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.26
(.87)
8. Inspirational motivation 3.75 (0.91) .20 .01 .28
(.86)
9. Leader prototypicality 3.26 (0.99) .26
.50
(.94)
10. Creative performance 4.08 (0.94) .27
.27
.27
p <.05;
p <.01.
N ranges from 111 to 114 because of missing data. Cronbach alphas in parentheses.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 971
Hypothesis 1 states that team identication has an indirect and positive relationship with creativity
mediated by creative effort (i.e., implying positive relationships between identication and creative
efforts and between creative efforts and creative performance). To provide a full test of this mediation
model and the distal nature of the association between team identication and employee creativity, we
followed the structural equation modeling approach suggested by James, Mulaik, and Brett (2006). We
used EQS 6.1 to model the mediation with latent variables for each of the concepts. Overall model t
was reasonable, x
2
235.4, df 99, CFI 0.92, RMSEA0.09. First, there was a signicant path
from team identication to creative effort, b.49, p <.01, supporting Hypothesis 1(i). Second, the
path fromcreative effort to creativity was signicant with b.19, p <.05, conrming Hypothesis 1(ii).
Finally, and in support of Hypothesis 1(iii), there was an indirect relationship of team identication
with creativity via creative effort of b .10, p <.05. Bootstrapping with 500 resamples revealed a 95%
condence interval of .001 <b<.319. Thus, Hypothesis 1 was fully supported.
1
Hypotheses 24 were tested using moderated regression analyses. Control variables were entered
rst. Team identication, inspirational motivation, and leader prototypicality were standardized and
entered in the second step, and the two-way interaction to be tested in the third step. The three-way
interaction predicted in Hypothesis 4 was entered in a fourth step in an analysis in which all two-way
interaction terms were entered in the model.
Hypothesis 2 predicts that team identication has a stronger positive relationship with employees
creative effort when inspirational motivation is high. These results are displayed in Table 2. Overall, the
Table 2. Results of multiple regression analysis for creative effort
Variables Controls Main effects Two-way Two-way Two-way Three-way
Block 1: Controls
US .20 .19 .18 .34
.30
.36
.22 .13
Gender .07 .03 .02 .00 .04 .06
Education .14 .18 .15 .12 .14 .19
Tenure .01 .00 .00 .03 .02 .04
Block 2: Main effects
Team identication (TID) .39
.46
.42
.27
.36
.26
TIDPR .24
.20
INS PR .30
.32
DR
2b
.06 .13 .04 .05 .07 .06
F for DR
2b
1.08 4.27 3.72 5.04 6.69 6.25
R
2
.06 .19 .23 .31 .32 .44
F 1.08 2.36
2.58
3.19
3.44
4.08
Note: b The change in variance explained beyond the null or previous model.
p <.05.
N111.
1
We also tested a model adding all control variables and regressing them on creative behavior. Although the model had
unspecied paths and did not t the data well (x
2
629.1, df 169, CFI 0.78, RMSEA0.10), SEM revealed very similar
relationships between the latent factors (team identication creative effort: b .49, p <.01; creative effort creative behavior:
b.11, p <.05; indirect effect: b.05, p <.10).
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
DOI: 10.1002/job
972 G. HIRST ET AL.
control variables did not explain a signicant amount of the variance in creative effort, F(5,
106) 1.08, ns. When the independent variables were entered into the regression equation, the model
explained signicant amounts of the variance in creative effort, F(8, 103) 2.36, p <.01. Next, we
entered the two-way interaction of team identication and inspirational motivation. The model, F(9,
102) 2.58, p <.05, and the interaction term, b.22, p <.05, were signicant. In Figure 2 we plotted
this interaction. Using the procedures described by Aiken and West (1991), we tested the simple slopes
for respondents with higher inspirational motivation (one standard deviation above the mean) and
respondents with lower inspirational motivation (one standard deviation below the mean) to determine
the nature of the team identication inspirational motivation interaction. While team identication
was not signicantly related to creative effort for lower inspirational motivation, b .25, t 1.63,
p .10, this relationship was signicant and positive for higher levels of leader inspirational
motivation, b.65, t 6.85, p <.001. The results thus supported Hypothesis 2.
Hypothesis 3 states that team identication has a stronger positive relationship with employees
creative effort when leader prototypicality is high. Results for the test of Hypothesis 3 are displayed in
Table 2. As the rst steps including the control variables and the main effects were consistent with those
reported for the previous hypothesis we discuss the two-way interactions relevant to Hypotheses 2 and
3 only. When we entered the two-way interaction of team identication and leader prototypicality, the
model, F(9, 102) 3.19, p <.01, and the interaction term, b .24, p <.05, were signicant. While
team identication was positively but not signicantly related to creative effort for respondents led by
less prototypical leaders, b.19, t 1.28, ns, this relationship was stronger and signicant for leaders
high in prototypicality, b.52, t 4.84, p <.001 (see Figure 3). These results supported Hypothesis 3.
The three-way interaction predicted in Hypothesis 4 implies that there may also be a two-way
interaction of inspirational motivation and prototypicality, and we also tested a model including this
interaction. When we entered the two-way interaction of leader inspirational motivation and
prototypicality, the model, F(9, 102) 3.44, p <.05, and the interaction term, b .30, p <.05, were
signicant. Consistent with the implications of Hypothesis 4, inspirational motivation was positively
related to creative effort only when leaders were high in prototypicality, b.46, t 4.20, p <.01, but
not when leaders were low in prototypicality, b .10, t .55, ns (see Figure 4).
Hypothesis 4 predicts that leader prototypicality moderates the interaction between team
identication and inspirational motivation, such that identication has a stronger positive relationship
Figure 2. Interaction of team identication and inspirational motivation on creative effort
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LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 973
with employees creative effort when both inspirational motivation and prototypicality are high. The
nal column of Table 2 provides the results with all two-way interaction terms included in the model. In
the nal step we added the three-way interaction term. The model was signicant, F(12, 99) 4.08,
p <.01, and explained an additional six per cent of the variance. The three-way interaction was
signicant, b .41, p <.05.
Hypothesis 4 postulated a priori differences in pairs of slopes, such that slopes at high levels of
inspirational motivation and leader prototypicality are different from any other combination of
inspirational motivation and leader prototypicality. To test this hypothesis accurately, we examined
whether slopes at high levels of inspirational motivation and leader prototypicality differed
signicantly from any other pair of slopes, using the slope difference test by Dawson and Richter
Figure 4. Interaction of inspirational motivation and leader prototypicality on creative effort
Figure 3. Interaction of team identication and leader prototypicality on creative effort
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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974 G. HIRST ET AL.
(2006). Slopes at high levels of both inspirational motivation and leader prototypicality differed
signicantly from any other pair of slopes (see Figure 5). The slopes differed when inspirational
motivation was high for varying conditions of leader prototypicality, t 3.29, p <.01. The slopes
differed when prototypicality was high for varying conditions of inspirational motivation, t 3.35,
p <.01. Finally, high conditions of both inspirational motivation and prototypicality were also
signicantly different from low conditions of both inspirational motivation and prototypicality,
t 2.90, p <.01.
Discussion
Recent creativity studies (e.g., Hirst, van Knippenberg, & Zhou, 2009; Taggar, 2002) have recognized
that individual creative behavior is often embedded in the context of a team and so a greater focus on
team-related variables will advance the creativity literature. Even so, individual team members
identication with the team, the psychological linkage between their team membership and their sense
of self and identity (Ashforth & Mael, 1989) has so far been a neglected element in the creativity
literature. We developed and tested a model in order to shed light on whether an individuals attraction
to their team is an important stimulus for creativity as well as examining leadership factors that may
strengthen this association. Consistent with predictions, identication was positively related to
individuals creative effort, which in turn predicted creative performance (Hypothesis 1). Extending
this social identity analysis of creative effort with insights fromthe social identity analysis of leadership
and analyses of transformational and charismatic leadership, we also identied two aspects of
leadership that independently (Hypotheses 2 and 3) and interactively (Hypothesis 4) bolster the
Figure 5. Three-way interaction of team identication, inspirational motivation, and leader prototypicality on
creative effort
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 975
relationship between identication and creative effortleader inspirational motivation and leader
team prototypicality.
These results testify to the viability and promise of a social identity analysis of creativity at work.
This analysis also nicely complements the personalitycontextual approaches that predominate the
creativity literature (Shalley, Zhou, & Oldham, 2004). Whereas personality and individual differences
are by denition stable and less malleable to contextual inuences, identication is by denition tied to
a specic team membership and may differ over time and situations. The study of identication thus
points to a different set of theoretical and practical considerations and implications that extend the
dominant person-contextual focus in creativity research in interesting and important ways.
Theoretical implications
While the creativity literature has sought to establish a consistent empirical link between intrinsic
motivation and creativity (e.g., Shin & Zhou, 2003; Tierney et al., 1999), other motivational resources
have been somewhat neglected and overlooked. This has hampered the development of a more
complete understanding of the different types of motivation that may facilitate creativity. For example,
while Eisenberger and Rhoades (2001) illustrated extrinsic rewards may actually be benecial to
creativity, fewsubsequent theoretical or empirical pieces have latched onto the potential signicance of
these results. The present study extends this investigation into different motivational processes,
illustrating that the way in which one sees oneself is also an important motivational driver for
creativity. This means that individuals invest effort and develop creative solutions not because they
necessarily enjoy the task (i.e., are intrinsically motivated) but because they see the group as an
important part of their self-concept and so invest creative effort, striving to achieve group goals.
The actions of crew members led by the explorer, Ernest Schackleton illustrate this point in practice
(see Simon, 2007). Having attempted to circumnavigate the Antartic, the expeditions boat became
embedded ice, and was crushed by glacial movements leaving the crew stranded on ice with no visible
means of escape. This necessitated much creativity adapting to this predicament. An often remarked
characteristic of the group was the strong sense of identity and a willingness to try newthings including
sacricing ones own safety to develop creative solutions to problems. This resolve was tested when a
smaller contingent, who went ahead to nd help, found themselves at the summit of a South Georgia
glacier, 4500 feet above sea level. As night approached temperatures began to plummet and it became
apparent they were vulnerable to freezing high altitude conditions and moreover delays would diminish
the larger parties chance of survival. In this circumstance highly committed team members decided
they were willing to risk their own safety to press on at a much accelerated rate. Team members created
a makeshift toboggan from50 feet of rope, held tightly onto each other, and slid some 2000 feet into the
darkness. This risky and creative move paid off. After a harrowing slide, they arrived safely at the
bottom. In reection it is clear that the creativity of these individuals is unlikely to be due to their
intrinsic interest in the task, rather a strong sense of camaraderie spurred them to invest cognitive effort
considering a wider range of possibilities than would be expected under normal circumstances,
ultimately resulting in the development of an extreme but also highly creative solution to the problemat
hand.
Consistent with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) the previous example and the results
indicate that identity-based regulation should also be considered an important potential antecedent for
the creative process. Thus, research and theory may be well placed to encourage the study of a greater
spectrum of motivational resources as stimulants of the creative process. These may for example
include the extent to which the individual perceives their actions are self-determined either due to an
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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976 G. HIRST ET AL.
intrinsic interest in the work or an inclination stemming from their sense of professional or collective
identity.
By and large creativity researchers have concluded that supervisors play an important role in
facilitating and promoting employee creativity (Shalley et al., 2004) and that follower personality and
values may enhance the links between leader behavior and employee creativity (George & Zhou, 2001;
Shin & Zhou, 2003). The research of Shin and Zhou (2003) in particular sign-posts the importance of
studying leader behavior in concert with follower perceptions and beliefs. We extend this perspective
by showing that the same reasoning may apply to leaders role in mobilizing the potential inherent in
follower identication, and highlighting the role of two aspects of leadership that follow from this
social identity analysisleader inspirational motivation and leader team prototypicality.
We theorized that leader team prototypicality would encourage highly identifying employees to be
open to their inuence and so encourage themto invest greater effort. The social identity analysis in this
respect identies not only leader team prototypicality, but also leader team-oriented behavioracts of
leadership that serve the team, such as leader self-sacrice on behalf of the collective (van Knippenberg
& van Knippenberg, 2005)as an important determinant of highly identifying employees openness to
leader inuence (van Knippenberg & Hogg, 2003). Accordingly, future research might also explore the
role of leader team-oriented behavior in mobilizing the creative potential inherent in team member
identication.
Issues of creativity set aside, the present ndings are also relevant to leadership research. First, the
current focus on the interplay of leader and follower characteristics is consistent with a plea for more
balanced, less leader-centric approaches to leadership in the broader leadership research (cf. Howell &
Shamir, 2005). Supporting Howell and Shamirs (2005) theorizing, the results show that the
effectiveness of leaders inuence attempts depends on followers identication (see also Ullrich,
Christ, & van Dick, 2009). In that sense, the present ndings may be interpreted as testifying to the
validity of the argument advanced by Howell and Shamir and others. Second, by studying the
interactive effect of inspirational motivation as an aspect of transformational leadership and leader
team prototypicality, we integrate insights from transformational leadership research and social
identity research. As van Knippenberg and Hogg (2003) argue, there are important points where social
identity analyses of leadership and theories of charismatic and transformational leadership meet, but
the empirical studies to explore the potential for integration (as well as differentiation) have hardly
been undertaken (cf. van Knippenberg & van Knippenberg, 2005). The current ndings for the
interactive effect of leader inspirational motivation and leader team prototypicality testify to the value
of integrating these approaches to leadership.
Practical implications
As the team seems to be where organizational behavior primarily takes place (Riketta & van Dick,
2005; van Knippenberg & van Schie, 2000), and organizations themselves may, from a social
psychological perspective, be viewed as social groups, the relevance of the social identity approach to
the study of organizational behavior is readily apparent (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Dutton et al., 1994;
Haslam et al., 2003; Hogg & Terry, 2000). This approach substantially extends the existing creativity
literature. Creativity research (e.g., George & Zhou, 2001; Zhou, 2003) has sought to identify
personality characteristics that distinguish creative individuals and to identify contextual inuences
that enhance the creativity of these individuals. The focus on individual differences suggests that some
but not others are more pre-disposed to creative behaviors, and that it may be difcult to change this.
Unfortunately, not all organizations have the opportunity to recruit and select individuals solely
according to a set of desirable characteristics. Furthermore, hi-tech or entrepreneurial organizations
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 977
may need all employees to display some degree of creativity. The study of employees self-concept
addresses this challenge. The way we see ourselves and our sense of belonging to a particular team is
likely to be relatively changeable and amenable to the inuences of the team. Research has reliably
found it is possible to increase the identication of individuals to focal teams by emphasizing the teams
distinctiveness, comparing in-groups with out-groups, or more generally by rendering the social
context salient (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Dutton et al., 1994; van Dick, Wagner, Stellmacher, & Christ,
2005). All these actions increase identication and, as our data show, in turn promote creative effort and
creative performance.
Our ndings also illustrate that leaders mobilize the creativity-motivating potential inherent in
identication by engaging in inspirational motivation and by conveying an image of team
prototypicality. Field experiments show that transformational leadership (e.g., inspirational
motivation) can be developed (Barling, Weber, & Kelloway, 1996). Moreover, anecdotal evidence
also suggests that leaders may to some extent inuence the extent to which they are perceived as team
prototypical (Reicher & Hopkins, 2003; van Knippenberg & Hogg, 2003). This suggests that
organizations may not only increase the chances of harvesting the creative potential in identication by
selecting transformational leaders who are representative of the organizational identity but also by
leadership development programs that enhance leaders inspirational motivation skills and their ability
to convey an image of team prototypicality.
Limitations and future directions
Our study has a few limitations that should be considered. First and foremost perhaps, we should
recognize that our analysis revolves around the motivation to undertake creative efforts. While
motivation is clearly of great importance to creativity (Amabile, 1983, 1988; Zhou & Shalley, 2008), it
is not the only inuence on creativity, and our analysis has no claims to cover all relevant factors that
impact creativity. It is a motivational analysis, and does not claim to be more. Many scholars have
argued that a comprehensive study of the antecedents of employee creativity must include not only
motivation, but also skills and experience (e.g., Amabile, 1983; Woodman, Sawyer, & Grifn, 1993).
Thus, we would expect the impact of identication on individual creativity to be stronger when the
interaction of these factors is taken into account.
As R&D employees are charged with the development of creative solutions to applied problems we
assumed creativity would be important for employees in these teams. Nonetheless we did not assess
whether the individuals work required creativity or whether team norms or identity encouraged
creativity. Future research may thus bolster the condence in our conclusions by including such
measures and shedding more light on the specic processes occurring. In other contexts where teams
engage in more routine tasks, creativity will be less critical to task performance and the teams success.
As a consequence the association between identication and creativity as well as creative effort may
depend on whether team norms encourage creativity and innovation. Thus, while contextual inuences,
and particularly those extrinsic to the team, encourage creative outcomes in the R&D context, in more
routine settings this link may be established only when team norms promote creativity. Accordingly,
the generalization and identication of boundary conditions of the current ndings to other work
contexts is an important avenue of investigation. Moreover there may be circumstances when self-
serving individual creative behavior works to the detriment of team creativity. In considering differing
creative behaviors, we should thus also be open to the possibility that at least certain forms of creativity,
e.g., computer hacking and fraud, are undesirable.
When measuring creative effort we asked employees to rate the extent to which employees sought
out new ideas and solutions to problems, while one of the items measuring creative performance
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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978 G. HIRST ET AL.
contained a similar item structure. Despite CFAs indicating the distinctiveness of the constructs, this is
a potential limitation of the research. While acknowledging this limitation, we also note that the choice
of respondent (i.e., employee vs. supervisor) inuences how the question is answered. A question
asking employees whether they try out new approaches can reasonably be interpreted as an indicator of
how much effort they intend to invest in these activities. A willingness to engage in the creative
activities does not necessarily deliver creative outcomes. On the other hand asking a separate observer,
like a supervisor, whether the individual has tried these new approaches can be reasonably interpreted
as an observable indicator of the extent of the individuals creative output.
While the collection of data from three different nations (US, UK, and Sweden), provided greater
condence in the generalizability of the ndings to other Anglo-European cultures, differing
organizational events occurred in the facilities and countries. For example one of the facilities was in an
expansionary phase, while others were reducing head-count. To some extent we sought to mitigate this
issue controlling for country and as well as division in separate analyses. This provided similar results
so that these differences could not be found to account for the results. The completion of the survey in
English by the Swedish respondents is a limitation of the research. The participating organization
preferred surveys in English because company communications and global research heads
communicated objectives and strategic initiatives in English and the Swedish sample displayed
high levels of English prociency. One further limitation (and a need for further research) concerns the
causality suggested in the ndings. Because the data used in this research are cross-sectional in nature,
evidence of causality through experimental studies (or approximations obtained in longitudinal studies)
is needed.
To conclude, the present study testies to the viability of a leadership and social identity approach to
understand employee creativity. It thus suggests that the application and extension of social identity
theory and research (e.g., Haslamet al., 2003; Hogg &Terry, 2000) may enrich the study of creativity at
work. This theory-driven research also seems of considerable practical value for a variety of creative
settings. By denition any work that involves groups engenders some degree of follower identication
and so ones identication with this group is an ever-present motivational lever which is changeable and
amenable to the inuence of the manager.
Author biographies
Giles Hirst is a Senior Lecturer at Monash University Faculty of Business and Economics, Australia.
He received his PhD. from the Melbourne Business School. His research interests include social
networks, cross-cultural and cross-level inuences on creativity. Prior to joining Monash, Giles was a
faculty member at the Aston Business School, UK.
Rolf van Dick is a Professor of Social Psychology at the Goethe-University Frankfurt (Germany). Prior
to his current position he was a Professor of Social Psychology and Organizational Behavior at Aston
Business School Birmingham (UK). He received his PhD in social psychology from Philipps-
University Marburg (Germany). His research interests center on the application of social identity
theory in organizational settings. Rolf served as Associate Editor of the European Journal of Work &
Organizational Psychology and is currently editor-in-chief of the British Journal of Management and
the Journal of Personnel Psychology. His work has been published in outlets including the Academy of
Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Organizational
Behavior, Journal of Vocational Behavior, and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 963982 (2009)
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LEADERSHIP AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 979
Daan van Knippenberg (PhD Leiden University, The Netherlands) is Professor of Organizational
Behavior at the Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
His research interests include leadership, work group diversity, group decision-making, creativity and
innovation, and social identity processes in organizations. He is an Associate Editor of Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes and Journal of Organizational Behavior.
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