Aluminum obtaining

The Bayer Process

Bauxite
The stages to obtain alumina
Milling
Desilication
Digestion
Clarification
Precipitation
Evaporation
Classification
Calcination

Milling
The bauxite is washed and crushed, reducing
the particle size and increasing the available
surface area for the digestion stage. Lime and
"spent liquor" (caustic soda returned from the
precipitation stage) are added at the mills to
make a pumpable slurry.
Desilication
Bauxites that have high levels of silica (SiO
2
)
go through a process to remove this impurity.
Silica can cause problems with scale formation
and quality of the final product.
Digestion
A hot caustic soda (NaOH) solution is used to
dissolve the aluminium-bearing minerals in
the bauxite (gibbsite, bhmite and diaspore)
to form a sodium aluminate supersaturated
solution or pregnant liquor.
Gibbsite:
Al(OH)
3
+ Na
+
+ OH
-
Al(OH)
4
-
+ Na
+

Bhmite and Diaspore:
AlO(OH) + Na
+
+ OH
-
+ H
2
O Al(OH)
4
-
+ Na
+


Digestion
Conditions within the digester (caustic
concentration, temperature and pressure) are set
according to the properties of the bauxite ore.
Ores with a high gibbsite content can be
processed at 140C
Bhmitic bauxites require temperatures between
200C - 280C.
At 240C the pressure is approximately 3.5 MPa.

Digestion
The slurry is then cooled in a series of flash tanks to
around 106C at atmospheric pressure and by flashing
off steam.
This steam is used to preheat spent liquor.
In some high temperature digestion refineries, higher
quality bauxite (trihydrate) is injected into the flash
train to boost production.
Although higher temperatures are often theoretically
advantageous, there are several potential
disadvantages, including the possibility of oxides other
than alumina dissolving into the caustic liquor.

Clarification
The first stage is to separate the solids (bauxite
residue) from the pregnant liquor via
sedimentation.
Chemical additives (flocculants) are added to
assist the sedimentation process.
The bauxite residue sinks to the bottom of the
settling tanks, then is transferred to the washing
tanks, where it undergoes a series of washing
stages to recover the caustic soda (which is reused
in the digestion process).

Clarification
Further separation of the pregnant liquor
from the bauxite residue is performed utilizing
a series of security filters. The purpose of the
security filters is to ensure that the final
product is not contaminated with impurities
present in the residue.

Precipitation
The alumina is recovered by crystallization from the
pregnant liquor, which is supersaturated in sodium
aluminate.
The crystallization process is driven by progressive
cooling of the pregnant liquor, resulting in the
formation of small crystals of aluminium trihydroxite
Al(OH)
3
, which then grow and agglomerate to form
larger crystals. The precipitation reaction is the reverse
of the gibbsite dissolution reaction in the digestion
stage:
Al(OH)
4
-
+ Na
+
Al(OH)
3
+ Na
+
+ OH
-


Evaporation
The spent liquor is heated through a series of
heat exchangers and subsequently cooled in a
series of flash tanks.
The condensate formed in the heaters is re-
used in the process, for instance as boiler feed
water or for washing bauxite residue.
The remaining caustic soda is washed and
recycled back into the digestion process.

Classification
The crystals formed in precipitation are classified
into size ranges. This is normally done using
cyclones or gravity classification tanks
The coarse size crystals are destined for calcination
after being separated from spent liquor utilizing
vacuum filtration, where the solids are washed
with hot water.
The fine crystals, after being washed to remove
organic impurities, are returned to the
precipitation stage as fine seed to be
agglomerated.
Calcination
The filter cake is fed into calciners where they are
roasted at temperatures of up to 1100C to drive off
free moisture and chemically-connected water,
producing alumina solids. There are different
calcination technologies in use, including gas
suspension calciners, fluidized bed calciners and rotary
kilns.
The following equation describes the calcination
reaction:
2Al(OH)
3
Al
2
O
3
+ 3H
2
O
Alumina, a white powder, is the product of this step
and the final product of the Bayer Process

Aluminum obtaining
The Hall-Heroult process
What is it?
Cryolite Na
3
Al F
6
sodium hexafluoroaluminate
MP 1000 C
Electrochemical
process to
reduce alumina
to aluminum by
electrolysis
The chemical reaction
Na
3
Al F
6
+ 2Al
2
O
3
+ 3C 4Al + 3CO
2
+ 3NaF +HF

Alumina is dissolved in a molten fluoride solvent
called cryolite (electrolysis)
ELECTRICAL WORK IN
NEEDED:
I = 200 - 400 kA
E 4 V
T = 950C
The process
The process
Direct chill casting process
Vertical semi- Continuous casting process used
for fabrication cylindrical billets or rectangular
ingots/blooms from non-ferrous metals such as
Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium
alloys.
The Direct Chill (DC) cast ingots are further
processed by either Extrusion, Rolling or Forging
technologies.



Designs of the Direct Chill (DC) molds
There are two principal designs of the Direct Chill (DC) casting
mold:
Float controlled melt flow (conventional design)
Hot top design
Direct chill casting process
Solidification of the Direct Chill cast metal starts in the water-
cooled mold.
The melt flows into the mold cavity through a trough and a
vertical downspout (nozzle).
The melt flow is controlled by a floating valve increasing the
outlet opening of the spout when the melt level goes down or
decreasing it when the melt level goes up.
The mold made of aluminum or copper alloys has holes
arranged along its bottom end.
Water jets flowing from the holes onto the surface of the
emerging ingot provide its direct chilling and solidification.





Direct chill casting process
Most of heat (about 80%) is extracted by the
secondary cooling (Direct Chill) and only 20%
is removed by heat transfer through the mold
wall.
The mold forms a solid shell of the ingot
containing a pool of liquid metal. It solidifies
and cools down in the zone of the secondary
cooling.
The liquid metal pool depth is about 8-20
(200-500 mm).
The advantages of the hot top design:

Flow control is not required,
The melt is protected from
oxidation
Reduces heat losses
Direct Chill (DC) casting in
Electromagnetic mold

Electromagnetic mold uses an alternating electromagnetic
field generated by the mold itself for repealing the liquid
metal from the mold wall.
The mold presents one-loop induction coil (inductor)
connected to an AC generator
The alternating current flowing through the inductor induces
eddy currents in the melt. The eddy currents interact with the
magnetic field generated by the inductor.
Lorenz forces produced as a result of such interaction hold the
melt apart from the mold wall.



Direct Chill (DC) casting in
Electromagnetic mold
The main advantages of the Direct Chill (DC) casting
in electromagnetic mold:

Good surface quality due to the absence of direct
contact and friction between the ingot and mold
surfaces.
Fine Grain structure due to
1. The fast cooling provided by the direct chilling only
(without heat transfer through the mold wall);
2. The melt agitation produced by the electromagnetic
forces.

Direct Chill (DC) casting in
Electromagnetic mold
Aluminum
Engineering Material
Commercialy pure aluminum
Only Oxigen and silicon (as sand) is more
abundant.
Light and ductile. = 2700 Kg/m
3
; Iron = 7870
Kg/m
3
melts at 660 C
Aluminum that has been heated just below the
MP and allowed to cool down slowly (annealed)
is light, not very strong, soft.
If it is mechanical deformed at room temp
becomes harder and less ductile (work hardened)
Strong affinity for Oxigen. At room
temperature it instantaneously forms a thin
layer of surface oxide.
It is only a few atoms thick but this surface
layer is very stable and provides good
protection against chemical attack.
This surface oxide is amorphous but upon
heating (550 C) it begins to crystallize
Commercialy pure aluminum
This ceramic is brittle and has a very high melting point: 1773 C
Structure
The slip of one raft of atoms over a
neightboure raft is the mechanism by
which a crystal can change its shape. If
sufficient force is applied occurs plastic
deformation
The plane in which slip occurs is determined
by the geometry of the crystal structure.
Crystal planes and crystal directions may be
defined in terms of the Miller indices.
Deformation by slip in aluminum mostly occurs on [111] planes and
along [110] planes
Solid solutions
Normally aluminum contains at least small
amounts of impurities or deliberate amounts
of alloying elements.
Solid solutions
In a solid solution a foreign atom replaces an
aluminum atom.
These are called solute atoms. These atoms
are different in size.
The solute atoms induce distortion in the
aluminum lattice.
The distortion has a controlling effect in how
the solution (alloy) response to heat
treatments and to mechanical working
Point defects
vacancies
The equilibrium concentration of vacancies is very temperature
dependant.
If a sample of aluminum is rapidly cooled, a high non-equilibrium level of
vacancies can be retained in the structure. This has important implications
to the metallurgy of aluminum alloys
Nv = Equilibrium number of vacancies
N = Total number of atomic sites
Grain features of bulk aluminum and its alloys
In most situations where aluminum is processed,
the bulk material is composed of an agglomeration
of large number of crystals (grains).
As the liquid cools to the freezing point, small
crystals of solid start to grow within the liquid
The solid crystals grow at different rates in different
lattice directions.
In aluminum, as for all FCC materials, the preferred
grow directions are the cube [100] directions
The dendritic morphology
Dendritic branching
If the liquid contains dissolved solute atoms, this will not easily fit into the
growing crystal and therefore rejected into the surraunding liquid
(microsegregated).
The size of the dendrites are controlled by the conditions of freezing.
Plastic deformation
Assume a slab of commercially pure Al that has been annealed and
homogenized
The plastic deformation creates a multitude of dislocations, whose ability
to slip becomes more difficult from the resistance of other dislocations

Recrystallization
If the temperature of the slab is raised further, new strain free
crystals are nucleated (recrystallization) and the material
starts to soften.
Recrystallization
This process continues until the whole of the
material has recrystallized and soften
Grain growth
If fully recrystallized material is held at elevated temperatures
for a period of time, then the grains grow. Initially the growth
is reasonably uniform but later a small number of grains grow
freferentiallyand abnormally
Structural transformations in aluminum alloys
Aluminum alloys contain solute additions which affect grain structures
Strongly influences the responses to working and heat treatment
Slip is inhibited by grain boundaries (small grains improve strength)
Alejandro Villaseor
Omar Snchez
Alejandro Aguirre
Alejandro Garza
Alejandro Moreno

Figure 1: (a) main processing in a conventional aluminum alloy sheet and in its microstructure
evolution, in terms of (b) grain structure, (c) constituent particles and (d) texture.
Figure 2. Microstructure of alloy AlSi7Mg0.3Fe0.3 cast state: (a) thick intermetallic
phase and (b) fine intermetallic phase.
The additions of some elements such as Mn, Be, Cr and Co prevent the formation of
other phases forming intermetallic phases morphology. These phases of morphology
are less harmful to the mechanical properties of the material.
However, the contribution of the metal microaditions significantly increases the area
of the intermetallic phases, detrimental mechanical requirements to achieve high
effect. It is necessary, therefore, to optimize the amount of microaditions to add in
the metal.
a) b)
Where:
Rm: Tensile
Rp0, 2: Elastic Limit
A: Elongation at break
Q: Tensile Strength

Table 1: Mechanical properties of the alloys with different
microaditions.

BASIC TYPES OF
SWAGE
Planar Swage
Rotative swage


Aluminum is the second most used metal after
steel, including common engineering
applications in aerospace and automotive are
included. Aluminum is lighter than steel, good
thermal conductivity, not rust like steel,
among others.
Mechanisms to Strength the aluminum

The most common method is to strength the
aluminum metal working at elevated
temperatures (hot work) or at room
temperature (cold work).

The rolling process is one of the most
common methods for working metal blocks.
An aluminum block is pressed between two
rollers to produce an aluminum plate of given
thickness. The process causes microscopic
defects called dislocations. The more strength
and endurance
There is another process for the aluminum
working (hot working) called extrusion
process. A cylindrical block is hot and is
squeezed through a die that defines the shape
of the finished product, they are usually
rectangular, round or bar products.
Wrought Aluminum Alloys
Ana Victoria Espinoza
Karla Calderon
Karina Santillanes
Juan Pablo Ferreiro
Carlos Rodriguez
Marco Ortega
Alluminium Alloy Classifications
Heat-Treatable Alloy: An alloy that can be
heated during or after welding to restore its
strength properties. Copper is a common
heat-treatable alloy.
The initial strength of this alloys is achieved
with the alloying elements: Cu, Si, Mg and Zn
Heat treatment called precipitation hardening
Alluminium Alloy Classifications
Nonheat-Treatable Alloy: An alloy that relies primarily
on cold working to increase its strength properties.
Magnesium is a common nonheat-treatable alloy.
Cannot be stregthened by heat treatment
Ductile and moderately strong
Are used for manufacturing foil, tubes, wires, pressure
vessels
The initial stregth of this alloys is because of the effect
of the alloying elements: Mn, Si, Mg
Additional hardening of these alloys is done by cold
work



Heat treatment

The intermediate annealing to relieve stresses
caused by cold work is done at a temperature
of 343 C to 400 c. Heat treatable alloys are
cold worked better when they are in the state
of immersion hardened after heat treatment
(400 to 427 C 260 C heating-cooling).
There are 4 basic ways which aluminum can
be strengthened, these hardening processes
produce conditions that impede the
movement of dislocations.
Work hardening
Dispersion hardening
Solid solution hardening
Precipitation hardening

Work Hardening
It increase the strength of the metal
preventing that the dislocations on the metal
form a traffic jam. (cold work)
With non heat-treatable wrought alloys, cold
work is the only way of increasing strength.
With heat treatable alloy, cold work applied
after heat treating can increase strength still
further
Dispersion Hardening
With aluminum, dispersion-hardening may be
achieved in two ways:
by the addition of alloying elements that
combine chemically with the metal or each other to
form fine particles that precipitate from the matrix
by mixing particles of a suitable substance (for
example A1203) with powdered aluminum and then
compacting the mixture into a solid mass.
eg 3000 series

Solid Solution Hardening
Most aluminum alloys reflect some solid
solution hardening as a result of one or more
elements being dissolved in the aluminum
base, each element's contribution to the
strength of the alloy is roughly additive.
Usually these alloys are further strengthened
by heat treatment or by work hardening.
Common Alloys and Applications
* Most commonly used alloys; S = Sheet; P = Plate; E = Extrusions


Aluminum Alloy Designation System
Aluminum Association Inc., responsible in North
America.
Over 400 wrought aluminum alloys and over 200
cast aluminum alloys
Books:
International Alloy Designations and Chemical
Composition Limits for Wrought Aluminum and
Wrought Aluminum Alloys
Designations and Chemical Composition Limits
for Aluminum Alloys in the Form of Castings and
Ingot

Characteristics
Ability to respond to thermal and mechanical
treatment
Primary alloying element added
Wrought aluminum alloys 4 digit system
Cast aluminum alloys 3 digits and 1 decimal
place system

Alluminium Alloy Classifications
Wrought aluminum:An aluminum alloy, which
is rolled from an ingot or extruded from
customer-specified shapes.
Cast Alloy: An aluminum alloy that is poured
as a liquid into a mold and cooled into a solid
shape.
Wrought Alloy Designation System
First digit (Xxxx) indicates principal alloying
element, and is often used to describe the
aluminum series (1000 series, 2000 series, up
to 8000 series).
If second single digit is different from 0, it
indicates a modification of the specific alloy.
Third and fourth digits are arbitrary numbers
given to identify the specific alloy in the
series.
Example
Alloy 5183
5 magnesium alloy series
1 1
st
modification to the original alloy 5083
83 identifies it in the 5xxx series
Alloy
Series
Principal Alloying Element
1xxx 99.000% Minimum Aluminum
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other Elements
Only Exception
With 1xxx aluminum series (pure aluminum),
the last 2 digits provide the minimum
aluminum percentage above 99.00%.
Example:
Alloy 1350 (99.50% minimum aluminum)

Cast Alloy Designation
First digit (Xxx.x) indicates the principal alloying
element.
Second and third digits (xXX.x) are arbitrary
numbers given to identify a specific alloy in the
series.
Number following the decimal point indicates
whether the alloy is a casting (.0) or and ingot (.1
or .2).
A capital letter prefix indicates a modification to
the specific alloy.
Example
Alloy A356.0
A indicates modification of alloy 356.0
3 indicates that it is of the silicon plus
copper and/or magnesium series
56 identifies the alloy within the 3xx.x series
.0 indicates a final shape casting
Alloy
Series
Principal Alloying Element
1xx.x 99.000% minimum Aluminum
2xx.x Copper
3xx.x Silicon Plus Copper and/or Magnesium
4xx.x Silicon
5xx.x Magnesium
6xx.x Unused Series
7xx.x Zinc
8xx.x Tin
9xx.x Other Elements
Template designation
The designation of the template indicates the
treatment received alloy to reach their current
condition and properties. The temple is
indicated by the letters O (annealed), F (such
as manufactured), H (cold worked) or T.
Wrought aluminum alloys are divided into two
classes, hardened and reinforced only with
cold working and which owe their properties
improved by heat treatment.
Construction &
equipment
Cars

Cointainers &
others
Aeroespace
Bibliography
Aluminum Association. Understanding the Aluminum
Alloy Designation System. ESAB. 2014. Recovered on
09/02/2014 from:
http://www.esabna.com/us/en/education/knowledge/
qa/-Understanding-the-Aluminum-Alloy-Designation-
System.cfm
http://www.toolingu.com/definition-650310-78006-
cast-alloy.html
http://www.alueurope.eu/talat/lectures/1501.pdf
http://eng.sut.ac.th/metal/images/stories/pdf/02_Alu
minium%20and%20aluminium%20alloy.pdf


APPLICATIONS
Wrought aluminum alloys (Non-heat treatable)
Wrought aluminum alloys ( Heat treatable)
Cast aluminum alloys
Manuel Gonzlez
Karen Gonzlez
Cintia Ortega
Osvaldo
Wrought aluminum alloys

These are designated by a 4 digit number
t
A prefix is used to designate the standard
AA of the Aluminum Association or
EN AW for the European standard.
The second digit indicates alloy
modifications of an already existing alloy.
The third and fourth digits have different
meanings, depending on the first one:
For 1xxx series, the 3rd and 4th digits
indicate % of aluminum higher than
99.00%.
For the other series (2xxx to 8xxx) the 3rd
and 4th digits identify a specific alloy
without physical significance.
Wrought aluminum alloys
(non-heat treatable)
EN AW-1350 due to
the combination of
high electrical
conductivity and
sufficient strength.
EN AW-3104 sheet due
to the good formability
and the can end,
EN AW-5182 due to its
higher strength.
The can body
Wrought aluminum alloys
(non-heat treatable)
EN AW-3003 / ISO: Al Mn1Cu
Building industry: roofing
and sidings, acoustic
ceilings, corrugated sheets.
Chemical and food
industries: storage tanks,
pipes, metal work.
Equipment for heating
and cooling: heat
exchangers, air condition
evaporators, motor vehicle
radiators, freezer linings.
Home appliances:
cooking utensils, bakery
moulds, office equipment.
Tubing, piping. Packaging:
Wrought aluminum alloys
(heat treatable)
EN AW-2024 or 7475 or 6013
for fuselage due to good
fatigue resistance and fracture
toughness.

EN AW-7150 or 7449 or 7475
for upper wing skin due to
good fatigue resistance,
fracture toughness,
compressive strength and
stiffness

EN AW- 2024 for lower wing
skin due to good tensile
strength, fatigue resistance
Fuselage
Wrought aluminum alloys
(heat treatable)
EN AW-2017A / ISO: Al
Cu4MgSi(A)
High strength structural
components: aircraft,
machine construction,
military equipment, rivets
EN AW-2024 / ISO: Al Cu4Mg1
High strength fabricated or machined
items in aircraft industries, general
engineering, machinery, military
equipment, truck wheels. Screw
machine products. Structural
applications. Rivets.
The Minuteman missile transporter
Aircraft
Wrought aluminum alloys
(heat treatable)
5xxx or 6xxx series alloys due
to the good mechanical
properties and corrosion
resistance (especially the
5xxx series in marine
environment).
EN AW-5754 or 5182 or 6016
for inner body panels due to
the high strength and corrosion
resistanceand
EN AW-6016 for outer body
panels due to the higher
strength.
Car body panelling
Boat body panelling
Cast aluminum alloy
200 series
Principal alloying element:
CuIrons and cylinder
heads.
300 series
Principal alloying elements: Si, Cu and Mg.
Engine pistons, cylinder blocks and
automotive parts.
Cast aluminum alloy
400 series
Principal alloying element: Si
Cooking utensils and pump casings

European Aluminum Association, MATTER, University of Liverpool (2001-
2010) Recuperado el 11 de 012 de 2014 de
http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=214&pa
geid=2144417055#cable

European Aluminum Association, MATTER, University of Liverpool (2001-
2010) Recuperado el 11 de 012 de 2014 de
http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/aluselect/01_applications.asp

Key To Metals AG. (1999-2010) Recuperado el 11 de 012 de 2014 de
http://www.keytometals.com/article102.htm

Shercliff H. R. (Octubre 2001) Aluminum Alloys Recuperado el 11 de 012 de
2014 de
http://www3.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignOffice/cmiCD02_student/lecturenotes/20
01/1b/paper3/mat/notesI/1B2001P3MATL03E.pdf


Precipitation
Hardening
Discovery
The age hardening was
discovered on 1906 by
Alfred Wilm and his
assistant Jablonski after
finding out that one of
his measurements of
one test showed up a
significantly higher
hardness.
Introduction
The strength and hardness of some metal
alloys may be enhanced by the formation
of extremely small, uniformly dispersed
particles of a second phase within the
original phase matrix.

Phase transformations that are induced by
appropriate heat treatments.
The process is called precipitation hardening because the
small particles of the new phase are termed precipitates.
Age hardening is also used to designate this procedure
because the strength develops with time, or as the alloy
ages.
Mechanism of hardening
Precipitation hardening is commonly employed with high-strength
aluminum alloys. Although a large number of these alloys have
different proportions and combinations of alloying elements, the
mechanism of hardening has perhaps been studied most extensively for
the aluminumcopper alloys. (wt%=weight percent, at%=atomic
percent)
The phase is a substitutional solid solution of copper in
aluminum, whereas the intermetallic compound CuAl2 is
designated the phase.

For an aluminumcopper alloy of, say, composition 96 wt%
Al4 wt% Cu, in the development of this equilibrium phase
during the precipitation heat treatment, several transition
phases are first formed in a specific sequence.

The mechanical properties are influenced by the character
of the particles of these transition phases.
During the initial hardening stage, copper atoms cluster
together in very small, thin discs that are only one or
two atoms thick and approximately 25 atoms in
diameter; these form at countless positions within the
phase.

The clusters, sometimes called zones, are so small that
they are really not regarded as distinct precipitate
particles. However, with time and the subsequent
diffusion of copper atoms, zones become particles as
they increase in size.

These precipitate particles then pass through two
transition phases (denoted as and ) before the
formation of the equilibrium phase (Figure 11.44c).
The strengthening and hardening effects shown in Figure
11.42 result from the innumerable particles of these
transition and metastable phases. As shown in the figure,
maximum strength coincides with the formation of the
phase, which may be preserved upon cooling the alloy to
room temperature. Overaging results from continued particle
growth and the development of and phases.
The strengthening process is accelerated as the temperature
is increased. This is demonstrated in Figure 11.46a, a plot of
tensile strength versus the logarithm of time for a 2014
aluminum alloy at several different precipitation
temperatures. Ideally, temperature and time for the
precipitation heat treatment should be designed to produce
a hardness or strength in the vicinity of the maximum.
Associated with an increase in strength is a reduction in
ductility, which is demonstrated in Figure 11.46b for the
same 2014 aluminum alloy at the same temperatures.
Not all alloys that satisfy the
aforementioned conditions
relative to composition and
phase diagram configuration are
amenable to precipitation
hardening. In addition, lattice
strains must be established at the
precipitatematrix interface.
For aluminumcopper alloys,
there is a distortion of the crystal
lattice structure around and
within the vicinity of particles of
these transition phases (Figure
11.44b).
During plastic deformation, dislocation motions
are effectively impeded as a result of these
distortions, and, consequently, the alloy becomes
harder and stronger.

As the phase forms, the resultant overaging
(softening and weakening) is explained by a
reduction in the resistance to slip that is offered
by these precipitate particles.
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys are normally classified into
one of three groups:
wrought non-heat treatable alloys
wrought heat treatable alloys
casting alloys.
The wrought heat treatable alloys can be
precipitation hardened to develop quite high
strength levels
These alloys include:
The 2XXX series (AlCu and AlCuMg)
The 6XXX series (AlMgSi)
The 7XXX series (AlZnMg and AlZn
MgCu)
The aluminumlithium alloys of the
8XXX alloy series.

The 2XXX and 7XXX alloys, which develop
the highest strength levels, are the main
alloys used for metallic airframe
components.

The process of strengthening by
precipitation hardening plays a critical
role in high strength aluminum alloys.
Precipitation hardening consists of
three steps:
Solution heat treating.
Rapidly quenching to a lower temperature.
Aging.
In solution heat treating, the alloy is heated
to a temperature that is high enough to put
the soluble alloying elements in solution.
After holding at the solution treating
temperature for some period of time, it is
quenched to a lower temperature (e.g.,
room temperature) to keep the alloying
elements trapped in solution.
During aging, the alloying elements
trapped in solution precipitate to form a
uniform distribution of very fine particles.
This fine distribution of precipitates
strengthens and hardens the alloy by
creating obstacles to dislocation
movement.

Some aluminum alloys will harden after a
few days at room temperature a process
called natural aging, while others are
artificially aged by heating to an
intermediate temperature.

Example
A portion of the magnesium-
aluminum phase diagram is
shown in Figure 12-10.
Suppose a Mg-8% Al alloy is
responsive to an age-hardening
heat treatment. Design a heat
treatment for the alloy.
Solution
Step 1: Solution-treat at a temperature between
the solvus and the eutectic to avoid hot
shortness. Thus, heat between 340C and 451C.
Step 2: Quench to room temperature fast enough
to prevent the precipitate phase from forming.
Step 3: Age at a temperature below the solvus,
that is, below 340C, to form a fine dispersion of
the phase.
Nonequilibrium
Forming Processes
Forging
Extrusion
Flat rolling
FLAT ROLLING
The production of aluminium flat rolled can be
schematically divided into 4 major steps
Hot strip production process
The most economic way is hot strip casting between
two rolls in a so called twin roll caster with an exit
thickness between 6 and 3 mm at low speed. Used for
pure aluminium or low alloy aluminium.
Strip Rolling
The strip is heated up to 100C during each pass and
large quantities of coolant have to be poured over the
rolls to keep a thermal equilibrium. After each of the
three to four passes, the coil have to be cooled down
to room temperature for several hours.
Thin-Strip and foil rolling
The thin strip rolling mills used for the production of
can stock provide extremley narrow strip gauge and
flatness tolerance.
The finished foil typically consists of a shiny and a matt
side. Foil rolling is an specific aluminium process.
Material thickness 5 or 6 m.


Aluminium strip and foil has to be supplied on
spools specifically tailored to the downstream
production processes. High-speed slitting and
winding machines with very accurate slitting
geometries have been developed for this
purpose.
Slitting operation
EXTRUSION
Aluminum extrusion is a technique used to
transform aluminum alloy into objects with
definitive cross-sectional profile for a wide
range of uses.
Once the desired shape for the finished profile has been
developed and the appropriate aluminum alloy selected, an
extrusion die, and associated tooling, is produced. The
aluminum billet and extrusion tools are preheated. During
extrusion, the billet is still solid, but has been softened in a
furnace. Extrusion operations typically take place with billet
heated to temperatures in excess of 700F (375C), and
depending upon the alloy being extruded as high as 930F
(500C).

The actual extrusion process begins when the press
ram starts applying pressure to the billet within a
container. As pressure is applied, the billet is first
crushed against the die, becoming shorter and wider
until its expansion is restricted by the container
walls.

Then, as the pressure increases, the soft (but
still solid) aluminum has no place else to go
and begins to squeeze out through the shaped
die to emerge on the other side as a fully
formed profile.
Aerospace Applications
Products include extruded rods, bars, tubes
and other shapes for airplane wings,
fuselages, seat tracks and other aerospace
components.
Aluminum Forging
Forging
Forging is a manufacturing process in which
metal is pressed, pounded, or squeezed under
great pressure into high-strength parts.
Aluminum Forging
The three basic types of aluminum alloy
forgings are:
1. Open-die forgings
2. Closed-die forgings
3. Rolled rings
Open-Die Forging
The work component is not completely
confined as it is being shaped by the dies. This
process is commonly associated with large
parts such as shafts, sleeves, and disks.
Open-Die Forging
Metals are worked above their
recrystallization temperatures.
Since the process requires repeated changes
in work piece positioning, the work piece
cools below its hot-working or recrystallization
temperature. It then must be reheated before
forging can continue.
Closed-Die/Impression-Die
Two dies are brought together and the work
piece undergoes plastic deformation until its
enlarged sides touch the die side walls.
Closed-Die/Impression-Die
Some material flows outside the die
impression, forming flash. The flash cools
rapidly and presents increased resistance to
deformation, effectively becoming part of the
tool. This builds pressure inside the bulk of the
work piece, aiding material flow into unfilled
impressions.
Ring Rolling
A preform is heated to forging temperature
and placed over the internal roll of the rolling
machine. Pressure is applied to the wall by the
main roll as the ring rotates. The cross-
sectional area is reduced as the inner and
outer diameters are expanded.