1

ME 610: Applied Tribology

Dr. H. Hirani
Department of Mech. Eng.
I.I.T. Bombay
hirani@me.iitb.ac.in, hirani@iitb.ac.in
2
Overview
Whon foroou undor
rolativo motion aro
tranuforrod from ono
uurfaoo to anothor, thon
bauio oontradiotion
ariuou:
- Moohanioal olomont noodu
largor aroa to roduoo
utrouuou, vhilo roquirou
minimum oontaot aroa to
roduoo voar rato and
friotion louuou.
There is no machine or mechanism, which does not
experience such contradiction.
3
Applied Tribology is a subject that deals
with force transmission from one surface to
another under relative motion, keeping
contradiction to minimum level.
TRIBOS (Greek word) = RUBBING (English word)
triboLOGY (term coined in 1966) = Science of
Rubbing
Deals with friction, lubrication and wear in all
mechanical contact situations.
Improve service life, safety and reliability of
interacting machine components.
4
Jost Report (1966): by fully
utilizing improved design and
lubricating procedures, UK
could expect an estimated
saving of about 500 million
pounds sterling per year
High Speed requirement
Deterioration rate!!!!
Friction losses!!!!!
86.4%
5
Understanding nature of surface interaction
and solving problems associated with the
interfacial phenomena constitute the
ESSENCE of TRIBOLOGY.
Basic mechanisms that govern interfacial behavior
Basic theories that quantify mechanisms
Application of mechanisms and theories to provide
practical solutions to important friction and wear
problems.
Broadly every tribological problem can be stated in terms
of two independent surfaces (material composition, surface
roughness, hardness and induced stresses) and one
interacting field (mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
electric, magnetic)
6
Various disciplines in Tribology
Solid Mechanics: Focus is on mathematics of
contact stresses and surface temperatures due to
sliding.
Fluid Mechanics: Study of liquid lubricant
behavior for various shapes of sliding surfaces.
Material Science: Focus is on atomic and micro
scales mechanisms whereby solid surface
degradation or alteration occurs during relative
motion.
Chemistry: Deals with reactivity between
lubricants and solid surfaces.
7
Various disciplines in Tribology: Solid Mechanics
Assume fwo surfoces in sIow reIofive mofion. Mofion
under Iood induces sfresses fhof resuIf breokoge of
briffIe weok osperifies ond pIosfic deformofion of
soff surfoce.
Zero wear . Running in
8
Think of a heavy supermarket trolley going over rough
concrete.
On microscopic scoIe fhe
moIecuIes from fhe wheeI ond fhe
concrefe ore snogging ogoinsf one
onofher moking fhe wheeI bounce.
Fig. Friction bounce
Fig. Using elasticity to smooth the ride
Note: Whon a olautio uolid
(oomplotoly rovoruiblo
utrouuou and utrainu) iu
ulid againut a ulidor, it
oxporionoou oyolio loading.
Various disciplines in Tribology: Fluid Mechanics
& Material Science
9
What would happen if we now had to push the trolley (with the
carpet attached) across a carpet.
Two sets of hair in the carpet entangle, actually increasing the
friction. The algebra of this is as follows:
Bumps + Bumps = Friction
Bumps + Elasticity = Less friction
Elasticity + Elasticity = More friction!
10
Imagino a orovdod party and diffioulty to got
rolativo motion.
Nood to puuh pooplo around to mako upaoo. Or
Nood to broak apart handu vhioh aro holding onto
oaoh othor.
Smoothor uurfaoou havo moro molooulou, gotting
olouo to othor molooulou, vhioh oould inoroauo tho
foroou of attraotion botvoon thom, honoo making
friotion groator.
Naturo of intoraotionu at tho intorfaoo oontrol tho
friotion bohavior of matorial involvod.
CovoIenf bonds . MefoIIic bonds
Von der WooI forces
Various disciplines in Tribology: Chemistry
11
12
Friction loss:
In Automobiles: 20%
Aeroplane piston engine: 10%
Turbojet engine: 1.5-2%
What iu tho difforonoo botvoon "Bauio tribology' and
"Appliod tribology'?
13
Some suggestions from design books !!!
Maintain low contact pressure
Maintain low sliding speed
Minimum but certain roughness of bearing
surfaces
Avoid high temperature
Use hard and tough metals
Insure low friction coefficient
Arrangement for lubrication
Competitive product
14
Caused by machine
vibration.
Surface Roughness
of Tribo-Pair
W R
1 . 0
15
16
Poughness~ Finer irreguIorifies of surfoce fexfure~ usuoIIy
resuIfs from inherenf ocfion of producfion process, such os
mochining (movemenf of fooI edge reIofive fo work piece) or weor .
Nose radius, Depth of
cut, Speed, Feed rate
( ) ! !
47 . 0 433 . 0
034 . 0 813 . 0
Empirical
r V
d f
k R
a
=
Surface roughness confines contact between solids to a very small fraction
of nominally available contact area
Area calculation in Mechanical Engineering ?
0.02 0.05 Lapping
0.05 0.2 600 Emery
0.2 0.4 Fine grinding
0.4 3 Grinding
1-6 Turning
R
a
( m) Different
Processes
17
N11
N12
25
50
N10 12.5
N9 6.3
N8 3.2
N7 1.6
N6 0.8
N5 0.4
N4 0.2
N3 0.1
N2 0.05
N1 0.025
Roughness grade
number (ISO class)
R
a
values in micron
18
( )dx x z
l
R
l
a
}
=
0
1
Discontinuous
steps!!!
( ) n z z z z R
n n a
/ ...
1 2 1
+ + + =

x
z
19
Root-mean-square deviation
( ) dx x z
l
R
l
q
}
=
0
2

1
20
21
) (l f R
a
=
22
23
Statistically Distribution
24
Statistical Properties of Surfaces
( ) ( )
( ) on distributi height the of function density y probabilit is z
line reference from measured height profile to refers z e wher
: as written be can ordinate
all the of on distributi cumulative the terms, l statistica In

dz z z F
}

=
Many surfaces tend to exhibit a normal gaussian
distribution of heights.
( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
z
: as given is on distributi gaussian for function Density

z
e z

=
25
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

2
z area unit For
2
curve gaussian of Area
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
0
z
z
e
z dz e z z F

=
= =
}
( )
3
3
RSk
: as defined and symmetry, of departure of measure a is skewness The
SKEWNESS

=
dz z z
RSk = 0 represents true Gaussian symmetrical curve. Unsymmetrical
curves can have either negative or positive skewness
26
27
Kurtosis
( )dz z z

}
=



1
R
4
4
Ku
Measure overall impulsiveness
Bad Bearing
Normal gaussian
distribution
28
AutoCorrelation Function (Spacing
Parameter)
Measure the distribution of peaks and valleys across the
surface. Horizontal distribution of roughness
}
=
+

L
l x x
L
dx y y
L
l e
0 2
1
lim ) (

L Sampling length
l displacement
e(0) =1.0 (Max
value)
e() =0.0 (Min
value)
For many real surfaces ACF ~ exponential function.
29
Measurement of surface roughness
Microscale Nano/Atomic-scale
Contact type
Use of stylus tip in contact with
surface to be measured.
Sharp stylus tip may damage
soft surfaces
Non-contact
Optical method
Principle of two beam optical
interferometry
Widely used in electronics
& optical industries
Electron microscopy
Atomic force microscopy
Scanning tunneling
microscopy
30
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
Allows studies of the surfaces on an atomic level.
A sharp metal tip is brought to the surface, to be
profiled.
A voltage is applied between the tip and the surface
(substrate) and tip is scanned along the surface.
At the same time it is displaced perpendicular to the
surface in such a way that the tunneling current is kept
constant.
This results in a image (contour map) with atomic-scale
resolution.
One limitation of STM is that it requires a
substrate with relatively high conductivity.
31
Atomic-Force Microscopes (AFM)
In AFM a sharp tip (as in FFM) is brought into close
proximity of the surface to be studied.
The tip is scanned along the surface and displaced
perpendicular to the surface in such a manner that the
normal applied Ultra-small (atomic) force between the tip
and substrate stays constant.
The resolution of AFM is usually lower than that of STM.
The AFM has advantage over STM as it can be used for
both insulating and conduction surfaces.
The AFM is also used for investigation of wear,
indentation, detection of transfer of material on nanoscale.
32
Stylus: Small
pointed
device that
picks up
surface
profile
Amplified signals to chart recorder /
data logger
33
Styli use diamond chip braised to stainless steel rod.
Conical tips are almost exclusively used.
Cones of 60 to 90 (tradeoff)
Radius range [0.1, 10] microns
Source of errors
Finite size of stylus tip
Contact load
Mechanical Stylus Method.
34
Five sample lengths, help to minimize noise effect.
?As per Table 0.1 Ra should correspond to 0.8mm LC.
35
36
37
Ex: Surface profile measure with
displacement sensor
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Excel average = 0.1716
Excel Kurt = -1.44615 ; Excel skew = 0.2784
38
Using Matlab for 120 data
Mean = 0.1697
Kurtosis = 1.6032 ; Skewness = 0.2796
Excel average =
0.16975
Excel Kurt = -
1.40512 ;
Excel skew =
0.28318
KURTOSIS(X,0)
adjusts the
kurtosis for
bias=-1.4 051.
39
Dimensionless film parameter (Specific film
thickness)
2
,
2
,
min
b rms a rms
R R
h
+
=
Boundary lubrication,
<1
Mixed lubrication,
1<<3
Hydrodynamic
lubrication, >5
Elastohydrodynamic,
3<<5
40
Tribology is science of friction and wear.
Tribology and surface roughness are related.
41
Dry FRICTION
Three well know laws of sliding friction under
dry conditions are:
It is a resistance to motion and always acts in a
direction opposite to that of the relative displacement
between contacting bodies.
Static.. : Force to initiate sliding
Kinetic (or Dynamic): Force to maintain sliding
It is a function of normal contact load F=f W
Coefficient of friction is independent of a nominal
contact area.
42
Historical Overview
20
th
century B.C Oil reduces friction
Themistius(390-320 B.C)-Rolling friction much
smaller than sliding
Leonardo da vinci(1452-1519): F W;F A
Earliest experimenter
Friction made by same weight will be of equal resistance
at the beginning of movement, although contact may be of
different breadths or length
Friction produces the double the amount of effort if
weight be doubled
43
G.Amontons, 1699: F Fn; F A
Rediscovered Leonardo da vinci laws
= 0.3 for most of materials
44
Historical overview.
C.A.Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806):
1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction
2)Contact at discrete points.
3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces
4)No adhesion
5)f func(v)
45
TOMLINSONs Theory of Molecular attraction: 1929
Relation between friction coefficient & elastic properties of material
involved.
Clean Steel E=30 Mpsi, G=12 Mpsi
Aluminum E=10 Mpsi, G=3.6 Mpsi
Titanium E=15.5 Mpsi G=6.5 Mpsi
[ ]
psi shear, in modulus is G
) * . 3 (
. 4 . 3
psi modulus, young is E * 10700
3 / 2
G E G
G E
f
II I
+
+
=
+ =

46
Bowden & Tabor Model
Two friction sources
Generally load on bearing surface is carried on just a
few points. These are subjected to heavy unit
pressure, and so probably weld together. Adhesion
force developed at real area of contact.
Deformation force needed to plough asperities of
harder surface through softer.
Resulting friction force is sum of two contributing
terms
Adhesion = Attractive force across an interface
Interface = Contact boundary between two surfaces.
47
ADHESION Theory
Two surfaces are pressed together under load W.
They deformed until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support
load W. A = W/H.
To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength of
junctions with force F F = A s
Basic assumption is plastic deformation. For
elastic deformation A = (W/H)
n
2/3 < n<1
48
For most of materials H = 3
y
& s =
y
/1.7
Expected value of =.2
Friction of metals arises from strong adhesion or
welding at the regions of real contact.
Similar & dissimilar materials?????
H A W
real
= s A F
real
=
H
s
=
Shear stress of softer of contacting materials
On steel (0.13%C)
Silver 0.5
Copper 0.8
Indium 2.0
Lead 1.2
Metals on it self
Gold 2
Silver 1
Copper 1
Chromium 0.4
Lead 1.5
Real surfaces, being
bumpy on a
microscopic scale,
make contact at
only asperities. This
means, load is
supported on a very
small total area
during contact, and
local contact stress
is high, equivalent
to H (= 3 *
y
)
49
PLOUGHING Effect
Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact with flat soft
metal, vertically project area of contact:
( )
2
* 5 . 0 r n A =
H r n W ) * 5 . 0 (
2
=
H nrh F ) ( =

cot
2
=
Ploughing occurs when two bodies in
contact have different hardness. The
asperities on the harder surface may
penetrate into the softer surface and
produce grooves on it, if there is relative
motion.
50
Two basic reasons of ploughing are:
Ploughing by surface asperities
Ploughing by hard wear particles present in
contact zone
For = 45 = 0.6366
For = 60 = 0.3676
For = 80 = 0.1123
Slope of real surfaces are nearly always less
than 10 (i.e. > 80), therefore < 0.1.
Conclusion: Total , representing contribution
for both ploughing and adhesion terms, should not
exceed 0.3. For same material, = 0.2.
51
On steel (0.13%C)
Indium 2.0
Silver 0.5
Copper 0.8
Chromium 0.5
Lead 1.2
Cadmium 0.4
Metals on it self
Gold 2
Indium 2
Silver 1
Tin 1
Copper 1
Chromium 0.4
Lead 1.5
Cadmium 0.5
52
Possible reasons for differences between Bowden &
Tabor Model and Experimental results
H
s
=
Junctions themselves work harden significantly, which raise
relative value of s in comparison with that of H. Therefore shear
strength of weak material will be greater than
y
/sqrt(3)
53
Junction Growth
Constant
F A ????
54
Limiting Junction Growth
Presence of weak interfacial films. Assume
shear stress,
i
.
max max
A F
i
=
2
max
2 2
max max
) 4 ( A
A
W
F
i y
i

= =
) ( 2
2 2
i y
i

=
Average shear
strength
Understanding this mechanism motivate to apply thin film of
low shear strength materials to the surfaces.
Noble metals like gold, which do not participate in chemical
oxidation, are unsatisfactory.
55
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION
Metal surfaces of this () type have initial = [0.1, 0.3].
Higher values are reached if surfaces continue to slid over
each other.
56
Coefficient of Friction
0.55 Cobalt Lead
0.54 Iron
0.2-0.4 Mica (contaminated)
1.0 Mica (fresh cleaved) Mica
0.31 Steel, 1032
0.47 Aluminum
0.32 Copper Steel, 1032
0.9 Lead
Coefficient Moving surface Fixed surface
57
Possible situations
Weak (ductile) metal, weak oxide
Film easily broken, rapid junction growth, and high .
Example Indium, gold
Weak metal, strong oxide
Transition from low to high as load increases.
Examples: Copper, Iron
Strong metal, strong oxide
Low at all loads. Examples: Strong steel, Chromium
58
Sliding friction force depends on:
Real contact area (strong dependence)
Surface geometry (weak dependence)
In most un-lubricated (dry) sliding system
Welding term>> Ploughing term
Interface strength (Surface films)
Most of work (against friction) being done in inducing shear
displacement of junction interface
CONCLUSIONS
59
FRICTION MEASUREMENT
TRIBOMETER Instrument for estimating sliding friction
Categories of Testing:
1. Full size field trial
2. Test on the actual component (or subassembly, triboelement) but on
a test stand.
3. Tests involving the basic geometry of contact
If the surface is to simulate a specific machine part, it should have the
same surface finish, lay, heat treatment and cleaning procedure.
? An average person has ~1,000,000 sweat (98% water + 2% sodium
carbonate, urea, sulfate, and fatty acids) glands.
60
Design of Friction Measurement
Fix/Support two
bodies
Move bodies relative
to one another in a
controlled fashion
Apply a normal force
Measure the
magnitude of
tangential force
Inclined Plane Tribometer
Sled Tribometer
61
62
63
Effect of Normal force on Friction
At low loads materials are unable to deform
plastically. At Hertz equation for the contact of
spherical surfaces the area of contact is
proportional to W
2/3
, consequently F is
proportional to W
2/3
, and is proportional to W
-1/3
.
64
Tests using Curved Contact Surfaces:
65
Friction measurement
in Cam-Follower
mechanism
66
Torque Sensors
Two categories:
Reaction torque sensor
Torque twists a shaft having one end clamped
Simpler construction.. No relative motion between
shaft and electrical wiring associated with torque
measuring means.
Dynamic torque sensor
Torque is transmitted by a rotating shaft
Non contacting type
Elastic torque sensor (measurement of twist angle/surface
strain)
Magnetoelastic torque sensor
67
Twist Angle Measurement
This torque measuring method
requires larger shaft length (at least L/D
= 5) and a pair of identical toothed
disks attached at opposite ends of the
shaft.
The twist angle can be determined
from the phase difference between
magnetically or optically detected
tooth/space patterns on each of the
disks.
This method generally requires the
shaft to be rotating.
Can one use Encoders ??
68
Shear Strain Measurement
Changes in surface strain, can
be measured by strain gages
attached to the shaft.
Four gages arranged in a
Wheatstone bridge increase
accuracy.
69
Magnetoelastic Torque Sensors
MognefoeIosfic forque sensors produce
signoIs fhof ore funcfions of forsionoI sfress,
nof sfroin.
Stress-induced magnetic anisotropy,
is the magnetostriction constant of the shaft material.
More compact construction than those required for either
the twist angle or surface strain elastic methods.
The sensor works in a differential mode of operation,
since this makes it more robust against common mode
types of disturbances, such as the ambient temperature.
70
Ex: Torque meaaurement uaing
reaction torque aenaor
Friction
torque is
measured
by strain
gauge
load cell.
71
Friction Torque Data
0.510 20w/10 101Z 00
0.128 20w/10 102Z 00
0.10 20w/10 1000 150
0.118 20w/10 500 300
0.11 20w/10 Z50 150
0.0 20w/10 500 150
0.338 20w/10 101 00
0.102 20w/10 1000 00
0.5Z2 20w/10 1000 00
0.12 20w/10 1000 00
Friction Torque(Nm) Lubricant RPM Load (N)
Standard doviation ~ 0.075604
Avorago Valuo ~ 0.446
72
Reproducibility of Pin-on-Disk
Friction Data
73
600 rpm -- 0.2 amp current
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Number of samples
T
o
r
q
u
e
,

N
.
m

FricfionoI forque meosured using MognefoeIosfic
Torque Sensors
74
600 rpm -- 0.4 amp
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Number of samples
T
o
r
q
u
e
,

N
.
m

Iurfosis ~Z.8408
Skewness ~-0.3Z983
Sfondord deviofion ~0.I00o37
Averoge ~I.89bI33M.m
75
600 rpm -- 0.6 amp
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Number of samples
T
o
r
q
u
e
,

N
.
m
Skewness ~ -0.o49Zb
Iurfosis ~ 3.Z99
Sfondord deviofion ~ 0.I79o34
Averoge forque ~ 3.73bZZI
76
Some Comments:
-Less effective the lubrication, more replicate tests will needed to
characterize frictional behavior satisfactorily.
- In absence of lubrication, variations are usually greater at low
normal load compared high load
-Increasing or decreasing normal load periodically, as in step
tests, will not necessarily produce the same frictional behavior.
- It is best to measure friction of contacting pairs in practical
conditions, including vibration, fluctuating speed, fluctuating
load, etc.
- Variations are generally caused by wear and other surface changes.
-There is little point in attempting to measure friction in steady state
sliding.
- It is always better to record range of friction values together with
some description of the nature of unsteadiness and the time varying
trends.
77
Significant difference between static and kinetic friction
coefficients, initiates a stick-slip process.
78
Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Unvantod vibrationu ooourring duo to friotion foroou
at uliding uurfaoo. i.o. uquoaling of brako, ooourronoo
of jorky motion of largo mauu at lov upood.
- Modium to Sovoro voar
- Noiuo
Stiok-ulip motion iu oauuod by tho utatio friotion foroo
oxoooding tho kinotio friotion foroo.
- With inoroauo in tangontial load, tho ulip rogion
inoroauou and tho utiok rogion dooroauou, rouulting
rolling/uliding oontaot. Whon tangontial load roaohou
itu uaturation valuo tho utiok rogion diuappoaru and
ontiro oontaot aroa vill bo in utato of puro
uliding/rolling.
EX: The Piezoelectric Stick-Slip Technique to examine skin.
(http://www.scf-online.com/english/issue23/stickslip_23_e.htm)
79
Possible reasons for stick-slip phenomenon:
Interlocking of asperities during stick phenomenon
Adhesion during stick action
Electrostatic charge during stick event
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 200 400 600 800 1000
speed
t
o
r
q
u
e
00 amp
.2amp
.4 amp
.6amp
Dynamic friction
force is a
function of time,
distance,
velocity, etc..
80
Understanding vibration
0
, oscillator linear of equation al differenti ordinary example For
forces. restoring and inertia requires y essentiall
Vibration manner. periodic a in changes state its describing variables
more or one when vibration of state in be to said is system A
2
2
2
= + x
dt
x d
n

System parameter
System variable
( ) + = t A x
n
sin solution
81
Damped vibration
( ) [ ]
( )
t
n
t
n n
t
n n
n
t
n
n n
e t A A x
e A e A x
t Sin Ae x
x
dt
dx
dt
x d

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ =
=
+ =
>
+ =
<
= + +
2 1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2

1 damped, Critical : III Case

1 , Overdamped : II Case
1
1 ed, Underdamp : I Case
0 2
model, linear Realistic
? < 0
82
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
Displacement vs time
time
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-.4
-.3
-.2
-.1
0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
Displacement vs time
time
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Positive damping
Negative damping
83
Forced damped vibrations
( )
( )
case gradient Nagative (b)
and case Stiction (a) ways, in two modeled be can force Friction
force. friction is , force, external case present In the
2
equation al differenti motion, forced of case In
2
2
2
t f
t f x
dt
dx
dt
x d
n n
= + +
84
Stiction Case
Unbalance force (static
dynamic friction force) cause a
sudden acceleration. The
velocity of M increases until
the drive force falls to dynamic
friction force. Eventually M
comes to rest.
85
Negative gradient case
( )
instable. becomes motion and
damping negative gets systems then large is and low is , damping, system If
g Rearrangin

as d represente is force friction assuming us Let
2
2
2
2
2
2

f
F kx
dt
dx
f
dt
x d
M
dt
dx
F kx
dt
dx
f
dt
x d
M
dt
dx
F F
F kx
dt
dx
f
dt
x d
M
s
s
s
= + +
|
.
|

\
|
= + +
=
= + +
Negative
sign
86
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-.8
-.6
-.4
-.2
0
.2
.4
.6
.8
Friction instability
time
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Increase the system damping
Lubricate or otherwise form a surface film to ensure
positive friction versus velocity relationship.
87
Applioation of Iriotion Toohnology
Use of suitable contacting materials
Using soft (lesser shear strength, but high hardness) materials
Never use same soft metal or closely similar metals in
tribo-pair

Copper on copper
=1.0,
Aluminum-lowcarbonsteel
=0.8,
Silver-lowcarbonsteel
=0.3
Application of better lubricating substance
metal - bulk
interface
p
s

Dry friction is sensitive to cleanliness, atmospheric dust,
humidity, oxides, surface finish, etc. Robust design
Variation in Static & Kinetic friction induces forced vibrations.
88
The more similar
the crystal structure
of two surfaces, the
more readily they
will weld and
greater the
likelihood of the
surface damage
and seizure
89
Wear
Undesirable removal of material from an
operating solid surfaces by mechanical action
of contacting:
Solid
Load & Velocity
Fluid (liquid/gas)
Velocity, pressure
Failure mechanism between
relatively moving contacting
bodies.
90
Understanding Wear
Wear is rarely catastrophic, but it reduces
operating efficiency by increasing:
1. Power losses,
2. Oil consumption, and
3. Rate of component replacement
Wear:
1. Chemical process
2. Mechanical process
i. Abrasion
ii. Adhesion
iii. Fatigue
91
Adhesive (frictional)
wear
Mechanical interaction at real area of contact
92
Laws of Adhesive Wear
Woar Volumo proportional
to Diutanoo of travol (L)
..a /. aa .~.y /
.a/..
Woar Volumo proportional
to tho load (N)
.~m~/ ..~.
/.a ./~/ /~a
Woar Volumo invoruoly
proportional to hardness
of softer material
H
NL k
V
3
1
=
93
Archards Wear Equation
Assumptions:
Contact between two surfaces at asperities
Real area of contact =
Local deformation due to plastic deformation
( )

=
n
1 i
area contact asperity
th
i
( ) 3 /
2
2
a k v =
( )
2
1
a H k N =
( )

=
2
1
a H k N
( )

= 3 /
2
2
a k v
H N K v 3 /
1
=
94
Rowes Modified Adhesion Theory
lubricant. good a than higher a have would lubricant poor a therefore and
lubricant, good a han contact t metal - metal more allow would lubricant
poor a instance For coverage. lubricant account to
A
A
parameter,
introdced He metals. sliding of those and lubricant of properties both
to related be must constant wear systems, lubricated in out that pointed He
film. surface of effect the accounting by equation Archard modified Rowe
m

=
In addition, Rowes proposed the use of junction growth theory
to account junction shearing:
2
1
1
3
+ =
H
NL k
V
95
Relation between Adhesive wear and
Adhesive friction?
10
-8
-10
-7
0.5 Polyothylono on utool
10
-6
0.35 Tunguton oarbido on tunguton
oarbido
2*10
-5
0.5 Stainlouu utool on hard utool
2*10
-5
0.2 Polytotrafluoroothylono on utool
2*10
-5
0.2 Load on utool
0.001 0.3 Brauu on hard utool
0.01 0.6 Milu utool on mild utool
0.01-0.1 1.2 Coppor on Coppor
0.1-1.0 2.0 Oold on Oold
Adheaive wear
conatant
CoeIIicient oI Iriction Rubbing Material
Adhesive wear is influenced by:
1. Electronic structure 2. Crystal structure 3. Cohesive strength
4. Hardness
96
Mild Adhesive Wear
Wear regime at low load (below
transition limit)
0.01 to 1 m particle size
Predominately oxides (?? Which
factors affect oxidation ??)
Severe Adhesive Wear
20 to 200 m particle size
97
98
99
Unidirectional, un-lubricated wear of steel on steel
using pin on disk sliding configuration.
Wear Map for Metals
100
I. Very high contact pressure. Catastrophic junction growth
(Apparent area = Real area)
ll. l|gr |oad perelrales lr|r surlace ox|de |ayer, ard cause lorral|or
ol rela|||c Wear deor|s. Neg||g|o|e lrerra| ellecl.
III. Removal of particles from some portion of oxide layer.
Negligible thermal effect.
lv. l|gr |oad & r|gr speed l|gr lr|cl|ora| real|rgVe|l|rg
V. Low contact pressure & high speed. T
i
< Melting point.
Surface oxidizes rapidly.
vl. Trars|l|ora| oerav|or. Loca| l|asr lerp. |eads ox|de groWlr
(parl|c|es > 10 r)
VII. Transitional behavior. Metallic particles.
VIII. High flash temp. Local heating of asperities followed by
quenching by conduction of heat into bulk. Change in
microstructure.
101
Characterizing Parameters
Normalized velocity
Normalized Pressure
Where
temp room
AH
F
F

~

=
a
Vr
V =
~
metal of y diffusivit thermal =
=
a
A
r

102
R
d
V
64
4

=
Example: A rubbing journal bearing in a dam gate moves slowly and
operates under a high load. Journal material AISI 1040 steel. Hardness
of bearing materials: Brass (225), Lead (30), PTFE (50), Polyethylene
(70).
103
Sliding distance, L =test duration *sliding speed
Piston ring side pin specimen
Cylindrical liner-disk specimen
Wear volume, V=k
1
NL/3H=d
4
/64R
Radial distance 150mm from pin center to disk center
104
0.9978 100 E (cond51)
2.2879 70 D (cond41)
1.1068 50 C (cond31)
0.5664 30 B (cond22)
0.5301 30 B (cond21)
20.5312 225 A (cond13)
2.259 225 A (cond12)
1.8971 225 A (cond11)
K
12345
Hardness Material
load speed time
H d
k
R
d
H
NL
k
* *
.
or,
64 3
4
12345
4
1
=
=

105
Some experimental observations
In general
nonmetal nonmetal metal metal
metal nonmetal metal metal
K K
K K


>
>
metalB metalA metalA metalA
K K

>
Depends on degree of Tribological
compatibility of two metals
COMPATIBILITY Reluctance of opposing surfaces
to form a strong interfacial bond
106
In order to achieve the lifetime or reliability desired
by most devices or machines wear behavior must be
in mild regime.
Dissimilar metals are usually chosen to run together
as they do not weld together easily. If the metals are
already at their maximum hardness, as in rolling
bearing steel, no further work hardening is possible,
so identical metals can be used for both elements.
If severe wear behavior cannot be avoided, such as
in ore processing or earth moving equipments,
routine maintenance is essential
Many plastics undergo a transition from mild to
severe wear as a function of sliding speed (that
increase temp.) or combination of sliding and
contact pressure.
107
Materials (to be used in Adhesive wear
situations)
Use hard Materials
Use material with low chemical interaction
Use SINTERED metals, which reduce
junction growth (lesser junctions) & acts as
reservoirs for lubricants
z|rcor|a ard z|rcor|a/a|ur|ra corpos|le cerar|cs
A|
2
0
3
cerar|c
Turgsler Copper
EFFECT = 1 unit
EFFECT = 10 unit
108
109
Abrasive Wear
Ariuou vhon tvo intoraoting auporitiou (or foroign
partiolo and uoft uupporting uurfaoo) aro in phyuioal
oontaot, and ono of thom iu hardor than othor.
Undor tho aotion of normal load, tho auporitiou on tho
hardor uurfaoo, ponotrato tho uoftor uurfaoo thuu
produoing plautio doformationu. Whon uliding motion
iu introduood, tho matorial iu romovod from tho uoftor
uurfaoo by tho oombinod aotion of mioroploughing and
mioro-outting.
Embedded particles??
110
Material removal from softer surface by
Hard asperities on counter face2-Body
Hard particles 3-Body
May be generated locally by
oxidation or wear from
components of tribological
system.
Iron oxides wear debris produced
during adhesive wear cause
further damage by abrasion
Abrasive wear constant is lower
compared to 2-Body abrasion
Clearance larger than particle
size and filtration reduce chances
111
Soft-metal-
hardness/abrasive-hardness
larger than 0.8
Hard steel with high carbon
contents, High toughness,
Surface treatment
Anodizing aluminum
alloys provide hard Al
2
O
3
on
the surface. If the surface
Al
2
O
3
layer is shallow, it
cracks off, exposing active
metal which adheres to the
opposite surface and wears
fast.
112
Such shape difference
may result in
differences in wear
rate by factor of ten or
more.
Perimeter P
P
A
F
Factor Roundness
=
=
4

Shape of Abrasive Particles
113
Abrasive wear by Plastic deformation
-- known as Rabinowiczs quantitative law for 2-B Abrasive Wear
Closely related to model for ploughing
component of friction
Load carried by one asperity
Volume swept by penetrated asperity:
2
a H w =
.dl H v
.dl a.a v
a.x.dl v
) tan /( w or,
tan / or,

=
=
=
H
KW
Q =
K
2B
= 5*10
-3
to 50*10
-3
; K
3B
= 5*10
-4
to 50*10
-4
114
pure metals lie close to straight line
through origin as expected from
wear equation
H
KW
Q =
High strains imposed by cold
work, though increases hardness,
have a negligible effect on
abrasive wear resistance.
Alloying will increase abrasion
resistance of a metal only if
strengthening mechanism leads
to increase strength at high
strain.
115
I.I.T. Bombay
116
Homogeneous phase
Heterogeneous phase
Figure: Dependence of hard phase region compared to
deformation caused by individual particles
117
Ex: Pneumatic Transportation: Netal pellets damage
(wear out) elbow. Larger speed, lower life
!nnovative Tribo-
Design !!!
118
Ex: Engine particle (sand) separator
US Patent
5,139,545
119
Erosive Wear
Particulate solids (erosive in nature) when conveyed
through a Pneumatic Conveying System (+ ve pressure
type) at high velocity through the pipeline would hit the
walls of bends (i.e., elements where there is change of
direction of flow), erode and cause their failure. This
leads to leakage of material being conveyed.
Resilient rubber is found to be superior to very hard
white cast iron for buckets and chutes used for
handling material ores.
120
Erosive Wear
Erosive wear is a form of abrasion
which is generally treated in different
categories because of contact stresses
arise from K.E. of particles.
Particles velocity,
impact angle, and
size of abrasive gives a measure of K.E.
of erosive stream.
When impact angles are small,
cutting wear prevails and hardness of
surface resists wear.
At large angles, wear is due to
deformation and solution is more
complex, and soft material may be
suitable.
( )
3
size) (particle_ M
ceramics for 3 to 2.5 n
metals for 2.5 to 2 n
_ ) (
). ( ). ( .
=
=
=
=
=
n
e
vel particle v i
M v i A K W
121
S
u
r
f

1
Surf 2
Fretting corrosion
FRETTING:
coined in 1927 by Tomilson
Refers to small (1 to 300 m)
high frequency oscillatory
movement mainly originated by
vibration
Occurs in mech. Assemblies
(press fit parts, rivet / bolt joints,
strands of wire ropes, rolling
element bearings)
ResultsWear debris of very
fine (0.01 to 0.1 m) particles
Loosening of jointsincreased
vibrationaccelerated wear.
122
Identificationdiscoloration
of mating surface
Black color aluminum oxide
Iron oxide:
FeO, ferrous oxide
Fe
3
O
4
black magnetic oxide,
relatively softer and quite a
good solid lubricant.
Fe
2
O
3
, red ferric oxide, Hard
and abrasive, rust, cocoa
Fig. Stainless steel sphere against flat of
same mat. (a) Partial sticking leads to
less damage in the center of contact
area.
Some metals, notably titanium and its alloys, are susceptible to
fretting damage. Avoid their usage if fretting is likely.
123
Wear of Rolling Bearings
Abrasion at the contact areas.
Predominately caused by foreign particles
entering the bearing through insufficient or
worn seals.
Inadequate lubrication
Corrosion of rolling and sliding surfaces
due to water contents.
Wear increases the running noise and the bearing clearance,
which affects the guiding properties.
Friction Vs. Wear Tread off
124
Rolling Contact Fatigue Wear
Occurs due to cyclic loading which is common in rolling
bearings, gears, friction drives, cams and followers, etc.
Failure is attributed to multiple reversals of the contact
stress field, and therefore classified as a fatigue failure.
Steps leading to generation of wear particles:
Application of normal load that induce stresses at
contact points
Growth of plastic deformation per cycle
Subsurface crack nucleation
Expansion of crack due to reversal of stress
Extension of crack to the surface due to traction force
Generation of wear particles
125
Cam in automobile engines are
hardened to the range of 50 RC
instead of the max. value of 67
HRC. Increasing hardness reduces
their resistant to fatigue failure.
126
Corrosive Wear
127
Corrosive wear
1. Sliding surfaces chemically interact with
environment (humid/industrial vapor)
2. a reaction product (like oxide, chlorides)-
3. Wearing away of reaction product film.
Some of corrosive products-iron oxide, copper
sulphide act a abrasive.
Porous
film, no
protection
128
Rust and Corrosion
Condition: Rusting at spacing
equal to the distances between
the rolling elements
Causes: Ingress of water or
corrosive material (such as acid)
Condensation of moisture
contained in the air.
Poor packaging and storing
conditions, and handling with bare
hands.
Solutions
Improvement in sealing effect
Measures for preventing rusting when not operating for a long period of time.
I.I.T. Bombay
129
How to achieve zero wear and
minimum wear ????
Supply fluid (air/liquid) under pressure (using
pump/compressor) to lift one surface against
another. Aerostatic/hydrostatic lubrication or an
externally pressurized lubrication.
Move one surface rapidly normal to the other, with
viscous resistance to the displacement of the liquid.
Squeeze-film lubrication.
Positioning one surface slightly inclined to the
other. Relative sliding motion of the surfaces, will
drag lubricant into the converging space between
them. It is named a wedge-film/hydrodynamic
lubrication.
130
FF B u
W W W
10 5
10 10 = =
131
132
133
Designer needs to establish mechanism by
which wear occurs.
Abrasive wear mechanism needs:
Hard, rough surface make it smooth
Hard abrasive grainsstop abrasive grains to get into
system
Corrosion wear mechanisms needs:
Chemical reaction with atmosphere or lubricant
Fretting: Slip (oscillatory displacement of small
amplitude) at interface
Adhesive wear
Associated with formation of adhesive junction,
that occurs if interacting surfaces are in
intimate contact.
134
Use Wear maps
Identify limit of normal pressure & normal sliding
speed, which keeps wear under mild condition.
Independent continuous variables: Load, speed, Temp., Time
: Dry condition, non-reactive
lubricant, reactive lubricant, contaminants
20 Wear Maps
5 Maps (L vs. S, S vs. T, S vs. Time, L vs. T, L vs. Time): Dry
: Non-reactive
: Reactive
: Contaminants
135
Define Application
Mechanical Design under Tribological considerations
Material Selection
Engineering Substrate
Engineer Surface
Design Lubrication
Evaluate Performance
136
Design Lubrication
Ia lubrication important to reduce wear ???
Lubrication is a Process by which the friction in a
moving contact is reduced.
137
Is lubrication important to
reduce wear ???
High upood, vory lov load, and lov
tomporaturo
High upood and vory lov load
Modorato load, modorato upood
Variablo load, modorato upood
Largo load, Modorato upood
Vory Largo load, lov upood
138
High apeed, very low load,
and low temperature
Speed > 25,000 rpm 700 k rpm
Pressure < 0.05 N/mm
2 (gauge pressure)
Temperature < 100 degree C
Magnetic bearing. Magnetic levitation.
Problem ?
Magnetic materials
Negative Stiffness
It is a tribological solution but does not belong
to film lubrication
2
2
h
i
F
139
No restoring force.
Instability causes
further instability
Requires feed back
loop control system.
140
141
Speed > 25,000 rpm 700 k rpm
Pressure < 0.05 N/mm
2
Temperature range [-200 to 2000 degree C].
Aerodynamic lubrication
Any gas
Problems ?
Increase in friction with speed
Sophisticated manufacturing
Requires other means to separate surface during
start/stop operations.
Negligible damping
Instability
High speed and very low load
142
Dynamic Properties of Air Film
(

=
(

y
x
C C
C C
y
x
K K
K K
dF
dF
yy yx
xy xx
yy yx
xy xx
y
x

Bearing 1 Bearing 2
Disk
K
yy
K
xx C
xx
C
yy
y
x
Rotor
t F y K x K y C x C x M
xy xx xy xx
cos = + + + +

t F y K x K y C x C y M
yy yx yy yx
sin = + + + +

143
Light load and
high rotational
apeed reaulta
in high
attitude angle
144
145
Leaf Foil Bearing Bump Foil Bearing
146
Moderate load, moderate speed
Pressure 3.0 N/mm
2
Speed < 20,000 rpm
Temperature < 200C
Problems ?
Start/stop
High friction at relatively high
velocity
Chances of instability at
relatively high speed
Hydrodynamio lubrioation
W
U
h
min
A
h
U
F

=
147
148
149
Friction or Coefficient of friction
R
W C
C
ULR
F
2 1
2
1
2

+
|
.
|

\
|
+
+

=
For journal
bearing
Eccentricity ratio 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8 0.9
Friction force is: 36.5 N, 39N, 43 N, 52N, 74 N
Load capacity 4.5kN, 8k N, 12.2kN, 23.5kN, 57kN
Coeff. of friction .008, .0048, .0035, .0022, 0.0013
150
Variable load, moderate speed
151
Large load, Moderate speed
Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL)
As the name suggests this lubrication
mechanism utilizes:
(1) elastic deformation, and
(2) hydrodynamics.
Soft surfaces ??
High fluid pressure (maximum
ranging between 0.5 to 3 GPa)
152
Soft EHL
Elastic deformation + Hydrodynamic
Hard EHL
Elastic deformation + Hydrodynamic + increase
in viscosity
Simplest way to analyze EHL:
Assume film thickness,
Pressure solution using hydrodynamic
Evaluate elastic deformation caused by pressure
Modify film thickness and iterate.
Iteration continues until modified film thickness
distribution matches with new film thickness
distribution.
075 . 0
min

W h
68 . 0
min
U h
153
5
154
Very Large load, low speed
Hydrostatic lubrication
Mixed lubrication
Boundary lubrication
Hydrostatic lubrication separates two
surfaces by an external pressure source.
Suitable for highly controlled precision
works. Ex. Large telescopes, radar tracking
units, machine tools, etc.
155
Hydrostatic
As pressure is generated and supplied by external
sources, it is one of the expensive approaches to
separate two surfaces.
If a load greater than design load is applied the tribo-
surface will not be able separated.
To reduce load-film thickness sensitivity feed back
control system is used, which further increases the cost
of overall system.
Hybrid ? Hydrodynamic + Hydrostatic
Preaaurized Ieed Ilow to aolve the atart/atop
problem oI hydrodynamic lubrication
156
Fig: Mixed lubrication
Fig. Boundary lubrication
157
3
158
0eneroI MoferioI Pequiremenfs for
Dry Iubricofion
Two primary property requirements
Material must be able to support applied load
without significant distortion, deformation or
loss in strength.
Score (??Mark or cut on the surface) resistance
Strength (compressive and/or fatigue)
Deformability (Conformability & Embeddability)
Corrosion resistance.
Coefficient of friction and the rate of wear
must be acceptably low.
159
Score resistance
Anti-weld or anti-seizure characteristics are
termed as score resistance.
Should not be confused with cutting or grooving by dirt
or abrasive particles.
Mutual solid solubility between metal pairs promotes
adhesion and surface welding.
Score resistant materials are:
White metals for low to moderately load applications.
Copper-lead alloys are used for heavily loaded high
speed applications.
Aluminum alloys are used for heavily loaded moderate
speed applications.
160
Strength
Comprouuivo utrongth iu ouuontial to oarry
tho impouod load vithout oxtruuion or
diuintogration.
Iatiguo lifo of matorial dopondu upon tho
rango of utrouu to vhioh it iu uubjootod,
utrouu gradiont and tho numbor of utrouu
oyolou.
- Iatiguo gonorally utartu in tho form of umall
oraoku, vhioh progrouuivoly movo to bonding
intorfaoo vhoro thoy thon advanoo
oiroumforontially along tho baoking.
Common applioationu aro:
- Engino boaringu uuoh au main and oonnooting rod
boaringu
- Piuton boaring boaringu.
- Rolling oontaot boaringu
161
Deformability
The ability to yield to the deformation while operating,
without causing failure, is highly important in every tribo-
system.
Under load, bearing and journals deflect, often leading to edge
contact. If bearing is conformable it will adjust itself by wearing or
wiping without any serious damage.
Where some misalignment may exist it is best to use a material that
can adjust or accommodate itself.
Tin-base babbit is especially able to wipe locally, relieve any high
spot or areas of metallic contact, and reform its contour.
Embeddability characteristic is important when dirt enters the
clearance space.
Bronzes are most successful as a gear material against a hardened
steel pinion than is a hardened steel gear.
If amount of abrasive material is particularly high then
embeddability will not help, and entirely different approach is
required.
162
Corrosion Resistance
Acidic environment causes severe corrosion.
Alter environment that resist the formation of corrosive
acids.
Use non-corrodible bearing materials:
Moderate corrosive conditions:
Aluminum alloys
Tin-base alloy
Low lead Bronze
Highly corrosive conditions:
Stainless steel
Polymers (Teflon)
Ceramics (glass)
163
Material Selection
Analysis of material requirement
Select material properties
Decide weightage of each property
Not all the design properties are of equal importance
Oxidation resistance
Corrosion resistance
Elastic Modulus
Fatigue endurance limit
Melting temperature
Hardness
Shear strength
Qualitative Prop. Quantitative Prop.
164
Most
desired
165
1
1
1
1
4
4
1
2
3
5
Total
15
Total
0.266
1 1 1 0
5
0.066
1 0 0 0 0
4
0.133
1 0 0 0
3
0.2
1 0 1 0
2
0.333
1 1 1 1
1
normalized Dummy 5 3 2 1 Material
property
) 1 ( * * 5 . 0
) , (

columns of .
1

=
n n
j i a
factor Weighting
No
j
i
Rating * factor Weighting tility Material_U
i j

=
Choose
material
of Max.
Utility.
166
Duplex
surface
enegin-
eering
Cheap substrate material can be improved by a coating of high
performance materials.
167
Ex: Components of ring spinning textile machine go through
unlubricated sliding at low load but high relative speed
(20,000 rpm).
(1) !ncrease hardness,
(2) Reduce surface roughness,
(3) Ninimize cost,
(+) !mprove adhesion to substrate, and
(5) Ninimize dimensional change on surface treatmentfcoating
0.1 - 0 0.5 0.5 0 0|rers|or
0.35 1 - 0.5 1 1 Adres|or
0.15 0.5 0.5 - 0.5 0 Cosl
0.1 0.5 0 0.5 - 0 Rougrress
0.3 1 0 1 1 - lardress
Weighting
Iactor
Dimenaion Adheaion Coat Roughneaa Hardneaa
Deaign
property
168
Four methods to fulfill the required functions:
(1) Plasma sprayed Al
2
O
3
(polished),
(2) Carburizing,
(3) Nitriding, and
(+) Boronizing.
Coating uolootion [Bauu ot al. 2001]
Z.Z Z 9 5 Z 8 8oror|z|rg
.1 8 8 Z 1 N|lr|d|rg
.55 8 8 Z Z 1 Carour|z|rg
5.Z 3 5 5 2 9 P 3 A|
2
0
3
0.1 0.35 0.15 0.1 0.3 we|grl|rg laclor
Woightod
total
Dimonuion Adhouion Cout Roughnouu Hardnouu
Surfaoo
improvomont
mothod
169
LUBRICATION
Low but constant & controlled friction.
No attack or damage to the bearings surfaces.
Preferably adhere strongly on one bearing surface
so that it is not rapidly lost from bearing.
Process by which the friction in a moving contact is
reduced may be described as LUBRICATION.
Dust, Sand or Gravel on surface of Road ??
(Technically Solid Lubricants)
170
Boundary condition occurs when surface1 and surface2 of
tribo-pair actually touch or are separated only by a
microscopically thin film of oil. Such boundary-film
conditions exist when:
Tribo-pairs are grease-lubricated,
Tribo-pairs are only periodically lubricated as by hand
oiling or greasing,
Motion is reciprocating (oscillating), or
Surface velocity is less than 10 fpm (0.0508 m/s).
Tribo-pairs operating under boundary conditions demand the
greatest care in material selection. The tribo-materials must
have low chemical reactivity and high thermal conductivity to
remove frictional heat from the surfaces.
171
Boundary Lubrication
English Biologist W.B. Hardy. 1922.
Very thin adsorbed layer, about 10 A thick, were sufficient to
cause two glass surfaces to slide (at low relative speeds) over each
other.
A very thin layer of lubricant (a few
molecules thick1 to 10 nm) separates
sliding surfaces, i.e. no direct contact of the
sliding parts.
Boundary lubricants, known as oiliness
additives decompose at temperature above
200C and lose their effectiveness.
172
Boundary lubrication
Oiliness
Lub. molecules, adjacent to metal,
hold their position & resist displacing
forces to a marked degree.
Strong affinity for
metal surface
Only few layers
(~ 0.5m) are sufficient
Pin chain (Ex.).
Mineral oil =0.28
Olive oil =0.13
Oleic oil =0.12
(Speed 2rpm)
Unsaturated molecules
H H H
H-C-C-C=O
H H H
OH
173
Coefficient of friction
0.3 0.7 1.4 aluminum
Less
reactive
0.2 0.3 1.0 Iron
0.08 0.5 0.6 Magnesium
0.04 0.2 0.6 Zinc
0.05 0.45 0.5 Cadmium
Reactive
0.08 0.3 1.4 Copper
0.4 0.4 0.9 Glass
0.7 0.8 1.4 Silver
0.25 0.28 1.2 Platinum
0.3 0.3 0.4 Chromium
Non-
reactive
0.28 0.3 0.7 Nickel
p.o. +1%
Lauric acid
Paraffin oil Clean Surfaces
174
Mechanisms of Boundary Lubrication
Physical adsorption (Physisorption)
All petroleum and synthetic lubricants have some
potential for forming boundary films under
mild sliding conditions, light load and low temperature
conditions.
Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption):
A chemical reaction with the surface
Bond energies are much greater than physisorption (>
40kJ/mol)
With polar and paraffinic molecules, chemisorbed
lubricants can be very closely packed on a surface.
175
Physisorption
Surface active molecules of oiliness additives are
attracted to surface by electrostatic (dipole) forces.
Energy is lowered when the molecules adsorb on the
surface.
Solvent tends to dissolve solute again, a process
encouraged by dilute concentrations and hindered by high
concentration of polar molecules. In other words an
equilibrium exists between the solute and number of empty
sites on the one hand and number of covered sites on the
other.
( )
K RT S T H
C
k
a a
a
k a a a
sites adsorbed site empty solute
log G energy free s Gibb' Total
1
or,
constant m equilibriu
_ _
2 1
3
3 2 1
= =

=
= +
+

176
Strong polarityvery
effective lubricant
straight chain molecules
with one polar end are
highly desirable
Mineral oils are
nonpolar &
chemically inert.
There is a
thermodynamic
reversibility, i.e. a
small change in
temp or
concentration
produces an
equivalent change
in the coverage,
177
Why boundary lubricants are required when metals are covered
with natural protective layer of oxide?
In sliding contact under air or water, the protective oxide is torn away,
exposing the pure metal of both surfaces. These may weld together
before oxygen can reform the protective layer.
Boundary lubricants act by forming
adsorbed molecular films on the
surfaces.
178
0.360
0.249
0.198
0.198
0.195
Pure mineral oil
2% oleic acid in mineral oil
10% oleic acid in mineral oil
50% oleic acid in mineral oil
Pure oleic acid
Friction Coefficient Lubricant
Table: Coefficient of friction influenced by % of polar
lubricant on steel surfaces.
Fatty acid
Ester Compound of organic acid and alcohol
Both the ester and fatty acids content polar end that is
attached to metallic surface and provides protection against
direct contact.
179
Effect of Length of Molecule on Boundary lubrication
Longer hydrocarbon chain, more effective separation
between solid surfaces.
High degree of slip. Low lubricant friction
Sir William Hardys experimental results:
180
Chemisorption
Physically absorbed boundary additive decompose or melt
at high temperature
Is a form of corrosion
To form a chemically bound layer three things are needed:
Surfactant must be chemically active
Metal surface also must be reactive
Surface must be free enough of physisorbed material for the
chemical reaction to take place. Temperature Gap between
physical and chemical is known as Temperature Distress Gap
During each contact the chemical layer is rubbed off the
surface and has to be reformed before next contact come
round. Surface is therefore slowly worn away so the
additive must be chosen with care.
Must be active enough to protect the surface, but not so active that it
corrodes violently at high temp.
181
Extreme Pressure Boundary Lubrication
Aotivo ohomioalu, uuoh au ohlorino, uulfur, and
phouphoruu form inorganio film of lov uhoar
utrongth (ohloridou, uulfidou, phouphidou).
EP additives react with sliding surfaces under severe
conditions in contact zone to give compound with low
shear strength, thus forming a lub. Film at precisely
location where it is needed.
182
Extreme Pressure Lubricants
Major difficulty with EP lubricants is their carcinogenic
nature and environmental pollutant.
Removal of sulfur compound present in small amounts in
petroleum based lubricants requires elaborate and expensive
refining techniques.
Suppression of metal to metal contact at extreme pressures
by the temperature dependent formation of sacrificial films of
corrosion product.
Lubricant containing chlorine form CuCl or CuCl
2
on surface,
providing protection against adhesive wear. .. 800C.
Iron Chloride- 649C
Sulfur and phosphorus are common additives for iron and steel.
Films have relatively high melting point
Iron sulphide- 1,170C
183
Tricresyl phosphate (TCP).
Dibenzyl disulphide
Zinc dialkyl dithiophosphate
(ZDDP)
Most widely used EP additives are:
ChIorine oddifives hove
foIIowing disodvonfoges:
Lov molting point
Toxio, o.g. ohlorinatod paraffinu
Dooompouo to roloauo
hydroohlorio aoid in tho prouonoo
of vator.
184
185
Boundary vs. EP lubrication
BL is restricted to those systems where there is
thermodynamic reversibility. A small change in
temperature or concentration, up or down, brought about a
related change in film coverage???.
If lubricant reacts chemically with metal, then lubrication
should properly be considered a type of extreme pressure
lubrication, which is considered in next slide.
EP lubricants are inorganic molecules that provide good
lubrication at elevated temperature & pressure
Reaction of E.P. additive does not occur rapidly at low temp.
sites adsorbed site empty solute _ _ +
186
Summary
Iriotion oooffioiont of a givon matorial, quoto in many
onginooring toxtbooku, aro not intrinuio proportiou, but
dopond on:
- Tribo-uyutom, i.o. goomotry, matorial, intoraotion of third body,
oto.
- Oporating variablou, i.o. load, tomporaturo, timo, oto.
- Phyuioal or ohomioal roaotivity (adhouion) vith boundary
lubrioantu
Iov molooular thiok lubrioant layoru aro uuffioiont to minimizo
friotion
Sinoo non-motalu aro louu roaotivo than motalu tho
offootivonouu of typioal aduorption and anti-voar
additivou in many oauou appoaru to bo lovor for
nonmotal-nonmotal oontaotu than for nonmotal-motal
oontaotu.
EP oorrouivo film takou finito formation timo thoroforo,
EP lubrioation iu offootivo only at lov upood oporationu.
187
Solid Lubricants
A solid lubricant is a material used as
powder or thin film to reduce friction
and wear.
Layers of solid lubricants are quite
flexible and can slide over each other
repeatedly without damage (???).
Adhesion between lamellae is highly
undesirable, adhesion of lamellae to the
worn surface is essential. Examples:
Inorganic compounds graphite and
molybdenum disulfide (MoS
2
)
Polymer material, PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene)
188
Poor self-healing properties.
A broken solid film tends to
shorten the useful life of the
lubricant.
Poor heat dissipation. This
condition is especially true
with polymers due to their
low thermal conductivities.
Higher coefficient of
friction and wear than
hydrodynamically
lubricated bearings.
More effective than fluid
lubricants at high loads.
High resistance to deterioration
in storage.
Highly stable in extreme
temperature, pressure,
radiation, and reactive
environments.
Permit equipment to be lighter
and simpler because
lubrication distribution
systems and seals are not
required.
Superior cleanliness
Disadvantages Advantages
189
FOUR GROUPS
(a) Polymer (largest group).
PTFE - suitable in very light load applications
Nylon - similar to PTFE but slightly harder: used only in
light load applications.
Low thermal conductivity of polymers inhibits heat
dissipation, which causes premature failure due to
melting.
Two polymers in sliding contact will normally operate
at significantly reduced speeds than a polymer against a
metal surface.
Synthetic polymers: Polymers filled with glass, carbon,
bronze, lead. Thin layer of polymers material bonded
onto a metal backing.
190
(b) Metal-solids:
Lamellar solids rely on film transfer to achieve low friction.
Using MoS
2
with suitable metallic substrates. Porous bronze is
filled with PTFE, oil, graphite or other friction reducing
additives. Not suitable for heavily loaded applications but useful
where lubrication is inconvenient.
Soft metals PbO, silver, gold, indium, etc
(c) Carbon and graphite:
The primary limitations of bulk carbon are low tensile strength and
lack of ductility. However, their high thermal and oxidation
stabilities at temperatures of 500 to 600C enable use at high
temperatures and high sliding speeds.
(d) Ceramics and cermets (bulk/coating):
Ceramics and cermets can be used in applications where low wear
rate is more critical than low friction. These composites can be used
at temperatures up to 1000C
Cermets have a distinct advantage over ceramics in terms of
toughness and ductility. However, the metal content tends to reduce
the maximum temperature limit.
191
Formulation Considerations
Pigment Selection
Desired Properties
Low Coefficient of Friction Load Carrying Capacity
Corrosion Resistance Conductivity
Environment?
Temperature High Vacuum
Humidity Presence of oxygen
Radiation
Oxides(MoO
3
,PbO/SiO
2
) ~~high temp.
Soft metals (Pb, Au, Ag, Sn, In)~~ vacuum
Polymers (PTFE,POLYMIDES, POLYURETHANES, NYLON)
Lamellar solids(MoS
2
,WS
2
,Graphite)
Binder Selection
Pigment to Binder Ratio
Solid lubricants are made up of a combination of resin binders and
lubricating pigments.
192
Pigment Selection
Performance Characteristics
Molybdenum Disulfide
Strengths
High Load Carrying
(> 100,000 psi)
Low Friction
Weaknesses
Rapid Oxidation in Air
over 400C (!!!)
Moisture Detrimental to
performance
Film thickness ~ 15 m
1 bar = 14.5 psi
193
Pigment Selection
Performance Characteristics
Graphite
Strengths
Moderate Loads
(~ 40,000 psi275MPa)
Low Friction
High Temp stability
Weaknesses
Corrosion
Vacuum Detrimental to
performance
Perfect
Structure
Distorted
Structure
194
High thermal stability (2000C)
Practical application is limited to a range of 500 to 600C
due to oxidation.
Low friction
Low friction relies on adsorbed moisture or vapors to
achieve. At temperatures as low as 100C, amount of water
vapor adsorbed may be significantly reduced to the point
that low friction cannot be maintained.
0ur|rg Wor|d War ll, a|rcrall l|eW al r|grer a|l|lude ard e|eclr|c rolor orusres
la||ed. Researcr |rlo lr|s proo|er revea|ed lral grapr|le requ|res ar
adsoroed |ayer ol Waler vapor lo |uor|cale ellecl|ve|y.
Corrosion
Graphite promotes electrolysis. Graphite has a very noble
potential of + 0.25V, which can lead to severe galvanic
corrosion of copper alloys and stainless steels in saline
waters.
195
Failure of MoS
2
& Graphite
Blistering (delamination)
Blending graphite,
antimony-
thioantimonate and
molybdenum disulphide
provides superior
results.
196
Pigment Selection
Performance Characteristics.
PTFE
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon Trade name
by Du Pont)
Strengths
High chemical stability. Great chemical
inertness, because of carbon fluorine bonds
Very low surface energy. Low Friction (0.1).
High P, Low V
Nontoxic- useful in pharmaceutical and food
industries.
Weaknesses
Too soft, High wear rate
Poor creep resistance, Low load capacity
Poor thermal conductivity. High thermal
expansion. Temp limit (250C)
Vacuum Detrimental to performance
197
Method of Applying Solid Lubricants
The lubrication deposition is critical to the
efficiency, since solid lubricants will be easily
scraped off a wearing surface if the mode of
deposition is incorrect.
It is difficult to ensure that film will last for 1
million or more cycles of wearing contact. There
are two modes of solid lubricant deposition:
traditional methods which involve either spraying or
painting the lubricant on the surface followed by
burnishing of the film or frictional transfer of lubricant;
the modern methods which depend on the properties of
plasma in a moderate vacuum to produce a lubricant
film of high quality.
198
Traditional Methods
Hand rubbing. Loosely applying a thin coating of solid lubricant.
Tumbling. Parts to be lubricated are tumbled in a powdered lubricant.
Although adhesion is not very good, the method is satisfactory for
noncritical parts such as small threaded fasteners and rivets.
Burnishing. Rubbing process to apply a thin film of dry powdered solid
lubricant such as graphite, MoS
2
, etc., to a metal surface.
Effective where lubrication requirements and wear-life are not stringent,
Effective where clearance requirements must be maintained,
Effective where wear debris from the lubricant must be minimized.
Dispersions. Dispersions are mixtures of solid lubricant (graphite, MoS
2
,
PTFE) in grease or fluid lubricants.
Grease or fluid provides normal lubrication while the solid lubricant
increases lubricity and provides extreme pressure protection.
Grease and oil may prevent good adhesion of the solid to the protected
surface.
Detergent additives in some oils can also inhibit the wear-reducing
ability of MoS
2
and graphite.
199
Multicrystalline block of graphite detach themselves from
graphite block and deposited on metal surface so that sheet
lie almost flat.
200
Modern Methods: Bonded Coating
Provide greater film thickness and increased wear life.
Coatings consisting of a solid lubricant and binding resin
agent.
Organic resins are usually stable below 300C.
Inorganic binders such as metal salts or ceramics permit
bonded films to be used in temperatures above 650C.
Application by spraying, dipping, or brushing.
Spraying provides most consistent coat
Dipping is frequently used because it is less expensive
Surface preparation is very important to remove contaminants
and to provide good surface topography for lubricant adhesion.
Air-cured coatings are generally limited to operating
temperatures 260C
Heat-cured coatings are generally used for higher
temperature .
201
Cermet (metal bonded ceramic) coatings
Ceramic/Cermet coating up to 0.5 mm thickness on
metal substrates offer a convenient way of utilizing the
wear resistance of metal with a minimum processing
cost.
Plasma spraying
Impingement coatings from a detonation gun
Improved adhesion to the substrate metal and lower porosity.
Electrolytic deposition from electrolyte containing
ceramic particles (Tribomet coating)
Ability to coat small internal surfaces inaccessible by any other
technique.
NOTE: After film deposition process, a careful running-in
procedure is essential
202
P-V Approach
Producf of Iooding pressure, sIiding
speed ond coefficienf of fricfion
idenfifies fhe rofe energy reIeose of
fhe beoring surfoce.
- Since non-fIuid fiIm beorings ore Iimifed
in fheir obiIify fo dissipofe heof, fhe P-V
opprooch is offen empIoyed fo design
soIid- or boundory- Iubricofed beoring.
203
Bearing Design using Solid Lubricants
STRENGTH:
1/3 of maximum compressive strength.
WEAR:
Volume of wear = specific wear rate* Applied load* distance of sliding
PV factor: Limiting PV above which wear increases rapidly either as a
consequence of thermal effects or of stresses approaching to elastic limit
Temperature
At high speeds, generation of frictional heat raises the temperature of
surface layers and this tends to increase specific wear rate. To estimate:
Aroa for hoat flov path A ~ projoot aroa ~ LD
Iriotion foroo I~ W. Povor Louu ~ IV
Enorgy Diuuipation por unit aroa ~ WV/A ~> PV
kPVt h kWd v = =
204
The limiting PV above which wear increases rapidly either as a
consequence of thermal effects or of stress approaching to elastic limit.
205
Porous Bearings
Modified form of hydrostatic bearings with orifice
compensators.
Economic mean to feed the bearing through using a
number of multiple orifices.
Lubricant may be contained within the bearing walls (i.e.
oil) or supplied through external means (i.e. air, gas).
Made of powdered metals which are pressed in dies. After
compression, they are sintered at a high temperature in a
reducing atmosphere.
Sintering causes powdered metal to fuse into a strong compact.
After sintering, bearings may be submerged in oil for
impregnation. Voids may vary from 16% up to 36% of the volume
of the bearing.
Bearings are finish-sized in punch press to close tolerances.
Bearings are satisfactory for light load and moderate speed.
206
Porous Bearings
Oil flows due to capillary action through the pores in the
unloaded region. The oil flows back through pores in the
loaded part of bearing shell.
Lubrication Starvation Boundary lubrication. Pv ||r|l
Heat is dissipated through bounding solids deterioration
of mineral oils Limit on T
max.
Speed limit < 1m/sec.
207
Design Considerations
Length/diameter ratio of 0.75 - 1.5 (Plain bearings
should be kept as short as possible).
Two well-spaced short bearings are better than one long
one.
Dry bearings of the impregnated sintered bronze
type are available in stock sizes and these should
be used if possible.
Cost, although always is an important consideration, is not
usually the decisive reason for choosing a dry bearing. ??
Cost
porous-bearing
> Cost
lubricated-bearing
208
Example: Design of Porous Bearing
Assume a shaft running at 1000 rpm is
supported on a porous bearing. Shaft dia = 1
inch and L/D = 1. Applied load = 1200 lbf.
Velocity limit is 1180 ft/min
Pressure limit is 2000 psi
PV limit is 110,000 psi-ft/min
Design ?????
209
Calculation of average
pressure = 1200/(1*1)
psi (8.273709 MPa)
bearing is safe
Calculation of velocity
= .D.N. =
3.14*(1/12)* 1000 =
261 ft/min (1.326 m/s)
bearing is safe
Calculation of PV
limit = 1200 psi * 261
= 313,000 psi-ft/min
bearing will fail.
Bearings are available in a
range of thickness.
210
Helps to select
suitable material.
211
Quoted PV limit
depends on the
required bearing
life.
212
Industrial Lubricants
Solid
lamellar solids, solid organic compounds,
chemical coatings, soft metals.
Semi-solid .. Grease.
Liquid mineral, animal/vegetable,
synthetic, water based fluids.
Gases .. Mostly air.
213
Grease lubrication
In laymans language Grease is: A black or yellow sticky mass
used in the bearings for lubrication purpose.
In our language grease is: A semi-solid fluid product, which is
dispersion of a thickening agent in a liquid lubricant. Other
ingredients imparting special properties may be included.
Greases are a type of shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic fluid,
which means that the viscosity of the fluid is reduced under
shear. This drop in shear force means that grease is
considered a plastic fluid, and the reduction of shear force
with time makes it thixotropic.
214
Advantagea
Remains at application point & adhere to surface
Less-frequent application needed
Seal out contaminants & less expensive seals needed
Reduce noise and vibration
Water resistant & reduce oil vapor problems
Prolong the life of worn parts
Provide better mechanical lubrication cushion for extreme
conditions such as shock loading, reversing operations, low
speeds & high loads
Dia-advantagea
Because of semi-solid nature of greases, it does not perform
the cooling, oor dissipation of heat.
Once dust or dirt enters the grease, it cannot be easily
removed and would act as deterrent in performance.
No filtration.. So contaminants/wear-debris cannot be
separated.
Advantages /Dis-advantages of Grease
215
Grease Lubricant
Consist of
Base oils (75 to 95%): Mineral oils,
Silicones, Diesters
IgIL vIscosILy: or Iow LemperuLure, Iow Ioud
und IIgI speed uppIIcuLIons.
HIgI vIscosILy: or IIgI LemperuLure, IIgI
Ioud und sIow speed uppIIcuLIons.
Additives (0 to 5%): Antioxidants, EP
additives, Corrosion inhibitors, Water
repellants
Minute thickener fibers (5 to 20%):
Added to a base oil in order to thicken it to
a grease structure.
Semi solid lubricant
EP Greases.Graphite greases..Moly greases
216
Thickener-
Produce a semi-rigid structure (HisforicoIIy Cosfor oiI
were fhickened wifh wood osh ond bIock soof).
Soap: Sodium (Soda), Calcium (Lime), Lithium,
etc.
Soaps = Fatty acid or ester (of either animal or vegetable
origin) + alkali earth metal , reacted with the application
of heat, pressure or agitation through a process known
as saponification.
In order to take on enhanced performance
characteristics, a complex agent is added to the soap
thickener to convert it to a soap salt complex thickener.
The greases are then referred to as "complexes"
Non-soap: Silica gel, Clay, Alumina, Polyurea,
PTFE, etc.
217
Thickeners and base oils are loosely held together through
molecular bonding.
Lesser thickener, more bleeding (oil separates or bleeds from
the grease).
Synthetic greases exhibit excellent resistance to oil separation.
Complex soaps are suitable for a greater temperature range.
218
219
Drop PoInL Grease shows a change from a semi-solid
to a liquid state.
230-300C PTFE
1Z0-200C Lithium Soap
0-100C Calcium Soap
15-190C Sodium Soap
Drop Point Thickener
Calcium grease is cheaper, while lithium grease
will tolerate a wider range of temperature.
220
Lubrication
mechanism ??
Only a very small amount
of grease is needed for
lubrication.
For most of rolling
element Life long
lubrication is possible if
speed < 1.5 * 10
6
mm/min.
221
( )
n
b p
dh
du
+ =
Yield strength
n < 1 shear
thinning
( )
( )
dh
du
dh
du
n
b p
eff

+
=
( ) ( )
dh
du
dh
du
b
n
p
+ + =
222
Corrosion inhibitors: Elevated oil acidity causes
corrosion of non-ferrous metals (copper,
aluminum, tin, cadmium, etc. These additives
protect surfaces against any corrosive agents
(sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, and oxidation
products) present in oil. Ex. Benzotriazole. Used
for used in bearings, seals).
Oxidation Inhibitors
Zinc dialkyldithiophosphate, natural sulphur, &
nitrogen scavenge free radical produced during
oxidation and delay onset of severe oil
oxidation. Power loss due to increased viscous
drag & difficulties in pumping.
Replace oil if TAN > 3.
Oroauo additivou
223
Grease Characteristics
224
ConsIsLency: Degree oI greuse Iurdness
NuLIonuI ubrIcuLIng Greuse
nsLILuLe (NG) Grease Classification
1. Grease surface
(maintained at 25C) is
smoothed out to make it
uniform.
2. Cone release
mechanism is activated
and cone is allowed to
sink for 5 seconds.
225
Lubricant Selection for Rolling Bearings
NLGI grades no. 1, 2, 3, or 4 are recommended
for lubrication.
NLGI 2 would normally be first choice
For larger bearing size, harder grease is used.
For better sealing, Grease no. 3 or 4 are
recommended.
Shock load or vibration tends to cause grease to
slump into moving components. A Harder grease
reduces problem.
Centralized grease supply uses a softer grade.
The base oil (80-90% constituent of grease) affects the working
temperature range, load bearing and lubricating properties of the grease.
226
Rolling Element Bearings-
Load Calculation
Load rating
C
r
> P x f
n
x f
L
x f
d
Where C
r
= radial dynamic rating
P = calculated effective radial load
f
n
= speed (rpm) factor
f
l
= Life (hours) factor
f
d
= dynamic or service factor
227
228
Example 1: Radial load = 4448 N, Speed = 1000 rpm
Desired life= 30 000 hours, No Shock loading
C
r
> P x f
n
x f
L
x f
d
f
d
= 1.0; P = 4 448 N
f
n
= 2.78; f
l
= 3.42
=> C
r
> 42, 290 N
229
Example 2: Radial load = 2 224 N, Speed = 1500 rpm
Desired life= 8 hours/day, 5 day/weeks for 5 years, Light Shock
loading. For shaft dia of 25 mm.
C
r
> P x f
n
x f
L
x f
d.
f
d
= 1.5; P = 2 224 N
f
n
= 3.125; f
l
= 2.46+(2.6-2.46)*400/2000=2.488
=> C
r
> 25, 937 N
230
Mathematical Approach
231
Example 2: Radial load = 2 224 N, Speed = 1500 rpm
Desired life= 8 hours/day, 5 day/weeks for 5 years, Light Shock
loading. For shaft dia of 25 mm.
C
10
> 2224*1.5*(10400*1500*60/10
6
)
1/a
C
10
> 32, 633 N for BALL BEARINGS
C
10
> 25, 978 N for ROLLER BEARINGS
232
K
a
= 1 for Deep groove, Angular contact, four point, self aligning, thrust & Cylindrical
roller bearings
= 2 for Spherical, tapered, & needle roller bearings
= 3 Axially loaded & full complemented cylindrical roller bearings
Region I ???
Region II: Higher
base oil viscosity, EP
additives, and possibly
solid lubricant additives.
Region III : greases
with low viscosity ester
oil as base oil
233
Selection of base oil
For rolling bearing
lubrication, oils having a
high viscosity index of at
least 85 are recommended
Bearing life may be
extended by selecting an oil
whose viscosity at the
operating temperature is
somewhat higher than
1
.
Practical limit ???
If the viscosity ratio =
/
1
is less than 1 an oil
containing EP additives is
recommended
234
Viscosity
Physical property-
resistance to flow.
Due to internal friction
and molecular
phenomena .
Dynamic Viscosity
o 1 cP=10
-3
Pa.s
Kinematic Viscosity
o 1 cSt = 1 mm
2
/s
Friction = Shear Stress * Area
F = (Viscosity* V/h)*Area
C
R
P
N
RLP
C RL RN
C
RL RN
F
RL A RN V

2
2
2
/ 2 * 2 *
W
F
friction, of t Coefficien
2 * 2 *
force, Friction
2 ; 2
=
= =
=
= =
Petroff equation
235
VI relates viscosity change at 37.8
0
c and 98.9
0
c.
Pennsylvanian oil~VI=100
gulf coast oil ~ VI=0
100 *
H - L
U - L
VI =
236
Table : ISO Viacoaity Gradea
Note: 1 Centistoke = 10
-6
m
2
/s
110 90 100
Z1.8 1.2 8
50. 11.1 1
35.2 28.8 32
21.2 19.8 22
1.5 13.5 15
11.0 9.0 10
Z.18 .12 Z
5.0 1.11 5
3.52 2.88 3
2.12 1.98 2
Maximum Minimum
Contiutokou at 40`C
Viuoouity Orado Rangou ISO Viuoouity Orado
Numboru
Intornational Organization
for Standardization (ISO)
237
Table variation of viscosity with
temp for commonly used engine oil
194 10.53 20.5 117 ------ 10W-50
193 8.4 14.4 77.1 100 10W-40
135 5.7 10.2 66.4 68 10W-30
140 4.17 6.92 138 46 5W-20
102 8.0 14.7 140 150 SAE 40
110 6.25 11.9 100 100 SAE 30
118 5.01 8.81 62.3 68 20W
107 3.20 5.57 32.6 32 10W
VI Viscosity In cSt
40
0
c 100
0
c 130
0
c
ISO
grade
SAE
grade
238
Most oils on shelf today are MULTIGRADE oils, such as
10W30 or 20W50. These oils are made by adding polymers
in mineral oils to enhance viscosity indices (about 150). At
cold temperatures the polymers are coiled up and allow the
oil to flow as their low numbers indicate. As the oil warms
up the polymers begin to unwind into larger dia coils that
prevent the oil from thinning as much as it normally would.
One grade at 0F and higher grade at 210F
10W302100 cP at 0F & SAE30 at 210F
Lower the first number, better performance in
extremely cold conditions
Higher the second number better the oil will protect at
higher temperatures.
20W50 may be good in Mumbai, but 0W30 will be
preferred in Kashmir
239
Viscosity Index Improvers
Purpose: Reduce the dependence of the viscosity
on temperature. Make temp-viscosity curve flat.
Mechanism: Polymer molecules are extremely
coiled in poor solvent (cold oil) and assume a
greater vol in a good solvent (warm oil) by
uncoiling. This makes the oil relatively thick.
Chemical Compounds: Polyisobutylenes,
Polyacrylates, Ethylene propylene, etc.
240
Viscosity Measurement
Capillary viscometer
(Newtonian fluid) &
Rotational viscometer
(Non-Newtonian fluids)
Time required in flow
of specific volume of
fluid through capillary,
provide measure of
kinematic viscosity.
Inbuilt heating bath ~ water (0-90
o
C) ~ mineral oils for high temp. ~
ethyl alcohol/ acetone for temp. down to 54
o
C.
241
Capillary Viscometers
Assumes laminar, Newtonian flow based on Poiseuilles
law for steady viscous flow. Kinematic viscosity:
3
2
2
4
m volume, flow V
m length, capillary
m/s on, accelerati gravity g
m head, c hydrostati mean l
m radius, capillary
/ m , viscosity kinmetic
8 /
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
L
r
s
lV glt r

t k =
Capillary constant is
determined experimentally
by applying reference fluid
(distilled water) with known
viscosity. Usually given by
manufacturers.
242
Cannon-Fenske
Routine viscometers
for transparent fluids.
Fully annealed, low expansion borosilicate glass tubes.
243
Kinematic viscosity
range, cSt
0.5 to 2
0.8 to 4
1.6 to 8
3 to 15
7 to 35
20 to 100
50 to 250
100 to 500
240 to 1200
500 to 2500
1600 to 8000
4000 to 20000
Approximate
constant cSt/s
0.002
0.004
0.008
0.015
0.035
0.1
0.25
0.5
1.2
2.5
8
20
Size No.
25
50
75
100
150
200
30
350
400
450
500
600
244
Rotational Viscometer
Significant non-Newtonian
effect fluids
Dynamic viscosity
Fluid is sheared between one
stationary and other rotation
surfaces
- Constant torque~ see
variation in speed.
- Constant speed of rotation~
measurable changes in
torque
Vary velocity to check shear thinning effect
M= shear torque on inner cylinder (Nm)
Couette Viscometer. Stationary
inside cylinder. Constant velocity.
Force necessary to shear is measured.
M k =
245
Cone on plate viscometer
Cone on plate viscometer: conical
surface (ensuring constant shear
rate) and flat plate. Either rotating
surface very small vol. Required.
- Temp control by circulating pre-
heated or cooled external fluid.
Most polymers with a high molecular weight (lo rave uselu| |oad
oear|rg properl|es) have non-Newtonian viscosities which decrease
with increasing shear rate, as the mean molecular orientation moves
closer to the direction of flow.
246
Fig. Stribook Diagram
Let us consider two monograde oils (
1
=0.0111 Pa.s;
2
=0.0063
Pa.s), and two multi-grade (10W40) oils:
k for oil A=1500 Pa, and
k for oil B=20000 Pa.

1
2
1
+
+
=
K
K
247
Example
d = 340 mm
D = 420 mm
d
m
= 0.5 (d + D),
d
m
= 380 mm
Minimum kinematic
viscosity
1
at the operating
temperature = 13 mm
2
/s
speed n = 500 r/min
248
At the reference temperature of 40
C of at least 39 mm
2
/s will be
required.
249
Dynamic viscosity, 1cP = 1mPa.s
Kinematic viscosity, 1cS = cP/0.85 (g/cm
3
)
Variation with Temperature
More viscous oil is more susceptible to change in viscosity with temp.
Walthers equation: Form the basis of ASTM viscosity temperature
chart
Vogels equation: Most accurate; very useful in engineering
calculations
T clog constant ) 6 . 0 log( log = +
ty. in viscosi increase with increases b temp. of units has b
iscosity. inherent v gives k
) /(

+
=
t b
ke
250
194 10.53 20.5 117 ------ 10W-50
193 8.4 14.4 77.1 100 10W-40
135 5.7 10.2 66.4 68 10W-30
140 4.17 6.92 138 46 5W-20
102 8.0 14.7 140 150 SAE 40
110 6.25 11.9 100 100 SAE 30
118 5.01 8.81 62.3 68 20W
107 3.20 5.57 32.6 32 10W
VI Viscosity In cSt
40
0
c 100
0
c 130
0
c
ISO
grade
SAE
grade
251
d=25 mm, D = 52mm,
B = 17mm
G
k
=0.0265 g/h to
0.046 g/h
If excessive lubricant cannot escape from bearing, churning causes
temp. to rise to such an extent that the grease looses its lubricity and
bearing fails from defective lubrication.
252
Mixed Lubrication
Few molecular thick lubricant layer is readily
penetrated during sliding.
Required friction force:
Solid contact over a fraction () of junction .
Coefficient of friction
ricants gas ricants liquid ricants boundary metal lub _ lub _ lub _
> > >
li bli
A A F ) 1 ( + =
H
f
li bli
) 1 ( +
=
253
WEAR ????
How to find ???????
Boundary lubrication- Single Penetration Model
12 /
12 /
ed unlubricat Wear
lubricated Wear
3
3
m
d
d

= =
3 / 2
2
2
4 /
4 /

= =
m
d
d
3 / 2
=

=
l m
l
f f
f f
05 . 0
6 . 0
=
=
l
m
f
f
Effect of a lubricant on a wear will be much
Greater than its effect of friction
254
Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication
It is interesting to note that rolling
bearings, gears, etc. where generated
fluid film is minutely small compared
with the irregularities of the surfaces,
serve much longer than predicted by
mixed lubrication theories.
Gatcombe (1945) and Hersey &
Lowdenslager (1950), considered
that the viscosity of the lubricant
would be increased under the action
of extreme local pressure leading to
generation of thicker film.
255
Lubricant viscosity increases with pressure.
Barus relationship
for petroleum oil~1*10
-8
/pa
0
exp( ) p =
Important in lubrication of Heavily
Loaded concentrated contacts.
Increase of viscosity with pressure is not
instantaneous. At high pressure the
molecules take considerable time to re-
arrange themselves, following pressure
change.
Piezoviscous
Hydrodynamic
Lubrication
F()
22.026 1.e9
2.7183 1.e8
1.1052 1.e7
1.0101 1.e6
1.0010 1.e5
Multiplier Pressure
256
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication..
It is interesting to note that film pressure > 10
MPa is sufficient to deform the tribo-surfaces by
sub-micron to micron level. Deformation will alter
the gap between tribo-pairs.
Therefore it is important to combine elastic
deformation of tribo-surfaces, effect of increase in
viscosity with pressure, and hydrodynamic
lubrication to characterize the tribo-surfaces. Such
as combined analyze is termed as Elasto-
hydrodynamic lubrication (EHL).
EHL is normally associated with non-conformal
surfaces and fluid film lubrication:
Hard EHL
Soft EHL
257
Hard EHL: Relates to materials of high elastic
modulus. Elastic deformation and pressure-viscosity
effects are equally important. Max pressure = 0.5-4.0
GPa. Min film thickness = 0.1-0.5 m.
Soft EHL: Relates to materials of low elastic modulus,
such as rubber, polymers, etc. Max pressure is
generally lesser than 10 MPa, which has negligible
effect on the viscosity variation. The minimum film
thickness ~ 1.0 m.
In practice useful results can be obtained in HEHL by
approximate methods, such as Grubin Theory. The
most important practical aspect of EHL is the determination
of the h
min
within a conjunction (Hertzian contact).
258
EHL of Parallel Cylinders
Grubins evaluated mean film thickness in three
non-dimensional parameters, where are:
( )
( ) ( )
)
`

= + =
= = + =
2
2
2
1
2
1
'
2 1
' ' '
2 1 0
1 1
2
1
E
1
;
R
1
R
1
R
1
where
/ and ; G ; / U
E E
RL E P W E R E U U


Assumptions:
Deformed shape within the contact zone is constant.
Shape outside the Hertzian zone is same whether there
is a lubricant or notElastic deformation &
hydrodynamic pressure generation are uncoupled.
( )
95 . 1
11 / 1
11 / 8
0
W
UG
R
h
H = =
259
Dowson-Higginson suggested modified formula (for line
contact) to calculate the minimum film thickness:
13 . 0
54 . 0 7 . 0
min
65 . 2
W
G U
R
h
H
m
= =
Ertel, justified the argument that if two surfaces are in contact
then the pressures and contact area are almost Hertzian.
As soon as oil enters Hertzian contact the pressure reaches to its
mmaximum valueget dp
0
/dx = 0 film thickness will remain constant
in contact zone.
Ertel was first person to describe simplified solution for EHL, while
Grubin was first person to publish expressions, therefore EHL
approximation is known as Ertel Grubin equation.
However, complex phenomena occurs at exit, where pressure is
atmospheric. Rapid transition from p
0
= 1 GPa to 0.1 MPa boost the
flow out very fast, and lead to continuity of flow problem. To prevent
this film thickness decreases at the end of contact.
260
Given: A deep groove ball bearing has 12 balls
radially loaded with 12000N. K
e
=10.=1.6*10
-8
m
2
/N,
0
=0.075N-s/m
2
, U
1
=3m/s, R
x
=8 mm,
E
1
=207 GPa, E
2
=207 GPa,
1
=0.3,
2
=0.3.
( )
e
k
x
x
x
y
e
e W G U
R
h
H
R E
P
W
R
R
k
68 . 0 073 . 0 49 . 0 68 . 0
2
/ 2
1 63 . 3
parameter y Ellipticit
contact ) (spherical point For

= =

=
|
.
|

\
|
=

261
To determine W
max
, it is necessary to determine
how the bearing load is distributed among the balls
or rollers.
( )
ring of shift radial
; 2 cos zone load of extent angular of 50%
1
1
=
=

r
r d
C

bearing roller for 1.11 n and bearing, ball for 1.5 n
; W load under element rolling of Deflection
= =
=
n
K
( )

=
=
=
=
=
1
1
max
max
cos
cos
cos

W F
W W
r
n
Take an example of no. of rolling
elements, Z = 12, and prove
max
max
). 06 . 4 / (
). 37 . 4 / (
W Z F
W Z F
roller
r
ball
r
=
=
262
Problem: A ball bearing, with ellipticity
parameter equals to 2, is having problem
with an oil film that is too thin. Find out the
increase in film thickness if ellipticity
parameter is increased from 2 to 10.
263
Ertel Grubin theory provides an approximate solution of film
thickness for parallel cylinder geometry. Hamrock and
Dowson develop accurate curve fit expressions for hard and
soft materials
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
k
x
central
central
k
x
k
x
central
central
k
x
e W U
R
h
h
e W U
R
h
h
e W G U
R
h
h
e W G U
R
h
h
28 . 0
22 . 0 64 . 0
31 . 0
21 . 0 65 . 0
min
min
73 . 0
067 . 0 53 . 0 67 . 0
68 . 0
073 . 0 49 . 0 68 . 0
min
min
* 72 . 0 1 23 . 7
85 . 0 1 43 . 7
modulus) s ' Young (Low materials soft For
* 61 . 0 1 69 . 2
1 63 . 3
modulus) s ' Young (High materials hard For

= =
= =
= =
= =
x x x
y
R E
U
U
R E
W
W
R
R
a
b
k

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
0
2
/ 2
; ; where

264
Railway Wheels Rolling on Wet Rails
High quality steel tires with approximate thickness of 76
mm (3 inch) are shrunk onto forged steel wheel centers.
An important geometrical feature is the slight coning of
the tires to facilitate automatic steering of the wheel sets
as they roll along the track.
To understand EHL of railway track and wheel let us
consider an example. Assume rail section transverse to
rolling direction has a radius of 0.3 m, and wheel has a
radius of 0.5 m. Radial load carried by each wheel is
100 kN, Modulus of elasticity of wheel and rail is 207
GPa, and Poisson ratio of both the surfaces is 0.3
265
Pa 10 * 2747 . 2
91 . 0
10 * 07 . 2
1
11
11
2
= =

E
E
266
If the coning of the tires is neglected, then equivalent radius can
be derived in following manner.
7224 . 0
/ 2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

x
y
R
R
k
267
Pressure viscosity coefficient for water, =6.68*10
-10
m
2
/N
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6 15 -
73 . 0
067 . 0 53 . 0 67 . 0
68 . 0
073 . 0 49 . 0 68 . 0
min
min
10 * 7585 . 1 ; 152 ; 10 * 8.792U U example present In the
* 61 . 0 1 69 . 2
1 63 . 3
materials hard For

= = =
= =
= =
W G
e W G U
R
h
h
e W G U
R
h
h
k
x
central
central
k
x
Results of minimum film thickness ????
What will happen if oil is spread on the Track. Assume
viscosity 0.1 Pa.s and pressure viscosity coefficient 2.2*10
-8
/Pa