Nature of Penetrating Radiation

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin. X-rays are produced
by an x-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms.
They are both part of theelectromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms, as are
light rays, microwaves, and radio waves. X-rays and gamma rays cannot been
seen, felt, or heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not
influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will generally travel in straight
lines. However, they can be diffracted (bent) in a manner similar to light.
Both X-rays and gamma rays can be characterized by frequency, wavelength, and
velocity. However, they act somewhat like a particle at times in that they occur as
small "packets" of energy and are referred to as "photons." Due to their short
wavelength they have more energy to pass through matter than do the other forms
of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through matter, they are
scattered and absorbed and the degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter
and the energy of the rays.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
They can be diffracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different
materials.
They pass through matter until they have a chance encounter with an atomic
particle.
Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are
traveling through.
They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living
cells.
X-Radiation

X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced in
parcels of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic processes that
can produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and is a German term meaning
"braking radiation." The other is called K-shell emission. They can both occur in the heavy
atoms of tungsten. Tungsten is often the material chosen for the target or anode of the x-ray
tube.
Both ways of making X-rays involve a change in the state of electrons. However,
Bremsstrahlung is easier to understand using the classical idea that radiation is emitted when
the velocity of the electron shot at the tungsten changes. The negatively charged electron
slows down after swinging around the nucleus of a positively charged tungsten atom. This
energy loss produces X-radiation. Electrons are scattered elastically and inelastically by the
positively charged nucleus. The inelastically scattered electron loses energy, which appears
as Bremsstrahlung. Elastically scattered electrons (which include backscattered electrons) are
generally scattered through larger angles. In the interaction, many photons of different
wavelengths are produced, but none of the photons have more energy than the electron had to
begin with. After emitting the spectrum of X-ray radiation, the original electron is slowed
down or stopped.
Bremsstrahlung Radiation
X-ray tubes produce x-ray photons by
accelerating a stream of electrons to energies
of several hundred kilovolts with velocities of
several hundred kilometers per hour and
colliding them into a heavy target material.
The abrupt acceleration of the charged
particles (electrons) produces Bremsstrahlung
photons. X-ray radiation with a continuous
spectrum of energies is produced with a range
from a few keV to a maximum of the energy
of the electron beam. Target materials for
industrial tubes are typically tungsten, which
means that the wave functions of the bound
tungsten electrons are required. The inherent
filtration of an X-ray tube must be computed, which is controlled by the amount that the
electron penetrates into the surface of the target and by the type of vacuum window present.
The bremsstrahlung photons generated within the target material are attenuated as they pass
through typically 50 microns of target material. The beam is further attenuated by the
aluminum or beryllium vacuum window. The results are an elimination of the low energy
photons, 1 keV through l5 keV, and a significant reduction in the portion of the spectrum
from 15 keV through 50 keV. The spectrum from an x-ray tube is further modified by the
filtration caused by the selection of filters used in the setup.
The applet below allows the user to visualize an electron accelerating and interacting with a
heavy target material. The graph keeps a record of the bremsstrahlung photons numbers as a
function of energy. After a few events, the "building up" of the graph may be accomplished
by pressing the "automate" button.

K-shell Emission Radiation
Remember that atoms have their electrons arranged in
closed "shells" of different energies. The K-shell is the
lowest energy state of an atom. An incoming electron
can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it
out of its energy state. About 0.1% of the electrons
produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat. Then, a
tungsten electron of higher energy (from an outer shell)
can fall into the K-shell. The energy lost by the falling
electron shows up in an emitted x-ray photon.
Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the
vacated energy state in the outer shell, and so on. K-
shell emission produces higher-intensity x-rays than
Bremsstrahlung, and the x-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength.
When outer-shell electrons drop into inner shells, they emit a quantized photon
"characteristic" of the element. The energies of the characteristic X-rays produced are only
very weakly dependent on the chemical structure in which the atom is bound, indicating that
the non-bonding shells of atoms are the X-ray source. The resulting characteristic spectrum is
superimposed on the continuum as shown in the graphs below. An atom remains ionized for a
very short time (about 10
-14
second) and thus an atom can be repeatedly ionized by the
incident electrons which arrive about every 10
-12
second.


Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. Gamma rays are
electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays. The other two types of natural radioactivity
are alpha and beta radiation, which are in the form of particles. Gamma rays are
the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength
of less than one-tenth of a nanometer.
Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio of
neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be
stable or unstable. When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the
nucleus of an atom together, the atom is said to be unstable. Atoms with unstable
nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of energy within the
nucleus. Over time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or
transform, in a process known as radioactive decay. Various types of penetrating
radiation may be emitted from the nucleus and/or its surrounding electrons.
Nuclides which undergo radioactive decay are called radionuclides. Any material
which contains measurable amounts of one or more radionuclides is a radioactive
material.
Types Radiation Produced by Radioactive Decay
When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of
radiation with sufficient energy to ionize the atoms with which it interacts. Ionizing
radiation can consist of high speed subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus or
electromagnetic radiation (gamma-rays) emitted by either the nucleus or orbital
electrons.

Alpha Particles
Certain radionuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu239) decay by the
emission of alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two
neutrons and two protons each (He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge. Emission
of an alpha particle from the nucleus results in a decrease of two units of atomic
number (Z) and four units of mass number (A). Alpha particles are emitted with
discrete energies characteristic of the particular transformation from which they
originate. All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide transformation will
have identical energies.
Beta Particles
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through the
emission of a high speed electron called a beta particle. This results in a net change
of one unit of atomic number (Z). Beta particles have a negative charge and the
beta particles emitted by a specific radionuclide will range in energy from near
zero up to a maximum value, which is characteristic of the particular
transformation.
Gamma-rays
A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does
not alter the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect
of moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state (unstable to stable).
Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear
decay processes.

Activity (of Radionuclides)

The quantity which expresses the
degree of radioactivity or the radiation
producing potential of a given amount
of radioactive material is activity. The
curie was originally defined as that
amount of any radioactive material that
disintegrates at the same rate as one
gram of pure radium. The curie has
since been defined more precisely as a
quantity of radioactive material in
which 3.7 x 10
10
atoms disintegrate per
second. The International System (SI)
unit for activity is the Becquerel (Bq),
which is that quantity of radioactive
material in which one atom is
transformed per second. The radioactivity of a given amount of radioactive
material does not depend upon the mass of material present. For example, two one-
curie sources of Cs-137 might have very different masses depending upon the
relative proportion of non-radioactive atoms present in each source. Radioactivity
is expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume.
The concentration of radioactivity, or the relationship between the mass of
radioactive material and the activity, is called "specific activity." Specific activity
is expressed as the number of curies or becquerels per unit mass or volume. Each
gram of Cobalt-60 will contain approximately 50 curies. Iridium-192 will contain
350 curies for every gram of material. The shorter half-life, the less amount of
material that will be required to produce a given activity or curies. The higher
specific activity of Iridium results in physically smaller sources. This allows
technicians to place the source in closer proximity to the film while maintaining
geometric unsharpness requirements on the radiograph. These unsharpness
requirements may not be met if a source with a low specific activity were used at
similar source to film distances.

Isotope Decay Rate (Half-
Life)
Each radionuclide decays at its own
unique rate which cannot be altered by
any chemical or physical process. A
useful measure of this rate is the half-
life of the radionuclide. Half-life is
defined as the time required for the
activity of any particular radionuclide to decrease to one-half of its initial value. In
other words one-half of the atoms have reverted to a more stable state material.
Half-lives of radionuclides range from microseconds to billions of years. Half-life
of two widely used industrial isotopes are 74 days for Iridium-192, and 5.3 years
for Cobalt-60. More exacting calculations can be made for the half-life of these
materials, however, these times are commonly used.
The applet below offers an interactive representation of radioactive decay series.
The four series represented are Th232, Ir192, Co60, Ga75, and C14. Use the radio
buttons to select the series that you would like to study. Note that Carbon-14 is not
used in radiography, but is one of many useful radioactive isotopes used to
determine the age of fossils. If you are interested in learning more about Carbon-14
Dating, follow this link:Carbon-14 Dating.
The Sequence Info button displays a chart that depicts the path of the series with
atomic numbers indicated on the vertical axis on the left, and the number of
neutrons shown along the bottom. Colored arrows represent alpha and beta decays.
To return to the main user interface, click the "Dismiss" button.
Initially, a selected series contains all parent material, and the amount is
represented by a colored bar on a vertical logarithmic scale. Each line represents a
factor of ten. In order to step forward through the sequence by a specified number
of years, you may type the appropriate number into the "Time Step" field and hit
"Enter." A negative time step will backtrack through the sequence.
You may choose a step interval in years and progress through each step by
pressing the "Enter" key. The "Animate" button will automate the progress through
the series. You can either choose a time step before you animate or leave it at zero.
If the time step is left at zero, the system will choose time steps to optimize
viewing performance.

Ionization
As penetrating radiation moves from point to point in matter, it loses its energy
through various interactions with the atoms it encounters. The rate at which this
energy loss occurs depends upon the type and energy of the radiation and the
density and atomic composition of the matter through which it is passing.
The various types of penetrating radiation impart their energy to matter primarily
through excitation and ionization of orbital electrons. The term "excitation" is used
to describe an interaction where electrons acquire energy from a passing charged
particle but are not removed completely from their atom. Excited electrons may
subsequently emit energy in the form of x-rays during the process of returning to a
lower energy state. The term "ionization" refers to the complete removal of an
electron from an atom following the transfer of energy from a passing charged
particle. In describing the intensity of ionization, the term "specific ionization" is
often used. This is defined as the number of ion pairs formed per unit path length
for a given type of radiation.
Because of their double charge and
relatively slow velocity, alpha
particles have a high specific
ionization and a relatively short
range in matter (a few centimeters in
air and only fractions of a millimeter
in tissue). Beta particles have a much
lower specific ionization than alpha
particles and, generally, a greater
range. For example, the relatively
energetic beta particles from P32
have a maximum range of 7 meters
in air and 8 millimeters in tissue. The low energy betas from H3, on the other hand,
are stopped by only 6 millimeters of air or 6 micrometers of tissue.
Gamma-rays, x-rays, and neutrons are referred to as indirectly ionizing radiation
since, having no charge, they do not directly apply impulses to orbital electrons as
do alpha and beta particles. Electromagnetic radiation proceeds through matter
until there is a chance of interaction with a particle. If the particle is an electron, it
may receive enough energy to be ionized, whereupon it causes further ionization
by direct interactions with other electrons. As a result, indirectly ionizing radiation
(e.g. gamma, x-rays, and neutrons) can cause the liberation of directly ionizing
particles (electrons) deep inside a medium. Because these neutral radiations
undergo only chance encounters with matter, they do not have finite ranges, but
rather are attenuated in an exponential manner. In other words, a given gamma ray
has a definite probability of passing through any medium of any depth.
Neutrons lose energy in matter by collisions which transfer kinetic energy. This
process is called moderation and is most effective if the matter the neutrons collide
with has about the same mass as the neutron. Once slowed down to the same
average energy as the matter being interacted with (thermal energies), the neutrons
have a much greater chance of interacting with a nucleus. Such interactions can
result in material becoming radioactive or can cause radiation to be given off.

Newton's Inverse Square Law
Any point source which spreads its
influence equally in all directions
without a limit to its range will obey
the inverse square law. This comes
from strictly geometrical
considerations. The intensity of the
influence at any given radius (r) is the
source strength divided by the area of
the sphere. Being strictly geometric in
its origin, the inverse square law
applies to diverse phenomena. Point
sources of gravitational force, electric
field, light, sound, and radiation obey
the inverse square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation
source can be characterized by the diagram above whether you are talking
about Roentgens, rads, or rems. All measures of exposure will drop off by the
inverse square law. For example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch
from a source, the exposure will be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 inches.
The applet below shows a radioactive source. The distance to the green source is
shown below. You can also drag the little person and his Geiger counter around to
a distance of your choice. When the mouse button is released, a point is plotted on
the graph. The dosage the person receives at the particular distance is shown
numerically and graphically. The graph allows you to confirm Newton's Inverse
Square Law.
If the distance is too small, the dosage will be too high and our brave technician
will face severe medical effects. To clear the graph, select a new material, or the
same one again. Moving the mouse from the white area to the gray will turn off the
sound!

What dosage in mR/hr is considered safe? Better find out!
The red dosage lines represent 2, 5, and 100 mR/hr levels.
Exercise: Assume you are standing three feet from a a 15 Curie Cobalt-60 source.
How many mR/hr dosages are you getting?
Carbon-14 Dating

Radio-carbon dating is a method of obtaining age estimates on organic materials.
The word "estimates" is used because there is a significant amount of uncertainty
in these measurements. Each sample type has specific problems associated with its
use for dating purposes, including contamination and special environmental
effects. More information on the sources of error in carbon dating are presented at
the bottom of this page.
The method was developed immediately following World War II by Willard F.
Libby and coworkers and has provided age determinations in archeology, geology,
geophysics, and other branches of science. Radiocarbon dating estimates can be
obtained on wood, charcoal, marine and freshwater shells, bone and antler, and
peat and organic-bearing sediments. They can also be obtained from carbonate
deposits such as tufa, calcite, marl, dissolved carbon dioxide, and carbonates in
ocean, lake and groundwater sources.
Carbon dioxide is distributed on a worldwide basis into various atmospheric,
biospheric, and hydrospheric reservoirs on a time scale much shorter than its half-
life. Measurements have shown that in recent history, radiocarbon levels have
remained relatively constant in most of the biosphere due to the metabolic
processes in living organisms and the relatively rapid turnover of carbonates in
surface ocean waters. However, changes in the atmosphere over the ages are a source of
uncertainty in the measurements.
Carbon (C) has three naturally occurring isotopes. Both C-12 and C-13 are stable, but C-14
decays by very weak beta decay to nitrogen-14 with a half-life of approximately 5,730
years. Naturally occurring radiocarbon is produced as a secondary effect of cosmic-ray
bombardment of the upper atmosphere. Plants transpire to take in atmospheric carbon, which
is the beginning of absorption of carbon into the food chain. Animals eat the plants and this
action introduces carbon into their bodies.
After the organism dies, carbon-14 continues to decay without being replaced. To
measure the amount of radiocarbon left in a artifact, scientists burn a small piece to
convert it into carbon dioxide gas. Radiation counters are used to detect the
electrons given off by decaying C-14 as it turns into nitrogen. The amount of C-14
is compared to the amount of C-12, the stable form of carbon, to determine how
much radiocarbon has decayed, thereby dating the artifact.
Exponential Decay Formula: A = A
0
* 2^(-t/k)
Where "A" is the present amount of the radioactive isotope, "A
0
" is the original
amount of the radioactive isotope that is measured in the same units as "A." The
value "t" is the time it takes to reduce the original amount of the isotope to the
present amount, and "k" is the half-life of the isotope, measured in the same units
as "t."
The applet allows you to choose the C-14 to C-12 ratio, then calculates the age of
our skull from the formula above.

Uncertainty in Carbon Dating
As mentioned above, there is significant uncertainty in carbon dating. There are several
variables that contribute to this uncertainty. First, as mentioned previously, the proportions of
C-14 in the atmosphere in historic times is unknown. The C-14:C-12 atmospheric ratio
is known to vary over time and it is not at all certain that the curve is well behaved.
Complicating things further, various plants have differing abilities to exclude significant
proportions of the C-14 in their intake. This varies with environmental conditions as
well. The varying rates at which C-14 is excluded in plants also means that the apparent age
of a living animal may be affected by an animals diet. An animal that ingested plants
with relatively low C-14 proportions would be dated older than their true age.
Attempts are often made to index C-14 proportions using samples of know age. While this
may be useful to eliminate the uncertainty of atmospheric proportions of C-14, it
does not compensate for local conditions such as which plant species are in the diet. The
uncertainty in the measurement leads some to conclude that the method is far less predictive
of age than is commonly supposed, especially for older samples.
Isotope Decay Rate (Half-
Life)
Each radionuclide decays at its own
unique rate which cannot be altered by
any chemical or physical process. A
useful measure of this rate is the half-
life of the radionuclide. Half-life is
defined as the time required for the
activity of any particular radionuclide
to decrease to one-half of its initial
value. In other words one-half of the
atoms have reverted to a more stable state material. Half-lives of radionuclides
range from microseconds to billions of years. Half-life of two widely used
industrial isotopes are 74 days for Iridium-192, and 5.3 years for Cobalt-60. More
exacting calculations can be made for the half-life of these materials, however,
these times are commonly used.
The applet below offers an interactive representation of radioactive decay series.
The four series represented are Th232, Ir192, Co60, Ga75, and C14. Use the radio
buttons to select the series that you would like to study. Note that Carbon-14 is not
used in radiography, but is one of many useful radioactive isotopes used to
determine the age of fossils. If you are interested in learning more about Carbon-14
Dating, follow this link:Carbon-14 Dating.
The Sequence Info button displays a chart that depicts the path of the series with
atomic numbers indicated on the vertical axis on the left, and the number of
neutrons shown along the bottom. Colored arrows represent alpha and beta decays.
To return to the main user interface, click the "Dismiss" button.
Initially, a selected series contains all parent material, and the amount is
represented by a colored bar on a vertical logarithmic scale. Each line represents a
factor of ten. In order to step forward through the sequence by a specified number
of years, you may type the appropriate number into the "Time Step" field and hit
"Enter." A negative time step will backtrack through the sequence.
You may choose a step interval in years and progress through each step by
pressing the "Enter" key. The "Animate" button will automate the progress through
the series. You can either choose a time step before you animate or leave it at zero.
If the time step is left at zero, the system will choose time steps to optimize
viewing performance.

Interaction Between Penetrating Radiation
and Matter
When x-rays or gamma rays are directed into an
object, some of the photons interact with the
particles of the matter and their energy can be
absorbed or scattered. This absorption and
scattering is called attenuation. Other photons
travel completely through the object without
interacting with any of the material's particles.
The number of photons transmitted through a
material depends on the thickness, density and
atomic number of the material, and the energy
of the individual photons.
Even when they have the same energy, photons
travel different distances within a material
simply based on the probability of their
encounter with one or more of the particles of
the matter and the type of encounter that
occurs. Since the probability of an encounter
increases with the distance traveled, the number
of photons reaching a specific point within the
matter decreases exponentially with distance
traveled. As shown in the graphic to the right,
if 1000 photons are aimed at ten 1 cm layers of
a material and there is a 10% chance of a
photon being attenuated in this layer, then there
will be 100 photons attenuated. This leave 900
photos to travel into the next layer where 10%
of these photos will be attenuated. By
continuing this progression, the exponential
shape of the curve becomes apparent.









The formula that describes this curve is:

The factor that indicates how much attenuation will take place per cm (10% in this
example) is known as the linear attenuation coefficient, m. The above equation
and the linear attenuation coefficient will be discussed in more detail on the
following page.
Transmitted Intensity and
Linear Attenuation Coefficient
For a narrow beam of mono-energetic photons, the change in x-ray beam intensity
at some distance in a material can be expressed in the form of an equation as:

Where: dI = the change in intensity
I = the initial intensity
n = the number of atoms/cm
3

s =
a proportionality constant that reflects the total probability of a
photon being scattered or absorbed
dx = the incremental thickness of material traversed
When this equation is integrated, it becomes:

The number of atoms/cm
3
(n) and the proportionality constant (s) are usually
combined to yield the linear attenuation coefficient (m). Therefore the equation
becomes:

Where: I = the intensity of photons transmitted across some distance x
I
0
= the initial intensity of photons
s =
a proportionality constant that reflects the total probability of a
photon being scattered or absorbed
m = the linear attenuation coefficient
x = distance traveled
The Linear Attenuation Coefficient (m)
The linear attenuation coefficient (m) describes the fraction of a beam of x-rays or
gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the absorber. This
value basically accounts for the number of atoms in a cubic cm volume of material
and the probability of a photon being scattered or absorbed from the nucleus or an
electron of one of these atoms. The linear attenuation coefficients for a variety of
materials and x-ray energies are available in various reference books.
Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients can
be used to make a number of calculations. These include:
the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident
x-ray intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
the intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray
intensity, material, and material thickness are known.
the thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and
the material are known.
the material can be determined from the value of m when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.
Half-Value Layer
The thickness of any given material
where 50% of the incident energy
has been attenuated is know as the
half-value layer (HVL). The HVL is
expressed in units of distance (mm
or cm). Like the attenuation
coefficient, it is photon energy
dependant. Increasing the
penetrating energy of a stream of
photons will result in an increase in
a material's HVL.
The HVL is inversely proportional
to the attenuation coefficient. If an
incident energy of 1 and a
transmitted energy is 0.5 is plugged
into the equation introduced on the preceding page, it can be seen that the
HVL multiplied by m must equal 0.693.


If x is the HVL then m times HVL must equal 0.693 (since the number
0.693 is the exponent value that gives a value of 0.5).
Therefore, the HVL and m are related as follows:

The HVL is often used in
radiography simply because it is
easier to remember values and
perform simple calculations. In a
shielding calculation, such as
illustrated to the right, it can be seen
that if the thickness of one HVL is
known, it is possible to quickly
determine how much material is
needed to reduce the intensity to less
than 1%.



Approximate HVL for Various
Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma Source
Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)
Source Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
Iridium-192 44.5 (1.75) 12.7 (0.5) 4.8 (0.19) 3.3 (0.13) 2.8 (0.11)
Cobalt-60 60.5 (2.38) 21.6 (0.85) 12.5 (0.49) 7.9 (0.31) 6.9 (0.27)
Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is
from an X-ray Source
Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)
Peak Voltage (kVp) Lead Concrete
50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)
100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595)
150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879)
200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984)
250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102)
300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21 (1.229)
400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299)
1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75)
Note: The values presented on this page are intended for educational
purposes. Other sources of information should be consulted when designing
shielding for radiation sources.
Sources of Attenuation
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating
radiation and matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event
between a primary x-ray photon and a particle of matter does not usually
result in the photon changing to some other form of energy and effectively
disappearing. Several interaction events are usually involved and the total
attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to different types of
interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect, scattering,
and pair production. The figure below shows an approximation of the total
absorption coefficient,(), in red, for iron plotted as a function of radiation
energy. The four radiation-matter interactions that contribute to the total
absorption are shown in black. The four types of interactions
are: photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C), pair production (PP),
andThomson or Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most industrial radiography
is done in the 0.1 to 1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the plot that
photoelectric and Compton scattering account for the majority of attenuation
encountered.

Summary of different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident
x-ray beam
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays
occurs when the x-ray photon is absorbed,
resulting in the ejection of electrons from
the outer shell of the atom, and hence the
ionization of the atom. Subsequently, the
ionized atom returns to the neutral state with
the emission of an x-ray characteristic of the
atom. This subsequent emission of lower energy photons is generally
absorbed and does not contribute to (or hinder) the image making process.
Photoelectron absorption is the dominant process for x-ray absorption up to
energies of about 500 KeV. Photoelectron absorption is also dominant for
atoms of high atomic numbers.
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the
incident x-ray photon is deflected from its
original path by an interaction with an
electron. The electron gains energy and is
ejected from its orbital position. The x-ray
photon loses energy due to the interaction
but continues to travel through the material
along an altered path. Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it,
therefore, has a longer wavelength than the incident photon. The event is
also known as incoherent scattering because the photon energy change
resulting from an interaction is not always orderly and consistent. The
energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the
scattering medium. Click here for more information on Compton scattering
and the relationship between the scatter angle and photon energy.
Pair production (PP) can occur
when the x-ray photon energy is
greater than 1.02 MeV, but really
only becomes significant at energies
around 10 MeV. Pair production
occurs when an electron and positron
are created with the annihilation of
the x-ray photon. Positrons are very short lived and disappear (positron
annihilation) with the formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy. Pair
production is of particular importance when high-energy photons pass
through materials of a high atomic number.
Below are other interaction phenomenon that can occur. Under special
circumstances these may need to be
considered, but are generally
negligible.
Thomson scattering (R), also known
as Rayleigh, coherent, or classical
scattering, occurs when the x-ray
photon interacts with the whole atom
so that the photon is scattered with no change in internal energy to the
scattering atom, nor to the x-ray photon. Thomson scattering is never more
than a minor contributor to the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs
without the loss of energy. Scattering is mainly in the forward direction.
Photodisintegration (PD) is the
process by which the x-ray
photon is captured by the nucleus
of the atom with the ejection of a
particle from the nucleus when
all the energy of the x-ray is
given to the nucleus. Because of the enormously high energies involved, this
process may be neglected for the energies of x-rays used in radiography.
Effect of Photon Energy on Attenuation
Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as the energy of the x-
ray is increased or decreased. Since attenuation characteristics of materials
are important in the development of contrast in a radiograph, an
understanding of the relationship between material thickness, absorption
properties, and photon energy is fundamental to producing a quality
radiograph. A radiograph with higher contrast will provide greater
probability of detection of a given discontinuity. An understanding of
absorption is also necessary when designing x-ray and gamma ray shielding,
cabinets, or exposure vaults.
The applet below can be used to investigate the effect that photon energy
has on the type of interaction that the photon is likely to have with a particle
of the material (shown in gray). Various materials and material thicknesses
may be selected and the x-ray energy can be set to produce a range from 1 to
199 KeV. Notice as various experiments are run with the applets that low
energy radiation produces predominately photoelectric events and higher
energy x-rays produce predominately Compton scattering events. Also
notice that if the energy is too low, none of the radiation penetrates the
material.

This second applet is similar to the one above except that the voltage (KVp)
for a typical generic x-ray tube source can be selected. The applet displays
the spectrum of photon energies (without any filtering) that the x-ray source
produces at the selected voltage. Pressing the "Emit X-ray" button will show
the interaction that will occur from one photon with an energy within the
spectrum. Pressing the "Auto" button will show the interactions from a
large number of photos with energies within the spectrum.

Compton Scattering
As mentioned on the previous page,
Compton scattering occurs when the
incident x-ray photon is deflected from its
original path by an interaction with an
electron. The electron is ejected from its
orbital position and the x-ray photon loses
energy because of the interaction but
continues to travel through the material along an altered path. Energy and
momentum are conserved in this process. The energy shift depends on the
angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering medium. Since the
scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it has a longer wavelength and less
penetrating than the incident photon.
Compton effect was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1923 and this
discovery led to his award of the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics. The
discovery is important because it demonstrates that light cannot be
explained purely as a wave phenomenon. Compton's work convinced the
scientific community that light can behave as a stream of particles (photons)
whose energy is proportional to the frequency.
The change in wavelength of the scattered photon is given by:

Where: l = wavelength of incident x-ray photon
l' = wavelength of scattered x-ray photon
h =
Planck's Constant: The fundamental constant equal to the ratio of
the energy E of a quantum of energy to its frequency v: E=hv.
m
e
= the mass of an electron at rest
c = the speed of light
q = The scattering angle of the scattered photon
The applet below demonstrates Compton scattering as calculated with the
Klein-Nishina formula, which provides an accurate prediction of the angular
distribution of x-rays and gamma-rays that are incident upon a single
electron. Before this formula was derived, the electron cross section had
been classically derived by the British physicist and discoverer of the
electron, J.J. Thomson. However, scattering experiments showed significant
deviations from the results predicted by Thomson's model. The Klein-
Nishina formula incorporates the Breit-Dirac recoil factor, R, also known as
radiation pressure. The formula also corrects for relativistic quantum
mechanics and takes into account the interaction of the spin and magnetic
moment of the electron with electromagnetic radiation. Quantum mechanics
is
a system of mechanics based on quantum theory to provide a consistent
explanation of both electromagnetic wave and atomic structure.
The applet shows that when a photon of a given energy hits an atom, it is
sometimes reflected in a different direction. At the same time, it loses
energy to an electron that is ejected from the atom. Theta is the angle
between the scattered photon direction and the path of the incident photon.
Phi is the angle between the scattered electron direction and the path of the
incident photon.

Geometric Unsharpness
Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of geometric factors of
the radiographic equipment and setup. It occurs because the radiation does not originate from
a single point but rather over an area. Consider the images below which show two sources of
different sizes, the paths of the radiation from each edge of the source to each edge of the
feature of the sample, the locations where this radiation will expose the film and the density
profile across the film. In the first image, the radiation originates at a very small source. Since
all of the radiation originates from basically the same point, very little geometric unsharpness
is produced in the image. In the second image, the source size is larger and the different paths
that the rays of radiation can take from their point of origin in the source causes the edges of
the notch to be less defined.

The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance, and
object to detector distance. The source size is obtained by referencing manufacturers
specifications for a given X-ray or gamma ray source. Industrial x-ray tubes often have focal
spot sizes of 1.5 mm squared but microfocus systems have spot sizes in the 30 micron range.
As the source size decreases, the geometric unsharpness also decreases. For a given size
source, the unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing the source to object distance, but
this comes with a reduction in radiation intensity.
The object to detector distance is usually kept as small as possible to help minimize
unsharpness. However, there are situations, such as when using geometric enlargement, when
the object is separated from the detector, which will reduce the definition. The applet below
allow the geometric unsharpness to be visualized as the source size, source to object distance,
and source to detector distance are varied. The area of varying density at the edge of a feature
that results due to geometric factors is called the penumbra. The penumbra is the gray area
seen in the applet.

Codes and standards used in industrial radiography
require that geometric unsharpness be limited. In general,
the allowable amount is 1/100 of the material
thickness up to a maximum of 0.040 inch. These values
refer to the degree of penumbra shadow in a radiographic
image. Since the penumbra is not nearly as well defined as
shown in the image to the right, it is difficult to measure it
in a radiograph. Therefore it is typically
calculated. The source size must be obtained from the
equipment manufacturer or measured. Then the
unsharpness can be calculated using measurements made
of the setup.
For the case, such as that shown to the right, where a
sample of significant thickness is placed adjacent to the
detector, the
following
formula is used to calculate the maximum
amount of unsharpness due to specimen
thickness:
Ug = f * b/a
f = source focal-spot size
a = distance from the source to front surface of
the object
b = the thickness of the object
For the case when the detector is not placed
next to the sample, such as when geometric
magnification is being used, the calculation
becomes:
Ug = f* b/a
f = source focal-spot size.
a = distance from x-ray source to front surface of material/object
b = distance from the front surface of the object to the detector
Filters in Radiography
At x-ray energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to absorb,
preferentially, radiation based on energy level or to modify the spatial distribution
of the beam. Filtration is required to absorb the lower-energy x-ray photons
emitted by the tube before they reach the target. The use of filters produce a
cleaner image by absorbing the lower energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter
more.
The total filtration of the beam includes the inherent filtration (composed of part of
the x-ray tube and tube housing) and the added filtration (thin sheets of a metal
inserted in the x-ray beam). Filters are typically placed at or near the x-ray port in
the direct path of the x-ray beam. Placing a thin sheet of copper between the part
and the film cassette has also proven an effective method of filtration.
For industrial radiography, the filters added to the x-ray beam are most often
constructed of high atomic number materials such as lead, copper, or brass. Filters
for medical radiography are usually made of aluminum (Al). The amount of both
the inherent and the added filtration are stated in mm of Al or mm of Al equivalent.
The amount of filtration of the x-ray beam is specified by and based on the voltage
potential (keV) used to produce the beam. The thickness of filter materials is
dependent on atomic numbers, kilovoltage settings, and the desired filtration
factor.
Gamma radiography produces relatively high energy levels at essentially
monochromatic radiation, therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is
seldom used.

Secondary (Scatter) Radiation
Secondary or scatter radiation must often be taken into consideration when
producing a radiograph. The scattered photons create a loss of contrast and
definition. Often secondary radiation is thought of as radiation striking the film
reflected from an object in the immediate area, such as a wall, or from the table or
floor where the part is resting. Side scatter originates from walls, or objects on the
source side of the film. Control of side scatter can be achieved by moving objects
in the room away from the film, moving the x-ray tube to the center of the vault, or
placing a collimator at the exit port, thus reducing the diverging radiation
surrounding the central beam.
It is often called backscatter when it comes from objects behind the film. Industry
codes and standards often require that a lead letter "B" be placed on the back of the
cassette to verify the control of backscatter. If
the letter "B" shows as a "ghost" image on the
film, a significant amount of backscatter
radiation is reaching the film. The image of the
"B" is often very nondistinct as shown in the
image to the right. The arrow points to the area
of backscatter radiation from the lead "B"
located on the back side of the film. The
control of backscatter radiation is achieved by
backing the film in the cassette with a sheet of lead that is at least 0.010 inch thick.
It is a common practice in industry to place a 0.005" lead screen in front and a
0.010" screen behind the film.
Undercut
Another condition that must often be
controlled when producing a radiograph
is called undercut. Parts with holes,
hollow areas, or abrupt thickness
changes are likely to suffer from
undercut if controls are not put in place.
Undercut appears as a darkening of the
radiograph in the area of the thickness
transition. This results in a loss of
resolution or blurring at the transition
area. Undercut occurs due to scattering within the film. At the edges of a part or
areas where the part transitions from thick to thin, the intensity of the radiation
reaching the film is much greater than in the thicker areas of the part. The high
level of radiation intensity reaching the film results in a high level of scattering
within the film. It should also be noted that the faster the film speed, the more
undercut that is likely to occur. Scattering from within the walls of the part also
contributes to undercut, but research has shown that scattering within the film is
the primary cause. Masks are used to control undercut. Sheets of lead cut to fill
holes or surround the part and metallic shot and liquid absorbers are often used as
masks.
Radiation Safety
Ionizing radiation is an extremely important NDT tool but it can
pose a hazard to human health. For this reason, special
precautions must be observed when using and working around
ionizing radiation. The possession of radioactive materials and
use of radiation producing devices in the United States is
governed by strict regulatory controls. The primary regulatory
authority for most types and uses of radioactive materials is the
federal Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). However, more
than half of the states in the US have entered into "agreement" with the NRC to
assume regulatory control of radioactive material use within their borders. As part
of the agreement process, the states must adopt and enforce regulations comparable
to those found in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Regulations for
control of radioactive material used in Iowa are found in Chapter 136C of the Iowa
Code.
For most situations, the types and maximum quantities of radioactive materials
possessed, the manner in which they may be used, and the individuals authorized
to use radioactive materials are stipulated in the form of a "specific" license from
the appropriate regulatory authority. In Iowa, this authority is the Iowa Department
of Public Health. However, for certain institutions which routinely use large
quantities of numerous types of radioactive materials, the exact quantities of
materials and details of use may not be specified in the license. Instead, the license
grants the institution the authority and responsibility for setting the specific
requirements for radioactive material use within its facilities. These licensees are
termed "broadscope" and require a Radiation Safety Committee and usually a full-
time Radiation Safety Officer.