfictionwithparticularsignificance
forautobiographyappearsinSwift'screationofatextualized,intertextualizedself.
PresentingTomCrickasintertwinedwithsomanyothertalesandselves,Swiftpresentstheselfinthe
mannerofmanypoststructuralistcriticsandpostmodernistnovelistsasanentitybothcomposedofmany
textsanddispersedintothem.InWaterlandSwifttextualizestheself,andthatselfmatchesthe
descriptionoftextthatRolandBarthesadvancesinS/Zwhenhepointsoutthatenteringatextis
"entranceintoanetworkwithathousandentrancestotakethisentranceistoaim,ultimately...ata
perspective(offragments,ofvoicesfromothertexts,othercodes),whosevanishingpointisnonetheless
ceaselesslypushedback,mysteriouslyopened"(trans.RichardMiller[NewYork:HillandWang],
1974),12).TomCrick'stextualizedselffulfillsBarthes'sdescriptionofthe"idealtext"whose"networks
aremanyandinteract,withoutanyoneofthembeingabletosurpasstherest...ithasnobeginningit
isreversible"(Barthesp.6).Therefore,wecansayoftheselfconstructionthatTomCrickoffersusto
read,that"wegainaccesstoitbyseveralentrances,noneofwhichcanbeauthoritativelydeclaredtobe
themainonethecodesitmobilizesextendasfarastheeyecanreach,theyareindeterminable"(Barthes
p.6).Andthatiswhytorecordpartofhimself,Tommustalsorecordsomanyotherhistories,forthey
allintertwine,echo,andreverberatecauses,responsibilities,limitsbecomedifficulttolocate.
Inotherwords,assoonasCrickbeginstotellhisstoryhefindsnecessaryexpandingthatstorybeyond
hisbiologicalbeginnings.Ontheonehand,Waterlandseemsarigorouslyhistoricistpresentationof
selfhoodontheother,itsselfconsciousexaminationofthehistorythathistoricizesthisselfmakesit
appearthatthesenarratives,likethehistoricismtheysupport,arepatentlyconstructed,purelysubjective
patterns.
TomCrick'sautobiographicalacts,inotherwords,turnouttobefictionalanaloguesoftheland
reclamationwhosepresencedominatesthenovel.Provisional,essential,limitedastheymaybe,telling
storiescanneveradequatelycontrolrealityornatureorwhat'soutthereorwhatTomcallstheHereand
Now.LiketheFenwaters,likethenaturalforceitis,Mary'sand'sTom'sandDick'sand,alas,Freddie's
sexualityrefusetobecontainedbythecanalwallsanddamnsofhumanfairystoriesand,instead,lead
toFreddie'smurder,Dick'ssuicide,Mary'sabortion,andultimatelytoherkidnappinganinfantina
supermarketandsubsequentcommitmenttoamentalinstitution.ThatiswhytheFenlandsandFen
waters,whichtheAtkinsonsandothercommercialleadersoftheIndustrialRevolutiontrytofitintoa
humanstory,playsuchanimportantpartinthisnovel.AndthatiswhyTom,whoexplicitlytakes
drainingtheFenstoexemplifyprogressivetheoriesofhistory,speaksinhisimaginationtohiswifeof
their"Sundaywalks,withwhichwetrodandmeasuredoutthetenuous,reclaimedlandofour
marriage?"(111)Fenlandsandwatersrepresenttherealitythatwon'tfitintoourstories(onecan'tcallit
natureorthenatural,becausethosetermsrefertoarealitythatalreadyhasbeenplacedinastory)."For
thechieffactabouttheFens,"Crickemphasizeswhenheintroducedthemasthesettingofhislife
history,"isthattheyarereclaimedland,landthatwasoncewater,andwhich,eventoday,isnotquite
solid"(7).
WaterlandexaminesandfindswantingtheNeoclassicalviewofnaturethattakesittobedivineorder,
theRomanticonethattakesittobeessentiallybenignandaccommodatedtoourneeds,andthe
Victorianonethattakesittobe,howeverhostileorneutral,somethingwecanshapetoourneedsand
useforthematerialofataleofprogress.
LikeJohnMcPhee'sTheControlofNature(1989),Waterlandtakeslandreclamationandman'sbattle
againstwaterasaheroic,absurd,alltoohumanprojectthatparticularlycharacterizesmodernWestern
civilization'sapproachtoman,nature,andfate.Swift'snovelpresentsbothlandreclamationandtelling
one'sstoryasgame,evenheroic,attemptstoshapechaoticsettingofhumanexistence:reclamation:
marriage,nature,water,pasttime,memory,otherliterature.Withinsuchaconceptionofthings,telling
one'sownstorytakestheformofasimilarlyheroic,ifabsurd,reclamationfromthedestructionsof
natureandtime,forautobiography,likelandreclamation,takesthepurelynaturalandaftergreatself
consciousexertionsmakesithuman.Ofcourse,autobiographyandhistory,likedrainingthefens,can
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neverachievemorethantemporaryvictoriesagainstthenatural,forthesimplereasonthatpeoplecarry
outboththeseprojectswithintime,andeventually,soonerorlater,timewins.Timewearschannelsin
thedykes,rustsmachinery,makesaparticularautobiographicalactobsoleteorirrelevant.Noneofthese
facts,ofcourse,argueagainstreclaiminglandnordotheyargueagainstundertakingtowritehistoryand
autobiography.But,asTomCrickrecognizes,theydocutsuchprojectsdowntosize.Suspiciousofthe
ideaofprogress,Crickwarnsusthattheworlddoesnotreallyheadtowardanygoal,andtherefore"It's
progressifyoucanstoptheworldfromslippingaway.Myhumblemodelforprogressisthereclamation
ofland.Whichisrepeatedly,neverendinglyretrievingwhatislost.Adoggedandvigilantbusiness.A
dullyetvaluablebusiness.Ahard,ingloriousbusiness.Butyoushouldn'tgomistakingthereclamation
oflandforthebuildingofempires"(291)Similarly,autobiographicalacts(andfictionalversionsof
them)providebrief,temporary,provisionallivingspacesforhumanbeings.
Autobiographicalacts,then,followfromabasichumanneedfororderandmeaningthatrelates
intimatelytotheneedtoescapechaosandfear.Tellingstoriesaboutourselves,liketellingstoriesabout
peopleofearliertimesandaboutthenaturalworld,derivesfromcuriosity,thatforcethat,accordingto
Swift'snarrator,wedsustobothworldandwordaforcethatdrivessexuality,science,andstory
telling.Swiftraisestheproblemoftheeroticsofthetextinthecontextofexplaininghiswife'scuriosity
asafifteenyearoldbackinthathalcyonyear,1943."Maryitched,"TomCrickexplains."Andthisitch
ofMary'swastheitchofcuriosity.Inherfifteenyearoldbodycuriositytickledandchafed,makingher
fidgetyandrovingeyed.Curiositydroveher,beyondallrestraint,towanttotouch,witness,experience
whateverwasunknownandhiddenfromher."Thisintensecuriosity,which,accordingtoCrick,defines
thehuman,"isaningredientoflove.Itisavitalforce.Curiosity,whichbogsusdowninarduous
meditationsandcanleadtothewritingofhistorybooks,willalso,onoccasion,asonthatafternoonby
theHockwellLode,revealtousthatwhichweseldomglimpseunscathed(foritappearsmoreoften
deadbodies,boathooksdressedinterror):theHereandNow"(44).Despitetheoccasional
encounterswithterrorthatcuriositybegetswhichSwiftinstantiatesbypromptingourreaders'
curiositytoleadustoDick'sincestuousoriginsandMary'shorrificabortioninWaterland,curiosity,
theforceofnarrative,appearsinAristotelianfashionasanessentiallylifegivingdrive."Curiositybegets
love.Itwedsustotheworld"(178).Tobehumanwehavetobecurious,andcuriosityproducesstory
telling.
Asimpossibleasgettingrightthesestoriesmaybe,attemptingtoshapeanarrative,one'snarrative,one's
ownnovel,isallwehave,andwemustthereforeallbehistorians.Likeautobiography,"Historyisthat
impossiblething:theattempttogiveanaccount,withincompleteknowledge,ofactionsthemselves
undertakenwithincompleteknowledge.SothatitteachesusnoshortcutstoSalvation,norecipefora
NewWorld,onlythedoggedandpatientartofmakingdo"(94).
Byforeverattemptingtoexplainwecome,nottoanExplanation,buttoaknowledgeof
thelimitsofourpowertoexplain.Yes,yes,thepastgetsinthewayittripsusup,bogsus
downitcomplicates,makesdifficult.Buttoignorethisisfolly,because,aboveall,what
historyteachesusistoavoidillusionandmakebelieve,tolayasidedreams,moonshine,
curealls,wonderworkings,pieintheskytoberealistic.(94)
Howeverprovisional,howeverreduced,howeveritsnarrativesarefracturedordispersed,
autobiographyintheworldofWaterlandthereforeremainsessentialandinevitable.Onebasic
justificationforhistory,narrative,andautobiographyliesinthefactthatitissomethingweashumans
mustdo.AsCrickexplainstothemembersofhisclass,theirveryquestioningofhistoryprovidesoneof
itsbasicjustifications:
Your"Why?"givestheanswer.Yourdemandforexplanationprovidesanexplanation.
Isn'ttheseekingofreasonsitselfinevitablyanhistoricalprocess,sinceitmustalwayswork
backwardsfromwhatcameaftertowhatcamebefore?Andsolongaswehavethisitchfor
explanations,mustwenotalwayscarryroundwithusthiscumbersomebutpreciousbagof
cluescalledhistory?Anotherdefinition,children:Man,theanimalwhichdemandsan
explanation,theanimalwhichasksWhy.
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Tellingstories,particularlyone'sownstory,turnsouttobeabsurdandevencomicalwhenviewedby
anycosmicscale,butforallthatitisanecessaryact,somethingthatonedoes,asCarlyleputit,tokeep
ourheadsabovewater.CarlylecomesreadilytomindwhenconsideringTomCrick'swillingnessto
facerealityinreduced,bleakcircumstancesinpartbecause,asTomtellsus,hereadCarlyle'sFrench
Revolutionduringonecrisisinhislifeandthatwork,whichprovidessomeofthenarrator'sfactsand
emphases,ledtohisvocationashistoryteacher.ButonethinksofCarlyleevenmorebecauseTom
Crickalsoshareshisgeneraltone,hiswillingnesstoactinableak,barrenworldifonlybecausethat'sall
thereistodo.Crickbelieves,finally,that
Allthestoriesoncewerereal.Andalltheeventsofhistory,thebattlesandcostumepieces,
oncereallyhappened.Allthestorieswereonceafeelingintheguts....Butwhenthe
worldisabouttoendthere'llbenomorereality,onlystories.Allthere'llbelefttouswillbe
stories.Storieswillbeouronlyreality.We'llsitdown,inourshelter,andtellstoriesto
someimaginaryPrinceShahriyar,hopingitwillnever...[ellipsisinoriginal,257].