I.

2
FUNcnoNs AND THEIR
pROpERTTEs
What you'll learn about
r
Funct i on Def i ni t i on and Not at i on
r
Domai n and Range
r
Cont i nui t y
r
I ncreasi ng and Decreasi ng
Funct i ons
r
Boundedness
r
Local and Absol ut e Ext rema
r
Symmetry
r
Asymptotes
r
End Behavi or
. . . and why
Functi ons and graphs form the basi s
f or underst andi ng t he mat hemat i cs
and appl i cat i ons you wi l l see bot h i n
your work pl ace and i n coursework
i n col l ege.
Function Definition and Notation
Mathematics and its applications abound with examples of formulas by
which quantitative variables are related to each other. The language and nota-
tion of functions is ideal for that purpose. A function is actually a simple con-
cept; if it were not, history would have replaced it with a simpler one by now.
Here is the definition.
There are many ways to look at functions. One of the most intuitively helpful
is the "machine" concept
(Figure
1.9), in which values of the domain (.r)
are fed
into the machine (the function/) to produce range values (y). To indicate that y
comes from the function acting on x, we use Euler's elegant function notation
y:f(x) (whi chwereadas"y equal s/ofx"or"the val ue of
f
atx").Herex
is the independent variable andy is the dependent variable.
A function can also be viewed as a mapping of the elements of the domain
onto the elements of the range. Figure 1.10a shows a function that maps ele-
ments from the domain X onto elements of the range I. Figure 1.10b shows
another such mapping, bu1 this one is not a
function,
since the rule does not
assign the element x1 to a unique element of I.
$E{fi*l* !"1 Functions and Their Prooerties 8r
Not a function
(b)
'_l
Lrt',
Ft cune 1. 9 A"machi ne" di agr am f or a
fu n cti on.
A 3ry or }$sronv
The word f unct i on i n i t s mat hemat i cal
sense i s general l y at t ri but ed t o Got t f ri ed
Lei bni z (1646-1716), one of t he pi oneers i n
t he met hods of cal cul us. Hi s at t ent i on t o
cl ari t y of not at i on i s one of hi s great est
cont ri but i ons t o sci ent i f i c progress, whi ch i s
why we st i l l use hi s not at i on i n cal cul us
courses t oday. l roni cal l y, i t was not Lei bni z
but Leonhard Eul er (1707-1783) who i nt ro-
duced t he f ami l i ar not at i on f (x).
A function
(a)
Fl cunr l .IOThe di agram i n (a) depi cts a mappi ng from Xto Ythat i s a functi on.
The di agram i n (b) depi cts a mappi ng from X to Y that i s not a functi on.
This uniqueness of the range value is very important to us as we study func-
tion behavior. Knowing that
f
(2):
8 tells us something about
/
and that
understanding would be contradicted if we were to discover later that
f
(2)
:
4.That is why you will never see a function defined by an ambiguous
formula like/(x)
:
3x t 2.
Definition Function, Donrain, and Range
A funCtion from a set D to a set R is a rule that assigns ro every element
in D a unique element in R. The set D of all input values is the domain
of the function, and the set R of all output values is the range of the
function.
8z C}|APTER \ Functions ond Graphs
: EXAnfiPLE 1 Defining a function
i Does the formula
!
:
xz define y as a function of r?
,
I
SOrUTrOlr
;
V"r, y is a function of x. In fact, we can write the formula in function nota-
i
tion:./(x)
:
-x2.
When a number .r is substituted into the function, the square
i
of
.,
will be the output, and there is no ambiguity ab-outwhalthe
,s.g.J
are of
i ' l s.
ffi t+ffi
.l*
Another useful way to look at functions is graphically. The graphof the
functiony
=/(r)
is the set of all points (r,f (*)), x in the domain of
I
We
match domain values along the x-axis with theil range values along the y-axis
to get the ordered pairs that yield the graph of y
:
f(x).
EXAIfiPtE 2 Seeing a function graphically
Of the three graphs shown in Figure 1.11, which is not the graph of a func-
tion? How can you tell?
sotuTtolu
The graph in (c) is not the graph of a function. There are three points on the
graph with x-coordinate 0, so the graph does not assign a unique value to 0.
(Indeed, we can see that there are plenty of numbers between -2 and 2 to
which the graph assigns multiple values.) The other two graphs do not have
a comparable problem because no vertical line intersects either of the other
graphs in more than one point. Graphs that pass this vertical line test are the
graphs of functions
ffiffi.*
a.:l:
: : : : .
r . . .
: : : : : : : : : : : : :
,?n , ,l
a' :t1
,;:i
, \ /
A, .
VV
14.7,
4.71 by
[-3.3,
3.3]
(a)
14
;7, 4.71 by
t-3.3,
3.31
(b)
t 4. 7, 4. 7)
by
[ -3. 3,
3. 3]
( c)
Fl cune l .l l One of these i s not the graph of a functi on. (Exampl e 2)
WHnt nsour ontn?
i Vhen movi ng f rom a numeri cal model t o an
al gebrai c model we wi l l of t en use a f unct i on
; o approxi mat e dat a pai rs t hat by t hem-
sel ves vi ol at e our def i ni t i on. I n Fi gure 1. 12 we
:an see that several pairs of data points fail
: he vert i cal l i ne t est , and yet t he l i near f unc-
: "on approxi mat es t he dat a qui t e wel l .
[ -1,
10] by
t -l ,
111
:
! u RE 1. 12 The dat a poi nt s f ai l t he vert i cal
-:
i est but are ni cel y approxi mat ed by a
- : ar
f unct l on.
- - :
symbol "U" i s r ead "uni on. " l t means
: -: t t he el ement s of t he t wo set s are com-
:
-ed
t o f orm one set .
Agreement
Unless we are dealing with a model (like
volume) t-hat necessitates a
restricted domain, we will assume that the domain of a function defined
by an algebraic expression is the same as the domain of the algebraic
lipression,
the implied domain. For models, we will use a domain that
fits the situation, the relevant domain.
SFenON l"e Functions and Their Properties 83
Domai n and Range
We will usually define functions algebraically, giving the rule explicitly in
terms of the domain variable. The rule, however, does not tell the complete
story without some consideration of what the domain actually is.
For example, we can define the volume of a sphere as a function of its radius
by the formula
4
V(r)
:52'rr
(Note that this is "V of
y''-not
"V
.
r").
This
formula
is defined for all real numbers, but the voltme
function
is not
defined for negative r values. So, if our intention were to study the volume
function, we would restrict the domain to be all r > 0.
EXAwIpIE 3 Finding the domain of a function
Find the domain of each of these functions:
\ / ; +3
t;
x- 5
(c) A(s)
:
(fit+)tz, where A(s) is the area of an equilateral triangle with
sides of length s.
soLUTtotu
Sol ve Al gebrai cal l y
(a) The expression under a radical may not be negative. We set x * 3
>
0
and solve to find x
>
-3.
The domain of/is the interval
[-3,
-).
(b) The expression under a radical may not be negative; therefore r >
0.
Also, the denominator of a fraction may not be zero; therefore r # 5. The
domain of g is the interval
[0,
"o)
with the number 5 removed, which we can
write as the union of two intervals:
[0,
5) U
(5,
-).
(c) The algebraic expression has domain a1l real numbers, but the behavior
being modeled restricts s from being negative. The domain of A is the
interval
[0,
-).
Vertical Line Tept
A graph (set
of points (x, y)) in the.ry-plane defines y as a funcrion of r
if and only if no vertical line intersects the graph in more than one point.
(a)"f(x)
:
(b)
s(x)
:
84
CF{APTER
I Functions
anct Graphs
$
$
i
i
I
f
*
i
f
5upport
Graphi cal l y
We can
support
our
answers
in (a)
and (b)
graphically,
as the calculator should
nor plot
poinrs
where
the func;
)rr"io"o*d.
3l)gt":jt::'fi:::lj.
or
v
:
f ,
',
3- (Figure
1.13a)
shows
points
onry
(b)
Ttre graph
of
t
:
{x/(x-
5)
@gure 1.13b)
shows
poinrs
oniv
fbr
.r >
0, as expecred,
bur
shows
""
;;;";;
fine through
the
-r_axis at
x
:
5. This
line,
a form
"r
gr"ph*
r",;"";;;bed
in the previous
,""rion,
should
not be there.
Ignoringit,
i" r"",rr"is,
"rl^0"",.0,
is nor in the
domain.
Gf
lre graph
of y
:
16!^1r::,(Figure
l.t3c)
shows
rhe unresrricted
domain
or the algebraic
expression:
all reall
nrrO.rr.
if
knowing
that r ir ttr. r.ngtt,
of a side
of u t iunet"l"
calculator
has
no way
of
J- I l r , r r
- --::--:-1:
i-10, 101 by
ta, al
(b)
Ft cunr
l . l 3
Graphi cal
support
of t he al gebrai c
sol uf i on< i n Ev_, -^r^ r _r
(c)
l ' : : -t : l n"t
oi l ure.
The poi nt s
i n (c)
wi t h
nur. , , uu "' ons
i n Exampl e
3' The
vert i cal
l i ne i n (b)
shoul d
be i gnored
because
i t resul t s
a length
(but
we do).
\!/
v'
'
r'
' ' ' stsd
r' rve
x-coordinates
should
be ignored
because
the
.rnrnao,
does not know
that
x is
L- Lt r r , , , ,
t-10, 10j by
ta, al
Finding
the range
of a function
1
lrrufi9lll
:r Sofve
Graphically
:
;;;;,;',i1,
(al
Fuructronr
Norarrou
1jl1f
n.r-rtnjcaily
does
not
,r. function
notation.
So the functio
n f(x) :",
;i
;"
entered
as y1 :
x2 + 1. On
yol
:, 1
eva ruate
r rr,
:
!'iiffii,,?'rli
1
on the home
screen.
On the other
hand,
on
other
graphers
hG) means
y1
- 3. (Consult
Technology
Ancillary.)
Finding
the range
of a fun-clion
argebraicaty
is often^much
harder
than
finding
the
domain'
although
graphicaily,i;,tiil'#;"u
for
are sim'ar:
To find the
trK;,[::::[:r!^{":"i,#r::":ii:;i^:1lr:til:;*"o#,*o
fl:il*i:,l"r#T1;fr
$:ffi'.;itrJffff'HTil"*i,":iff
m:
z
t-10. 101 by
ta.4l
i
is shown
in Figure
1. 14.
SECTION 1.2 Functions and Their Properties 8S
--------H
' - \
u,5l
by
t-3,
3l
Frcunr 1.14 rtre graph of y
:
2/x.l s y: 0 i n the range?
It appears that x
:0
is not in the domain (as expected, because a denomi-
nator can not be zero). It also appears that the range consists of all real num-
bers except 0.
Confi rm Al gebrai cal l y
We confirm that 0 is not in the range by trying to solve 2/x
:
0:
)
1_: 0
2: 0. x
2: 0
Since the equation 2
:
0 is never true, 2/x: 0 has no solutions, and so
y
:
0 is not in the range. But how do we know that all other real numbers
are in the range? We let k be any other real number and try to solve 2/x
:
k:
)
2: k. x
As you can see, there was no problem finding an.{ this time, so 0 is the only
number not in the range ofl We write the range (-*, 0) U
(0, oo).
You can see that this is considerably more involved than finding a domain,
but we are hampered at this point by not having many tools with which to
analyze function behavior. We will revisit the problem of finding ranges in
Exercise 86, after having developed the tools that will simplify the analysis.
Continuity
One of the most important properties of the majority of functions that model
real-worldbehavioris thatthey arecontinuous. Graphically speaking, afunc-
tion is continuous at a point if the graph does not come apart at that point. We
can illustrate the concept with a few graphs (Figure 1.15):
z
K
:
:
i
:
j
j
a
I
!
i
I
kffi
86 CHAPTER 1 Functions and Graphs
Jump discontinuity
Fl cunr l .l 5 Some poi nts of di sconti nui ty.
Let's look at these cases individually.
This graph is continuous everywhere.
Notice that the graph has no breaks.
This means that if we are studying the
behavior of the function/for
x values
close to any particular real number a,
we can be assured that the
/(_r)
values
will be close tol(a).
This graph is continuous everywhere
except for the 'hole" at x
:
a. If we are
studying the behavior of this function
f
for x values close to a, we can not be
assured that the/(x) values will be close
to
f
(a).In
this case,/(x) is smaller than
f(a)
tor x near a.'This is called a
removablediscontinuity
because it
can be patched by redefining/(a)
so as
to plug the hole.
Continuous at all.r
Removable discontinuity
Removable discontinuity
Infinite discontinuity
Continuous at all
-r
Removable discontinuity
SlCnOl{
t.Z
Functions
andTheir
Properties
8t
This
graPh
also
has
a removable
Jir"oo'tittoitY
at x:
a' If
we ate
ffi;;int;ehavioi
of this
function/
"forl
uifo"t
close
to a' we ate
still not
'ass,ireffi;,
the
/(x)
.
values
will
be
"i"'"
.
rt"
I'
o::i.i*,I
ll'inTifll
doesn't
even
exlst'
r
;;;
we could
defrne/(a)
ln
sYch a
*"t
^-1"
pttg the
hoie
and
make/con-
tinuous
at a'
Here
is a discontinuitY
that
it i:t
."-""rlot".
It is a
jump discontinuity.
;;;;tt"
there
is more
than
just a hole at
"r"-J)-;
U"r"
is a
jump in function
val-
i,",
irtn,
makes
the
gan iTlol;{}e
to
"i"o
*i,t'
a single
point
(a'
'f
(c))' no
il;,i";;;;
*" tiY to redefine/(a)'
This
is a function
with
an infinite
discontinuif
at x
:
a' It is definitely
not
removable'
I
t t v
\
\
The
simple
geometric
concept
of an unbroken
qlaoh
at a
point is one
of those
visual
notions
that
is
"*o"*iy
difficult
to
"o*-onitu'"
accurately
in the
lan-
suaqe
of algebra'
Th"
kt;';;;tp'
r'o*
the.
pictures
seems
to be that
we'
want
i;g;",i;;i,,t::::-f,*::*il;l*,*,ll;l
j;;{$liXil;';";n;
it, from
either
directron'
as x approaches
d' A runttio"li'
continuous
i'*':
i itls{g':/ta)'
n
function/is
discontinuou'
ut t
:
a if it is not
continuous
at x
:
a'
Removable
discontinuity
JumP
discontinuitY
Infinite
discontinuitY
88 CffAP?t|l t Functions and Graphs
Cnoosruc Vrrwrnc Wlroows
Most vi ewi ng wi ndows wi l l show a vert i cal
l i ne f or t he f unct i on i n Fi gure 1. 16. l t i s
somet i mes possi bl e t o choose a vi ewi ng
wi ndow i n whi ch t he vert i cal l i ne does not
appear, as we di d i n Fi gure 1. 16.
I-9.4,9.41by t-6,61
Fr cunr 1. l 5f k) _
x+3
x- 2
EXAMPLI
5 ldentifying points of discontinuity
Judging from the graphs, which of the following figures shows functions
that are discontinuous at
-{
:
2? Are any of the discontinuities removable?
sotuTlotu
Figure 1.16 shows a function that is undefined atx
:
2 atdhence not con-
tinuous there. The discontinuity at x
:
2 is not removable.
The function graphed in Figure 1 . 17 is a quadratic polynomial whose graph
is a parabola,
a graph that has no breaks because its domain includes all real
numbers. It is continuous for all;r.
The function graphed in Figure 1.18 is not defined atx:2 and so can not
be contiduous there. The graph looks like the graph of the line y
:
x
-t
2,
exq)pt that there is a hole where the point (2, 4) should be. This is a remov-
able discontinuity.
N*" ary ExeScise 21, q
g
t
{'
e
g
l-9.4,
9.4) by
l-6.2,
6.21
- 2_A
Frcunr 1.18 hk\
x- 2
t-s,
sl by
I-10,
101
Frcune 1.11 g(x): (x + 3)(x
-
2)
Increasing
and Deceasing Functions
Another function concept that is easy to understand graphically is the prop-
erty of being increasing, decreasing, or constant on an interval. We illustrate
the concept with a few graphs (Figure 1.19):
Decreasing on (-@, -21
Constant on
[-2,
2]
Increasing on
[2,
o)
Ftcunr 1.19 Exampl es of i ncreasi ng, decreasi ng, or constant on an i nterval
Once again the idea is easy to communicate graphically, but how can we
identify these properlies of functions algebraically? Exploration I will help
to set the stage for the al gebrai c defi ni ti on.
- 54 3- 2- r
Decreasing
12345
Constant
Increasing
EXPTOtATtOil I
AU:r on a Clrcuuron
Your cal cul at or mi ght be abl e t o hel p you
wi t h t he numbers i n Expl orat i on 1. Some
cal cul at ors have a "ALi st " operat i on t hat
wi l l cal cul at e t he changes as you move
down a l i st . For exampl e, t he command
"Alist (11) -+ 13" will store the differences
f rom Ll i nt o 13. Not e t hat Al i st (11) i s
always one entry shorter than Ll itself.
SECTIOI{ 1.2 Functions and Their
properties
89
Your analysis of the quotients AY/AX in the exploration should help you to
understand the following definition.
ff111.:ilJncreasing,
Decreasing, and constant Function on
A funcrion/is increasing on an interval if. for any two points in the
irterval, a positive change ir x results in a positive change nf(x).
A functlon/is decreasing on an interval if. for any fwo points in the
interval, a positive change in x results in a negative change in/(x).
A function/is constant on an interval if. lor any two points in the inter-
val . a posi ti ve change i n r resul ts i n a zero change i n/(x).
9o CHAnEn I Functions
and Graphs
E)(AfipH
6 Analyzing
a function
for increasing_
decreasing
behavior
For each function, ten the intervars
on which it is increasing
and the inter_
vals on which it is decreasins.
( al f ( x) : ( x*2\ 2
sotuTtot
Solve
Graphically
Flcunt
l.2l The function g(x)
:
x2/(x2 -
1) increases
on (_m,
_1)
and (_.1,
ol;
the function
decreases on
l0,
l) and (1, oo).
(Example
5)
(a)
We see from the- graptr
in fiSure
1 .20 that
f
is decreasing
on (
_
oo
,
_
21
and increasing
onl-2, oo).
(Notice
that we include -2
in both intervals.
Don't
worry that this sets up some contradiction
about what rrufp"n,
at -2,
because
we onry talk about functions
increasing
or decreasing
on
intervals,
and -2
is noi an interval.)
Fl cunr
f.20 Thefuncti onf(x):
(x + ))zdecreases
on (_o,
_2l andi ncreases
onl -2,oo).
(Exampl e
6
,91_Y":::
from the
yraynyFigure
I.2t thats is increasing
on (_oo,
_1.;,
rncreasmg
again on (-1,0],
decreasing
on
[0,
1), and decrJasing
again on
(1, *).
- t
You may
have noticed that we are making some assumptions
about the
graphs'
How do we know that they don't irrn around
somewhere
off the
,r*:o?
we will deverop some ways to answer that question
later in the book,
but the most powerful
methods wit await you
when you
study
"a"oior.
u,
sl by
t-3,
sl
14. 7, 4. 7Jby
u. 1, 3. 11
SECTfOlf 1.2 Functions andTheir Properties
91
Boundedness
The concept of boundedness
is fairly simple to understand both graphically
and algebraically.
We will move directly to the algebraic definition after moti-
vating the concept with some typical graphs (Figure I'22)'
Not bounded above
Not bounded below
Not bounded above
Bounded below
Bounded above
Not bounded below
above and bel ow.
l l cune
1.22 Some exampl es of graphs bounded and not bounded
t-a,
al by
t-s,
5l
(aJ
t-8,
8l bY
t-l,
1l
(b)
Ftcunu I.23 The graphs for Exampl e 7.
Whi ch are bounded where?
we can extend the above definition to the idea of bounded on an interval
by restricting the domain of consideration in each pafi of the definition to the
intervat we wish to consider. For example, the function/(x)
:
1/r is bounded
above on the interval
(--, 0) and bounded below on the interval
(0' *)'
FXAIIPLE
7 Checking
boundedness
Identify each of these functions as bounded below, bounded above, or
bounded.
( a) w( x)
: 3x2 -
4
sotuflolr
Sol ve Graphi cal l Y
(b) p(x)
:
I *xz
The two graphs are shown in Figure 1.23. It appears thatw is bounded
bel ow. and p i s bounded.
Confi rm Al gebrai cal l Y
we can confirm that w is bounded below by finding a lower bound, as follows:
x2 >o
3xz>0
3xz
-
4>o
-
3xz
-
4=
- 4
x2 i s nonnegat i ve
Mul t i Pl Y bY 3.
4 Subt ract 4.
Bounded
92
CHAPTER I Functions
and Graphs
Fl cun: 1.24 The graph
suggests that/has
a l ocal maxi mum
at
p,
a l ocal mi ni mum
at
Q,
and a l ocal maxi mum at R.
Thus, -4
is a lower bound for w(x)
:
3x2
-
4.
we leave the verification that p is bounded as an exercise (Exercise
77).
local and Absolute Extrema
Many graphs are characterizedby
peaks and valleys where they change from
increasing
to decreasing and vice versa. The extreme values of the function
1or
local
extrema) can be characterized
as either local mnxima or local minima.The
distinction
can be easily seen graphically.
Figure 7.24 shows a graph
with three
local extrema: local maxima at points
p
and R and a rocal minit'm at
e.
This is another function concept that is easier to see graphicaly
than to
describe
algebraically. Notice that a local maximum does not have to be the
maximum
value of a function; it only needs to be the maximum value of the
function
on some tiny interval.
{
f,
f
',t,
i*
f
i
TI
t,,,rr.,
tr:rr=r*
X=-e; 8555q6:
Definition
Local and Absolute Extrema
A local maimum of a function/is
a value/(c) that is
grearer
than or
equal to all range values of/on some open interval contoining c. If
f
(c)
ls greater than or equal to all range values off then/(c) is the maximum
(or
absolute maximum) value ofl
A local minimum of a function/is a value/(c)
that is less than or
:qP
,? all range values oflon some open inrerval conraining
c.If
f(c)
is less than or equar to alr range values of/ tben.f(c) is ttre riinimum
(or
absolute minimum
)value of f
l.ocal extrema are also caUeA relative extrema.
we have already mentioned that the best method for anaryzing increasing
and
decreasing
behavior involves calculus. Not surprisingly,
the same is true for
local extrema. we win generally
be satisfied rn ttris course with approximat-
ing local extrema using a graphing
calcurator, although sometimis
an alge-
braic
confirmation will be possibre
when we learn more about specific
.
.t:nrrtonr'
EXAMPLE
8 tdentifying
local extrema
Decide
whether/(x)
:
x4
-
7xz + 6x has any local maxima or local mini-
ma. If so, find each local maximum value or minimum value and the value
ofr at which each occurs.
l-5, s] by
t-35, 151
Frcunr 1.25 A graph of y
:
* - 7x2 +
6x. (Exampl e
8)
Usrtc I Gnl pxe n ro Fl ruo
Locnr Exrnrann
Most modern graphers
have bui l t i n
"maxi mum"
and "mi ni mum' ,
fi nders that
i denti fy l ocal extrema by l ooki ng for si gn
changes i n Ay. l t i s not easy to fi nd l oci l
extrema by zoomi ng i n on them, as the
graphs
tend to fl atten out and hi de the
very behavior you are looking at. lf you use
thi s method, keep narrowi ng the verti cal
wi ndow to mai ntai n some curve i n the
grapn.
Symmetry with respect to they-axis
Example:/(x)
:
Yz
Graphi cal l y
v
Ftcunt 1.26 rtre graph l ooks the same
to the left of the y-axis as it does to the
right of it.
Symmetry with respect to the x-axis
Exampl e: x: . ; l
Graphi cal l y
v
Ftcunt 1.27 The graph l ooks the same
above the x-axis as it does below it.
SECTfON t.t Functions and Their Properties
93
Symmetqy
In the graphical sens'e, the word "symmet4r" in mathematics carries essen-
tially the same meaning as it does in art: The picfure (in this case, the graph)
"looks the same" when viewed in more than one way. The interesting thing
about mathematical symmetry is that it can be characterized numerically and
algebraically as well. We will be looking at three particular types of syrnme-
try, each of which can be spotted easily from a graph, a table of values, or an
algebraic formula, once you know what to look for. Since it is the connections
among the three models
(graphical, numerical, and algebraic) that we need to
emphasize in this section, we will illustrate the various symmetries in all
three ways, side-by-side.
Numeri cal l y
Al gebrai cal l y
For all r in the domain of/
f (-x): f (x)
Functions with this property (e.9., x",
n even) are even functions.
f(x)
- 3
- 2
- 1
1
2
a
J
9
A
1
1
4
9
Numeri cal l y Algebraically
Graphs with this kind of symmetry are
not functions
(except the zero func-
tion), but we can say that
(x, -y)
is on
the graph whenever
(x, y) is on the
graph.
9- 3
1
- 1
11
A. )
93
94
CHAPTER I Functions and Graohs
Symmetry with respect to the origin
Example:/(x)
:2r:
Graphi cal l y
v
Frcunr 1.28 rhe graph l ooks the same
upsi de-down as i t does ri ghtsi de-up.
Numeri cal l y
Al gebrai cal l y
For all x in the domain ofl
f(_*)
:
_f
(*).
Functions with this properfy (e.g.,
x"
n odd) are odd functions.
- ?
_a
1
1
z
J
-27
- 8
- 1
1
8
27
EXAMPTE 9 Checking functions for symmetry
Tell whether each of the following functions is odd, even, or neither.
(a)
f(x)
:
xz
-
3
( b)
S( x) : x2- 2x- 2
?
(cl
h(x)
:
=:
"
- A
S0r.uTtotl
(a)
Solve Graphically
The graphical solution is shown in Figure 1.29.
Ftcunr 1.29 Thi s graph appears to be symmetri c wi th respect to they-axi s, so
we conjecture that/ is an even function.
Confirm Algebraically
We need to verify that
' f(-x)
:/(x)
for all.r in the domain ofl,
f ( - x) : ( - x) 2- 3: x2- 3
:
f(*)
[-s,
s] by
[-a,4]
t-s,5l
bY
t-4,
al
Ftcunr 1.3O Thi s graph does not appear
to be symmetric with respect to either the
y-axis or the origin, so we conjecture that
a i s nei ther even nor odd.
9.7,4.71by [-10,
10]
Fl cunr l .3l rni s graph appears to be
symmetric with respect to the origin, so
conj ecture that h i s an odd functi on.
6
5
/
3
2
I
12345
-2
-3
A
-6
Frcun: 1.32 The graph of
f(x)
:
2x2/(a
-
x2) has two vertical
asymptotes and one hori zontal asymptote.
SECTfOI{ 1.2 Functions and Their Properties
Since this identity is true for all x, the function/is indeed even.
(b) Solve Griphically
The graphical solution is shown
Confirm Algebraically
We need to verify that
in Figure 1.30.
sex)
+
s(x)
and
cex)
+
-sG).
s( - r ) : ( - r ) t - 2( - x) - 2
: x2+2x- 2
s( x) : x2- 2x- 2
sk)
: -x2
+ 2x-r 2
Sos(-x) +
s@)
andg(-x) +
-sG).
We conclude that g is neither odd nor even.
(c)
Sol ve Graphi cal l y
The graphical solution is shown in Figure 1.31.
Confirm Algebraically
We need to verify that
h(-x)
: -h(x)
for all x in the domain of ft.
2
A- - 2
95
1- r ) 3
h( - x)
:
+
-
\ - x) '
: -h(x)
Since this identity is true for all x except
+2
(which are not in the domarn
of h), the function fr is odd.
i]S -
Asymptotes
Consider the graph of the tunction/(x)
:;+in
Figure 1.32.
The graph appears to flatten out to the right and to the left, getting closer and
closer to the horizontal line y
:
-2. We call this line a horizontal asymptote .
Similarly, the graph appears to flatten out as it goes off the top and bottom of
the screen, getting closer and closer to the vertical lines x
:
-2 and x
:
Z.We
call these lites vertical asymptotes.If we superimpose the asymptotes onto
Figure !.32 as dashed lines, you car see that they form a kind of template that
describes the limiting behavior of the graph (Figure 1.33).
Since asymptotes describe the behavior of the graph at its horizontal or ver-
tical extremities, the definition of an asymptote can best be stated with limit
notation. In this definition, note that x-+a- means "x approaches a from the
left," while x-+a+ means "x approaches a from the right."
: l
- t ,
: I :
':
J',
96
{g{&*TSn "l
Functions and Graphs
i l u;ume tr.33 rhe graphof
f(x)
:
2x2/(a -
x2) with the asymptotes
shown as dashed l i nes.
Ffiri-i*
r*
The line y
:
b is a horizontal
asymptote of rhe graph of a functjon
y
:
f
(x)
i fl (x) approaches a l i mi t of b as x approaches +oo or
-co.
In l i mi t notati on;
r!\-f
t*l
:
u or
"ri 11/(x)
:
b.
The
|i1e
*.
- -
o it a vertical asymptote of the graph
of a function
,;f*iilillJ,o#**'s a rimit or +oo or
-oo
as x approaches a
[4.1,4.j 1by
t_3,
3]
Fcql i i l u ;.5+ The graph of
|
:
x/(x2
-
x - 2) has vertical asymptotes
of x
:
-1 and x
:
2 and a hori zontal
asymptote of y
:
O. (Exampl e
10)
J52_f
txl
: -f
oo
or lim
/(x)
: -f
oo
KK&ffiP$"S
XS ldentifyimg
the asymptotes
of a graph
Identify
any horizontal or vertical asymptotes of the graph of
x
) : -
^.
x' - x- 2
aI x
:
-
I and x
:
2, which makes them likely sites for vertical asymptotes.
The graph (Figure 1.34) provides
support, showing verticar asymptotes
of
x: - l andx: 2.
For large values of r, the numerator (a large number) is dwarfed by the
denominator (a product
of two large numbers),
suggesting that
IiTn x/((x + 1)(x
-
2))
:0.
This would indicate a horizonrai asympiote of
y
=
0. The graph (Figure
r.34) provides
support, showing a horizontal
asymptote
of y
:
0 as r-)oo. Similar logic suggests that
,\\*
*/tt* + 1)(x -
2)): -0 :0,
i ndi cati ng
tfre same-trori zonral
asymptote
as r-+-oo. Again, the graph provides
support for this.
.,rl..'g.ow.
,..81(41ej!p
End Behavior
A horizontal
asymptote gives one kind of end behavior for a function because
it shows how the function behaves as it goes off toward either
,.end,,
of the
x-axis.
Not all graphs approach lines, but it is helpful to consider what cloes
happen
"out there." We illustrate with a few examples.
lt
i
t:i
, , t
I
l
)
SECTfON 1.2 Functions andTheir
properties
97
ffirxamPLE
n Matching functions using end behavior
Match the functions with the graphs in Figure 1.35 by considering end
behavior. All graphs are shown in the same viewing window.
3x 3xz ?rJ 7v4
(a) y:
F?
(b)y:
ft
(c) y:
pTf
(d) y:
?.j
sorlmoil
when x is very large, the denominator
x2 + | in each of these functions is
almost the same number as .r2. If we replace xz * 1 in each denominator by
x2 and then reduce the fractions, we get the simpler functions
( a) y: : ( cl oset oy:
gf or l ar gex)
( bl y: 3 ( cl y
: 3x
( dl ! : 3x2.
So, we look for functions that have end behavior resembling, respectively,
the functions
( a) y: 0 ( b) y: 3 ( c) y: 3x ( d) ! : 3x2.
Graph (iv) approaches the line y
:
0. Graph (iii)
approaches the line y
:
l.
Graph (ii) approaches the line y
:
3x.Graph (i) approaches the parabola
!
:3x2.
So, (a) matches (iv), (b)
matches (iii), (c)
matches (ii),
and (d)
14.7, 4.7
I by
l-3.5, 3.sl
(i)
Frcune 1.35 nnatch the graphs
matches (i).
(ii)
wi t h t he f unct i ons i n Exampl e 11.
14.7,4.71by [1.s,3.s1
(iii)
ta.1,4.7l by [1.s,3.s1
(iv)
For more complicated functions we are often content with knowing whether
the end behavior is bounded or unbounded in either direction.
QUICK
REVTEW t.2 (For help, go to Sections A.3, P.3, and P5.)
ln Exercises l-4, solve the equation or inequality.
1. x2- 16: 0
3. . r - 10<0
2. 9- x2: O
4. 5- . r <0
\/=16
f;t
-----
Y3- x
' vF
*,
8. -
,
x' - |
-2
_
, >-
10. -
xt - 4
In Exercises 5-10, find all values of x algebraically for which
the algebraic expression is zor defined. Support your answer
graphically.
,.;+
"'
pia
14.7 ,
a.1l by
l-3
.s
, 3 .sl
98
v
CHAPTER
I Functions
and
Graphs
In Exercises
1_4,
determir
u, u run"tion
ot ;.
ffi;"fi;f'*irf;|,:"**ra
determines
y
In Exercises
25_2g,
state
r
local
minimum,
a rocal
rJi:t9t
each
labeled
point
identifie
on which
rhe functin. ," ,:1T:,T'
or neither.
Identifo
inrervar on which
rhe
function
t, d;;;;;s"#il:::r#
25.
y
26.
r . y=yf i j
3. ) c: 2y2
2' Y=*z- +t
In
Exercises
5-g,
usethe
o
o'
a
=
72
-
!
the curve
is the graph
"r.
;il':,[fe
test
to determine
wherher
5.
gk
In Exercises
9_16,
find
unosuppo.tyo";"*,;: ji:"i:frTr1":rthetuncdonargebraicary
g.
f(x)
=
\/;r+Z
rc. hG)_
5
t t . f ( x) =,
3x- 7
x- 3
1x+9[ : - 1
t 2. f ( x) : +. *
13. g(x) :
?+
u. h(x)
_
VI:j
rs.
h(x):
14-
x - 3
("r
+ r)@11)
rc.
fQ)
=
\F:
167
In Exercises
17_20,findthe
range
ofthe
function.
r7.
f(x)
=
I0 - x2
l s.
f ( x\ :
*'
r 8'
eQ) : t "*: -
| -
x2
20. g( x) :
J T
x'
;!ffTff
:ii;11;iTJ,l"i:
ly"l
y,!r-i^-.r
n., i,
tell
whether
it i;;;;#il 111
:
0 Ir there
is
a discontinuity,
: or nonremovable.
(s, 7)
2r. g(a) : '
zt. y1r7 =
I'l
. - ? ,
22.
h(x) :
^-
''.
x
2a.
sQ)
-
x
v- ' ,
In Exercises
29_34.
naph^the
function
and identify
intervals
on
which
the function
is increasing,
decreasing,
or constant.
2e. f ( x) : l x+21-
1
30.
f ( x) :
/ - r + 1l +
i . r
_
1l
_
3
3r.
s(.x)
:
l x + 2l +
l x
_
tl
_
2
72.
h(x) :
0.5("r
+ 2)2
_
t
33.
s( x) : 3- ( x-
I ) 2
l+.
f(x)
=
x3 -
x2
_
2x
In Exercises
35_40,
detr
uuou",uounal""a##::.m;:"sx
jT#T:onisbounded
?s. y: 32
37. y: 2x
?6'
Y: ) -
' 2
3s. y:
\ / 1=
?8'
Y
=
2- x
4O. y: a- 13
*':ffiTT,flI,1|;#:lg:*er
to nnd
ar rocar
maxima
and
rounded
. ,*"
o""t-i
d.:l*t
they
occur'
Give
values
+t . f ( x) : 4- x*x2
+?.
h( x) =
- x3+2x- 3
a2'
sG) =x3- 4x+7
as.
h(x)
=
x2\/;li
:'
'y).:
(x
+ 3)(x
- 1)z
46. g(x) :
xl2x +
5l
SECTION
1.2
Functions
andTheir
Properties
99
In Exercises
47-54,
statewhether
the function
is' odd'
even'
or
#;;S"u.pp"rt
graphically
and confirm
algebraically'
a7.
f(x)
:2xa
qs. f ( x) : \ F*2
sr.
/(x)
:
-x2
+0.03x+
5 t2'
f@
:
f
+O' O4xz
+ 3
68. Can
a graPh have
two horizontal
asymptotes?
Although
most
graphs have at
^o*
oo" horizontal
asy-mptote'
it is
. possible for a graph to ttuu"
more
than one'
Which
of the
'
i;itt*t;*
tonJtion'
have
graphs
with more
than
one
a8.
S(x):
x3
3
50.
e( . x) : T+7
s+. n("):l
In Exercises
55-62'
use a method
of
your choice
to find all
O"-."i"f
*A vertical
asymptotes
of the function'
In Exercises
63-66,
match
the function
with
the corresponding
ffpi;a;';i#g
*o b"hu-uiot
and asvmptotes'
All
graphs
-*"'rt
o*n in the same
viewing
window'
horizontal
asymptote?
l x3
+ 1l
(a)/(x)
:
-s
-7
l x-
l l
(b)s(x)
: 7-
4
(c) ft(x)
vx' - +
69. Can
a graph intersect
its own
vertical
asymptote?
GraPh
the tunction/(x)
=
l-fl + t
(a) The
graph of this function
does
not intersect
its vertical
urY-Ptot".
ExPlain
whY it does
not'
(b) Show
how
you can add a single
point t9 the
graph of/
and
get a graph
rhat does
intersect
its vertical
asymptote'
(c) Is the graph in
(b) the
graph
of a tunction?
zo.Wri ti ngtoLearnExpl ai nwhyagraphcannothavemore
than
two horizontal
asymptotes'
Standardized
Test
O-uestions
n. True
or False
The
graph
or ru.nc1io1/1
f:i*
as the set
of all
points
O,ntliitt"t"
x is in the domain
of
/'
Justify
your answer'
?2. True or False
A relation
that is symmtric
with respect
to
the x-axis
cannot
be a function'
Justify
your answer'
In Exercises
73-76,
answer
the
question
without
using
a calculator'
73. MultiPle
Choice
Which
function
is continuous?
(a) Number
of children
enrolled
in a particular
school
as a
function
of time
(b) Outdoor
temperature
as a function
ol fime
(c) Cost of U'S'
postage
as a function
of the weight
of the
letter
(d) Price of a stock
as a function
of time
(e) Number
of soft drinks
sold at a ballpark
as a function
of
outdoor
temperature
?4.
MultiPle
Choice
Which
function\s
not continuous?
(a) Your altitude
as a function
of time
while
flying
from
Reno to Dallas
(b) Time of travel
from
Miami
to Pensacola
as a function
of
driving
sPeed
(c) Number
of balls that
can fit completely
inside
a particular
Lo* ut u function
of the radius
of the balls
(d) Area of a circle
as a function
ofradius
(e) Weight
of a particular
baby
as a function
of time
after
birth
953.
g(x)
:2x3 - 3x
- J- )
53. ],
=:---
-
zx- t r
x*2
65.
j :
^- ;
, -
-
LX' r
I
x- l
56.
q\x)
58.
q@):
r' 5'
A
60.
p(x)
:7
+ t
52. hk): f u
) t ^
64.
y: -:---
-
zxa L
1' ^
66. Y:
^
1-:1
-
zt r T
I
ca n a gra ph. c-"
1lTy#;f
TJ,"ffi::,ff
:5
;rfi.*
of the word
"asYmPtote"
t
tend to approact',
Uut not meet'
their
asymptotes'
Which
of
the following
functions
it"t"
gtupttt
that do intersect
their
horizontal
asymptotes?
x
( a) "f ( r ) : 7- r
- 2
(c) h(x)
:
-#
+ |
0)
g(x)
=
*T
14.7
.
4 :llbY t-3'
t' 3'11
14.1,
4 :tlbY t-3'1,
3'11
14.7.4.1l bY
t-3' 1'
3 11 14
:7, 4
"llbY
t-3'1'
3'11
67.
CHAPIERI Functions and Grophs
75. Decreasing Function Which function is decreasing?
(a) Outdoor temperature as a function of time
(b) The Dow Jones Industrial Average as a function of time
(c) Air pressure in the Earth's atmosphere as a function of
altitude
(d) World population since 1900 as a function of time
(e) Water pressure in the ocean as a function of depth
76. lncreasing or Decreasing Which function cannot be classi-
fied as either increasing or decreasing?
(a) Weight of a lead brick as a function of volume
(b) Height of a ball that has been tossed upward as a func-
tion of time
(c) Time of travel from Buffalo to Syracuse as a function of
driving speed
(d) Area of a square as a function of side length
(e) Height of a swinging pendulum as a function of time
Explorations
7?. Bounded Functions As promised in Example 7 of this
section, we will give you a chance to prove algebraically
thatP(x): x/(l + x2) is bounded.
(a) Graph the function and frnd the smallest nteger kthat
appears to be an upper bound.
(b) Verify that x/(l * x2) < ft by proving rhe equivalent
inequality kxz
-
&
+ k > 0.
(Use
the quadratic formula to
show that the quadratic has no real zeros.)
(c) From the graph, frnd the greatest integer k that appears to
be a lower bound.
(d) Verify that x/(l + ,2) > ft by proving the equivalent
i nequal i t ykr 2- x+k<0.
78. Baylor School Grade Point Averages Baylor School uses a
sliding scale to convert the percentage grades on its
transcripts to grade point averages (GPAs).
Table 1.9 shows
the GPA equivalents for selected grades:
(a) Considering GPA (y) as a function of percentage grade
(x), is it increasing, decreasing, constant, or none ofthese?
(b) Make a table showingthe change (Ay) in GPA as you
move down the list. (See Exploration 1.)
(c) Make a table showing the change in Ay as you move
down the list. (This is AAy.) Considering the change (Ay)
in GPA as a function of percentage grade (x), is it increas-
ing, decreasing, constant, or none ofthese?
(d) In general, what can you say about the shape ofthe
graph if y is an increasing function of x and Ay is a
decreasing function of x?
(e) Sketch the graph of a function y of x such that y is a
decreasing function of x and Ay is an increasing function
of .x.
79. Group Activity Sketch (freehand) a graph of a function/
with domain all real numbers that satisfies all of the follow-
ing conditions:
(a)/is continuous for all x;
(b)/is increasing on (-o,
0] and on
[3,
5];
(c)/is decreasing on
[0,
3] and on
[5,
-);
(d)/ (o)
:
f (5)
: 2;
( e) / ( 3)
: 0.
80. Group Activity Sketch (freehand) a graph of a function/
with domain all real numbers that satisfies all of the
following conditions:
(a)/is decreasing on (-m, 0) and decreasing on (0, o);
(b)/has a nonremovable point of discontinuity at x
:
0;
(c)/has a horizontal asymptote at y
:
l;
(d)/ (0)
: 0;
(e)/has a vertical asymptote at x
:
0.
81. Group Activity Sketch (freehand) a graph of a function/
with domain all real numbers that satisfies all of the
following conditions:
(a)/is continuous for all .r;
(b)/is an even function;
(c)/is increasing on
[0,
2] and decreasing on
[2,
o);
( dt f ( 2) : 3.
82. Group Activity Get together with your classmates in
groups of two or three. Sketch a graph of a function, but do
not show it to the other members of your group. Using the
language of functions (as in Exercises 79-81), describe your
function as completely as you can. Exchange descriptions
with the others in your group and see if you can reproduce
each other's graphs.
ffi
Grade (x) cPA (y)
60
65
70
't5
80
85
90
95
100
0.00
1.00
2.05
2.57
3.00
3. 36
3.69
4.00
4.28
Source: Bay/or Schoo/ College Counse/or.
xtending the ldeas
B. A function that is bounded above has an infinite number of
upper bounds, but there is always aleast upper bound,i'e.,
an upper bound that is less than all the others. This least
upper bound may or may not be in the range off For each
of the following functions, find the least upper bound and
rcll whether or not it is in the range of the function.
( a) "f ( x) : 2- 0. 8x2
^1
i x'
O) s( x)
: 3+x,
( cl h( x) : +
( d) p( x) =2si n( x)
A. v
(el qk)
:;r+;_
+ |
SECTfON 1.3 Twelve Basic Functions
84. Writing to Learn A continuous function/has domain all
real numbers. If/(-1)
:
5 and/(l)
:
-5, explain why,f
must have at least one zero in the interval
[-1,
l]. (This
generalizes to a property of continuous functions known as
the Intermediate Value Theorem.)
85. Proving a Theorem Prove that the graph of every odd
function with domain all real numbers must pass through
the origin.
eo. Findingthe Range Graph the tunction/(x)
:
ffi^
the wi ndow
t-6,
6l by
l -2,2).
(a) What is the apparent horizontal asymptote of the graph?
(b) Based on your graph, determine the apparent range of/.
(c) Show algebraically that -1 =#+< 1.5 for allx,
thus confirming your conjecture in part (b).