Int. J, Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol . 3, pp. 129-153. P e r g a mo n Pr e s s Lt d. 1966.

Pr i n t e d i n Gr e a t Br i t ai n
SUBLEVEL CAVING*
I. JANELID and R. KvhPm
Department of Mining and Mine Surveying, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
(Received 1 November 1965)
A~traet--The following article contains a summary of the results obtained by theoretical
calculations, model experiments and large-scale tests concerned with sublevel caving problems.
1. PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION OF SUBLEVEL CAVING IN METALLIFEROUS
MINING
THERE is a wide selection of various underground mining methods which can be adapted
to the local conditions and to the particular r e q u i r e me n t s of the orebody concerned and of
the surrounding areas. If optimum results as regards production are to be achieved, a
number of interrelated problems arise. These must normally be solved by research and
development in a certain sequence if they are to be fitted into a joint process.
In the area of mining engineering and of most other industries one certain technical
detail or detailed process may be of decisive importance for the whole subsequent structure
and organization. We shall therefore first of all give a list of details and components which
constitute a portion of the conditions of metalliferous mining by present-day mining
methods.
Table 1 shows diagrammatically the plan which we have followed in principle in our
research and development work for a number of years. One must never lose sight of the
influence which one certain detail or individual process may have for all subsequent
operations.
TABLE 1. LI S T OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJ ECTS I N HAND AT PRESENT
Development project Examples
Operation, active factors, etc.
Technical details Drill bits, rock drills, detonators, A.N.F.O.
explosive
Drilling, blasting
Drifting, loading, haulage
Development workings, sublevel caving,
backfilling methods
Cut-off grade, loading limit
Ore losses, admixture of barren rock
Cleaning, dressing, planning, organization,
capital investment
Profitable production unit
Simple operations
Combined operations
Ore mining
Factors which affect the results
Result
* This work has been carried out within the framework of the programme Mine Research of the Swedish
Mining Association. The research problems were investigated at the Mining Department of the Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm with the collaboration of various Swedish mining companies, especially
LKAB Kiruna.
129
I
130 I. JANEL1D AND R. KVAPI L
One detail, quite minute in itself, may become decisive for a whole row of subsequent
operations. The T.C. drill bit, for example, has been a direct decisive factor for the following
functional relations: rock dri l l s--l ong straight hol es--mi ni ng methods. Anot her such
detail is the short-delay met hod of firing which has influenced the following processes:
Large rounds, problems of large lumps, ground vibrations, stope organization, etc. The
subjects ' simple operations' , ' combined operations' , ' metalliferous mining' etc. can be
discussed on similar lines.
The research and development work in this area will shortly have reached a point where
long and nearly straight holes can be drilled in any desired direction. It will be possible for
large rounds to be charged and fired with adequat e regard to safety. The driving of rise
is now a safe and highly mechanized operation and in the very near future all tunnelling
or drifting will probabl y be extensively mechanized, in some cases with machines drilling
out the complete section.
The operations ment i oned above are, however, only a means to an end when more or
less irregular ore bodies are to be mined which used to be done by conventional methods
applying drilling, blasting and loading in suitable workings.
The di agrammat i c scheme of the table indicates the necessity of taking into consideration
in mine pl anni ng such items as ore losses, dilution by barren rock, cut-off grade, sorting
etc. i f a profitable product i on is to be achieved.
Underground mining in Sweden produces annual l y about 40 million tonnes of ore and
rock, the principal mining systems being sublevel caving, sublevel stoping, block caving, open
stopes and pillars, and shrinkage stoping. As far as quant i t y is concerned, sublevel caving
is now the most i mport ant met hod with about 25 million tonnes per annum out of which
Ki runa alone accounts for 19 million t onnes per annum.
Past experience has shown t hat metalliferous mining in any of these methods is very
advant ageous from the point of view of mechanization when long holes are drilled. Long-
hole mi ni ng can be divided into two mai n groups, i.e. mining systems wi t hout backfilling
when the ore conditions and the rock strength permit, and caving systems when a system
wi t hout backfilling is impracticable. The second group with its mai n representative, the
sublevel caving met hod, is very complicated as far as control is concerned, but it has many
advantages as regards safety and mechanization.
These possibilities of development and fut ure prospects were borne in mi nd when
systematic theoretical calculations were carried out during the last few years, together with
model and large-scale tests, in order to establish the factors which determine or influence
especially two items, i.e. the ore yield and the admixture of barren rock. I f these two prob-
lems can be solved satisfactorily, most orebodies of vertical extent can be mined very
effectively with respect to safety, mechani zat i on and capacity by the new modified form of
sublevel caving which will be described in this article.
Before we proceed to the theoretical part dealing with the gravity flow of the blasted
material, the location of the sublevel headings, drilling, loading, etc. we shall describe the
sublevel caving operations in Sweden at the present stage of development based on a
number of illustrations.
Figure 1 shows the location of the sublevet headings and the principal operations required
consisting of drifting, drilling of the sublevel holes and ore loading.
Drifting is a fairly substantial part of sublevel caving and whilst in earlier times pre-
ference was given to air-leg mount ed rock drills, the mines are now changing over to various
types of drill rigs. In smaller headings of say 2.2 m 2.5 m one of the rigs used is the
SUBLEVEL CAVING 131
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FI G. 1. D i a g r a m m a t i c p l a n o f s u b l e v e l c a v i n g i n K i r u n a :
l - - d r i f t i n g ; 2 - - r i n g d r i l l i n g ( r o o f o f s l i c e ) ; 3 - - - c h a r g i n g o f e x p l o s i v e ; 4 - - o r e l o a d i n g .
so-called Tunnl er 200 (Fig. 2) with f r om 1 to 3 drills on a chain-feed cradle and in larger
headings drill rigs with hydraul i cal l y oper at ed feed cradles may be used.
Most pr oduct i on drilling, i.e. t he sublevel drilling, is now done by hydraulically oper at ed
drill rigs with one or t wo r ock drills, oper at ed by one man. These rigs ensure a high capaci t y
and also a sufficiently accurat e hol e di rect i on which is of great i mpor t ance as we shall see
later. Fi gure 3 shows a drill rig t ype Si mba 11 on rails designed f or medium-size headings
and with one hydraul i cal l y oper at ed set. The Ki r una mine with its larger headings of
3.5 m x 5 m uses drill rigs on pneumat i c tyres with t wo r ock drills, t ype Si mba 22, as
shown in Fig. 4. This rig is oper at ed by one man and has a capaci t y of 255 m drilled per
shift which cor r esponds t o 2400 t onnes ore per man and shift. The explosive used to blast
132 I. JANEL1D AND R. KVAPIL
in the sublevel is of the ammoni um ni t rat e or slurry type. The charging capacity of one
charging set (Fig. 5) f or A. N. explosive is 1000 kg/hr. Dynami t e cartridges can also be
charged in l ong holes by means of a charging r obot illustrated in Fig. 6 which has a capacity
of 400-800 kg/hr.
The ore is l oaded f r om large sublevel headings in mines like Ki r una by JOy loaders
18 HR and 19 HR i nt o shuttle cars or i nt o so-called Ki r una dumpcars with diesel drive
(see Fig. 7). Shovel loaders of vari ous types are also being used for direct t r anspor t into an
ore chute. Fi gure 8 shows such a ' Scoopmobi l ' in operat i on.
Most of t he l oadi ng in small drifts is done by rocker shovels in combi nat i on with various
haulage cars. Wi t h a compressed-ai r-dri ven car type U3N of 2 m a capacity (see Fig. 9)
in combi nat i on with the shovel l oader type LM 65H one man has reached an out put of
300 t onnes per shift over a haulage distance of 50 m.
In several mines the l oadi ng and haulage operat i ons in nar r ow headings are carried out
by a trackless met hod as dump cars t ype T2G ( Aut o- Loader ) of 0.75 m a capacity are used
(see Fig. 10).
This br i ef descri pt i on of the mining met hods and of the mechanical equi pment used
indicates t hat mechani zat i on as well as a simplification of t he whole process is feasible.
I f we possess exact and detailed i nf or mat i on about the gravity flow of the blasted rock
in the sublevel and i f we car r y out an exact pl anni ng and cont rol especially of the drilling
and l oadi ng operat i ons, we can t ur n t he modified sublevel caving met hod into an effective,
cheap and above all a safe mining met hod.
2. F UNDAME NT AL L AWS F OR T HE GRAVI TY F L OW OF GRANUL AR MAT E RI AL
A most i mpor t ant fact or in sublevel caving is the gravity flow of the l umpy material,
i.e. of t he bl ast ed ore and of t he bar r en rock.
The basic deduct i ons f r om the laws of gravi t y flow can be explained most simply by the
mot i on of granul ar material in a bunker.
In t he case of free discharge t hr ough the out l et at the bot t om of the bunker a certain
zone of t he bunker cont ent s will be set in mot i on. This zone within which the granul ar
material is movi ng is called the active zone A. The remai ni ng part of the bunker cont ent s
is i mmobi l e and forms a passive zone P (see Fig. I l).
I'1: : ! : f l
1 / I i I i 1 A
1
F~c. 11. Gr a vi t y fl ow o f gr anul ar mat er i al .
The movement of the particles in the active zone is effected by gravity so t hat we can
designate t he active zone as the gravi t y flow of the granul ar material. The centre line of the
gravity flow is vertical in case t he condi t i ons of t he granul ar material remai n unchanged.
The mot i on of the particles in a gravity flow obeys cert ai n laws.
Let us consider a certain poi nt N whi ch lies at t he height hn, above the vertical axis
of t he discharge openi ng (see Fig. 12). For the sake of clarity, the poi nt N lies in t he hori-
zont al pl ane f or med by t he interface n of materials of different col our.
.-FIG. 2. Tunnler 200.
facing page 132 KM.
FIG. 3. Drill rig Simba It on rails with 2 hydraulically positioned feed screw cradles.
FIG. 4. Drill rig Simba 22 on pneumatic tyres with 2 hydraulically positioned feed screw cradles.
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FIG. 9. Transport by U3N car of 2 rn:j capacity driven by compressed air.
FIG. 10. Loading and haulage into an ore chute by dumpcar (Auto-loader) T2G of 0.75 n9 capacity.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 133
When the outlet is opened the material begins to flow and the point N drops towards
the discharge. The original straight plane of the interface n deflects downwards due to the
discharge of the material (see Fig. 13).
At the moment when point N reaches the plane of the discharge opening, a certain
amount (volume VN) of granular material has left the bunker (see Fig. 14). This volume
VN did not run off at random but came from a certain zone which in form looks very
similar to an elongated ellipsoid of revolution. For this reason this zone is called an
ellipsoid of motion. In Fig. 15(b) this ellipsoid of motion is marked Eiv. We can distinguish
between its semi-major axis aN and its semi-minor axis bN.
/ : . . : / : ~ . . . . : : / [ ~ , , ~ . : , - / . . . . . .
FIG. 12. Run- of f process. FIG. 13. Run- of f process. FIG. 14. Run- of f process.
. . . . . . . . . E N '~ N
. . . . . . . . .
_ J l . . .
F1G. 15. Zones of mot i on dur i ng r un- of f of gr anul ar mat eri al .
The volume of the ellipsoid of motion Eiv approximately corresponds to that of the
discharged material VN. We have thus the relationship of
EN ~, VN. ( 1)
The plane of the interface n, which was originally horizontal, deflects downwards to
approach the limit marked in Fig. 15(a) with the points 1 and 2 (see also Fig. 14). The
funnel-shaped deflexion of the boundary n forms a cone Klv as indicated in Fig. 15(c). The
circular base of the cone Klv has the diameter of line 12, the height of the cone is hN and
its apex corresponds to the point N in the discharge opening [see Figs. 15(a)and 15(c)]. The
volume of the discharge cone KN approximately corresponds to the volume V/ of the
discharged material and, of course, also to the volume of the ellipsoid of motion E~v.
The relationship between the volumes of the ellipsoid of motion Ex, of the discharge
cone KN and the volume of material discharged V/ c a n thus be described by
Ely ~ Ku ~ Vx. (2)
If the volume V~v and the height of the ellipsoid of motion are known, the semi-minor
axis biv of Fig. 15(b) can be calculated from the formula
/IN
134 I. J ANE L I D AND R. KVAP I L
The characteristics of the shape of the ellipsoid of mot i on are det ermi ned by its eccen-
tricity ~a-
where
1
e U ~- - x/ (a~ -- b2N). ( 4 )
aN
The terms a x and b2v in equat i on (4) cor r espond to those of Fig. 15(b).
The Characteristics of the shape of the ellipsoid of mot i on, i.e. its eccentricity, are not
const ant , but depend very much on the particle size of the material. Smaller particles of
material cor r espond to a slimmer ellipsoid of mot i on and to a great er eccentricity. Larger
particles ext end the ellipsoid in width and its eccentricity becomes less. This is shown
schematically in Figs. 16(a, b, c).
0 l,~0 ! ~
FIG. 16 (a-c). Form of ellipsoid of motion as a function of particle size.
For the same material the eccentricity depends on a number of factors such as the size of
the discharge openi ng (enlargement o f the discharge opening increases the eccentricity),
the height of the ellipsoid of mot i on (a greater height increases the eccentricity), the velocity
of discharge (a faster rate of discharge increases the eccentricity) etc.
If, for a cert ai n material, t he eccentricity E~v and the height h2v under cert ai n conditions
are known, we can calculate the semi-minor axis f r om the following f or mul a:
hN
b~ = 5 - V( 1 - ~ ) . (5)
The run-off of granul ar material (wi t hout cohesion) causes no cavity due to the ellipsoid
of mot i on and t he surroundi ng material subsides evenly. This loosens t he material some-
what. This process also follows a regul ar pat t ern, especially in t hat it takes place in a zone
resembling an ellipsoid of revol ut i on. This ellipsoid is charact eri zed by its size reaching a
cert ai n limit as the material runs off f r om the ellipsoid of mot i on E2v. Outside this limit which
is f or med by the out er cont ours of this ellipsoid t he granul ar material remains stationary.
This ellipsoid of mot i on is t herefore called the limit ellipsoid Ea as i ndi cat ed in Fig. 17.
i
FI G. 17. T h e e l l i p s o i d o f mo t i o n E~v a n d i t s l i mi t e l l i p s o i d Ec.
Let us now assume t hat the limit ellipsoid Ea resembles t he ellipsoid of mot i on/ i N.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 135
The loosening of the granul ar material brought about in the limit ellipsoid can be described
by the loosening fact or a where
Ec
a - - Eo - - El y ( 6 )
and Ec and EN are the volumes of the corresponding ellipsoids.
The value of the loosening fact or for broken material varies from 1.066 to 1.100.
The volume of the limit ellipsoid Ec (caused by the loosening process) stands in a certain
ratio to the vol ume of the ellipsoid E~v. This ratio can be expressed by the formul a
Ec ~ EN (7)
a - - I
where ~ is the loosening fact or from equat i on (6).
Most of the granul ar materials t end t owards the lower figure of 1.066 for the loosening
factor. I f we apply this figure to equat i on (7) we obt ai n
Eo ~ 15 EN. (8)
This means t hat the volume of the limit ellipsoid Eo is about 15 times greater t han the
volume of the ellipsoid of mot i on EN.
The approxi mat e height ho of the limit ellipsoid can be t aken as
ho ~ 2"5 h~v. (9)
The cont ours of the limit ellipsoid form the boundar y between the zone of mot i on (inside
the limit ellipsoid) and the remaining st at i onary material (outside the limit ellipsoid).
Should the discharge of the material be stopped, the loosening will gradually become less
on account of the progressive consolidation of the granul ar material.
The limit ellipsoid continues to develop in proport i on to the cont i nued discharge of the
material from the outlet. This brings about the kinetic flow. We are mai nl y concerned
with the problems relating to the lower part of the kinetic flow over a certain height hiv.
It is i mpor t ant to establish here the wi dt h d of the kinetic flow at a certain height hN at a
moment when the material from the ellipsoid E~v (with the height h~v) has already run off
t hrough the outlet. The schedule for the calculation can be seen in Fig. 18.
The width of the kinetic flow at the height hN (at the moment in question) is given by the
points of intersection 1 and 2 in which the cont ours of the limit ellipsoid intersect the
originally hori zont al plane of the interface n [see Figs. 14 and 15(a) and (c)]. The points
1 and 2 at the same t i me represent the edge of the base of the discharge cone Klv [see Fig.
15(c)]. Figure 18 indicates t hat d = line ]'2.
p0
-~ ..-..-- ~.~ ......
FIG. 18. Width d of gravity flow at certain height above run-off opening.
136 1 . J A N E L I D A N D R . K V A P I L
The relationship between EN, KN and E a enables us to calculate the wi dt h of the kinetic
flow d - - 2r f or t he height h~v f r om the following formul a
r ~ ~ / [ ( h c - - hN) hN(1 - - ~2)]. (10)
The t erms h~ and h~v in f or mul a (10) cor r espond t o t hose in Figs. 17 and 18.
The pat h of t he particles in a gravi t y flow is not straight but a little curved as drawn
schematically in Fig. 19. The particles al ong the centre line of the kinetic flow are, however,
an exception. The curvat ure of t he pat hs is, however, so little t hat we can regard t hem
asst r ai ght lines.
I
/ i '
,' l
FIr. 19. Trajectory of particles in gravity flow.
The velocity of travel of the particles in t he gravity flow is not uni form, but is di st ri but ed
as follows:
The velocity is great er at short er distances of t he particle f r om t he discharge openi ng
and f r om the centre line of t he gravity flow. (The rule is t hat t he velocity of a particle in the
centre line of t he flow at a cert ai n height h above the openi ng is inversely pr opor t i onal to
t he rat i o h / e where e is t he di amet er or t he wi dt h of t he discharge opening. )
Inversely, the velocity of travel of a particle is reduced as t he distance f r om the discharge
openi ng and f r om t he cent re line of t he gravi t y flow increases. Ther e is no mot i on at the
boundar y of t he limit ellipsoid Ea.
This pat t er n of t he velocity di st ri but i on can be clearly seen in t he individual phases of a
tested model shown in Fig. 20.
~ Z
- - ,-w ,
E ~ ~ v r
~ v f
. . . . . . . . . ~ Y
F I ~ . 2 1 . E l l i p s o i d o f l i k e v e l o c i t y E v ~ .
This model was used to produce a const ant gr~tvlty flow of the granul ar material which
was t hen phot ogr aphed at various times of exposure. The rel at i on bet ween t he velocity of
t ravel of t he particles and t he t i me of exposure makes t he movi ng particles of the model
filling appear on t he film as lines. An increasing time of exposure allows smaller velocities of
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SUBLEVEL CAVING 137
travel of t he particles t o be r ecor ded on the film. I f t he time of exposure is short ened, all
t hose particles are practically ' cut off' which have a velocity of travel below t hat correspond-
ing t o the rat i o bet ween time of exposure and velocity. These particles appear to be mot i on-
less on t he phot ogr aph. The i ndi vi dual phase of Fig. 20 were obt ai ned at times of exposure
of V1 > 1:2 > I:3 . . . . The differing times of exposure make it possible t o differentiate
between t he zones of t he different velocities in t hat each short er t i me of exposure determines
t he zone of t he next hi gher velocity.
For t he sake of clarity Fig. 21 shows a summar y of the velocity di st ri but i on schematically
on the basis of a vertical section t hr ough the cent re line of t he limit ellipsoid Ea. The
velocity of t he particles at any poi nt of t he ellipsoid Ea is represent ed with V1 al ong the
X-axis.
The schemat i c spatial represent at i on of t he velocity di st ri but i on of the particles in t he
ellipsoid E a accordi ng to Fig. 21 shows t hat t he velocity is zero on the peri phery of the
limit ellipsoid E. A given vel oci t y such as 1:1 (Fig. 21) describes by its pat h in the pl ane Z Y
a figure resembling an ellipsoid. In the spatial represent at i on we can t al k of an ellipsoid
of like velocities which is mar ked in Fig. 21 as Ev l .
Fi gure 22 shows t hat a part i cl e at t he apex of t he ellipsoid has travelled aft er a cert ai n
time f r om poi nt I t o poi nt I ' . This particle has t her ef or e moved in a cert ai n time a cert ai n
distance w.
FIG. 22
The original height of the ellipsoid of like velocity Ev has been reduced f r om h to hi
because hi = h - - w (Fig. 22).
As t he apex particle moves f r om I t o I ' , all ot her particles lying at t he cont our s of t he
ellipsoid of like velocity Ev travel with t he same velocity, as can be seen when we compar e
in Fig. 22 t he apex particle I, f or example, with t he particle 1.
Dur i ng this process t he cent re of t he ellipsoid Ev also shifts f r om O to O1. (It shoul d be
not ed t hat t he cent re O of t he ellipsoid does not signify any part i cul ar particle, but merel y
an i magi nary poi nt where t he semi -maj or and semi -mi nor axes of t he ellipsoid intersect.)
This means t hat in the same t i me duri ng which t he particles have travelled the distance w,
t he ellipsoid of like vel oci t y has shr unk by w and its cent re has travelled t he distance f .
Accordi ng to Fig. 22 an appr oxi mat e sol ut i on can be expressed by
h-- w
f = A O - - AO1 ~, h/ 2 2 - - w/ 2. ( l l )
138 1. J ANELI D AND R. KVAP1L
We can t herefore state t hat the subsidence of the centre O of the ellipsoid of like velocity
E v is about equal t o hal f the distance travelled in the same time by t he particles at t he
cont our s of t he ellipsoid E v .
The laws in connexi on with the gravity flow of granul ar materials do not undergo any
basic changes even when the gravi t y flow is prevent ed for various reasons f r om developing
fully and symmetrically to the vertical axis. Such cases arise, for example, if the discharge
openi ng lies not in t he centre of the bunker bot t om, but in the side wall. Under such con-
ditions the ellipsoid of mot i on is, figuratively speaking, cut off by the bunker wall. This is
illustrated by Fig. 23 where this is i ndi cat ed di agrammat i cal l y. The ellipsoid of mot i on
Ex and the limit ellipsoid Ec are designated in this illustration in the same way as in Fig. 17.
The centre line O of the gravity flow (Fig. 23) deviates from the perpendi cul ar by a certain
angle r I. This devi at i on becomes great er as the friction al ong this wall becomes greater, i.e.
the greater the roughness of the wall surface.
As regards the velocity di st ri but i on in the gravity flow the statements made earlier apply
in the same way for these cases (Fig. 23).
~
-~ E G
FIG. 23. The ellipsoid of motion E~. and its limit ellipsoid E~, when granular material runs
off through opening in the vertical bunker wall.
3. GRAVI TY FLOW AND DETERMI NATI ON OF THE PARAMETERS I N SUBLEVEL
CAVING
The gravity flow of the material in sublevel caving corresponds in principle to the case
of Fig. 23 because the gravity flow in the sublevel caving is, figuratively speaking, cut off
by the wall of the slice.
We have here a condi t i on shown di agrammat i cal l y in Fig. 24 which represents a vertical
section t hr ough t he slice al ong the longitudinal axis of the ext ract i on drift.
,I
:v :i::
c~
r///,,~/ / / / ~ / l , ' / / " "
FIG. 24. Diagrammatic vertical section through longitudinal axis of extraction drift in sublevel caving.
The legends of Fig. 24 are as follows:
H- - he i ght of ext ract i on dri ft
M- - bl as t ed ore
G - - was t e
S U B L E V E L C A V I N G 139
S - - he i ght of slice
V- - b u r d e n
- - gr a di e nt of slice, called negat i ve when ct > 90 , vertical when ct ----- 90 and positive
when ~ < 90 .
Ot her di mensi ons are i ndi cat ed in Fig. 25 which shows a di agr ammat i c view of the slice
wall and cor r esponds t o t he section al ong I-I' in Fig. 24.
' ) g " i
i
$
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
I _ P I B M _ P j B_3
FIG. 25. Diagrammatic view of the slice wall in the plane of the section I-1' of Fig. 24.
The legends of Fig. 25 ar e:
B- - wi d t h of ext r act i on dri ft
P - - wi dt h of pillars bet ween ext ract i on drifts
A - - wi dt h of slice
h~, --t hi ckness of roof.
The ot her symbol s are t he same as in Fig. 24.
The sublevel cavi ng met hod is charact eri zed by a gravi t y flow of l umpy mat eri al because
bot h the bl ast ed ore and t he wast e may cont ai n large l umps of over 400 mm.
To opt i mi ze the pr oduct i on of cl ean ore and to mi ni mi ze cont ami nat i on by waste as well
as ore losses, it is necessary t o det er mi ne the opt i mum par amet er s of the slice.
Thi s is mai nl y a mat t er of det er mi ni ng t he hei ght of slice S, the bur den V, the wi dt h of
slice A, t he slice gradi ent a, t he wi dt h B and hei ght H of the ext r act i on drifts and the wi dt h
P of t he pillars bet ween drifts.
The det er mi nat i on of t he par amet er s is closely allied t o t he laws of gravi t y flow or, in
ot her words, t he cor r ect par amet er s of t he slice shoul d in the opt i mum case cor r espond to
t he laws of gr avi t y flow.
3.1 Form of gravity flow
We are mai nl y i nt erest ed in the f or m of t he gravi t y flow of t he br oken ore. The f or m of
the gravi t y flow over a cert ai n hei ght h' can be expressed in simplified f or m by the rat i o
of t he out fl ow wi dt h e t o the inflow wi dt h d (Fig. 26). The gravi t y flow is nar r ower ( mor e
paral l el ) as t he r at i o e/d appr oxi mat es 1.0. At a rat i o e/d ---- 1 the gravi t y flow is compl et el y
parallel. I f t he rat i o e/d becomes less t han 1, t he gr avi t y flow is t r ansf or med and is reduced
at t he l ower end.
FI~. 26. Inflow width d and outflow width e of gravity flow.
140 I. JANELID AND R. KVAPIL
The f or m of the gravity flow depends on many fact ors and we can regard its f or m as a
funct i on of these factors. As t he gravity flow corresponds to t he limit ellipsoid we can say
t hat the f or m of the gravity flow is a funct i on of the eccentricity of the limit ellipsoid, i.e.
e/d - f ( , ) .
The fact ors which are at work in this funct i on are still conceal ed in this formul at i on
and it is t herefore preferable to state the f or m of the gravity flow in a simplified symbolic
funct i on as
e/d f ( K , h, c, l,) (12)
where K -- propert i es of the l umpy material, including l ooseni ng phenomena which can
be expressed (in the simplified form) by the particle size
h ~: height of gravity flow
c - size of ext ract i on area, here given as the ext ract i on width
t, - velocity of travel of material in the gravity flow, given by the ext ract i on velocity.
The effect of the f act or K, i.e. of t he particle size of the material is charact eri zed by smaller
particle sizes resulting in a narrower (more parallel) gravity flow which as t hey become
smaller approaches t he rat i o e/d -- 1. As the particle size becomes larger, the inflow width d
increasingly exceeds t he out fl ow width e and the ratio e/d drops below 1. I f we wish to
express the effect of the particle size on the eccentricity of the ellipsoid of mot i on (Fig. 16)
we find t hat the eccentricity is inversely pr opor t i onal to the particle size.
The height h of the gravity flow has t he effect of maki ng the f or m of the gravity flow
more narrow (as regards parallelity) as the height h becomes greater, and vice versa.
The ext ract i on wi dt h c has the effect of maki ng the f or m of the gravity flow more narrow
(more parallel) as t he ext ract i on wi dt h increases.
The effect of t he ext ract i on velocity is charact eri zed by a more nar r ow (parallel) gravity
flow at higher ext ract i on velocities, because the latter affect the spread of the loosening
process.
In the same pl ane of section as in Fig. 24 we can represent the gravity flow in sublevel
caving with a vertical slice in the way shown di agrammat i cal l y in Fig. 27.
. L _ _ L . ~ ~
FIG. 27. Pattern of distribution of zones EN, Et; and KN governing motion in vertical section perpendicular
vertical slice wall.
The symbols EN, Eo, KN, hx and bN are the same as in Fig. 15.
The height of t he ellipsoid of mot i on EN can be t aken, with a slight simplification, as
twice the slice height, i.e. hN ~ 2 S. The cont our s of the limit ellipsoid are also t he boun-
daries f or t he gravity flow. The wi dt h r of t he gravity flow at t he height hN is given by
SUBLEVEL CAVING 141
f or mul a (10). As t he appr oxi mat e height of the limit ellipsoid ha ~ 2.5 h~v f r om f or mul a (9)
and as we have assumed t hat h~v ~ 2 S the wi dt h of t he gravi t y flow can be expressed as
r ~ V[ ( 5 s - 2 s ) 2 s ( l - , 2 ) ]
where S is the slice height. The unknown quant i t y is the eccentricity E because this depends
mainly on the particle size.
The blasted ore (and also the waste) can be a very compl ex and vari egat ed mi xt ure of
factors, so t hat it is not possible t o state exact figures for the eccentricity of these l umpy
materials. The eccentricity is also governed by a number of ot her fact ors such as the effect
of t he particle forms, t he mechanical propert i es of t he material of the particles, the effect
of moi st ure cont ent , of the roughness of the walls, of consol i dat i on propert i es and, in an
inverse sense, of the effect of l ooseni ng phenomena and external forces. These probl ems
suffer an addi t i onal compl i cat i on in t hat even a pr opor t i on of 5 to 7 per cent of fine material
can modi fy the propert i es of the l umpy material significantly.
The vol ume of t he ellipsoid of mot i on depends on the eccentricity. As the eccentricity
depends mai nl y on t he particle size, a di agram has been pl ot t ed in Fig. 28 which indicates
the appr oxi mat e principal relations bet ween vol ume V of the ellipsoid of mot i on, the
particle size K and t he height h of t he ellipsoid of mot i on. In this di agram the graph (1)
applies to fine and t he graph (2) t o l umpy materials.
When pl anni ng a sublevel caving oper at i on we can t ake in first appr oxi mat i on rough
values of t he eccentricity f or blasted har d ore f r om the di agram of Fig. 29 as a funct i on
of the height hu ~ 2 S. The eccentricity figures read f r om this di agram can be applied
bot h f or t he cal cul at i on of t he width r of the kinetic flow, and for t he appr oxi mat e deter-
mi nat i on of t he semi -mi nor axis bu of t he ellipsoid of mot i on EN, see Fig. 27. The approxi -
mat e wi dt h of t he semi -mi nor axis can be calculated f r om equat i on (5).
The exact values of t he eccentricity and, resulting t her ef r om, of the flow width r and of
t he semi -mi nor axis b~v, can onl y be det ermi ned by large-scale tests. These tests can be
organi zed in vari ous ways. One way is t hat of di st ri but i ng mar ked t racers over the plane n
(Fig. 27). All t hat need be done dur i ng t he test is to establish the vol ume of ore l oaded up
to the moment when t he t racers have arri ved at the ext ract i on drift f r om poi nt N (Fig. 27)
[see also the case in Fig. 15]. Desi gnat i ng this l oaded vol ume of ore as lie we can calculate
t he semi -mi nor axis of t he ellipsoid of mot i on f r om the f or mul a
/ i 2 (13
bu = N/ t 2_09 ~/ t N]
where hiv ~ 2 S cor r esponds to t he symbol in Fig. 27.
As t he semi -maj or axis of t he ellipsoid of mot i on as = hN/2 ~ S, we can calculate the
eccentricity f r om f or mul a (4). These tests can also be carri ed out successfully away f r om a
slice. A large-scale test is a good means of det ermi ni ng the exact f or m of the gravi t y flow
in t he plane of t he section accordi ng t o Fig. 27 i f t he r un- of f wi dt h m is measured at the
same time.
Fi gure 30 illustrates di agrammat i cal l y t he f or m of t he gravi t y flow in t he pl ane of t he
wall of t he slice, i.e. in a vertical section al ong I - l ' in Fig. 27. In principle t he condi t i on of
t he gravi t y flow corresponds t o t he case of Fig. 15 and t he values f or r, bN and E can be
det ermi ned in accordance with t he expl anat i on given t o Fig. 27. The same f or mul a and the
same di agram can be appl i ed as in Fig. 29 and we can t herefore det ermi ne in a large-scale
test t he exact figures of the desired quantities and the r un- of f width e.
142 h JANELID AND R. KVAPIL
v (~
FIG. 28. Approximate relation between height h and volume V of ellipsoid of motion.
099,
0 9 " / ' ~- - -
0.96 . . . .
0 9 5
0 93
092
090
I 0 2 0 3 0
h = 2 S
FIG. 29. Rough approximation of eccentricity.
40
FIG. 30. Pattern of distribution of zones
E~., E: and K,~ governing motion in verti-
cal section in plane of vertical slice wall.
The r un- of f wi dt h e (Fi g. 30) is an i mpor t a nt f act or whi ch gover ns t he shape of t he
gr avi t y flow. I n pr act i ce t he r u n - o f f wi d t h e depends on t he ext r act i on wi dt h c.
The ext r act i on wi dt h c is gi ven by t he oper at i ng r each o f t he l oader and by t he l oadi ng
syst em. The gr avi t y fl ow a ppr oa c he s mor e cl osel y a paral l el f or m i f t he oper at i ng r each o f
t he l oader is wi der and t he l oadi ng syst em cover s t he wi dt h o f t he ext r act i on dri ft mor e
fully.
The ext r act i on wi dt h c o f a l oader is na r r owe r t han t he wi dt h o f t he ext r act i on drift.
I f t he l oader is al ways s t at i oned at t he same spot , f or exampl e, i n t he mi ddl e (Fi g. 31)
or near t he side (Fi g. 32) o f t he ext r act i on dri ft , t he gr avi t y fl ow will be cons i der abl y r educed
in t he l ower r egi ons, t he wast e will s oon arri ve in t he ext r act i on dri ft and t he rel at i vel y
smal l r un- of f wi dt h may easi l y cause undesi r abl e ar chi ng o f t he l umpy mat eri al .
FIG. 3 I. Ore run-off during extraction by loader in
middle of extraction drift.
FIG. 32. Ore run-off during extraction by loader
along sidewall of extraction drift.
SUBLEVEL CAVING 143
The t heoret i cal l y best condi t i ons are creat ed when the operat i ng reach of the l oader
equals t he wi dt h of t he drift. This can be achieved with a l oader of smaller reach by letting
the machi ne deal with the ore in stages across t he whole width of the slope in the ext ract i on
drift. An advant ageous system is t hat of I, 11I, 1I (Fig. 33) where 1, II, III are the positions
of the loader.
Such a l oadi ng system ensures t hat the ext ract i on wi dt h c as well as t he run-off width e
are equal to t he dri ft wi dt h B, i.e. c - - e = B. The shape of the gravi t y flow is good in this
case because it approxi mat es a parallel f or m and because the cont act of the ore with the
waste being high up prevents the latter from reaching the ext ract i on dri ft prematurely.
FIG. 33. Ore run-offduring extraction by loader according to the system 1, IIl, il over the full width B of the
extraction drift.
The wi dt h B of the ext ract i on dri ft shoul d t herefore, not onl y pr omot e a good shape of t he
gravity flow, but also i nduce an even r un- of f of t he l umpy ore. When pl anni ng the width of
t he dri ft we must t herefore t ake i nt o consi derat i on the particle size of the blasted ore by
using t he fol l owi ng f or mul a f or t he appr oxi mat e width
B > ~,,/[5(5D) z k] (14)
where D = di amet er of largest lumps of t he blasted ore and k ~ f act or of composi t i on
of t he mi xt ure of l umpy material, det ermi ned by means of t he nomogr am of Fig. 34.
It can be seen f r om t he nomogr am t hat the fact or k depends on the percent age of lumps
(regi on I), on t he percent age of medi um ranges (region II) and on t he percent age of fine,
damp const i t uent s such as powder- and eart h-l i ke const i t uent s, etc. (region IV). The key
of t he nomogr am is i ndi cat ed in t he illustration by dot t ed arrows.
Cor r ect ore ext ract i on demands, not onl y an opt i mum r un- of f and ext ract i on width,
but also a good thickness m of the gravi t y flow (Fig. 27). The di mensi on m will, of course,
depend on how far t he l oader can dig i nt o the slope.
I f we appl y Ranki ne' s t heor y on t he di st ri but i on of the trajectories of the maxi mum
principal stresses, we can establish the opt i mum dept h of penet rat i on of the l oader i nt o the
slope. The trajectories of the principal stresses in the slope (Fig. 35) are inclined against the
90 - - 4' where 4' is t he nat ural angle of repose. The t heoret i cal l y best dept h x
vertical by 2
is given by the poi nt s I and 2. Poi nt 1 indicates in Fig. 35 the end of t he slope and poi nt 2
is given by t he i nt ersect i on bet ween t he t raj ect ory of the principal stresses, which originates
f r om t he upper edge of the ext ract i on dri ft (poi nt 3), and the fl oor level.
144
IV
15 #0 5
I. J A N E L I D A N D R . K V A P I L
PIG. 34. Nomogram for approximate calculation of factor k.
/ 1 / / / / / / 1 / / / / / / / / / / / [ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / ~ / / , . .,9 0 2 - ~ ~ . "
I S i
G I / l l l / / l l / l l / l l l ~ l / l l f l , ~ i i l l l / l l l i / 7 1 i l i l l l l l l l l l l l / l l l / l " / i / / / / / / l I i l l l l l
I I
FIG. 35. Theoret i cal l y best di ggi ng dept h of l oader in or e pile of ext r act i on drift.
I n c onf or mi t y wi t h t he l egends o f Fi g. 35 we can cal cul at e t he t heor et i cal l y best dept h
f r om t he f or mul a
90 <'
x ~ Hc o t - Ht a n - . (15)
2
The di ggi ng dept h xp appl i ed i n pr act i ce is usual l y smal l er t han t he t heor et i cal l y best dept h
SU BLEVEL CAVING 145
x and we shoul d not e t hat t he results will be the bet t er, t he mor e the appl i ed digging dept h
xp of t he l oader appr oaches t he opt i mum dept h x [from f or mul a (15)].
3.2 Burden
Fr om a t heoret i cal poi nt of view the bur den will be gover ned by many fact ors. I n pri n-
ciple we can express t he bur den by a symbol i c funct i on of these fact ors, beari ng in mi nd
FIo. 36. Schedule of calculation.
t hat t he effect of t he i ndi vi dual fact ors may differ consi der abl y wi t hi n this funct i on. Ther e
is al so a cert ai n mut ual i nt erference bet ween t he i ndi vi dual fact ors.
The bur den V can t her ef or e be wri t t en down in the f or m of the symbol i c funct i on
V =f ( K, h, c, v, S, x, m, B, a) (16)
where the first f our fact ors K, h, c and v are t he same as in f or mul a (12) and the ot hers are
as follows :
S ---- hei ght of slice
x ~ di ggi ng dept h of l oader, al so wi t h respect t o t he hei ght of t he ext ract i on drift
(Fig. 35)
m = r un- of f wi dt h accor di ng to Fig. 27
B - - wi dt h of ext r act i on dri ft
a = gr adi ent of t he slice.
The pr obl em is t he det er mi nat i on of t he opt i mum bur den V f or a cert ai n hei ght of slice S.
The pr oper bur den shoul d in t he opt i mum case cor r espond t o t he gravi t y flow of t he bl ast ed
ore in t he way shown di agr ammat i cal l y in Fig. 36.
The opt i mum bur den (see Fig. 36) f or a vert i cal slice can be cal cul at ed appr oxi mat el y
f r om t he f or mul a
V _> blv ---- ? ~/(1 - - c 2) (17a)
or, since hN/2 ~ S, f r om t he f or mul a
V -> S V(1 - - ,z). (17b)
An ext r emel y l arge bur den is a di sadvant age because this woul d soon st art near the t op a
consi derabl e cont ami nat i on by wast e whi ch qui ckl y arri ves at the ext r act i on dri ft and may
al so cause l arge ore losses. Too smal l a bur den is also bad because this very soon leads t o
consi derabl e cont ami nat i on by wast e f r om t he sides.
As regards t he quant i t y of pur e ore, t he great est t heoret i cal l y possi bl e a mount t o be won
f r om a slice is 50 per cent of t he t ot al a mount of bl ast ed ore. The rest will become mi xed
wi t h the waste.
K
146 I. JANELID AND R. KVAPI L
3.3 Hei ght o f slice
The hei ght of the slice can also be expressed by a symbol i c funct i on of the effective fact ors
such as
S ~ f ( K , h, c, t,, V, x, m, B, P, ct) (18)
where P is t he wi dt h of t he pillars between the ext ract i on drifts (Fig. 25) and the ot her
legends are the same as in f or mul a (16).
The appr oxi mat e height of a vertical slice can be calculated f r om the f or mul a
V
S ~ (19)
where V is t he burden.
The opt i mum hei ght of slice and t hat of the bur den have to meet ot her addi t i onal tech-
nical and economi cal requi rement s.
3.4 Locat i on o f ext ract i on dri f t s
The pr obl em in l ocat i ng the ext ract i on drifts is to decide which drift pat t er n is better,
the checkered ar r angement or the vertical ar r angement , and what are the best di mensi ons,
especially as regards B, P, A and S.
A good l ocat i on of the ext ract i on dri ft depends on the f or m of the gravi t y flow and on the
chance of mi ni ng the ore r emnant s bet ween the ext ract i on drifts.
The condi t i on of the ore r emnant s R is shown di agr ammat i cal l y in Fig. 37 for a vertical
pat t er n and in Fig. 38 for a checkered pat t er n of drifts.
! R
i i
, 0
FIG. 37. Pos i t i on o f or e r e mn a n t s R wi t h ver t i cal
~a r r a nge me nt o f e xt r a c t i on dr i f t s.
i
E2~
t t
FIG. 38. Pos i t i on o f or e r e mn a n t s R wi t h c he c ke r e d
a r r a n g e me n t o f e xt r a c t i on dr i f t s.
When t he ore is dr awn off at t he bot t om ext ract i on dri ft the mat eri al moves fastest al ong
t he cent re line of a gravi t y flow which coincides wi t h the axis e f the ext ract i on drift. The
difference bet ween the vertical and t he checkered ar r angement of the ext ract i on drift can
be clearly seen f r om the phases ( a) - ( b) - ( c) in Figs. 39 and Fig. 40.
The t hi rd phase of the ext r act i on (phase c) shows t hat the waste G has al ready reached
t he ext r act i on dri ft in t he case of a vertical dri ft ar r angement when it is still far away f r om
t he dri ft in t he case of a checkered ar r angement , see Fig. 40(c). When the wast e has reached
the ext r act i on drift, as shown in Fig. 39(c) no mor e pure ore can be ext ract ed because
t here is an i ncreasi ng cont ami nat i on of ore by waste. Fi gures 39 and 40 show clearly t hat
this happens earlier wi t h a vertical t han wi t h a checkered dri ft pat t ern. The checkered
ar r angement is preferred for these reasons because a great quant i t y of pur e ore can be
extracted.
S U B L E V E L C A V I N G 1 4 7
The appr oxi mat e height of slice S can, i f t he bur den has been fixed, be calculated f r om
f or mul a (19) and t he appr oxi mat e wi dt h of the ext ract i on dri ft B f r om the f or mul a (14).
The appr oxi mat e wi dt h of t he slice (Fig. 25) shoul d be smaller t han or at most the same as
t he wi dt h of t he gravi t y flow d (Fig. 30). In conf or mi t y with t he f or mul a (10) and appl yi ng
(a)
k~o
: , : i f - t
I
( t ~ ) k ~ o
. , 5 i 5 5
z
I
( c ) ~ 1 . . o
, J l . , . ,
N
I i
FIG. 39 (a--c). Ore run-off with vertical arrangement
of extraction drifts.
( a )
i..,,.1~. 0
1
'" ".'Z~:,."
, J , 4 : ; i
i M
i
FIG. 40 (a-c). Ore run-off with checkered arrange-
ment of extraction drifts.
t he calculations accordi ng t o Fig. 30 we can calculate roughl y the wi dt h of the slice f r om the
f or mul a
A -< 2 a / [ ( 5 S - - 2 S ) 2 S ( 1 -- E2)]
where S is t he height of slice f r om t he f or mul a (19).
The wi dt h of t he i nt ermedi at e pillars P (Fig. 25) is t hen f ound f r om
P =A - - B
(20)
where A can be cal cul at ed f r om f or mul a (20) and B f r om f or mul a (14).
Under good condi t i ons f or t he ore ext ract i on, i.e. adequat e wi dt h of ext ract i on dri ft and
ore ext ract i on over t he full wi dt h of t he drift, t he rel at i onshi p bet ween dri ft width B, inter-
medi at e pillar wi dt h P and t he slice wi dt h A may be approxi mat el y
A ~ B ~ P .
In this case the gravi t y flow is nearly parallel and its wi dt h cannot be much great er t han t hat
of the ext ract i on drift. Such a case is i l l ust rat ed di agrammat i cal l y in Fig. 41.
FIc. 41
3.5 Gradient of slice
The slice gradi ent a (see Fig. 24) is also a f unct i on of a number of factors. I f we i nt roduce
merely t he most i mpor t ant of t hem, we can write down t he symbol i c funct i on of t he slice
gradi ent in t he fol l owi ng f or m
=f ( KM/ K~ , S, V, v, R) (21)
148 I. JANELID AND R. KVAPIL
where KM = particle size of ore
Ke = particle size of waste
S = height of slice
V = burden
v velocity of travel of material in gravity flow as given by the extraction velocity
R -- roughness of slice walls.
The slice gradient a is to have the effect of preventing as much as possible the inter-
mixing of waste or, inversely, the intermixing of ore into waste.
A material of fine particle size can, as a result of the gravitational force, fill the lower-
lying cavities and gaps in a material of coarse particle size, i.e. fine ore lying over lumpy
waste or vice versa. The slice gradient should be chosen such that the optimum conditions
are obtained in this respect.
A principal decision as regards the best slice gradient, whether it is to be positive, vertical
or negative, can be obtained from the ratio of ore particle size to waste particle size. Table 2
can be consulted for this purpose.
TABLE 2
Ratio of particle sizes Slice gradient
K,~t/Kc > 1 Positive, ~ < 90'
K.v/Kc : 1 Vertical, a = 90 ~
KM/Kc < 1 Negative, a > 90 ~
The particle size ratio K~vl/Kc can be modified in practice because the size distribution
of the ore in the slice depends on the blasting operations.
The earlier formulae provide, as has been mentioned before, merely approximate figures
for the parameters of sublevel caving which we can apply in planning the mining system.
The precise optimum values of the parameters of sublevel caving, including all detailed
effective factors, can only be found on the basis of tests under natural conditions. The
proper execution of such tests is facilitated by an application of the knowledge of the
principles of gravity flow described in detail in Sections 2 and 3 of this article. The execution
of tests under natural conditions is advantageous because the optimum parameters of sub-
level caving can thereby be determined, not only as they are affected by purely technical
factors, but by operational and economical factors as well.
4. FRONT CAVING
On the basis of experimental investigations and practical experience it has been found
that the contamination of the blasted ore by waste will be the more comprehensive and
rapid as the contact areas between blasted ore and waste in the slice become greater and
more curved.
A modified subtevel caving called front caving has been worked out for thick ore deposits,
the characteristic feature being that the blasted ore in the slice forms a continuous front
so that the contact area with the waste is very small.
As the height F of the slice front can be twice as much in front caving as that of a con-
ventional slice height S, the middle sublevel of extraction drifts can be eliminated in the
S U B L E V E L C A V I N G 149
case of f r ont caving. The ar r angement of t he drifts in f r ont caving is shown di agrammat i cal l y
in Fig. 42.
Ext ract i on of the ore f r om t he upper drifts, sublevel I, leaves bet ween the ext ract i on
drifts the ore remnant s mar ked in Fig. 42 by R.
The principle of the gravity flow in f r ont caving is the same as in sublevel caving. We can,
t herefore, calculate the appr oxi mat e bur den V in f r ont caving f r om f or mul a (17b).
The appr oxi mat e f r ont height can be calculated f r om f or mul a
2V
F < ~/ ( i ~- e2)" (22)
Wi t h respect to the dri ft ar r angement in f r ont caving, the checkered pat t er n (Fig. 42)
is again t o be preferred t o the vertical pat t ern.
The ore ext ract i on f r om t he drifts of t he l ower sublevel l I (Fig. 42) can t ake place in
f r ont caving ei t her si mul t aneousl y or in stages. The process of si mul t aneous ext ract i on is
i l l ust rat ed in its individual phases a t o e of a tested model in Fig. 43, and t he process of
ext ract i on in stages in Fig. 44.
Si mul t aneous ore ext ract i on yields the best results, but may encount er cert ai n difficulties
for practical mining reasons, one of t hem being t hat it requires the si mul t aneous oper at i on
of several loaders. I f such an oper at i on is possible, t he simultaneous ore ext ract i on can not
onl y result in a consi derabl e i mpr ovement of the ore yield, but also in a very high pr oduct i on
capaci t y. I f the distance bet ween t he individual ext ract i on stages of t he successive ext ract i on
drifts becomes short er, ore ext r act i on in stages may gradually approxi mat e the simultaneous
ext ract i on.
The appr oxi mat e height hR of t he ore remnant s bet ween the ext ract i on drifts of the upper
sublevel I (Fig. 42) can be calculated f r om the f or mul a
hR ~ hN P/2r (23)
where P = wi dt h of pillars between t he ext ract i on drifts (Fig. 42)
h~v = an ar bi t r ar y height above t he ext ract i on dri ft of t he lower sublevel
r = hal f t he wi dt h of t he gravi t y flow (Fig. 18) cal cul at ed f r om f or mul a (10)
by appl yi ng f or mul a (8).
Figure 42 shows clearly t hat t he ore r emnant s become smaller as the wi dt h P of t he
i nt ermedi at e pillars becomes less. Any chosen wi dt h must of course meet t he condi t i ons
of ample l oad-beari ng capacity.
J i I
FIG. 42. Arrangement of extraction drifts in front caving.
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FIG. 47. Stress distribution with checkered arrangement of extraction drifts (photoelastic stress model).
SUBLEVEL CAVING 151
The precise opt i mum values of the paramet ers of f r ont caving can, as with sublevel
caving, be established onl y on the basis of large-scale tests.
Two more illustrations will help to give a bet t er idea of t he di st i nct i on bet ween f r ont
caving and sublevel caving. Fi gure 45 shows di agrammat i cal l y t he l ocat i on of t he extrac-
tion drifts and a view of t he di rect i on of t he slice walls I, 1I and III. In Fig. 46 we have shown
di agrammat i cal l y t he ar r angement of the ext ract i on drifts and a view in t he di rect i on of the
f r ont wall in f r ont caving.
The cont act area of blasted ore with waste in sublevel caving is t wo t o five times great er
t han in f r ont caving, because the blasted ore is ext ract ed in sublevel caving separately f r om
single burdens of differing arrangement . In some cases this difference may in practice be
much greater.
Fr ont caving may have consi derabl e advant ages compar ed with sublevel caving. At
pract i cal l y the same panel height the middle sublevel of ext ract i on drifts can be saved
in f r ont caving. Fur t her mor e, t he cont i nuous ore ext ract i on over t he full wi dt h of t he
f r ont wall and the small cont act area in f r ont caving, not onl y yield a larger quant i t y of
pure ore, but they also diminish t he cont ami nat i on and the ore remnant s.
5. STRESS STATE IN SUBLEVEL CAVING
The stress di st ri but i on and t he stress state in t he or ebody of the slice has been investigated
by models.
By means of phot oel ast i c stress investigations we i ndi cat ed the characteristics of t he
stress di st ri but i on which is shown in t he phot ogr aph of Fig. 47 in t he f or m of i sochromat i c
lines of a phot oel ast i c stress model . The model represents a checkered ar r angement of the
ext ract i on drifts at a pr edomi nant l y vertical act i on of t he pressure. The models were made
of gelatin and t he phot ogr aphs were t aken in monochr omat i c and ci rcul ar-pol ari zed light.
The highest stress concent r at i on (Fig. 47) occurs at the corners of the ext ract i on drifts
and at the j unct i ons of the obl i que corners bet ween the upper and l ower ext ract i on drifts.
This charact eri st i c pat t er n of t he stress concent r at i on causes in case of critical l oads a
typical dest ruct i on of the or ebody in t he slice. This dest ruct i on can be seen clearly f r om
the f or m of t he cracks in a plaster-of-Paris model in Fig. 48, where a checkered arrange-
ment of ext r act i on drifts has been model l ed. For the sake of a t heoret i cal compar i son
Fig. 49 shows a phot ogr aph of a t est ed model of plaster-of-Paris with a vertical ar r angement
of drifts, again l oaded until fract ure occurred. When t he ext ract i on drifts are in a checkered
arrangement , a critical l oad dest roys t he whole or ebody of t he slice (see Fig. 25). I n t he
case of a vertical ar r angement (Fig. 49), on t he ot her hand, the pillars bet ween t he extrac-
t i on drifts r emai n whole.
The l oad-beari ng capaci t y is smaller with a checkered dri ft ar r angement t han with a
vertical arrangement .
This difference in l oad-beari ng capaci t y becomes t he larger, the smaller the thickness of
r oof hF (Fig. 25) and t he great er the wi dt h B of the ext ract i on drifts.
Labor at or y investigations have shown t hat this difference is consi derabl y diminished
even at critical l oads i f t he thickness of t he r oof exceeds t he wi dt h of the ext ract i on dri ft
by at least 20 per cent, i.e.
hp >-- 1.2 B (24)
where he = thickness of r oof above ext ract i on dri ft (see Figs. 24 and 25)
B = wi dt h of ext ract i on dri ft (Fig. 25).
152 1. JANELID AND R. KVAPI L
If, for exampl e, the wi dt h of the ext ract i on dri ft B ~ 6 m, the necessary thickness of the
r oof hE = 1.2 6 = 7-2 m, and i f t he hei ght of the ext ract i on drift H ~ 3.7 m, the mini-
mum requi red height of slice is
S > H- k - hE=3. 7- - k 7. 2- - 1 0 " 9 ~ l l m.
The l owest sublevels of the i ron ore mi ne Ki r una, where B ~ 6.0 m and H ~ 3.7 m, begin
wi t h a height of slice S ~ 13.0 m.
The quest i on whet her sublevel cavi ng is pract i cabl e even at great er dept hs below gr ound
level has oft en been discussed. Bot h t heoret i cal and pract i cal poi nt s of view indicate a
positive answer. A few Swedish met al l i ferous mi nes oper at e sublevel cavi ng al ready t oday
at dept hs of over 700 m bel ow gr ound level.
The case of Fig. 50 will i l l ust rat e the poi nt mor e clearly. I n this case the sublevel is in the
virgin state, i.e. no ore has been mi ned as yet. The pl ane of br eak 1, 2 in the hangi ng and
3, 4 in t he f oot wall pract i cal l y f or ms a large not ch 1, 2, 3, 4 wi t h the hor i zont al pl ane of the
ore (Fig. 50). The stress pat t er n has, t herefore, the same charact eri st i cs as t hat of a not ch
under si mi l ar condi t i ons. The lines t which i ndi cat e t he di rect i on of t he ma xi mum pri nci pal
stresses t herefore fol l ow in pri nci pl e a pat t er n as shown di agr ammat i cal l y in Fig. 50.
, , l , l t
FIG. 50. No t c h effect a n d s t r e s s s t a t e i n s ubl e ve l c a vi ng.
I n the unwor ked sublevel of t he slice (shaded area in Fig. 50) the stress st at e is charact eri zed
by the hor i zont al compr essi ve forces in mos t cases bei ng great er t han the vertical forces.
Thi s is i ndi cat ed in Fig. 50 by t hi ck arrows. I t is as i f t he upper par t of the ore st r at um is
subj ect ed t o l at eral compr essi on. The pr edomi nat i ng hor i zont al pressures are in this case
due to t he effect of the not ch 1, 2, 3, 4. The highest stress concent r at i on occurs at t he cor-
ners 3 and 2 (especially 2) of t he not ch. Thi s stress state causes no, or at least very few,
difficulties in pract i ce duri ng devel opment wor k, i.e. when t he drifts are being dri ven hori -
zont al l y and perpendi cul arl y to t he l ongi t udi nal axis of the deposi t f r om hangi ng t o f oot wall.
As soon as t he first bur den has been mi ned, the stress state i mmedi at el y changes. Thi s is
shown di agr ammat i cal l y in Fig. 51. The r emoval of t he first bur den i nt errupt s the con-
t i nui t y of t he or ebody and the stress concent r at i on is shifted f r om the cor ner 2 ('Fig. 50)
to the cor ner 6 (Fig. 51). Thi s r emoves the effect of t he hor i zont al pressures f r om the
overl yi ng st r at a on t he slice f r ont and the whol e process of the stress concent r at i on t akes
place bel ow t he wor ki ng zone of the sublevel (shaded area in Fig. 51). The compr essi ve
forces mar ked in Fig. 51 by t hi ck ar r ows r un under neat h the lowest not ch outlines and must
t herefore pass ar ound t he corners 6, 7 and 3. The addi t i onal not ch effect of the corners 6 and
7 (Fig. 51) is very beneficial for t he wor k in the mi ni ng zone of the slice. The wor ki ng zone
of t he sublevel is stress-relieved by it because the wei ght of the wast e f r om the dest royed
hangi ng (and somet i mes f r om dest royed f oot wall) can under pract i cal condi t i ons
SUBLEVEL CAVING 153
F~G. 51. Changes in stress state when mining the first slice.
ne ve r a t t a i n t he or i gi na l f i gur e o f t he r oc k pr e s s ur e o f a vi r gi n r oc k mas s . Thi s c ha r a c t e r i s t i c
i n t e r p l a y o f f or ces c a n cr eat e s ui t a bl e c o n d i t i o n s f or s ubl evel cavi ng even at gr e a t e r mi ni ng
d e p t h s b e l o w g r o u n d l evel .
Th e f o r mu l a e q u o t e d a b o v e f or t he a p p r o x i ma t e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t he p a r a me t e r s o f s ubl e ve l
c a vi ng or f r ont c a vi ng c a n be a p p l i e d f or mi n i n g de s c e ndi ng f r o m f o o t wal l t o h a n g i n g or
vi ce ver s a.
REFERENCES
I. JANELID | . Mining Engineering and its Development in Swedish Mines, Almqvist & Wiksells, Uppsala (1961).
2. JANELID I. Research and Development in Swedish Mining, Jubilee paper "Leoben Miners' Day 1962" (1962).
3. JANELID I. Development trends of drilling and blasting in Swedish metalliferous mines, Berg- undHiittenm.
Monatshefte No. 2, 25-35 (1963).
4. JANELID I. State and development trends of the loading and haulage operations in Swedish metalliferous
Mines, Berg- und Hiittenm. Monatshefte No. 4, 153-161 (1964).
5. KVAPIL R. Theory of the Flow of Granular and Coarse Materials in Hoppers, SNTL Prague (1955); Theory
of Motion of Free-Flowing Material, Verlag Technik, Berlin (1959); Motion of Free-Flowing Materials
in Bunkers, Gosgortekhizdat, Moscow (1960).
6. KVAPIL R. Gravity flow of granular materials in hoppers and bins, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 2, 2541
(1965); 2, 277-304 (1965).
7. KVAPIL R. Problems of stress distribution in pillars and roofs of rooms, Tech. Digest No. 5, 3-12 (1961).
8. KVAPIL R. Problems of gravity flow of free-flowing materials, Aufbereitungs-Technik Nos. 3, 4, 10, 12
(1964).